rhythms in humans
DESCRIPTION
Rhythms in Humans. Yearly - seasonal variations in appetite, sleep length, moods ….Seasonal Affective Disorder 28 day - female menstrual cycle 90 minute - we cycle through various stages of sleep - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Rhythms in Humans• Yearly - seasonal variations in appetite, sleep length, moods
….Seasonal Affective Disorder 28 day - female menstrual cycle 90 minute - we cycle through various stages of sleep
• 24 hour - Circadian Rhythms: alertness, body temp, growth hormone secretion
• What happens if no external cues? 25-hour cycle
• Jet lag West to East Phase advance
East to West Phase delay
• Sleep Deprivation: form of torture, stress, after about 72 hours, slip unwillingly into brief, repeated periods of “microsleep”
Latin: circa means “about” and diem “day”
![Page 2: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Theories on Sleep
There is no physiological reason found for sleep
Sleep is a state of consciousness
Evolutionary/Circadian Theory: Sleep evolved so that…
Adaptive: Species need a certain time awake to survive. Sleep protects by keeping out of trouble.
Conserving Energy: Less calories burned
Repair/Restoration Theory: Restore body and nervous system, heal wounds, recover from emotional and intellectual fatigue
![Page 3: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Sleep as a change in consciousness• Sleep Stages
– Stage 1
– Stage 2
– Stage 3
– Stage 4
– REM
Collectively called NREM stages
![Page 4: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Brain Waves
![Page 5: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Sleep Stages 1 & 2
Stage 1• Theta Waves, irregular, breathing slows, light sleep,
easily awakened, lasts about two minutes, may have sensory experience without stimulus
Stage 2• About 20 minutes long• Characterized by sleep spindles (bursts of rapid, rhythmic
brainwave activity) and K Complexes• Easily awakened but clearly asleep
![Page 6: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
DEEP Sleep stages 3 & 4
Stage 3
– A purely transitional stage
– Marked by 20-50% delta waves
Stage 4
– About 30 minutes long
– Hard to awaken
– Delta waves > than 50% of the time
– Walking or talking in sleep, wetting the bed, and night terrors can occur during this stage
– Still attend to external stimuli– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z2BgjH_CtIA
![Page 7: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Sleep Stages REM
REM– Occurs the first time about an hour into the
sleep cycle– Brain waves rapid– Breathing and heart rate rapid– Arousal of genitals– Rapid eye movement– Essentially paralyzed during this stage– Cannot easily be awakened
![Page 8: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
The Cycles of Sleep
• Repeats about every 90 minutes, 4-7 times
• REM sleep increases as the night moves on
• About 25% of sleep is REM
![Page 9: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Specific Sleep Disorders: “Dyssomnias” & “Parasomnias”• Sleep Apnea: irregular breathing or periods of many seconds without breathing during sleep,
snoring, repeated awakenings
• Narcolepsy: Sudden, irresistible onset of sleep during waking hours, cataplexy is sudden attack of muscle weakness/paralysis http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2204446853653695027#
http://insideedition.com/videos.aspx?videoID=3
• Insomnia: persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep (note: sleeping pills can be helpful for short-term, but create more problems than they solve for more than that)
• REM without Atonia: Atonia is loss of muscle tone when we dream… without means we can more easily act out our dreams – can be dangerous
• Restless leg: leg discomfort during sleep, which is only relieved by frequent movements of the legs, no known cause
• Sleep walking, talking: Walking tend to accompany night terrors and occur during NREM, talking an happen at any stage
• Night Terrors: (NREM), children, sudden terror, may be difficult to waken
• Nightmares: Usually during REM sleep, bad dreams
• Sleep Paralysis: strikes as person is moving into or out of REM sleep. During REM body is largely disconnected from brain leaving the body paralyzed.
![Page 10: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
The Function of Dreaming• Function: Why do we dream? Wish Fulfillment (Freud):
- Freud believed that dreams let us see into repressed memories and unacceptable desires
- Dream of beating up a bully – wish fulfillment - Manifest Content (actual, story line of dream)
Latent Content (symbolic, meaning behind dream) - The Interpretation of Dreams (1913)
Information Processing (Cartwright): The need to continue processing the day’s activities.
