REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the

critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as

well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular

topic. A literature review usually precedes a research proposal and

results section. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with

current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal such

as future research that may be needed in the area.

According to Cooper (1988), “a literature review uses as its

database, reports of primary or original scholarship, and does not

report new primary scholarship itself. The primary reports used in the

literature may be verbal, but in the vast majority of cases reports are

written documents. The types of scholarship may be empirical,

theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological in nature. Second a

literature review seeks to describe, summarise, evaluate, clarify and

integrate the content of primary reports”.

The review of literature becomes a link between the research

proposed and the studies already done. It tells the reader about

aspects that have been already established or concluded by other

authors, and also give a chance to the reader to appreciate the

evidence that has already been collected by previous research, and

thus projects the current research work in the proper perspective.

This step helps to eliminate the duplication of what has already

been done in the relevant area. Review of literature is also important

to highlight difference in opinions, contradictory findings or evidence

and the different explanations given for their conclusions. In short

review of literature is a very important aspect of any research both for

planning work as well as to shows its relevance and significance.

For the present study, a detailed literature survey in relation to

Metacognition, Multimedia and other related variables like self

efficacy, scientific creativity, social skills and academic anxiety have

been carried out. The studies reviewed are presented under the

following heads:

3.1 Studies Related to Metacognition.

3.2 Studies Related to Multimedia.

3.3 Studies Related to Other Related Variables

3.3.1 Studies Related to Self Efficacy

3.3.2 Studies Related to Scientific Creativity

3.3.3 Studies Related to Social Skills

3.3.4 Studies Related to Academic Anxiety

3.1 Studies Related to Metacognition.

Zohar & David (2010) made a study on the contribution of

meta-strategies in scientific inquiry learning. The findings showed that

explicit teaching of Metacognitive Strategies had a stronger effect for

low-achieving students than for high-achieving students.

Karpicke (2010) conducted a study on Metacognitive strategies

in student learning. The study has revealed that practicing retrieval of

information (by testing the information) has powerful effects on

learning and long-term retention. Repeated testing enhances learning

more than repeated reading, which often confers limited benefit

beyond that gained from the initial reading of the material. The study

also showed that students lack metacognitive awareness of the

mnemonic benefits of testing. The implication is that in real-world

educational settings students may not engage in retrieval practice to

enhance learning.

Topcu (2010) investigated the relationship among elementary

school students’ epistemological beliefs, metacognition, and

constructivist science learning environment. Constructivist learning

environment survey (CLES), junior metacognitive awareness inventory

(Jr. MAI), and Schommer epistemological belief questionnaire (EB)

were administered to students. Factor Analysis of Jr. MAI revealed

that both knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition items

were loaded into one factor. Regression analyses revealed that

metacognition and omniscient authority were significant predictors of

personal relevance dimension of CLES. Metacognition was found as

the only predictor of the student negotiation. Innate ability and

metacognition significantly contributed to uncertainty.

Whitebread & Coltman (2010) conducted a study on aspects of

pedagogy supporting metacognition and self-regulation in

mathematical learning of young children. The children were engaged

in mathematical activities designed by practitioners to facilitate

metacognitive processes. Metacognitive ‘events’ were identified and the

children’s behaviour was analysed for indications of metacognitive

thinking. At the same time, the pedagogical context of the activities,

including interventions by adult practitioners, was analysed in

relation to the metacognitive opportunities afforded. Findings were

that, the young children did indeed show evidence through their talk,

and their non-verbal actions, of emergent metacognitive processes,

and that the nature and frequency of these processes were influenced

by pedagogical aspects of the mathematical activities.

Zabruckya (2010) conducted a study on metacognition in

Taiwan: students' calibration of comprehension and performance. In

this study researcher has increasingly investigated the role played by

metacognition in students’ learning and performance. Metacognition is

comprised of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences,

and both components of metacognition are viewed as being important

to learning and performance in academic settings. Metacognitive

experiences involve students’ awareness of progress on cognitive

tasks. Such awareness is critical to learning, for students may fail to

spend additional time reviewing or studying material if they believe

they have understood the material adequately. Students were able to

predict comprehension and test performance at better than chance

levels and were more accurate at post diction than prediction.

Choube (2009) conducted a study to find out the effectiveness of

constructivist approach on problem solving and metacognitive skills of

students in science at secondary level. The aim was to strengthen the

metacognitive and reflective skills of students to assist them in

adopting the strategies and reflective processes that enabled them to

define, plan and self monitor their thinking during problem solving.

The result showed that constructivist approach has positive effect on

the development of metacognitive skills of students in science. It is

proposed that metacognitive skills can be fostered by developing

learners' awareness of the problem solving approaches of experts,

offering modeling and training in problem solving strategies and

employing pedagogies that enable learners to monitor and self correct

their own problem solving approaches.

