Rhetorical StrategiesRhetorical StrategiesChapter 3Chapter 3

What is Rhetorical What is Rhetorical Strategy?Strategy?

Rhetoric is the method a writer or Rhetoric is the method a writer or speaker uses to communicate their ideas speaker uses to communicate their ideas to an audience.to an audience.

A strategy is the plan or a course of A strategy is the plan or a course of action taken to reach a goal.action taken to reach a goal.

A rhetorical strategy is the specific A rhetorical strategy is the specific approach a writer uses to achieve a approach a writer uses to achieve a purpose. purpose.

There’s that purpose There’s that purpose thing again…thing again…

Remember that purpose is the reason Remember that purpose is the reason why a person chooses to communicate why a person chooses to communicate with an audience – the goal, the intended with an audience – the goal, the intended effect.effect.

Purposes usually include:Purposes usually include:

To informTo inform To entertainTo entertain To questionTo question To argueTo argue To elicit an emotional responseTo elicit an emotional response

So where does Rhetoric come in?So where does Rhetoric come in?

HOW the author accomplishes their HOW the author accomplishes their purpose is called rhetorical strategy.purpose is called rhetorical strategy.

Types of Rhetoric:Types of Rhetoric:

Cause/EffectCause/Effect Classification/DivisionClassification/Division Contrast/ComparisonContrast/Comparison DefinitionDefinition DescriptionDescription ExemplificationExemplification NarrationNarration Process/AnalysisProcess/Analysis

So how do you choose what to use?So how do you choose what to use?

It never matters how long or short the It never matters how long or short the piece of writing is, an author uses one or piece of writing is, an author uses one or more rhetorical strategies in order to more rhetorical strategies in order to achieve their purpose.achieve their purpose.

First step is to know who your audience First step is to know who your audience is and to always write to that group.is and to always write to that group.

Exemplification Exemplification (Example)(Example)

Most frequently used rhetorical strategy.Most frequently used rhetorical strategy. The fundamental ways a writer can The fundamental ways a writer can

illustrate, support and clarify ideas illustrate, support and clarify ideas include referring to a:include referring to a:

SampleSample DetailDetail PersonPerson Typical eventTypical event

Example of Example of Exemplification in ActionExemplification in Action

The new bread-and-circuses approach to mall The new bread-and-circuses approach to mall building was ventured in 1985 by the four building was ventured in 1985 by the four Ghermezian brothers…builders of Canada’s Ghermezian brothers…builders of Canada’s $750 million West Edmonton Mall, which $750 million West Edmonton Mall, which included a water slide, an artificial lake, a included a water slide, an artificial lake, a miniature golf course, a hockey rink, and forty-miniature golf course, a hockey rink, and forty-seven rides in an amusement park known as seven rides in an amusement park known as Fantasyland.Fantasyland.

-David Guterson, “Enclosed, -David Guterson, “Enclosed, Encyclopedic, Endured. The Mall of America,” Encyclopedic, Endured. The Mall of America,” Harper’s MagazineHarper’s Magazine

How to use How to use ExemplificationExemplification

Choose your subject.Choose your subject. Choose your purpose.Choose your purpose. Identify your audience.Identify your audience. Choose possible examples.Choose possible examples. Look at list of possible examples. Limit Look at list of possible examples. Limit

your choices to the best two or three. your choices to the best two or three. Then decide how to present your Then decide how to present your examples to your audience.examples to your audience.

Choosing an Choosing an organizational pattern:organizational pattern:

Spatial (where it fits in a physical area)Spatial (where it fits in a physical area) Chronological (time sequence)Chronological (time sequence) Most important to least importantMost important to least important The one that needs greatest emphasis The one that needs greatest emphasis

(either goes first or last)(either goes first or last) Least important to most importantLeast important to most important

Now what?Now what?

Write your thesis statement.Write your thesis statement. Thesis statements should tell the reader Thesis statements should tell the reader

the subject and purpose of the paper the subject and purpose of the paper without giving away the entire discussion.without giving away the entire discussion.

Contrast/ComparisonContrast/Comparison

Second most widely used rhetorical Second most widely used rhetorical strategy.strategy.

Contrast is interested in differences.Contrast is interested in differences. Comparison is interested in similarities, Comparison is interested in similarities,

but is used alone when referred to both but is used alone when referred to both types of analysis.types of analysis.

Hang on… isn’t analysis a Hang on… isn’t analysis a type of rhetorical strategy type of rhetorical strategy too?too?

Yes, but comparison is also a form of Yes, but comparison is also a form of analysis because you are taking analysis because you are taking something apart.something apart.

