Review

Water Pollution and Human Health in ChinaChanghua Wu,'' Crescencia Maurer,^ Yi Wang,^ Shouzheng Xue,^ and Devra Lee Davis^

'World Resources Institute, Washington, DC 20006 USA; ̂ National Conditions Analysis Group, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,China; ̂ School of Public Health, Shanghai Medical University, Shanghai, China

China's extraordinary economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization, coupled with inade-quate investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure, have resulted in widespreadwater pollution. In China today approximately 700 million people—over half tbe population—consume drinking watet contaminated with levels of animal and human excreta that exceed max-imum permissible levels by as much as 86% iti rural areas and 28% in urban areas. By the year2000, the volume of wastewater produced could double from 1990 levels to almost 78 billiontons. These are alarming trends with potentially serious consequences for human health. Thispaper reviews and analyzes recent Chinese reports on public health and water re.sources to shedlight on what recent trends imply for China's environmental risk transition. Tbis paper has twomajor conclusions. First, the critical deficits in basic water supply and sewage treatment infra-structure have increased the risk of exposure to infectious and parasitic disease and to a growingvolume of industrial chemicals, heavy metals, and algal toxins. Second, the lack of coordinationbetween environmental and public health objectives, a complex and fragmented system to man-age water resources, and the general treatment of water as a common property resource meanthat the water quality and quantity problems observed as well as the health threats identified arelikely to become more acute. Key words; China, health, pollution, water. Environ Health Perspect107:251-256 (1999). [Online 5 March 1999]http://ehpneiI.mehs:.nih.gov/docs/I999/107p25I'256wu/abstract.html

Poised to become a superpower, China con-fronts some of the most serious environ-mental threats in the world. Water inChina poses a triple threat: supply is scarcein the populous north, flooding endangerslives and land in the south, and growingmunicipal and industrial pollution jeopar-dizes regions throughout the country.

China has as much water overall asCanada, and has 100 times more people.China's per capita water reserves of 2,500m-̂ are one-fourth the global average (/}.Officially designated water pollution acci-dents, usually triggered by heavy rainfall,floods, or drought, often overwhelm theinadequate wastewater storage and treat-ment infrastructure. These events can forcethe release of industrial wastewater orsewage overHows and reduce the supply offresh water available to dilute pollutants {2).As of 1996. only 5% of municipal waste-water and 17% of industrial dischargereceived any treatment before being dis-charged inco lakes, rivers, irrigation ditches,or the coastal waters {S). A map of China'smajor rivers reveals that most of them donot meet Crade II requirements, which arethe government standards for primarydrinking water supplies, and some rivers areunsuitable even for agricultural purposes(Fig. 1; Table 1 describes the water qualitygrades in greater detail).

The degraded condition of much ofChina's surface water resources, together withthe lack of coordination between proteaionof public health and management of waterquality, pose serious threats to human health.This paper analyzes recent Chinese reportson water resources and health, with theunderstanding that the chronic health conse-quences that restilt from changes in environ-mental conditions only begin to appear inhealth and epidemiologic records after adecade or two (5). The water resources andpublic health literature in China implicatethree principal threats to human health fromwater pollution and degraded water quality:1) rapid and unregulated expansion of indus-trial activities; 2) growth of urban and subur-ban areas without adequate investments inwater supply infrastructure; and 3) adoptionof green revolution technologies togetherwith a continued reliance on sewage irriga-tion. After exatnining the research on theserecent developments, we present policyoptions under active discussion by nationaland regional authorities—discussions that areaimed at substantially reversing the historicdegradation of China's water resotirces.

Rapid IndustrializationThe transition from a command economyto a market economy has brought tremen-dous changes to China. The contrihution of

state-owned enterprises to overall economicproduction is declining, while township-vil-lage enterprises (TVEs) and other parts ofthe private sector are playing a larger role.TVEs are the various enterprises establishedoutside of urban areas with the majority ofinvestment (>50%) from rural collectiveorganizations or farmers. The economy'shigh growth rates—largely fueled byTVEs—coupled with structural shifts in theeconomy are exerting extraordinary pressureon natural resources, particularly water.