Ediger (2009) in his article “Metacognition strategies in the

social studies” illustrates how to apply metacognitive strategies in the

teaching learning of social studies. According to him, while teaching

social studies lesson, learners will provide opportunities for reflection.

Reflection involves metacognition that is thinking about thinking.

Whatever the student has acquired and learned, adequate time must

be given to think and view a new and in a creative manner about that

which is vital.

Filho (2009) made a study on confidence judgments in real

classroom settings: Monitoring performance in different types of tests.

During testing, students have a valuable opportunity to exercise and

improve their self-regulatory skills. The results showed that high-

metacognitive students presented more effective test preparation

practices, better test performances, and superior attributional,

regulatory, and monitoring processes than their counterparts.

Huff & Nietfeld (2009) found out that strategy instruction and

confidence judgments improve metacognitive monitoring. Current

models of self-regulated learning emphasized the pervasive need for

metacognitive monitoring skills at all phases of the learning process.

Findings revealed that students in both treatment classes improved

their calibration accuracy and showed higher confidence on test

performance than students in two comparison classes after two weeks

of instruction. However, students in the monitoring accuracy training

class also showed significant gains in overconfidence in comparison to

those in the other three classes. Implications for integrating

comprehension-monitoring training at the elementary school level are

discussed.

Ibabe & Jauregizar (2009) made a study on online self-

assessment with feedback and metacognitive knowledge. Its aim was

to determine the relationship between students’ frequency of use of

online self-assessment with feedback and their final performance on

the course, taking into account both learners’ motivation and

perceived usefulness of these resources for their learning process. The

results showed relationship between metacognitive variables and

students’ effort and their performance. The need to include self-

assessment in the curriculum, with a view to improve students’

metacognitive knowledge was also addressed.

Leutwyler (2009) conducted a study on differential development

patterns of metacognitive learning strategies in high school. The main

objective of this study is to identify the development of students’ self-

reported use of metacognitive learning strategies during high school.

The results suggested that, from a global perspective, there is no

development of students’ self-reported use of metacognitive learning

strategies during high school.

Moos & Azevedo (2009) investigated about self-efficacy and to

what extent does monitoring mediate its relationship with hypermedia

learning. Results indicated that the relationship between self-efficacy

and specific monitoring processes (monitoring understanding,

monitoring environment, and monitoring progress towards goals) was

significantly detectable. Regression analysis revealed that the

relationship between self-efficacy and hypermedia learning outcomes

was mediated by the extent to which participants monitored their

understanding and the environment.

Peters & Kisantas (2009) conducted a study on self-regulation of

student epistemic thinking in science: the role of metacognitive

prompts. The Purpose of the present study is to examine the

effectiveness of a metacognitive prompts intervention-science (MPI-S),

which is based on the nature of science with 162 eighth-grade science

students. Findings showed significant improvements in students’

content knowledge and nature of science.

Anderson et al (2008) investigated the effect of metaconceptual

teaching practices on students’ understanding of force and motion

concepts. The results showed that students in the experimental group

had significantly better conceptual understanding than their

counterparts in the comparison group and this positive impact

remained after a period of nine weeks.

Begum & Balasubramanian (2008) made a study on

metacognitive awareness among the medical college students of

Tamilnadu. The study measured the level of metacognition among the

Medical College Students of Thanjavur and Salem Districts of Tamil

Nadu. The level of metacognitive awareness is highly correlated with

the academic performance of the students. The results indicated that

the level of metacognition among the medical college students is

somewhat less. The study reflected the need for metacognitive

training, counselling and teaching self-regulatory strategies for the

successful achievement of intellectual tasks.

Lajoie (2008) through his study on metacognition, self

regulation and self-regulated learning explained the distinctions

researchers made in defining metacognition, self-regulation, and self-

regulated learning along with the methods used to explore these

constructs. The interaction between the mind and environment

continues to be an interesting question with regard to these three

constructs, and this interaction can be explored by using computers

as cognitive tools. The study revealed that technology-rich

environments provide opportunities for learners in assessing and

validating metacognition, self-regulation, and self-regulated learning.

Young & Fry (2008) studied the relationship between

metacognitive awareness and academic achievement among

college students. Correlations were found between

Metacognitive7Awareness and cumulative GPA as well as end of

course grades. Scores on the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory

significantly differ between graduate and undergraduate students.

Zohar & David (2008) conducted a study on explicit teaching of

meta-strategic knowledge in authentic classroom situations. The

present study focuses on the control of thinking strategy. The findings

showed dramatic developments in students’ strategic and meta-

strategic thinking following instruction. Findings showed that explicit

teaching of metacognitive strategic knowledge had a strong effect on

low achieving students.

Anderson & Nash (2007) investigated that 11th and 12th

standard physics students metacognition influences the development

of their conceptual understandings of kinematics. The metacognitive

character of individual learners was demonstrated to have a strong

influence on their conceptual development.

