Rhetorical AnalysisRhetorical Analysisby Richard Johnson-Sheehan and Charles Paineby Richard Johnson-Sheehan and Charles Paine

Purpose: to determine how and why texts are Purpose: to determine how and why texts are influential, or not.influential, or not.– Advertisers, marketing analysts, and public relations Advertisers, marketing analysts, and public relations

agents use rhetorical analyses to understand how well agents use rhetorical analyses to understand how well their messages are influencing target audiences and the their messages are influencing target audiences and the general public.general public.

– Political scientists and consultants use it to determine Political scientists and consultants use it to determine which ideas and strategies will be most persuasive to which ideas and strategies will be most persuasive to voters and consumers.voters and consumers.

– Historians and rhetoricians use it to study historic Historians and rhetoricians use it to study historic speeches and documents to understand how and why they speeches and documents to understand how and why they were influential in their day and perhaps still influential were influential in their day and perhaps still influential today.today.

The ultimate objective: to show why a text was The ultimate objective: to show why a text was effective or persuasive.effective or persuasive.

By studying texts closely, we can learn how By studying texts closely, we can learn how writers and speakers sway others and how we writers and speakers sway others and how we can be more persuasive ourselves.can be more persuasive ourselves.

Any time you are asked to analyze a nonfiction Any time you are asked to analyze a nonfiction text, you are most likely writing a rhetorical text, you are most likely writing a rhetorical analysis.analysis.

In your career, your supervisors may ask you to In your career, your supervisors may ask you to closely analyze your organization’s market closely analyze your organization’s market materials and messages to determine their materials and messages to determine their effectiveness.effectiveness.

Thus, these critiques are rhetorical analyses, too.Thus, these critiques are rhetorical analyses, too.

A rhetorical analysis requires you to A rhetorical analysis requires you to step back from a text and consider it step back from a text and consider it from multiple perspectives.from multiple perspectives.

Writing a rhetorical nalysis can give Writing a rhetorical nalysis can give you a heightened awareness of a text you a heightened awareness of a text and better appreciation of what the and better appreciation of what the author accomplished.author accomplished.

Understanding how communication Understanding how communication works or fails to work is a worthy goal works or fails to work is a worthy goal by itself, but rhetorical analysis has by itself, but rhetorical analysis has other benefits.other benefits.

It enables you to think about a text in more It enables you to think about a text in more depth.depth.

To help you better understand the arguments To help you better understand the arguments the artifact makesthe artifact makes

To appreciate how the artifact was put To appreciate how the artifact was put together.together.

In turn, this knowledge helps you in writing In turn, this knowledge helps you in writing your own texts.your own texts.

You have a much better sense of what has You have a much better sense of what has been said and written about your subject, and been said and written about your subject, and where you have opportunities to contribute where you have opportunities to contribute your own ideas.your own ideas.

Analyze the Context and the Analyze the Context and the TextText

Select a text that has significance for you, Select a text that has significance for you, either because it was important when it either because it was important when it was written or it is about a subject that is was written or it is about a subject that is important to you.important to you.

Think of your analysis as running on a Think of your analysis as running on a continuum between considering the continuum between considering the contextcontext (the relationship between the (the relationship between the piece of writing or speaking and the larger piece of writing or speaking and the larger society surrounding it) and the society surrounding it) and the texttext itself itself (what it is about and how it is designed.(what it is about and how it is designed.

We can think of the context, which lies We can think of the context, which lies at one end of the continuum, in two at one end of the continuum, in two

senses:senses: First, the immediate context: refers First, the immediate context: refers

to where the text was written and to where the text was written and read or heard.read or heard.– For example, Abraham Lincoln delivered For example, Abraham Lincoln delivered

his 10-sentence, 272-word Gettysburg his 10-sentence, 272-word Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863, at the Address on November 19, 1863, at the dedication ceremony of a national dedication ceremony of a national cemetery, where he followed a speaker cemetery, where he followed a speaker who had talked for two hours.who had talked for two hours.

Second, the Second, the broader broader contextcontext refers to the refers to the larger cultural and larger cultural and historical circumstances historical circumstances in which a text is in which a text is produced and readproduced and read..

– The broader context was, The broader context was, of course, the Civil War, of course, the Civil War, which had taken which had taken thousands of lives and thousands of lives and was far from over when was far from over when Lincoln spoke.Lincoln spoke.

– Lincoln’s brief remarks Lincoln’s brief remarks have been immortalized have been immortalized because he could because he could envision an end to the envision an end to the war and a healing war and a healing process.process.

At the other end of the At the other end of the continuum lies the text continuum lies the text itself. We can consider a itself. We can consider a text as if it were a piece in text as if it were a piece in a museum, where we a museum, where we closely scrutinize it.closely scrutinize it.