Along with this economic growth, Chinahas experienced a slow and steady increase inthe production of industrial wastewater.Between 1981 and 1995 the volume ofwastewater increased 27.8%, an averageannual increase of 1.65% {6). In recent years,official statistics indicate a drop in wastewaterdischarges from state-owned enterprisesbecause of their shrinking produaion levels;however, this has been more than offset bythe growth of TVEs. From their inception in1958, TVEs have played an increasinglyimportant role in all sectors of the economy.While the total TVE output was only 49..3billion yuan in 1978, accounting for 7% ofthe country's total gross domestic product(GDP), this output increased to Y6.9 trillionin 1995, accounting for 55.8% of the totalindustrial GDP—significantly higher thanthat of state-owned enterprises.

A subset of TVEs, rownship-villageindustrial enterprises (TVIEs), account forthe majority of this phenomenal increase inIndustrial output. In 1994, the total outputof TVIEs accounted for 42% of the totalnational industrial output, as compared to23.8% in 1989; and accounted for 55.4%of the total rural GDP in 1994—a dramaticincrease. In 1995. TVIEs discharged 5.9billion tons of wastewater, 21% of the totaldischarged nationwide. As a result,although total wastewater discharge by

Address correspondence to C. Wu. World ResourcesInstitute, 1709 New York Ave.. NW, Washington,DC 20006 USA.All intc-rpretarions and findings set fordi in this paperare soleiy chose of the authors, and do not representthe opinions or policies of [heir host insriiutions.We thank John Sheer for his contribution to thispaper.Received 7 August 1998; accepted 21 December 1998.

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Review • Wu et al.

TVIEs does not seem large, their contribu-tion to the total share of pollutants is sub-stantial. In 1989, the discharge densities forheavy metals, cyanide, and phenol inTVIEs were 2.2, 3.3, and 9 times greater,respectively, than those of industries locat-̂ed in urban areas. Among all TVIEs, tJireeindustries account for the largest dis-charges; paper and pulp mills (806 milliontons of wastewater or 30.03%), chemicalindustries (159 million tons or 5.93%),and textile dyeing and staining plants (123million tons or 4.57%) (7).

These national statistics are reflected ina 1989-1991 study {8) of 10 major pollut-ing sectors of Chinese TVIEs in Beijing,

Liaoning, Jiangsu, Shandong. Guizhou,Guangdong, and Huhei. Organic matter,acids, alkalis, nitrogen, phosphate, phenols,cyanide, lead, cadmium, mercury, andbichromate were among the major waterpollutants found in the bodies of waternear rural residential areas and their drink-ing water systems. Monitoring resultsshowed that all the major pollutants ana-lyzed exceeded national standards fordrinking water quality. Mercury concentra-tions were 45-700% in excess of the stan-dard, whereas concentrations of lead were3,600-5,216% greater than the standard.Table 2 lists China's national standards fordrinking water quality.

In a number of studies, pollutantsreleased by TVIEs have been linked toadverse health effects, in China overall, liverand stomach cancer deaths have doubledsince the 1970s, and are now the leadingcauses of cancer mortality in rural China(5^. China now has the highest liver cancerdeath rate in the world {9}. When TVIEs inmore polluted areas are examined, theyshow a general increase in cancer mortality.(Fig. 2). Figure 2 also demonstrates thatcancer mortality in polluted areas has beensteadily increasing over time. Although dietand alcohol consumption may play a role inthe increased cancer rates, environmentalfactors are also relevant.

River quality/ \ /Grade/\ /Grade II

Grade II/ Grade IV

Grade V/ \ / Unknown

Major cities

Figure 1, China's major rivers.

252 Volume 107, Number 4. April 1999 • Environmental Health Persoectives

Review • Water pollution and human health in China

One Illustration of the link ber ;ncancer and pollution in China comes froma 1987-1988 study of two villages, Xujiaand Xizhou, where water supplies were pol-luted by petroleum industries (10). Deepgroundwater. the source of village drinkingwater supplies, was heavily contaminatedby hydrocarbons such as aliphatic and aro-matic alkenes, phenols, aldehydes, ketones,acids, esters, etc., with concentrations ofpetroleum derivatives at 0,078-0.500 mg/i,volatile phenols at 0.001-0.003 mg/l, andsulfides at 0.059-0.451 mg/l {10). Whencompared to a control area, major findingsincluded a >25% higher rate of overall can-cer mortality from 1986 to 1988 and a>50% higher rate of cancers of the gas-trointestinal tract during the same timeperiod {10}.