Solves problems
Activation - Synthesis Hypothesis (Hobson & McCarley): Triggered by neural activity from the brainstem, “biological view,” brain guides how dream is constructed around brain activity
According to Freud… Journey = death
Horseback riding = sex
Dancing = sex
Gun, cigar, etc = penis
![Page 11: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Factors Influencing Drugs Effects• Tolerance• Weight• Physiology• Amount and strength • Mood • Personality • Age• Gender
Psychoactive Drugs: Chemicals that change conscious awareness, mood and/or perception
![Page 12: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Drugs and Consciousness• Concepts in Drug Use
– Tolerance: The need to use more & more of a drug to continue to get the same effects
– Reverse Tolerance: taking same or less amount of drug produces bigger effect b/c combines with drugs still in system
– Dependence• Physiological: Showing a withdrawal syndrome once
removed from the drug regimen • Psychological: An emotional need for the drug (craving)• Co-dependence: When another person ‘enables’ the
drug dependent person (Ex: wife calls husband in sick when he is actually hung over)
– Withdrawal: A distinct set of physiological symptoms associated with the removal of the drug from the system (headaches, cravings, anxiety, depression, seizures, delirium tremens “DT’s”)
Delirium:
-Acute & debilitating decline in attention-
focus, perception &
cognition
- Produces altered form of
semi-consciousness
Hallucinations & delusions
are often present
![Page 13: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Classifications of Drugs• Stimulants: Drugs that stimulate CNS activity (activity & responsiveness)
– Ex – amphetamines, methamphetamine (cyrstal meth), caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, MDMA or “Ecstasy,” Speed, Ritalin
• Depressants (Sedatives): Drugs which decrease CNS activity (relaxation, sedation, loss ofconsciousness & even death)
– Ex - Alcohol, Barbiturates (Seconal, Valium), Minor tranquilizers (Rohypnol or “roofies”), Ketamine or “Special K”
• Hallucinogens (Psychedelics): Drugs that change perception and self-awareness
– Ex - LSD, PCP, marijuana
• Opiates (Narcotics): Drugs derived from opium that numb the senses and relieve pain
– Ex – Morphine, heroin, codeine
Did you know?
Tobacco kills more than
AIDS, legal drugs, illegal drugs, road accidents,
murder and suicide
combined
![Page 14: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Classical Conditioning• Definition: A type of learning that occurs when an association is
made between a meaningful stimulus & a non-meaningful stimulus
• Ivan Pavlov (1903 Pavlovian Conditioning)
– Russian physiologist/digestion in dogs
• John Watson (1925)
– Little Albert
![Page 15: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Terminology• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Stimulus
that evokes an unconditioned response (automatic)
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): Unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning
To the food (UCS)
To the bell (CS)
![Page 16: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Classical Conditioning –another version
![Page 17: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Second-Order Conditioning
![Page 18: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Procedures in Classical Conditioning
• Conditioning or Acquisition– Presenting the CS and the UCS together
• Testing and Extinction– Presenting the CS alone
![Page 19: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Processes in Classical Conditioning• Acquisition: initial stage of learning
• Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency (does not mean “unlearn”)
- CS repeatedly presented without UCS
• Spontaneous Recovery: a reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus
• Stimulus Generalization: a similar CS makes a CR– Classic Study: “Little Albert”
• Stimulus Discrimination: no CR with a similar CS
![Page 20: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Acquisition, Extinction & Spont. Recovery Curve
Myers in Modules, Module 20
Idealized Curve of Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
![Page 21: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Operant Conditioning: modification of voluntary behavior based on consequences
• Thorndike’s Law of EffectBehavior before positive reinforcement Behavior before punishment or no reinforcement
– Puzzle Box
• Skinner– Skinner Box
– Shaping: Reinforcing small steps toward more complex behavior (easiest to build on animals’ existing behavior)
– Discriminative Stimulus: signals availability of reinforcement or punishment (light, sound, parent)
![Page 22: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Skinner Box
![Page 23: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Consequences Reinforcement • Reinforcement: consequences that strengthen responses
– Positive Reinforcement: A response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus (Money, praise, food, stickers, candy, smile)
– Negative Reinforcement: A response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (buzzer for seat belt)
(+)add/give
(-)subtract/remove
*Note: “positive” & “negative” are not synonymous with “good” & “bad” or “nice” & “mean”
•Conditioned Reinforcement•Primary Reinforcers: Inherently reinforcing satisfy biological needs (food, water, shelter)
•Secondary Reinforcers: Acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers (money, stickers, praise)
![Page 24: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Consequences PunishmentPunishment: consequences that weaken responses
• Positive Punishment: addition of a stimulus that decreases the likelihood of the response occurring again. (Adding chores for getting home late)