Conner (2007) studied the degree of awareness and use of

specific metacognitive strategies by 16 students in a final year

high school biology class. The aim of the intervention were to

broaden students thinking about bioethical issues associated with

cancer and to enhance students use of metacognition .Cues and

prompts were used in this units of work to help students use of

metacognitive strategies since students did not generally use

metacognitive strategies spontaneously. It was found that those

students who were not only aware of but also used strategies to plan,

monitor and evaluate their work produced essays of high quality.

Karia (2007) conducted a study on metacognition and self

regulated learning. The study found that those with better self-

regulation skills typically learn more with less effort and reported

higher levels of academic satisfaction. The results implied that

metacognition improves the self regulated learning outcomes of

students.

Karia (2007) reviewed different aspects related to metacognition.

Metacognition are often described in terms of its components,

knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition. Knowledge of

cognition includes knowledge of self, knowledge of tasks and the

extent to which strategies can be used effectively, and strategic

knowledge or knowledge of contexts, such as when to employ specific

strategies. Regulation of cognition involves planning for the task,

selecting strategies, monitoring and evaluating progress and

debugging or strategy correction. It is suggested that successful

learning requires an understanding of context and the ability to use

the right strategy at the right time.

Saravanakumar & Mohan (2007) made an experimental study

on enhancing student’s achievement in science through meta

cognitive orientation. This study aims to develop appropriate

strategies to enhance the level of metacognitive orientation towards

enhancing student’s achievement in science. Gradual increase in the

dependent variable viz., student’s achievement in science from initial

assessment to final assessment indicates the positive influence of the

independent variable namely, metacognitive orientation.

Sangur (2007) made a study on the contribution of motivational

beliefs and metacognition of students performance under

consequential and non consequential test condition. It consisted of

two components of metacognition, knowledge of cognition and

regulation of cognition. Regression analysis showed that the

regulation of cognition component of metacognition and mastery goal

orientation were the best predictors of students achievements under

consequential test conditions. Under non consequential test

conditions regulation of cognition lost its predictive power and

mastery goal orientation and task value.

Georghiades (2004) studied on notion of metacognition, which is

usually defined as cognition about cognition. It highlighted on the

positive impact of metacognition on learning. It also relates

metacognition to the broader area of general thinking skills and

discusses the appropriateness of practicing metacognition with

primary school students. It proposed direction for research in science

education with an interest in metacognition

Higgins (2000) conducted a study on the impact of using

integrated metacognitive instruction in high school students’

achievement, self efficacy and text anxiety. The treatment group had

higher scores on achievement test, higher self- efficacy scores, and

lower test anxiety scores. Significant relationship was found between

gender and achievement, metacognitive self- regulation and test

anxiety.

Maule (2000) developed and implemented a prototype WWW-

based instructional learning system modeled around a

metacognitive research and development frame work which mapped

cognitive variables , metacognitive learning strategies for those

variables to delineate learning strategies and related metacognitive

attributes of young students acquiring knowledge in advanced

science concepts in an internet / browser – based environment. The

frame work also provided a basis for learner specific internet

content personalization.

Rickey & stacy (2000) in their paper “The role of metacognition

in learning chemistry” discussed metacognition and its role in

conceptual change and problem solving in chemistry .They argued

that promoting metacognition in the science classroom prompts

students to refine their ideas about scientific concepts and improves

their problem solving success.

Cattell (1999) examined the effects of strategically teaching

metacognitive skills to high, medium and low achieving fourth

grade students and how it influenced their ability to comprehend

grade level tests. Results indicated that strategic teaching of

metacognitive skills influenced students’ ability to comprehend grade

level tests.

Fisher (1998) in his article explored what metacognition is, why

it is important and how it develops in children. It is argued that

teachers need to help children in developing their metacognitive

awareness and should identify the factors which enhance their

metacognitive development. Metacognitive thinking is a key element in

the transfer of learning. The child's development of metacognitive

skills is defined as meta-learning. Meta-teaching strategies can help to

mediate the metacognitive skills of children, help to stimulate

children's metacognitive thinking.

Gordon (1996) in his paper, ‘Tracks for learning: Metacognition

and learning technologies’, outlines an investigation into the nature

of metacognition and its relation to the learning process in a

constructivist interactive multimedia learning environment. Within the

interactive multimedia program the metacognitive support template is

unique in that it aids students in their thinking, information

processing and monitoring of their own learning process. In addition it

facilities an environment where learners interpret their own views of

reality by understanding how they arrived at these interpretations and

views. It provides a support in the form of new schemata in the

process of accommodating mental modes.

Charmello (1993) studied the effect of a metacognitive strategy

- self questioning on the improvement of reading comprehension. It

indicated that the self – questioning practice strategy had made a

positive but not a significant difference in improving reading

comprehension.