Example of Example of Contrast/ComparisonContrast/Comparison

As different as [Grant and Lee] were – in As different as [Grant and Lee] were – in background, in personality, in underlying background, in personality, in underlying aspiration – these two great soldiers had aspiration – these two great soldiers had much in common. Under everything much in common. Under everything else, they were marvelous fighters. else, they were marvelous fighters. Furthermore, their fighting qualities were Furthermore, their fighting qualities were really very much alike. really very much alike. -Bruce Catton, “Grant and Lee: A Study in -Bruce Catton, “Grant and Lee: A Study in

Contrasts,” Contrasts,” The American StoryThe American Story

Forming a clear Forming a clear comparison:comparison:

Dependent on choosing two things that Dependent on choosing two things that can be compared, being aware of your can be compared, being aware of your purpose and audience, and using a purpose and audience, and using a balanced organization strategy.balanced organization strategy.

Three primary forms of organizing a Three primary forms of organizing a Compare and Contrast paper:Compare and Contrast paper:

Subject-by-subjectSubject-by-subject Point-by-pointPoint-by-point The combination approachThe combination approach

Subject-by-SubjectSubject-by-Subject

Presents the details about the first item Presents the details about the first item and then the details about the second.and then the details about the second.

So… all points of the first item being So… all points of the first item being compared are presented and then all compared are presented and then all points about the second.points about the second.

Point-by-Point Point-by-Point OrganizationOrganization

The writer discusses one point at a time, going The writer discusses one point at a time, going back and forth between the two items.back and forth between the two items.

In longer texts, a writer may choose to employ In longer texts, a writer may choose to employ a combination of these two approaches. This a combination of these two approaches. This is rare in shorter pieces of writing because it is rare in shorter pieces of writing because it becomes too confusing to the reader.becomes too confusing to the reader.

Cause and EffectCause and Effect

At the risk of sounding like math class - At the risk of sounding like math class - as a result of A, B occurs.as a result of A, B occurs.

The linkage of topic a and b occur along The linkage of topic a and b occur along a timeline.a timeline.

When considering causes, consider:When considering causes, consider: Primary causesPrimary causes Contributing causesContributing causes Immediate causesImmediate causes Remote causesRemote causes

Examples of CausesExamples of Causes

If someone asks why you are applying to If someone asks why you are applying to college:college: Primary Cause: I want to have a successful Primary Cause: I want to have a successful

career in ______________.career in ______________. Contributing Cause: I like the sound of Contributing Cause: I like the sound of

“college graduate”.“college graduate”. Immediate Cause: My parents want me to Immediate Cause: My parents want me to

apply.apply. Remote Cause: My grandmother went to Remote Cause: My grandmother went to

college.college.

EffectsEffects

There are also primary, contributing, There are also primary, contributing, immediate and remote effects as well. immediate and remote effects as well. For example:For example:

Primary Effect: I will be the head of a new ________.Primary Effect: I will be the head of a new ________. Contributing Effect: People will respect me.Contributing Effect: People will respect me. Immediate Effect: My parents will be happy.Immediate Effect: My parents will be happy. Remote Effect: My kids will go to college.Remote Effect: My kids will go to college.

Example of Cause and Example of Cause and EffectEffect

Some of this shift away from words – Some of this shift away from words – toward images – can be attributed to our toward images – can be attributed to our ever-growing multilingual population. But ever-growing multilingual population. But for many people, reading is passe or for many people, reading is passe or impractical or, like, so totally impractical or, like, so totally unnecessary in this day and age.unnecessary in this day and age.

-Linton Weeks, “The No-Book Report: Skim It and -Linton Weeks, “The No-Book Report: Skim It and Weep,” Weep,” The Washington Post, MThe Washington Post, May 14, 2001ay 14, 2001

Classification and Classification and DivisionDivision

The true “work horses” of rhetoric.The true “work horses” of rhetoric. Could use these for almost any purpose and Could use these for almost any purpose and

subject.subject. Classification is the process of grouping items Classification is the process of grouping items

together that share important characteristics. together that share important characteristics. Moves from specific to general.Moves from specific to general.

Division goes form the whole (general) to the Division goes form the whole (general) to the parts (specific).parts (specific).

Example of Classification Example of Classification and Divisonand Divison

I spend a great deal of my time thinking I spend a great deal of my time thinking about the power of language – the way it about the power of language – the way it can evoke emotion, a visual image, a can evoke emotion, a visual image, a complex idea, or a simple truth. complex idea, or a simple truth. Language is the tool of my trade. And I Language is the tool of my trade. And I use them all – all the Englishes I grew up use them all – all the Englishes I grew up with.with.