Urbanization

Polluted water resources are not only aproblem in the rural areas surroundingTVTEs. Chinese cities have limited tacilitiesor infrastructure to treat sewage or drink-ing water, which mostly comes from sur-face water of large rivers or lakes. Morethan 300 of China's 640 cities now facewater shortages, with a total annual scarcityof nearly 6 billion m^. Most cities andcommunities simply discharge untreatedwastewater and sewage produced by house-holds and industries into surrounding sur-face waters, including rivers, lakes, andcoastal areas (i^. The increasing volume ofhuman excreta as well as toxins and solidwastes from industries in urban areas isleading to a severe deterioration of water

Table 1. Ambient surface water quality classifications in China

Classification Grader Grade Grade Grade I V Grade V«

BOD^Dissolved oxygenAcidity (pHITotal phosphorousNitrates/nitritesFecal coliform

<390%'6.50.02<10/0.06NS

36NSL7R 0.02510/0.1NS

45NS0.1, lyR 0.0520/0.1510,000 U/l

63<8.50.220/1NS

1026-90.225/1NS

Abbreviations: BOD^ biological oxygen demand; L/R, lake or reservoir; NS, not specified. Data from Wang and Wang {4).

'Mainly applicable lo water sources and national nature reserue araas.'^uilablB for grade I drinking mater supplies, endangered tish reserves, and fish and shrimp braedinfl areas,^Suitable for grade II drinking water supplies, general fish reserves, and swimming areas.''Mainlv suitable tor general industrial purposes and recreational uses that do not involve direct human contact with the water.'Mainlv suitable for asricultural uses and general scenic purposes.'Saturation rale.

Table 2. China's drinking water standards

Water quality

General and chemicalcharacteristics

Toxicity

Bacteriological

Radioactivity

Parameters

ColorTurbidity, in most casesTurbidity, under special circumstancespHTotal hardness (calcium carbonate)Volatile phenolsTotal dissolved solidsAnionic synthesized sulfate

FluorideCyanideArsenicMercuryCadmiumLeadNitrogen (nitrates)*^ChloroformCarbon tetrachlorideDDTBenzene hexachloride

Total bacteria numberTotal coiiform groupFree chlorine residual

After dilution in ambient waterAt the tap

Total a and P radioactivity

Standards

<15=''<3°*<5'"'6.5-8.5450 mg/l0.002 mg/l1,000 mg/l0.3 mg/l

lmg/l0.05 mg/l0.05 mg/l0.001 mg/l0.01 mg/l0.05 mg/l20 mg/l60 \iql\3Mg/l

ipg/ i5tig/l

100 U/ml

3U/ml

>0.3 mg/l>0.05 mg/l

0.11 Bq/I

Data from Wang and Wang (Jj,

'Oegrees Indicate light absorption of water."Degrees measure light refractinn. which indicates siie and number of particles.•̂Mo values are specified for nitrites nr ammonium.

quality. In fact, most urban water pollutionis linked to organic loads entering waterbodies ( i / ) .

A major problem for China is the inad-equate treatment of municipal sewage. In1996, more than 20 billion tons of urbansewage was discharged into rivers, lakes, orseas, with approximately 10% receiving anytreatment by tbc 135 centralized sewagetreatment plants that operated nationwide{12). Without proper disposal or treatmentof sewage, most monitored river sections inurban areas (131 of 135) failed to meetdesignated water quality grades in a 1994study {4). Table 1 lists the determining fac-tors of each water quality grade.

Given the lack of wastewater treatmentInfrastructure, it is not surprising that lowlevels of sewage treatment have resulted inwidespread contamination of drinkingwater supplies, and in turn resulted in sig-nificant episodes of illness (2). Table 3sbows that sewage is the leading contribu-tor of contamination to water supplies (i.e.,piped water, surface water, and groundwa-ter), and that sewage contamination pro-duces more cases of illness as compared tochemical and pesticide contamination.Untreated sewage usually contains largenumbers of pathogenic microorganismssuch as schistosomial ova cercaria and ovaof parasitic flukes and worms; hepatitis A,bacterial dysentery, infectious diarrhea,para-cho\eTi, and typhoid are also common{13). In 1991, the average incidence oftyphoid fever was 10.6 per 100,000—anyincidence greater than 10 per 100,000 isconsidered high by the World HealthOrganization.