• Negative Punishment: taking away a stimulus that decreases the likelihood of the response occurring again (grounding, no car, no scholarship)
(+)add/give
(-)subtract/remove
*Note: “positive” & “negative” are not synonymous with “good” & “bad” or “nice” & “mean”
The Big Bang Theory Clip
![Page 25: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Schedules of ReinforcementContinuous: Reinforce every time (fastest, but quickest to extinction)
Partial Schedules– Variable Ratio: Reinforcer after a variable number of
nonreinforced responses– Variable Interval: Reinforcer is given for the first response
after a variable time interval has elapsed
– Fixed Ratio: Reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses
– Fixed Interval: Reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
![Page 26: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Schedules of Reinforcement
![Page 27: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Extinction• Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction• Ratio schedules cause the greatest amount of response
![Page 28: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Observational Learning• Definition: Occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced
by the observation of others (model)
• Four Processes (Bandura)– Attention – watch closely– Retention – remember what was taught– Reproduction – demonstrate what we learned– Motivation – have desire to learn and repeat what was learned
• Applications of Observational Learning - prejudice, domestic violence, media influences, prosocial behavior- http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4586465813762682933# (bobo)
- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hzh-gW-CO8
![Page 29: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Bobo Doll Visual
![Page 30: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Other Forms of Learning• Insight: Sudden understanding of a problem that implies the
solution
• Cognitive Mapping: A mental representation of spatial orientations that may not require direct experience to be learned
• Latent Learning: Learning that has occurred but has not been expressed (often appears when reward for displaying it)
![Page 31: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
History of Intelligence Testing
• Francis Galton– Believed that intelligence was related to
visual acuity and reaction time
• Alfred Binet– French Government– Mental age– Fear test would be abused
![Page 32: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
History of Intelligence Testing
• Terman (Stanford-Binet Scale)– revised the Binet scale – created the term IQ– “IQ” determined by taking: MA/CA x 100– Extended the test to also assess IQ in adults– The normal distribution of intelligence scores
• Wechsler– Developed a more accurate test for adults– First to use standard deviation, bell curve– Examples of some of the test developed by Wechsler include
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
![Page 33: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Kinds of Intelligence
• Spearman - “g” and “s”– “g”-general
intelligence– “s”-specific
abilities
![Page 34: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Kinds of Intelligence• Gardner - Theory of
Multiple Intelligences– He believed that
intelligence could be broken down into seven categories:
![Page 35: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Kinds of Intelligence• Sternberg - Triarchic Theory
– He believed that intelligence could be broken down into three categories
• creative intelligence-ability to solve problems with novel solutions
• practical intelligence-”common sense”
• analytical intelligence-ability to analyze a problem into its integral components
![Page 36: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Kinds of Intelligence
Raymond Cattell • Fluid Intelligence: innate, inherited
intelligence including reasoning and problem solving abilities, memory, and speed of info-processing
- relatively independent of education
- tend to decline with age
• Crystallized Intelligence: specific knowledge and skills gained through experience & education- tend to increase over life span
![Page 37: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Types & Characteristics of Tests
Types• Aptitude: person’s capability, potential for future• Achievement: person’s knowledge of subject, what they
have learned
Characteristics• Validity: the ability of the test to measure
what you say it will measure• Reliability: the ability of the test to measure
a construct with consistency • Standardization: the use of reference scores
for interpreting an individual’s performance
![Page 38: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Types of Validity & Reliability of Tests
Validity
• Content: Complete range of material to test concept
• Criterion: Compare to other tests of the same measure (high on SAT, high on ACT)
• Predictive: future performance (MCAT)
• Construct: theoretical or hypothetical construct (depression, intelligence)
Reliability
• Test-retest: take the test again – same score?
• Alternate form: give similar, but alternate form – same score?
• Inter-rater: do all graders give the same score?
![Page 39: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Chapter 16: Social PsychologyDefinition: Sub-field of psychology that studies of how others influence our thoughts, feelings and actions
Focuses on…- How large social forces such as groups, social roles and norms bring out the best and worst in all of us
- Explaining why people act differently in the same situation, and why the same person may act differently in different situations.