Piper (1992) conducted a study on increasing reading

comprehension levels of average ability students .Five

metacognitive strategies were employed to improve understanding

of the adopted text book. It was concluded that instruction in the

five metacongitive strategies improved the target groups reading

comprehension abilities

Williamson (1991) examined theories on metacognition and

instructional strategies for developing metacognitive process. His

conclusions were as follows. Children at age 11 have varying

metacognitive abilities. Children lacking both interest in school

and ability to concentrate on their school work do not appear to

access metacognitive processes for academic work. Teachers need to

set clear expectations and teach social interactions that fosters

metacognitive development. Theories of metcognition can be integrated

into existing teaching strategies.

Lee (1990) investigated whether first grade students could

be taught metacognitive strategies to solve analogies . Results

indicated that students in the experimental group was good in

finding the special relationships involved in the analogy as well as

in utilizing a common language to help in its solution. Results also

indicated an increased use of metacognitive strategies by students in

the experimental group.

3.2 Studies Related to Multimedia.

Anboucarassy (2010) was undertaken a study to find out the

Effectiveness of Multimedia in teaching Biological science to IX

standard students. The study revealed that there was a significant

difference in the achievement of the experimental group and control

group. The multimedia helped the students in experimental group to

sustain their interest and also their retention power compared to the

traditional method of teaching.

Kumar & Habtemariam (2010) in their study, “Learning with

multimedia: A constructive cooperative approach in education”,

concluded that most of the multimedia programs for educational

purpose create situations in such a way that the students can

interpret information for their own understanding.

Reddy et al (2009) found out the effectiveness of Multimedia

based modular instruction on the achievement in science of the

problem students. Two matched groups of problem students were

constituted for the experiment. The control group problem students

were given routine treatment during the school hours. The

experimental group problem students were subjected to Multimedia

based modular instructional strategy for a period of three months. The

obtained results established the effectiveness of Multimedia based

modular instruction on the achievement in science of the problem

students.

Mohanty (2008) in his article “Multimedia approach to

learning” stated that a variety of resources, starting from the

traditional media to the Internet, are now accessible, the teachers

have to use their imagination, ingenuity and initiative if this

storehouse of multimedia is to be taken advantage of in the teaching –

learning process.

Nimavathi & Gnanadevan (2008) developed a multimedia

programme for the teaching of science, and experimenting the same

with a set of children studying in the ninth standard and found out its

effectiveness over the conventional method of teaching. The results

showed that the multimedia programme prepared by the researcher

was more effective for the achievement in science of ninth standard

students.

Susan (2008) in her paper “Multimedia packages: Relevance for

effective evaluation” explained the importance of multimedia packages

in the present scenario, role of teacher in multimedia approach and

how to evaluate a multimedia package. She also explained that the

multimedia package should be evaluated in terms of the presentation

of its content, learning experiences given, language used, computer

potentialities etc. A structure of multimedia evaluation proforma was

also presented in her paper.

Benjamin & Sivakumar (2007) in their article “Multimedia

enhances effective self – learning” emphasized the need and

importance of learning through multimedia CD-based self learning,

and dwells on the quality as well as quantity of teaching and learning

bringing forth the need and significance of learning science through

self – learning with the help of multimedia CD-based courseware.

Anshu (2006) made a study on the Comparitive effectiveness of

single medium and Multimedia on learning gains of 9th grades in

chemistry at different levels of academic achievement and intelligence.

The study revealed that Multimedia is as effective as traditional

method of teaching in chemistry to develop the knowledge and

understanding domain of the students, all kinds of students, i.e.

having different and varied abilities.

Sangeeta (2005) in her study on the role of multimedia and co-

operative learning in enhancing the writing competence of students,

found out the impact of multimedia and co-operative learning on the

writing competence of high school students and compared their

relative efficiency on writing competence of students. The results

indicated that, there exists a significant difference in the mean scores

of students who were taught using multimedia. Hence, use of

multimedia has been found to be quite effective in improving the

writing composition ability of the students.

Anbuchelvan & Solayan (2005) found out the effect of using

Audio-Visual Equipments on reading – writing communication among

the students of standard V. The major findings of the study

were. 1) The experimental students obtained significantly higher

scores on the performance of reading and writing communication than

the control group students. 2) The gain score of the experimental

group was higher than the gain score recorded by the control group.

Ranade (2004) found out the effectiveness and critical

evaluation of a computer Assisted Instructional Package developed for

teacher educators. The major findings were- since information on

Multiple Intelligence is not readily available in book, the content of the

presentation was very useful and those teachers who have almost

totally computer illiterate, felt motivated to learn computers after

seeing their usefulness in teaching – learning.