The problems stemming from the failureto treat sewage properly are exacerbated byinadequate treatment of drinking water sup-plies. Of tbe 27 largest Chinese cities, only 6supplied drinking water that met governmentstandards; groundwater did nor meet statestandards in 23 of these cities {14). The situa-tion is as bad or worse among rural townsand medium-sized cities. A survey of drinkitigwater plants in Hubei Province found thatonly one in eight drinking water plants con-sistently treated water year round {IS).Consequendy, half the populations served byplants that failed to treat water regularly suf-fered from intestinal infectious diseasebetween 1986 and 1988 {16). Therefore,even populations with access to tap water stillface some risk of contracting diseases.

In addition to infectious diseases, higherrates of cancer mortality in urban areas havebeen tied to the lack of adequate sewagetreatment facilities (/6). Baoding City ofHcbei Province constructed a sewage storageand drainage project that disposes of250,000 tons of sewage per day in

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Review • Wu et al.

Baiyangdian Lake (17). A task force estab-lished by the provincial administration com-pared the quality of groundwater and therates of cancer mortality near BaiyangdianLake {the most polluted area) and along thedrainage canal (polluted area) with those in acontrol area (Fig. 3). The three areas—con-trol, polluted, and most polluted—-were clas-sified according to the relative degree ofwater quality in each area. For instance, thecontrol area had 0 of 18 wells below GradeII, the polluted area had 2 of 24 wells belowGrade II, and the most polluted area had 6of 24 wells below Grade II. Among the threeareas, cancer mortality was significantlyhigher among residents relying on contami-nated groundwater {I/). The rates ofesophageal and liver cancer were three timesthat ot populations in the studied controlarea (17). Populations in the BaiyangdianLake area also exhibited higher incidences ofanemia (i.e., the average number of cellslacking hemoglobin of <120 g/1 were 1.32%,jxO.Ql higher in males, and 6.00%, /KO.01higher in females) and elevated immuneresponses (i.e., white blood cell counts inpolluted areas were higher than control areasby an average of 7,027/mm-^,/KO.01) (77).

Intensification andModernization of AgricultureInadequate drinking water and sewagetreatment infrastructure is not the onlyproblem plaguing urban water resources.

The rapid expansion of new agriculturalactivities, the so-called vegetable baskets(urban and suburban gardens), are alsoaggravating drinking water supply prob-lems. These newly developed plots are usu-ally irrigated with untreated sewage whilefertilizer and pesticides are applied to raiseproductivity. Furthermore, poultry opera-tions and small-scale household husbandryhave also expanded rapidly to meet thedemand of city residents for meat, eggs, andmilk. These operations generate consider-able animal waste within and around cities.Most of the wastes from these farms are dis-charged untreated into surface waters {18).

China's agricultural economy hasundergone a rapid transformation in thelast 15 years. Beginning in the 1980s farm-ers were permitted by the state to sell sur-plus produce on the open market. This cre-ated incentives to increase agricultural pro-ductivity and to adopt green revolutiontechnologies: intensive fertilizer and pesti-cide application together with improvedhybrid seeds. The National EnvironmentalProtection Agency (NEPA) in Beijingreported that the use of fertilizers in Chinarose from 25.9 million tons in 1990 to33.1 million tons in 1994 (6).

Despite the increased use of fertilizer,only 30% of fertilizers applied to agricul-turai crops are used effectively {19). As aresult, nonpoint source pollution has beenworsening dramatically. Excessive use of

1973-1975 1376-197B 1979-1981 1982-1984

Cancer mortality (duration of observation}

Figure 2. Cancer mortality from water pollution. Data from Deng et al, [3^1.

Table 3. Number of cases of illness associated with the contamination of water supplies

Piped water supplies

PollutantsWater source

pollutedNegative pipeline

pressure

Other water supplies

Surface water Groundwater

SewageChemicalsPesticidesTotals

27,0313.1961,071

31,298

9,469185

09,654

8,138^323

83510,996

t,245603

01,848

Data from CaoandXu (4.

fertilizers, the prevalence of phosphate-based detergents, and the discharge ofhuman and livestock excreta into the lakesof intensively farmed provinces is leadingto their eutrophication (overloading ofwater bodies with organic materials andnutrients chat encourage algal blooms anddeplete the oxygen available for aquaticorganisms). The proliferation of algae hasaffected water supply sources and forcedthe temporary closure of drinking waterplants (20). For example, Taihu, the thirdlargest freshwater lake in China, hasbecome a major sink of agricultural andrural effluents generated in Jiangsu andZhejiang Provinces {21,22).