![Page 40: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Conformity and Obedience• Conformity – going along with a group;
yielding to social pressure
– Asch’s Conclusions1) subjects often conform to a group, even when
the group states clearly inaccurate conclusions
2) conformity to a group increases with the size of the group, up to five or six, but only when the group is unanimous in its beliefs
• Obedience – going along with a direct command, often from figure of authority
– Milgram’s Conclusions1) situational pressures can make people obey
instructions that go against their belief systemshttp://www.france24.com/en/20100317-disturbing-tv-docu-game-tests-limits-small-screen-power-france-game-of-death
![Page 41: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Attribution TheoryDefinition: Inferences that people draw about the causesof events, others’ behavior, and their own behavior
Dispositional Attribution: we attribute a person’s behavior to an internal state (personality, abilities, etc.)
Situational Attribution: attributing a person’s behavior to an external state (stress, abuse, hardship, wealth, etc.)
• Function: People like to explain and understand behavior and the events that impact their lives
• Attributions are made when an event is unusual and personal
• “Just world” phenomenon
![Page 42: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Bias in Attribution• Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): Observer’s bias in favor of internal
attributions in explaining others’ behavior but external attributions in explaining their own (Ex: Someone else drops out of college because “they couldn’t handle the pressure or work load” – internal. You drop out of college because “tuition was raised and you had to help support your family” – external)
• Defensive Attribution: Tendency to blame the victim for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way
• Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute one’s successes to personal factors and one’s failures to situational factors
![Page 43: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Attitudes & Attitude Formation- When we observe & respond to the world around us, it is never without
the influence of our attitudes (even if we don’t realize it).
- Advertisers spend millions because they know that
attitudes can be shaped & changed….to their benefit $$
• Definition
Positive, negative, or mixed feelings, based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
Ex: A friend tells you that they believe Coach Stove is a mean teacher. You may feel dislike for Coach Stove, and act unfriendly.
• Components of Attitudes
– Cognitive: What you believe
– Affective: How you feel about it
– Behavioral: What you are willing to do about it
![Page 44: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Cognitive Dissonance & Social FacilitationCognitive Dissonance Theory:
When we act in a way not consistent with our beliefs we feel tension. We then revise our beliefs
to align with our behavior.Example:
Asked to do hour long boring task Offered $1 or $20 to say it’s fun
Results: Larger payment led to less dissonance b/c high payment could
account for ‘lying’. $1 was not enough to justify lying so those people changed
their attitude to saying they enjoyed the task
Social Facilitation
Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others
better on simple tasks
worse on complex tasks
Example: After you go to all
the trouble of buying a new house you
start to like it more
![Page 45: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Person Perception• Definition: The process of forming impressions of others
• Impressions are influenced by:– Physical appearance
• good looking people are seen as intelligent, friendly, and confident
– Schemas: Organized clusters of ideas about categories of social events and people
– 1st Impressions: self fulfilling prophecy, primacy– Stereotypes: gender, race, job
![Page 46: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination• Stereotype: Thoughts and beliefs held about people strictly because
of their membership in a group
• Prejudice: A negative attitude held toward members of a group
• Discrimination: Negative actions towards a group
These often arise from learning, personal experience, mental shortcuts,
economic & political competition, & displaced aggression Scapegoat: Blame other groups without as much power Social Identity (in-group bias): Favor own group Outgroup Homogeneity: Judge members of outgroup as more alike Learning Theory: Classical or operant conditioning Cognitive: Easier to organize our world if we ‘categorize’
Explanations
![Page 47: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Social Influence
• Chameleon Effect: our tendency to unconsciously mimic those around us– Yawning when others yawn
– Picking up the mood of a happy or sad person
– Dress like your friends
This automatic mimicry is an ingredient in our ability to empathize with others
![Page 48: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Behavior in GroupsThe power of group membership affects us in many ways…• Social Roles: (as mentioned before with Zimbardo study)
• Deindividuation: Feel less self-conscious, less inhibited, & less personally responsible as a member of a group than when you are alone [this can be increased by requiring use of uniform, mask, same haircut, etc…feeling of anonymity]
• Bystander Effect: less likely to help others when in groups than when alone
• Diffusion of Responsibility: when more people are around we feel less personally responsible to help
• Social Loafing: individuals produce less work (reduced efficiency & effort) when working in groups than by themselves
• Decision MakingGroup Polarization - when group discussion leads to a more “polarized”point of view by the group
Groupthink - when feel pressure to conform to the group, stops critical thinking to avoid dissention in the group
• Ex: Kennedy and the Bay of Pigs
Kennedy and the Bay of Pigs
Failed attempt to assassination Fidel Castro in Cuba. All of the 1400 men were captured or killed within three days.