Taj (2004) made a study on enhancing the performance and self

confidence of slow – learners through activities and use of Multimedia

package. The subjects were exposed to the experimental programme

which consisted of audios ( 3 audio lessons, 3 nature songs, 1 role –

play and 1 drama ), films ( 4 films shows depicting various aspects of

nature), Visuals ( transparencies, photos, graphs, news paper cuttings

etc. ) and computer assisted instruction ( colourful studies, matching

games, finding the hidden word, etc.). In addition the researcher

employed activity method also. The major findings were, 1) In the Pre-

test phase the experimental and the control group differed

significantly in their self – confidence and performance in

environmental science. 2) In the post – test phase there was no

significant difference between the two groups with respect to self –

confidence and performance in environmental science indicating that

the slow learners had come on par with the normal students.3) The

slow learners improved significantly both in terms of their

achievement and self confidence following the experimental

programme proving its effectiveness.

Prathibha (2002) experimented the effect of Multimedia

Approach in the teaching of standard four. The findings of the study

proved significant effect of multimedia approach over conventional

method of teaching.

Rajaswaminathan (1998) conducted a study on the impact of

multimedia package in the teaching of commerce. The study found

that the use of Multimedia Package was more effective than

conventional method of teaching.

Agarwal & Mohanty (1998) undertook a metastudy to see the

effectiveness of multimedia (MM),programmed learning method (PLM)

and traditional method (TM) and found that students performance

taught by MM and PLM were significantly higher than those taught by

TM. Further, it was found that PLM and MM were more effective for

secondary level than primary level, and found that PLM and MM was

more effective for science subjects than arts subjects.

Kumar (1998) made an experimental study of the relative

effectiveness of three methods of instruction – exposition method,

programmed learning method and multimedia method in science

education. Findings of the investigation were: (i) The multimedia

method was more effective than either the programmed learning

method or expository method. (ii) Retention in learning by the

multimedia method was higher than by the other two methods.

Weinraub (1998) while studying student learning and

perceptions on multimedia teaching presentation found that student

perceptions and attention spans during lectures were significantly

improved when the multimedia presentations was utilized. The study

also found that multimedia presentations have a positive effect on

student’s perceptions of the instructor’s ability to teach. Correlating

these positive perceptions, with academic achievement, weinraub

found a significant improvement for students who learned the material

with the aid of multimedia. These findings seem to support the use of

multimedia technology as a viable educational tool.

Cohen & Holzman (1997) studied the teaching and learning

advantages of Multimedia and computer projects. The results of their

study showed that both teachers and students found using the

computer software complicated and confusing, although both groups

had received previous computer training. Other technical mishaps

occurred throughout the study, such as deleting files and introducing

viruses into the system distressed the students and hindered their

motivation to explore.

Kaswakar (1996) prepared and tested the effectiveness of

multimedia package to develop population awareness. She found that

the package was significantly effective in comparison to actual

method, and developed awareness to a significant degree. Multi –

media package was more effective in changing the attitude of teacher

trainees.

Peterson & Orde (1995) made a study on implementing

Multimedia in the middle school curriculum: Pros, cons and Lessons

learned. The results of the study confirmed that initial use of

computer – based materials made students insecure with the

instructional method and the technology. As a result of this

insecurity with regard to the multimedia, many students made little

initial progress on their assignments and only after one–one

instruction and further encouragement did the students begin to show

signs of progress. They found that students were often bored with

materials that was to slowly paced, too text oriented, or written above

or below the student’s intellectual and /or maturity levels. However

students working with hands – on interaction with sound files, clip art

and anger to share their new discoveries with others. Although one of

the main objectives for using multimedia in the classroom is for

student motivation, there are some problems with using such visually

descriptive and versatile forms of teaching methods.

Singh (1995) developed a study material relating to video

instructional awareness. It was field tested and used in the schools in

Gujarat, UP and Rajasthan and was found to be very effective and

interesting. The study also reported that student enjoyed working

through video package.

Preston (1994) in his paper outlined some of the issues involved

in the use of multimedia authoring packages as a learning tool in the

classroom. The paper suggested that “multimedia engines” such as

Hyper Card and link way can be effectively used to enhance the

problem solving skills and involvement of students across a wide

range of curriculum areas.

Greenberg (1984) made a study on the effectiveness of a

multimedia functional reading module. The use of the video cassette

lesson with computer practice was compared to videocassette use with

paper and pencil practice. The module focused on the functional

reading skills. There were significant scores favoring the computer

treatment in response to a question about enjoyment of the follow –

up practice.

Krishnan (1983) conducted a study to find the effectiveness of

the Multimedia package in terms of achievement of instructor trainees

and the feasibility of the multimedia package in terms of time and cost

for the instructor training programme. The instructional strategy was

prepared in modular form. He concluded that the Multimedia package

in modular form could be used for training programmes in vocational

institutions.