Algal blooms are also the source of a formore serious threat to human health: algaltoxins. More than 80% of 480 algae sam-ples taken from surface waters collectedthroughout China produced toxins {23,24).Many studies, including short-term assays,intact animal experiments, chronic feedingassays, and epidemiologic surveys, havedemonstrated the etiological role of algaltoxins, particularly microcystins and nordu-larin produced by blue-green algae, inparhogenesis of liver cancer {25,26}. Evenwhen the presence of hepatitis B viral infec-tions, ethnic or genetic susceptibilities, andalcohol consumption were facrored in, therisk of liver cancer associated with the con-sumption of polluted drinking water wassrill twofold or higher {27,28). Becausethese phyrotoxins represent only a few ofthose probably present in eutrophiedwaters, this is important and disturbing evi-dence that merits urgent attention; inChina, however, rhe study of pesticides hasfocused on managing or preventing poison-ing or toxic events usually associated withaccidental spills during application or trans-portation. Thus, there are limited epidemi-ologic data or other types of research per-formed on the possible ways that agrochem-icals, particularly pesticides, could effecthuman health in China. There is also limit-ed knowledge of whether bioaccumulationin plants and animals is entering the humanfood chain, or what levels of exposure affectimmune system function {29).

Misapplication of fertilizers and pesti-cides is not the only agricultural practiceadversely affecting water supplies, however.Acute water shortages, especially in thenorthern regions, have led to the relativelynew practice of using industrial wastewaterfor irrigation. This interaction betweenindustrial and agricultural activities andtbeir impact on human health is highlight-ed by the problems in the Shenfij irrigationarea near the heavily industrialized city ofShenyang in Liaoning Province {30,31). Anirrigation canal was built in this area in the

254 Volume 107, Number 4, April 1999 • Environmental Health Perspectives

Review • Water pollution and human health in China

early 1960s. The canal was 70 km in lengthand supplied 13,000 acres of land. Each daychc canal drained an average 400,000 m- ofuntreated wastewater from coal mines andpetrochemical, power, and chemical plants.The area's cancer mortality and incidenceof birth defects were investigated between1973 and 1984. Figure 4 demonstrates thathigher levels of cancer mortality and birthdefects were found relative to the controlarea. In particular, the area served by thecanal had approximately three times asmany (34.2/10,000 versus 12.0/10,000)cases of liver cancer than the control area,lower average age of death from cancer, andapproximately three times more birthdefects (67.42 versus 20.07 per 1,000) thanthe control area.

Conclusions andRecommendationsThe implications for China's environmen-tal health risk transition of water pollutionare quite significant. Although much of theevidence assembled is dated, often anecdo-tal, and of limited spatial or temporalscope, when taken as a whole it points toseveral possible consequences for publichealth. First, morbidity and mortality asso-ciated with infectious and parasitic diseasesmay not continue to decline, and maypotentially increase. At the same time amore affluent and growing population,more intensive use of agrochemicals, andcontinued industrial expansion willincrease the amount of human, animal,and industrial waste entering surface andgroundwater streams. Second, the com-bined exposures to both traditional (infec-tious and parasitic) and modern (cancers,heart disease, and respiratory diseases) risksmay be accelerating the incidence of dis-eases classified as noncommunicabie. Forexample, stomach and liver cancers arelinked to exposures of infectious agents{Helicohacter pylori and hepatitis B), andsome of the studies have noted associationsbetween gastric diseases and elevated cancerrates in areas irrigated with human excretaas well as industrial wastes. Third, the eco-nomic impacts of water pollution are fartoo severe for the Chinese government tocontinue to manage water resources in thetraditional fashion. A study conducted byNEPA in the 1980s found that damage tohuman health from water pollution, mostlyfrom the increase in the incidence of intesti-nal disease as well as gastric and liver can-cers, accounted for 53.1% ot the total eco-nomic losses due to water pollution. TheWorld Bank estimates the impact of waterpollution on human health is approximately$3.9 billion per year (41.73 billion yuan).In sum, the evidence assembled indicates

120Cortrol areaPolljied are<iMosi iiolluiBd area

Figure 3. Cancer deaths and anemia from sewage storage, Baiyangdian Lake, China. Data from Hu ()7)-

Stnmach cancerper 100,000

Liver cancerper lOO.OOD

Lung cancerper 100.000

Esophagealcancer per

100,000

Birth defectsper 1,000

Figure 4. Cancer mortality and birth defects from water pofliition, Shenfu irrigation area, China, Data fromDeng et al, (50).

that water pollution is playing a significantrole in shaping China's environmental risktransition. Attention to and correction ofthe water pollution problems discussed herewould result in tnany public health benefits.