The drive for consensus among Kennedy's advisors was believed to have precluded crucial information from being discussed, and has been blamed for the invasion's failure.
The flawed decision of President Kennedy and his advisors to authorize the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba is the example commonly used to illustrate the phenomenon of groupthink.
Symptoms of groupthink include group members' tendency to (i) believe the group to be more invulnerable than it is; (ii) rationalize the group's decisions and believe stereotypes about its enemies; and (iii) feel increasing pressure to agree with others in the group.
![Page 49: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Group Polarization
![Page 50: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Memory• Memory
– persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information
– internal record or representation of some prior event or experience
• Flashbulb Memory– a clear memory of an emotionally significant
moment or event
![Page 51: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Memory• Memory as Information Processing
– Similar to a computer
• write to file encoding
• save to disk storage
• read from disk retrieval
Encoding the processing of information into the memory
system (perception) Storage the retention of encoded information over time
Retrievalprocess of getting information out of memory
![Page 52: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Memory
• Sensory Memory- the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the
memory system
– Iconic Memory
- a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli - a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a
few tenths of a second - registration of exact representation of a scene
– Echoic Memory
- momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
![Page 53: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
STM & LTM• Short Term Memory
– activated memory that holds a few items briefly– look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information
is forgotten
• Long Term Memory– the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory
system
![Page 54: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Encoding- Getting Information InEncoding
Effortful/Controlled
Automatic
Unconscious encoding of incidental information
• space• time• frequency
Well-learned information• word meanings
We can learn automatic processing• reading backwards
requires attention and conscious effort
Maintenance Rehearsal conscious repetition
of information- to maintain it in
consciousness - to encode it for storage
![Page 55: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
EncodingEbbinghaus used nonsense syllables
– TUV ZOF GEK WAV
– Found: the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
– Spacing Effect
* distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice
![Page 56: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Encoding- Serial Position Effect
12
Percentage of
words recalled
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Position of word in list1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Primacy effect
Recency effect
![Page 57: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Forgetting• Ebbinghaus- forgetting
curve over 30 days – initially rapid, then levels off
with time
12345 10 15 20 25 30
1020
30405060
0
Time in days since learning list
Percentage of list retainedwhen relearning
![Page 58: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
What Do We Encode?• Semantic Encoding
– encoding of meaning
– including meaning of words
• Acoustic Encoding– encoding of sound
– especially sound of words
• Visual Encoding– encoding of picture
images
![Page 59: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Encoding• Imagery
– mental pictures– a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when
combined with semantic encoding
• Mnemonics– memory aids– use of acronyms
• HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior• ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream
• Chunking– organizing items into familiar, manageable units
- like horizontal organization: 1776149218121941
– often occurs automatically
![Page 60: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
Storage- Long Term Memory
• How does storage work?– Karl Lashley (1950)
• rats learn maze
• lesion cortex
• test memory
• Synaptic changes– Long-term Potentiation
• increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
• Strong emotions make for stronger memories– some stress hormones boost learning and retention
![Page 61: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
Storage- Long Term Memory
Amnesia- the loss of memory
Explicit Memory– memory of facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare– hippocampus- neural center in limbic
system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory– retention without conscious recollection– motor and cognitive skills– dispositions - conditioning
![Page 62: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Retrieval- Getting Information Out• Recall
- ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test
• Recognition
- ability to identify previously learned items-like on a multiple choice test
• Relearning
- amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information
• Priming
- activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
![Page 63: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Retrieval Cues• Deja Vu- (French) already seen
– cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
– "I've experienced this before"
• Mood Congruent Memory
– tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
– memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues
– State Dependent Memory• what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or depressed)
can more easily be remembered when in same state
![Page 64: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Forgetting• Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
• As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Encoding Failure
• Information never enters the memory system
• Attention is selective
– we cannot attend to everything in our environment
• William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing
![Page 65: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Forgetting as Interference• Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information