-Amy Tan, “Mother Tongue”, -Amy Tan, “Mother Tongue”, Threepenny Review, Threepenny Review, 19901990

Groups for Groups for Classification/Division Classification/Division

All groups must be:All groups must be: Uniform – This is the principle on which the groups Uniform – This is the principle on which the groups

were created. All categories should fit under one were created. All categories should fit under one topic.topic.

Consistent – All categories fit into the principle Consistent – All categories fit into the principle you’ve created.you’ve created.

Exclusive – No category overlaps another.Exclusive – No category overlaps another. Complete – All of the examples included are Complete – All of the examples included are

grouped into appropriate categories based on grouped into appropriate categories based on purpose.purpose.

Process AnalysisProcess Analysis

Process Analysis is the method of Process Analysis is the method of describing how to perform a task or describing how to perform a task or explaining how something works by explaining how something works by breaking it down into the chronologically breaking it down into the chronologically ordered steps that lead to the goal.ordered steps that lead to the goal.

Two forms of Process Two forms of Process Analysis:Analysis:

Directive: provides step-by-step Directive: provides step-by-step instructions.instructions.

Informative: explains how something Informative: explains how something works.works.

No matter if it is directive or informative, No matter if it is directive or informative, the process analysis should be in the process analysis should be in sequential, chronological order. sequential, chronological order.

Example of Process Example of Process Analysis:Analysis:

In personal situations, complaints may come In personal situations, complaints may come the way of vague statements… While there the way of vague statements… While there may be more serious relationship issues at may be more serious relationship issues at hand, there is a specific way to help the hand, there is a specific way to help the situation. What you want to do is to have him situation. What you want to do is to have him get as specific as possible about what is get as specific as possible about what is bothering him.bothering him.

-David Lieberman, -David Lieberman, Get Anyone to Do Anything: Never Feel Get Anyone to Do Anything: Never Feel Powerless Again – With Psychological Secrets to Control Powerless Again – With Psychological Secrets to Control and Influence Every Situationand Influence Every Situation

DefinitionDefinition

A definition is the meaning of a word.A definition is the meaning of a word. Authors can be:Authors can be:

Denotative/objective: acting like a dictionaryDenotative/objective: acting like a dictionary Connotative/subjective: giving you her personal Connotative/subjective: giving you her personal

meaning and relationship with the word.meaning and relationship with the word.

Example of ConnotativeExample of Connotative

Being a hippie is not about putting a Being a hippie is not about putting a flower in your hair and dancing around in flower in your hair and dancing around in your bare feet. Being a hippie means your bare feet. Being a hippie means approaching life’s obstacles in a way that approaching life’s obstacles in a way that promotes freedom, peace, love and promotes freedom, peace, love and respect for our earth and all of mankind.respect for our earth and all of mankind.

-Katherine Marie DiFillippo, “Love or Haight”, -Katherine Marie DiFillippo, “Love or Haight”, Making Sense, A New Rhtorical ReaderMaking Sense, A New Rhtorical Reader

Example of Denotative:Example of Denotative:

……in a very real sense, crime is a legal concept: in a very real sense, crime is a legal concept: what makes some conduct criminal, and other what makes some conduct criminal, and other conduct not, is the fact that some, but not conduct not, is the fact that some, but not others, are “against the law”.others, are “against the law”.Crimes, then, are forbidden acts. But they are Crimes, then, are forbidden acts. But they are

forbidden in a special way.forbidden in a special way.

-Lawrence M. Friedman, -Lawrence M. Friedman, Crime and Crime and Punishment in American HistoryPunishment in American History

DescriptiveDescriptive

A writer uses description to recreate a A writer uses description to recreate a person, place, thing, or idea in ways that person, place, thing, or idea in ways that appeal to the senses.appeal to the senses.

Description can be either informative or Description can be either informative or impressionistic/evocative.impressionistic/evocative.

Two Types of DescriptionTwo Types of Description

Informative description is the one that is Informative description is the one that is factual, practical and to the point.factual, practical and to the point.

The impressionistic/ evocative The impressionistic/ evocative description appeals to the reader’s description appeals to the reader’s senses, intellect and emotions.senses, intellect and emotions.

Organizational Pattern Organizational Pattern for Descriptive Rhetoricfor Descriptive Rhetoric

Chronological (time sequence)Chronological (time sequence) Spatial (positions from a particular point Spatial (positions from a particular point

of view)of view) Most noticeable feature (details in Most noticeable feature (details in

relation to this feature)relation to this feature) Importance (details used to reinforce the Importance (details used to reinforce the

most important feature)most important feature)

Descriptive ToolsDescriptive Tools

A description can use both objective and A description can use both objective and subjective language. If subjective subjective language. If subjective language is used, this can include language is used, this can include figurative language.figurative language.