The conclusions and observations tnadein this paper point to priority areas foraction or attention from public healthauthorities, environmental policymakers,and research institutions. One of the firstpriorities should be to elevate public healthobjectives within the current managementframework. Within the overall frameworkestablished by the national Law of Waterand the Law of Water Pollution Prevention{32), the protection of water quality andenforcement of water quality standards areunder the NEPA (now called the StateEnvironmental Protection Administration,or SEPA) jurisdiction. SEPA, however,must rely on local environmental protec-tion bureaus (EPBs) within municipal and

county governments to enforce regulations,especially because government restructur-ing has reduced the size of SEPA by 40%.Responsibility for water quality manage-tnent is further fragmented by the fact thaisurveillance of drinking water quality is theresponsibility of the Ministry of Health(MOH, Beijing). The MOH monitorsdrinking water quality and waterborne dis-eases, primarily through the supervisionand monitoring of environmental sanita-tion and health in public places, drinkingwater sources, and cosmetics. Little or noformalized coordination is in place betweenSEPA, the MOH, and local EPBs.

This separation of water resource man-agement among development, pollutioncontrol, and public health agencies at thenational and local level prevents integratedor coherent management of this resource.In effect, water is a common propertyresource suffering from a free-ride problem:

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Review • Wu et ai

government agencies act like free riders aseach seeks to maximize irs own benefits orset of bureaucratic objectives. To addressthe public health and water problems,numerous policies should be considered.SEPA and other ministries with responsi-bility for shaping or overseeing develop-mental activities should weigh the potentialhealth impacts of their management activi-ties. Many mechanisms would need to beadopted to effectively raise the profile ofpublic health objectives. The sharedresponsibilities of SEPA and the MOH forprotection of human health should beinstitutionalized through the creation ofworking groups or scientific commissionsto tackle specific areas of overlap and coor-dination (this might follow the example ofthe Committee on Reviewing the Safe Useof Pesticides, formed by the central govern-ment to regulate pesticide use). Other sug-gestions include integration of the MOHand local health bureaus or agencies intolocal or regional river basin commissions;discussion of public health issues in analy-ses of environmental quality that are part ofannual state-of-the-environment reports;and mandated assessment of health impactsin the development of regional, county, ormunicipal development plans.

Even with these mechanisms in place,change cannot be implemented withoutcomprehensive, continuous, and systematicresearch on water pollution and relatedhealth effects. In particular, this review sug-gests a need to focus on the followingresearch areas: 1) the prevalence of algal tox-ins in surface water bodies and their impaason health; 2) an evaluation of fertilizer andpesticide contamination in ambient andgtoundwater bodies, as weU as identificationof exposure routes (bioaccumulation inaquatic organisms and contamination ofdrinking water sources); 3) research on addi-tive or synergistic effects on health created bythe compounded effect of multiple pollu-tants; 4) monitoring of drinking water quali-ty in conjunction with monitoring of diseasemorbidity and mortality within the sevenriver basin commissions; 5) development orexpansion of existing regional or federal pro-grams to monitor ambient and groundwaterquality; and 6) dissemination of researchinformation to regional and local bureaus(environmental and health) to assist withtheir decision making.

The Chinese government has alreadymade a commitment to saving the country's

rapidly depleting water resources. One ofits initiatives included increasing theinvestment in developing sewage engineer-ing technology nearly threefold from1991-1996 (6). In addition, a nearly 2-year-old national campaign against furtherdeterioration of major rivers and lakesclaimed victory when the Huai River wasdeclared a clear water body. The campaigncontinues and is targeting other lakes andrivers. However, with the country movingtoward a market economy, the Chinesedecision makers and researchers face daunt-ing challenges of not only how to strength-en the research, but also how to establish alegislative and regulatory mechanism, aswell as a policy framework to guide thecostly efforts of water pollution control.

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