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MBA Course Revision ITO
Dr. John W. Lang
This is the first of three documents that will be released in weeks8, 9 and 10 for revision purposes, for the ITO exam. They are not
sufficient in themselves as full documents for revision and you areexpected to read around the topics contained here.
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Distinction between process/content and cognitive/behavioural traditions
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A simple classification of motivation theories
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Other Job Performance Determinants
Skills and Abilities
Role Perceptions
Opportunities to Perform
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The job characteristics model (adapted from Hackman and Oldham 1980)
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Contextual factors affecting work motivation
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Structuring Interesting Jobs
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Managerial Implications
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Expectancy and needs theory: relationship
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Herzbergs satisfiers and dissatisfiers
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Herzbergs vertical loading factors
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A basic motivational model
A simplified illustration of the basic motivational model
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Basic model of expectancy theory
Basic model of expectancy theory
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Vrooms valenceexpectancy model
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The Porter and Lawler expectancy modelSource: Porter and Lawler 1968 Managerial Attitudes and Performance, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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Goal setting (source: Latham and Locke 1979)
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The systematic reinforcement of desirableorganizational behaviour and non-reinforcement
of unwanted organizational behaviour
(Luthans and Kreitner 1985, p 303)
A Definition of Behaviour Modification
(OB Mod.)
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Simplified model of behaviour modification process
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LEARNING
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Factors influencing the learning process
Factors influencing the learning process
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The three sets of factors that affect learning (adapted from Bruner 1973)
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The features of the learning organization
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Importance of the individual
It is impossible to conceive of a learning organisation, however
defined, which exists without individual learners. The learning
organisation depends absolutely on the skill, approaches andcommitment of individuals to their own learning.
Mumford
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Behaviourist and cognitive perspectives on learning contrasted
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Behaviour modification options
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Learning
Operant Conditioning
Insert Figure 3.12 Here
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Learning
Reinforcement Contingencies
Insert Table 3.4 Here
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Applying operant conditioning to work
situations Reward:
What constitutes reward?
Importance of appropriate rewards for individuals.
Punishment:
What constitutes a punishment?
Problems of negative psychological outcomes.
Shaping:
Behaviour modification to suit organisational culture
Induction and training.
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Cognitive approaches: key stages
Active perception stage
Attention is given to stimuli from the environment
Mentally active stage
Processing and making sense of the information received
Restructuring and storage stage
Storing and organising processed information
Emphasis of cognitive theories of learning is the
focus on change
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MOTIVATION
or Expectancy
FEEDBACK
Person obtains knowledge of
resultsand gets rewards etc.
PERFORMANCEOR
APPLICATION
Learned material is applied in
practice
RECALL
Retrieve material from memory
RETENTION
Store knowledge in memory
ACQUISITION
Encode the material, make
sense of it, relate itto what is
already known
AWARENESS
Subjectperceivesmaterial and
distinguishesbetween it and
other stimuli that compete for
attention
COGNITIVE
MAPS AREEVERYWHERE
Adapted by Lang from Gange 1974
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Bandura Social Learning Theory
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes, and
emotional reactions of others.
Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on
the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea
of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22).
Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive,
behavioural, an environmental influences.
The component processes underlying observational learning are:
(1) Attention, including modelled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value)
and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement),
(2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal),
(3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and
(4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.
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Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
People learn through observing others behaviour, attitudes, andoutcomes of those behaviours. Most human behaviour is learnedobservationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms anidea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions thiscoded information serves as a guide for action. (Bandura).
Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuousreciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmentalinfluences.
Bandura believed in reciprocal determinism, that is, the world and apersons behaviour cause each other, while behaviourism essentially statesthat ones environment causes ones behaviour, Bandura, who wasstudying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so inaddition he suggested that behaviour causes environment as well.
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Link Between Motivation and Learning
Necessary conditions for effective modelling:
Attention various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid.Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functionalvalue. Ones characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set,past reinforcement) affect attention.
Retention remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding,mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
Reproduction reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.
Motivation having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e.traditional behaviourism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeingand recalling the reinforced model)
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How Organisations Learn:Types of Organisational Learning I
Single-Loop Learning:
Occurs when errors are detected and corrected
and firms carry on with their present policies and
goals
Activities that add to the knowledge-base or firm-specific competencies or routines without
altering the fundamental nature of the
organisation's activities
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How Organisations Learn:Types of Organisational Learning II
Double-Loop Learning:
Occurs when, in addition to detection and
correction of errors, the organization is involved inthe questioning and modification of existing
norms, procedures, policies, and objectives
Involves changing the organization's knowledge-
base or firm-specific competencies or routines
Source: Argyris & Schn, 1978
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How Organisations Learn:Types of Organisational Learning III
Deutero Learning:
Occurs when organizations learn how to carry out single-loop and
double-loop learning
The first two forms of learning will not occur if the organizations are not
aware that learning must occur
Awareness of ignorance motivates learning - this means identifying the
learning orientations or styles, and the processes and structures(facilitating factors) required to promote learning.
Source: Argyris & Schn, 1978
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Information Interpretation:
CognitiveMaps and Framing
Cognitive maps (or belief structure/mental representation/frame ofreference) will shape a persons interpretation of information
How an information is framed or labelled affects its interpretation
Media Richness
Determinant of the extent to which information is given commonmeaning by the sender and receiver of a message
InformationOverload
Overload of information distracts from effective interpretation
Unlearning Process through which learners discard obsolete and misleading
knowledge
Source: Huber, 1991
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Components ofLearning
Organizations Systems thinking
Personal mastery
Mental models
Building shared vision
Team learning
The Fifth Discipline --> Systems Thinking
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Systems Thinking
The conceptual cornerstone that underlies all of thefive learning disciplines
A discipline for seeing wholes Seeing structures that underlie complex situations
Seeing interrelationships rather than linear cause andeffect chains.
Seeing processes of change rather than snapshots
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PersonalMastery
The Spirit of the Learning Organization
Organizations learn only throughindividuals who learn
Individual learning does not guaranteeorganizational learning, but without it no
organizational learning can occur Personal Vision
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A cognitive model of learning
A cognitive model of learningSource: From Atkins, M. J., Beattie, J. and Dockrell, W. B.,Assessment Issues in Higher Education, Department ofEmployment (October 1993) p. 51. Crown Copyright 1993.
Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Majestys Stationery Office (HMSO)