For example, if you look For example, if you look carefully at the language of carefully at the language of the Gettysburg Address, the Gettysburg Address, you’ll begin to appreciate you’ll begin to appreciate Lincoln’s tactics and skill.Lincoln’s tactics and skill.

He says of his purpose: He says of his purpose: “We have come to dedicate “We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those final resting place for those who here gave their lives who here gave their lives that the nation might live.”that the nation might live.”

But then he immediately But then he immediately turns this purpose on its turns this purpose on its head: “But in a larger head: “But in a larger sense, we can not dedicatesense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate——we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this we can not hallow—this sacred ground. The brave sacred ground. The brave men, living and dead, who men, living and dead, who struggled here, have struggled here, have consecrated it, far above consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or our poor power to add or detract.”detract.”

Lincoln’s words become Lincoln’s words become powerful because they powerful because they defy expectation: we defy expectation: we cannot consecrate the field cannot consecrate the field because the field is already because the field is already consecrated.consecrated.

Lincoln does not once Lincoln does not once refer to “the enemy” in refer to “the enemy” in his address. Instead his address. Instead he says, “The brave he says, “The brave men, living and dead, men, living and dead, who struggled here.”who struggled here.”

Even though the Even though the cemetery was a cemetery was a burying ground for burying ground for Union soldiers, Union soldiers, Lincoln’s language Lincoln’s language invokes the heroism invokes the heroism and sacrifice of both and sacrifice of both sides.sides.

Often in the back and forth Often in the back and forth movement between text and movement between text and context, we gain surprising context, we gain surprising insights about how a text insights about how a text achieves certain effects.achieves certain effects.

These questions will help you get These questions will help you get started in composing a rhetorical started in composing a rhetorical analysis:analysis:

Analyze the Immediate Analyze the Immediate ContextContext

Examine the author:Examine the author:

– What is the author’s purpose: To What is the author’s purpose: To change beliefs? To inspire action? To change beliefs? To inspire action? To teach about a subject? To praise or teach about a subject? To praise or blame? To amuse?blame? To amuse?

– How did the author come to this How did the author come to this subject?subject?

– What else did the author write?What else did the author write?

Analyze the Immediate Analyze the Immediate Context (continued)Context (continued)

Examine the audienceExamine the audience::– Who was the intended audience?Who was the intended audience?– What were their attitudes and beliefs What were their attitudes and beliefs

about the subject?about the subject?– What were their attitudes and beliefs What were their attitudes and beliefs

about the author?about the author?– What does the author assume about the What does the author assume about the

audience?audience?

Analyze the Broader Analyze the Broader ContextContext

Examine the larger conversationExamine the larger conversation::– Why did this text appear at this Why did this text appear at this

particular time?particular time?– What else has been said or written What else has been said or written

about the subject?about the subject?– What was going on at the time that What was going on at the time that

influenced this text?influenced this text?

Analyze the Broader Analyze the Broader Context (continued):Context (continued):

Examine the larger society:Examine the larger society:

– What social, political, and economic What social, political, and economic influences can you find in the text?influences can you find in the text?

Analyze the TextAnalyze the Text Examine the kind of textExamine the kind of text::

– What kind of text is it: speech? Essay? What kind of text is it: speech? Essay? Letter? Editorial? Advertisement?Letter? Editorial? Advertisement?

– What is the medium: print? Web site? What is the medium: print? Web site? Voice recording?Voice recording?

Analyze Text (continued)Analyze Text (continued) Summarize the contentSummarize the content::

– What is the author’s main claim or main idea?What is the author’s main claim or main idea?– How is the main claim or main idea supported?How is the main claim or main idea supported?– How is the text organized?How is the text organized?

Examine the appeals:Examine the appeals:– EthosEthos: How does the author represent : How does the author represent

him/herself? How does the author build or fail him/herself? How does the author build or fail to build trust?to build trust?

– LogosLogos: What kinds of facts and evidence does : What kinds of facts and evidence does the author use?the author use?

– PathosPathos: How does the author appeal to values : How does the author appeal to values shared with the audience?shared with the audience?

Analyze the Text Analyze the Text (continued)(continued)

Examine the language and styleExamine the language and style::

– Is the style formal? Informal? Is the style formal? Informal? Academic?Academic?

– Does the author use humor or satire?Does the author use humor or satire?– What metaphors are used?What metaphors are used?

Organize and Write a Organize and Write a Rhetorical AnalysisRhetorical Analysis

Before you writeBefore you write::– Take stock of your initial analysisTake stock of your initial analysis

If your selected text isn’t working for the If your selected text isn’t working for the assignment, find one that works better.assignment, find one that works better.

Look at your notes on the author, the Look at your notes on the author, the audience, the circumstances of original audience, the circumstances of original publication or delivery, what other texts the publication or delivery, what other texts the author was responding to, and what else author was responding to, and what else was going on at the time.was going on at the time.