Ravindranath (1982) developed a Multimedia Instructional

strategy for teaching science (Biology) at secondary level. The

multimedia strategy arrived at, comprised of twelve instructional

components namely introduction by the teacher, programmed

learning Material (PLM),lecture, team teaching inquiring technique,

pupil activities with teacher demonstrations, discussions, audio –

visual presentation, summary ,criterion test and feedback exercises

and augments. The main findings of the investigation were as

follows. 1) The instructional strategy was effective to the extent that

70% of the experimental group students obtained 60% and above on

all the unit tests and the comprehensive test. 2) The experimental

group students performed better than the control group on the

comprehensive test and also on the annual examination conducted by

the school authorities.

Vardhini (1982) made a study on the Development of a

Multimedia Instructional Strategy for teaching science of students at

secondary level. The major finding of the study was visual projections

with teacher explanation and those with taped commentary were

equally effective in terms of achievement. The educational implication

of the study was that for achievement of different instructional

objectives, a systematically validated multimedia strategy can be

implemented at school level with suitable cost and time components.

Basu (1981) in his study of the effectiveness of multimedia

programmed materials in the teaching of physics tried to make an

appraisal of the relative effectiveness of multimedia programmed

instruction and programmed class teaching on the criteria of

immediate achievement and retention of a group of subjects at 3 levels

of ability. He found that there was a significant difference among the

different strategy means on the criterion on overall achievement. The

strategies of multimedia programmed instruction enabled learners to

reach the level of mastery learning. It was found that a significant

difference existed in the achievement through the different strategies

due to difference in ability.

Shah (1979) developed and tried out a multimedia package for

effective questioning in the context of micro teaching. The experiment

was conducted by using single group design. The major findings of the

study were.1) The teachers who were exposed to the treatment of the

multimedia package showed significant improvement in all the skills

except one.2) The results obtained on the package course evaluation

questionnaire indicated that the package course was quite interesting

for the participants.3) The qualitative evaluation of the package led to

the conclusion that the teachers were quite satisfied with the package

course so far as its educational importance was concerned.

Poornam (1968) experimentally studied the effectiveness of

multimedia approach for teaching secondary school pupils. The study

showed that multimedia approach is found to be effective in improving

competency of students. This approach seemed to benefit both high

and low achievers and it tends to increase the interest of learners.

The rate of achievement also seemed to be higher than that of

teaching using traditional methods

3.3 Studies Related to Other Related Variables

In this section, the investigator included various studies of

related variables like self efficacy, scientific creativity, social skills and

academic anxiety under the following subheads;

3.3.1 Studies Related to Self Efficacy

3.3.2 Studies Related to Scientific Creativity

3.3.3 Studies Related to Social Skills

3.3.4 Studies Related to Academic Anxiety

3.3.1 Studies Related to Self Efficacy

Wood & Locke (2010) made a study on the relationship between

self efficacy and grade goals to academic performance in college

courses. Results showed that self efficacy was found to be significantly

related to academic performance.

Ruchan (2010) studied the correlation between self efficacy

beliefs and academic achievement. The results revealed that there was

weak relationship between self efficacy perception and academic

achievement.

Elias (2010) studied achievement motivation and self efficacy in

relation to adjustment among University students. The results

showed that the three variables namely adjustment, achievement

motivation and self efficacy were found to be correlated positively with

one another.

Adeoye & Emeke (2009) studied the relative effect of emotional

intelligence and self-efficacy training on the scholastic achievement of

some Nigerian secondary school students. The result showed that self

efficacy enhances the achievement of students.

Salami and Ogundokun (2009) made a study on emotional

intelligence and academic self-efficacy as predictors of academic

performance among senior secondary school students in Oyo State,

Nigeria. The findings indicated that emotional intelligence and

academic self-efficacy were potent predictors of academic performance

of students.

Hemmings & Kay (2009) investigated factors which relate to

lecturers self efficacy. Results revealed that significant multivariate

differences were found for gender, level of qualifications and their

interactions on the set of the self efficacy factors.

Adeyemo (2008) studied the influence of emotional intelligence,

gender and age on the academic self efficacy of distance learners. The

result showed that emotional intelligence, gender and age were vital

factors in enhancing academic self efficacy of distance learners.

Raj (2004) studied the relation of self efficacy with behavioral

problems and school performance of children. The result showed

that negative relationship was found between self efficacy and

behavioral problems and significant positive relationship was found

between self efficacy and the school performance of children.

Pintrich & Linnerbrink (2003) studied about the role of self

efficacy belief in student engagement and learning. They reported that

self efficacy plays an important role in student’s engagement in

classroom. Students who have positive and relatively high self

efficacy beliefs will be more likely to be engaged in the classroom in

terms of their behaviour, cognition, and motivation. Student self

efficacy is inherently changeable and sensitive to contextual features

of the classroom.

Schunk (2003) found that self efficacy and achievement can be

enhanced through instructional methods that incorporated modeled

strategies, progress feedback, goal setting and self evaluation of

progress to the extent that these and other efficacy enhancing

methods are employed in classrooms, teachers will foster academic

achievement and motivation for continued learning among all

learners.