Figurative language includes:Figurative language includes: Metaphor (direct comparison)Metaphor (direct comparison) Simile (indirect comparison)Simile (indirect comparison) Concrete wordsConcrete words ImageryImagery OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia

NarrationNarration

In narration, a writer tells or retells a In narration, a writer tells or retells a sequence of events within a particular sequence of events within a particular time frame for a specific purpose.time frame for a specific purpose.

A narrative can be of any length when used as a A narrative can be of any length when used as a rhetorical strategy. This ranges from a simple rhetorical strategy. This ranges from a simple anecdote to the complete presentation.anecdote to the complete presentation.

Organization in NarrativeOrganization in Narrative

No matter what the purpose, time frame, No matter what the purpose, time frame, or sequence, a narration needs a point of or sequence, a narration needs a point of view. Choices include:view. Choices include:

First person (I, we, us)First person (I, we, us) Stream-of-consciousness, an off-shoot of first Stream-of-consciousness, an off-shoot of first

person, allows the reader to enter the mind of the person, allows the reader to enter the mind of the narrator and be privy to the workings of his mind.narrator and be privy to the workings of his mind.

Third person (he, she, they, them)Third person (he, she, they, them) With third person objective, the narrator acts as a With third person objective, the narrator acts as a

reporter;reporter; With third person omniscient, the narrator knows With third person omniscient, the narrator knows

all.all.

Example of NarrationExample of Narration

My guardian angel was a light sleeper. He My guardian angel was a light sleeper. He saved me from speeding cars, playground saved me from speeding cars, playground fights, and mercury splashing on my face. fights, and mercury splashing on my face. That was in fifth grade when we stole balls of That was in fifth grade when we stole balls of mercury from the science teacher to shine mercury from the science teacher to shine coins and belt buckles. Finished, we closed coins and belt buckles. Finished, we closed one eye and flung the mercury at each other one eye and flung the mercury at each other and giggled all the way to lunch.and giggled all the way to lunch.

-Gary Soto, “The Guardian Angel”, -Gary Soto, “The Guardian Angel”, A Summer LifeA Summer Life

Narrative PrewritingNarrative Prewriting Narratives demand their own special Narratives demand their own special

prewriting routines. Before composing, prewriting routines. Before composing, you should consider the following:you should consider the following:

The point to be made (theme)The point to be made (theme) The point of viewThe point of view The temporal basis for the story (setting)The temporal basis for the story (setting) The timeThe time

The place, major plotThe place, major plot Major sequence of eventsMajor sequence of events

CharactersCharacters ConflictConflict Major details for the storyMajor details for the story

Argument/PersuasionArgument/Persuasion

ALL writing is argument because all ALL writing is argument because all writers attempt to have their readers writers attempt to have their readers believe and accept the point being made believe and accept the point being made by their presentations.by their presentations.

Argument: employs logical reasoningArgument: employs logical reasoning Persuasion: a combination of logic and Persuasion: a combination of logic and

emotion.emotion.

Example of ArgumentExample of Argument

Institutions stop teaching and set aside entire Institutions stop teaching and set aside entire weeks for [comprehensive final] tests. Some weeks for [comprehensive final] tests. Some even give students extra days without classes even give students extra days without classes before exam week to prepare. Legends of all-before exam week to prepare. Legends of all-nighters…abound. Clearly, many alumni have nighters…abound. Clearly, many alumni have fond memories of these academic hell weeks – fond memories of these academic hell weeks – of having survived and proved themselves. of having survived and proved themselves. Yet maybe this great tradition is dysfunctional.Yet maybe this great tradition is dysfunctional.

-Karl L. Schilling and Karen Maitland Schilling, “Final -Karl L. Schilling and Karen Maitland Schilling, “Final Exams Discourage True Learning,” Exams Discourage True Learning,” Chronical of Chronical of Higher Learning, Higher Learning, February 2, 1994February 2, 1994

Organization in the Organization in the Argumentative EssayArgumentative Essay

See pages 69-70 to avoid logical See pages 69-70 to avoid logical fallacies.fallacies.

Sample StatementsSample Statements

For further comprehension, look at the For further comprehension, look at the sample statements found on page 72. sample statements found on page 72. These are samples of each form of These are samples of each form of Rhetoric we just discussed.Rhetoric we just discussed.