– Spend some time think about how to Spend some time think about how to organize your analysis.organize your analysis.

Organize and Write An Organize and Write An Analysis (continued)Analysis (continued)

Think about your readersThink about your readers::

– How much do readers know about your How much do readers know about your text? The author? The events text? The author? The events surrounding the text? Other texts like surrounding the text? Other texts like it?it?

– What will readers gain from reading What will readers gain from reading your analysis?your analysis?

Write an Introduction:Write an Introduction: Begin your analysis by giving the Begin your analysis by giving the

necessary backgroundnecessary background– Inform your readers about the author and why Inform your readers about the author and why

the author selected this particular topic.the author selected this particular topic.– Tell readers about the original audience and Tell readers about the original audience and

the conversation about the topic that was the conversation about the topic that was going on at the time the text was written.going on at the time the text was written.

Make a claimMake a claim– Make a claim about how the text you are Make a claim about how the text you are

analyzing used rhetoric for particular purposes.analyzing used rhetoric for particular purposes.

Organize and Write the Organize and Write the Body of Your PaperBody of Your Paper

Support your claim with your detailed Support your claim with your detailed analysis of the text and contextanalysis of the text and context::– Give examples from the text to show how the Give examples from the text to show how the

authors builds credibility with the audience, authors builds credibility with the audience, appeals to their values and beliefs, and appeals to their values and beliefs, and convinces them with facts and evidence.convinces them with facts and evidence.

– Analyze the author’s style, tone, and language, Analyze the author’s style, tone, and language, including metaphors.including metaphors.

– Analyze how the author responded to the Analyze how the author responded to the immediate context and to the broader context.immediate context and to the broader context.

Organize the body of your Organize the body of your paper (continued):paper (continued):

This is a researched paper.This is a researched paper. Therefore, you must find additional Therefore, you must find additional sources to support your claim:sources to support your claim:– Apply theories, viewpoints, Apply theories, viewpoints,

argumentative strategies (that we’ve argumentative strategies (that we’ve learned about this semester) from other learned about this semester) from other writers, experts, and examples, and from writers, experts, and examples, and from other similar texts to support your claim.other similar texts to support your claim.

– Use 3-5 credible sources. Use APA in text Use 3-5 credible sources. Use APA in text and as a Reference Page.and as a Reference Page.

Write a ConclusionWrite a Conclusion End with more than a summaryEnd with more than a summary

– Draw larger implications from your analysis.Draw larger implications from your analysis.– End with a vivid example from the text.End with a vivid example from the text.

• Finally, revise, revise, reviseFinally, revise, revise, revise!!• Evaluate your draft:Evaluate your draft:

• Make sure your analysis meets the requirements of the Make sure your analysis meets the requirements of the assignment.assignment.

• Consider where you might provide more information about Consider where you might provide more information about the context.the context.

• Consider where you might provide more evidence Consider where you might provide more evidence supporting your claim about the text.supporting your claim about the text.

• When you have finished revising, edit and proofread When you have finished revising, edit and proofread carefully.carefully.

Class ExerciseClass Exercise Public speeches are usually intended to persuade. You can find many Public speeches are usually intended to persuade. You can find many

examples of public speeches on the Web. Many politically oriented Web examples of public speeches on the Web. Many politically oriented Web sites contain transcripts of speeches and often the audio and video. (For sites contain transcripts of speeches and often the audio and video. (For example, go to example, go to www.whitehouse.govwww.whitehouse.gov for speeches by the president, or to a for speeches by the president, or to a history site, such as the History Channel, for other famous speeches). history site, such as the History Channel, for other famous speeches).

Select a speech to analyze and answer the following questions.Select a speech to analyze and answer the following questions.

– 1. What is the 1. What is the rhetorical purposerhetorical purpose? What did the speech indent to ? What did the speech indent to achieve?achieve?

– 2. Where was the speech given? How does the speaker connect with 2. Where was the speech given? How does the speaker connect with the beliefs and attitudes of the the beliefs and attitudes of the audienceaudience??

– 3. What 3. What appealsappeals does the speech rely upon: the rational appeal (logs) does the speech rely upon: the rational appeal (logs) the emotional appeal (pathos), or the ethical appeal (ethos)?the emotional appeal (pathos), or the ethical appeal (ethos)?

– 4. How is the speech 4. How is the speech organizedorganized??– 5. How formal or informal is the 5. How formal or informal is the stylestyle? Is humor used?? Is humor used?– 6. Does the speaker use any 6. Does the speaker use any metaphorsmetaphors and for what purpose? and for what purpose?

– When you have completed your analysis, formulate a thesis about the When you have completed your analysis, formulate a thesis about the speech.speech.