Joo et al (2000) conducted a study on the effect of student

motivation on performance in Web Based Instruction (WBI). Path

analysis revealed that student self efficacy for self regulated learning

positively related to their academic self efficacy strategy use and

internet self efficacy. Academic self efficacy predicated student’s

performance on the written test, which comprised problems on topics

during the previous WBI session.

Pajares (1996) tested the self efficacy beliefs in the mathematical

problem solving of middle school gifted students and regular

educational students in algebra classes. The results showed that

gifted have higher math’s self efficacy and self efficacy for self

regulated learning as well as lower math’s anxiety than regular

education students. Although most students were over confident

about their capabilities, gifted students had more accurate self

perceptions.

Schunk (1991) in his study on self efficacy and academic

motivation provided evidence that there are students who know the

material and have the requisite skills but are not confident that they

can use their knowledge or enact their skills. Such students will be

less likely to exert efforts and more likely to give up quickly rather

than persist at the task.

3.3.2 Studies Related to Scientific Creativity

Jang (2009) made a study on “Exploration of Secondary

Students Creativity by Integrating Web-based Technology into an

Innovative Science Curriculum”. The purpose of the study was to

investigate how web-based technology could be utilized and integrated

with real-life scientific materials to stimulate the creativity of

secondary school students. Several real-life experience science

sessions integrated with online teaching were used for one semester.

The study used an interpretive methodology, which was qualitative

analysis rather than quantitative analysis. The results showed that

the study provided information to enhance students’ expression of

sensitivity, fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration

of scientific creativities. Students’ creativity was motivated by the

online interactivities and the teacher’s inquiry.

Jaiswal (2007) conducted a study on scientific creativity and

achievement motivation of grade X students of different Educational

Boards of Kanpur city. The results of the study showed that

achievement motivation has significant impact on scientific creativity

of grade X students irrespective of their Boards. It is also obvious that

highly motivated students have high creativity in comparison to low

motive students.

Aktamiş & Ergin (2005) conducted a study on “The effect of

scientific process skills education on students’ scientific creativity,

science attitudes and academic achievements”. The study provided

some techniques for improving scientific process skills (SPS) and

scientific creativity. The study revealed that science teachers can

consider scientific creativity as an educable skill rather than an

extra-ordinary skill.

Yadav & Hussain (2004) in their research work, An interactional

study of scientific creativity and some of its related factors reached the

following conclusions -1) Only personality topology seems to have

main effect on scientific creativity, 2) Variables like locale and sex do

not have any significant effect on scientific creativity, 3) The

interactional effect of all the three variables -personality topology

locale and sex is considerably significant.

Patel (2002) made a study on the Scientific Creativity of under

graduate science students of Allahabad University and Affiliated

Degree Colleges. The major findings of the study were –1) There was

no significant difference among students of university teaching

departments and affiliated degree colleges with respect to their overall

scientific creativity and different aspects of scientific creativity i.e.,

fluency, flexibility, originality and inquisitiveness. 2) There was no

significant difference in overall scientific creativity as well as fluency,

flexibility, originality and inquisitiveness aspect of scientific creativity

among boys and girls. 3) Girls excelled boys in fluency and flexibility

and aspect of scientific creativity.

Imran (2002) made a comparative study of Scientific Creativity

in the pupils of VIII standard of different media schools of

Aurangabad. Verbal test of scientific creativity constructed by V.P.

Sharma and J.P. Shukla was used for the study. The Major Findings

were. 1) The students learning in English medium schools situated in

posh locality were found superior on scientific creativity than the

students learning in Marathi medium and Urdu medium schools

situated in posh as well as slum areas. 2) The students of Marathi

medium schools situated in posh locality were found superior in

scientific creativity than the students of Urdu medium schools

situated in posh locality as well as slum areas.

Gujarathi (1992) conducted a study named preparation of an

integrated programme of training in scientific creativity and

experimental study of its effects on students of Grade X .The study

reported that; after the treatment, experimental group showed

improvement in scientific creativity and the test prepared by the

investigator was found reliable and valid.

Datta (1989) tried to find out the difference in scientific

creativity among high school students and reported that sex difference

did exist in scientific creativity. Scientific creativity depends on

intelligence, academic achievement, and socio economic status.

Dominant factors, of scientific creativity were fluency, flexibility and

originality in case of both boys and girls.

3.3.3 Studies Related to Social Skills

Fuller (2009) conducted a study on activating children’s

thinking skills through social skill training programmes. The result

revealed that social skill training programmes are very effective in

developing critical thinking skills.

Preece & David (2009) through his study found that social skills

training program improve the social skills of children with Discipline

Behavioral Disorder.

Colleen (2008) through his study found that the social skill of

elementary school students increased by the use of literature and role

playing method.

Naomi (2008) made a study on incorporating social skills

training into daily academic instruction to motivate the social

interpersonal relationship of the students and revealed that the

training program improves the qualities for interpersonal relationship.