– Proactive (forward acting) Interference
- disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
– Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
- disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information
![Page 66: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
Forgetting as Interference
• Motivated Forgetting– people unknowingly revise history
• Repression– defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories
• Positive Transfer– sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new
information
– knowledge of Latin may help us to learn French
![Page 67: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
Memory ConstructionWe filter information and fill
in missing pieces
• Misinformation Effect– incorporating misleading
information into one's memory of an event
• Source Amnesia– attributing to the wrong
source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
![Page 68: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Language
Definition: Symbolism used to communicate ideas & concepts & to problem solve
All Language shares 3 things in common1. Semanticity: True language conveys thoughts
in a meaningful way by use of symbols and sounds
2. Generativity: Ability to combine words in new ways
3. Displacement: Ability to talk about objects that are not present
![Page 69: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Parts of Language• Phonemes: Smallest unit of sound that can be understood as
part of a language, basic speech sounds (40 in English) - Ex: The m of mat, the b of boy, or the ch in church
• Morphemes: Smallest meaningful units of language. Can be individual or combinations of phonemes
- Ex: Unit consisting of a word, such as man - Ex: A word element, such as -ed in walked - Ex: Phoneme such as I ** cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts**
• Grammar: Set of rules that enables us to use our language– Semantics – Refers to aspects of meaning assigned to language
(Ex: adding “ed” means it happened in the past)
– Syntax – The system of rules we use to string words together into proper sentences (Ex: adjectives come before nouns)
![Page 70: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Theories of Language Acquisition
• Skinner – Learned through association, reinforcement and social imitation
• Chomsky – Believed that language acquisition is innate from his observations that children create sentences they have never heard before and learning is too rapid to be explained solely by learning principles
*Possibly a combination of the two
![Page 71: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Language Acquisition as we get older…
![Page 72: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Components of Thinking - Concepts
• Concepts– Definition: A mental grouping of similar
objects, people, events, etc.
– Function: Help us to order our world into categories and communicate with fewer words
– Prototypes: Our best example of a concept Ex: concept: dog
prototype: your Poodle (the image that pops into your head when you think of “dog”)
![Page 73: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
Components of Thinking - Problem Solving
Trial and Error: Trying one solution after another in no particular order
Ex: Thomas Edison – light bulb
Means-Ends Analysis: Given a current state and a goal state, an action is chosen to reduce the difference between the two. Ex: Used often in computer programming and artificial intelligence
Insights: Sometimes answer just comes to us out of nowhere when we are not focusing hard on it
Ex: Coming up with a jumbled word ITIGKHNN
![Page 74: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
Components of Thinking - Problem Solving
Algorithm: A systematic procedure
which guarantees a solution, although it may take longer than a Heuristic approach. -Like a recipe to solve something
Heuristics: Using a rule of thumb strategy to problem solve and make decisions. -Often comes from our past experiences and personal judgments. -Usually quicker, but more error-prone, than algorithms. -Sometimes called“mental shortcuts
Ex: If you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture. If you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you can derive from that ("working backward"). If the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example.
![Page 75: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Decision MakingDefinition: The process of choosing among a number of
alternatives
• Representativeness Heuristic – When we make a decision based on how much a new situation or object resembles our old prototypes
(Ex: truck driver vs. Ivy League professor)
• Availability Heuristic – When we base a decision on what we have most available in our memory. Things that come to mind are presumed to be more common.(Ex: letter “k”…more frequent 1st or 3rd letter)(Ex: casino noises)
• Comparison – When we measure the value of two alternatives by comparing them on a point-by-point basis
![Page 76: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Errors Made in Problem Solving
• Functional Fixedness: Inability to use familiar objects in new ways– Ex: Need a flashlight? Use your cell phone.– Ex: Someone who does not show functional fixedness is a
robber who uses women’s hosiery placed over his head to distort his facial features
• Mental Set: When people continue to use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past
• Irrelevant information: When someone becomes fixed on information that is given in the problem that does not impact the solution
• Unnecessary Constraints: The inability to solve a problem because we place constraints on the solution that really don’t exist
![Page 77: Rhythms in Humans](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081506/5681392b550346895da0d3a1/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
Faulty Decision Making
Confirmation Bias – A tendency to seek out information that confirms our previously held beliefs
Belief Perseverance – The tendency to hold onto our belief even in the face of evidence against our belief…our beliefs distort our logic
Overconfidence – The tendency to count on our own estimates and beliefs too much
Framing Decisions – The way we are presented the information needed for making the decision can impact what we decide Ex: coat for $100 or same coat for $150 at 33% off