Watson (2006) reported that children who are lacking social

skills are especially anxious and are overly cautious, which lead them

to avoid social situation.

Quinn (1999) found that many children with Emotional or

Behavioural disorders display social skills deficits that can add to

their difficulties in school.

Benojith (1998) experimented the effect of Problem Based

Learning on social skills of students and revealed that PBL enhances

students’ social skills.

Glasserfield (1993) made a study on the effect of social skills

interventions in the primary school and revealed that training to

children in friendship making is important for their proper social

development.

Lonston & Cantor (1989) studied the interpersonal success and

failure of college students for several months. They found that

students who were socially successful perceive new social situation as

an interesting challenge and create opportunity to make new friends.

Sheinker & Sheinker (1988) through their study, a

metacognitive approach to social skill training: A program for Grades

4 through 12, made an attempt to teach students how to self direct,

self monitor, self evaluate and self correct in order to produce

appropriate social behavior. Three pilot groups were selected for this

purpose and provided the metacognitive social skill training program.

All groups experienced improvement in social skills after the training

program.

Elliot & Greesham (1984) conducted a study on Children’s

social skill assessment and classification practice. They define social

skill by placing emphasis on social validity of the behaviour. One of

the important social outcomes predicted through his study was peer

acceptance.

Cartledge & Milburn (1980) explained that social skills are those

social, interpersonal and task related behaviours that produce positive

consequences in the school classroom settings.

Toch (1980) reported that persons who are involved in

aggressive encounters are sorely lacking basic social skills.

3.3.4 Studies Related to Academic Anxiety

Vijayakumari (2010) in her study, some correlates of academic

achievement of secondary school students revealed that academic

achievement is negatively related to academic anxiety and positively

related to academic achievement.

Ghaderi (2009) investigated the Relationship between Self

Efficacy and Anxiety among Indian and Iranian students. Results

showed that students with low self efficacy had higher anxiety, and

Indian students had higher anxiety compared to Iranian students.

Students studying in master’s degree had higher scores on anxiety

compared to students pursuing phD programs.

Saikia & Phukon (2009) made an inquiry into the Parental

aspiration and Anxiety level among higher secondary students of

Jorhat (Assam).The study found that students belonging to science

stream had high anxiety level in comparison to the students of arts

and commerce streams respectively. Also there was significant

difference between boys and girls in anxiety level, with girls obtaining

more mean anxiety scores than boys.

Singaravelu (2009) studied the relationship between Test

anxiety and Academic achievement in mathematics of high school

students. Findings of the study revealed that higher the test anxiety,

lower was the academic achievement in mathematics. Also students

with average level of test anxiety achieved more than the students

with high and low levels of test anxiety.

Bhansali & Trivedi (2008), made a study to find out the gender

differences in incidences and intensity of Academic anxiety among

adulterants. The results showed that considerable amount of

Academic anxiety prevailed amongst the sample. It was seen that girls

on the whole had more incidence and intensity of academic anxiety in

comparison to boys.

Dwivedi & Gunthey (2005), Studied the influence of medium of

instruction on level of academic anxiety among school students .The

result of the study revealed that academic anxiety level of English

medium students was significantly greater than the students of Hindi

Medium.

Lopez (2005) conducted a study about trait anxiety and ages to

predict state anxiety of school children. The study showed that the

trait anxiety of children was strong predictors of their state anxiety in

a stressful situation but not in a relaxed one. Compared to trait

anxiety, age was found to be a weaker predictor of the state anxiety of

children in either situation.

Singh (2003) in his study, A study of anxiety among medical

post graduate students in relation to sex, intelligence and socio

economic status found that significant difference in anxiety exists in

post graduate students in relation to independent impact of sex . Also

no significant difference in anxiety exists in post graduate students in

relation to independent impact of intelligence. PG medicos of high and

low SES differ significantly in relation to independent impact of SES

Griffin & Griffin (1998), in their study, an investigation of the

effect of reciprocal peer tutoring on achievement, efficacy and test

anxiety suggest that improved self efficacy may be associated with

reduced stress.

Smith (1975) found that if an individual’s experience is negative,

then the test anxiety level will be higher leading to lower performance.

Consequently, if an individual’s experience is positive, then the test

anxiety level will be lower leading to higher performance.

Conclusion

The review of literatures revealed the importance of

metacognition and multimedia in students’ learning and performance.

Training in metacognitive strategies enables learners to monitor and

self correct their own problems in learning. Technology-rich

environment can help the students to sustain their interest in learning

and also their retention power. The findings of various studies seem to

support the use of multimedia technology as a viable educational tool.

The search on literature also reflects that metacognition and

multimedia are significantly related to variables like self efficacy,

adjustment, achievement motivation, emotional intelligence, scientific

creativity, social skills, academic achievement, socio economic status,

test anxiety, academic stress, retention etc.

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