review of key wildlife threats factors from literature and

The Journal of Zoology Studies

Vol. 3 No. 5 2016 Journalofzoology.com

The Journal of Zoology Studies 2016; 3(5): 01-12

ISSN 2348-5914

JOZS 2016; 3(5): 01-12

JOZS © 2016

Received: 16-08-2016

Accepted: 29-09-2016

Getachew Mulualem

Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute,

Mekelle Center, Wildlife Studies,

P.O.Box, 30726, Tigray, Ethiopia.

Weldemariam Tesfahunegny


Animal Biodiversity Directorate,

P.O. Box 30726, Addis Ababa,

Ethiopia.

Corresponding Author:

Getachew Mulualem


Mekelle Center, Wildlife Studies,

P.O.Box, 30726, Tigray, Ethiopia.

Review of Key Wildlife Threats Factors from Literature and

Observation Perspectives: A Way forward for Sustainable

Wildlife Genetic Resource Conservation Practices in Ethiopia

Authors: Getachew Mulualem, Weldemariam Tesfahunegny

Abstract

Wildlife threat is an issue with off-putting role in our effort to conserve and sustainably utilize

the biological capitals. However, the wildlife biodiversity and conservation practices are still at

low attention. Therefore, this review was aimed at identifying key wildlife threats factors

operating against our natural capital. Moreover, a way forward for sustainable conservation

practices of wildlife genetic resource was also drawn. The information presented in this review

was collected from previous studies of existing ecological literatures and personnel observation

of the authors in the issue being reviewed. As well, fact sheets, full length manuscripts, review

articles, country reports and various valuable WebPages were used. The review paper discusses

briefly internally consistent scenarios that explore aspects of key wildlife threats and their

conservation implications in the light of sustainable wildlife management programs. There are

encouraging efforts in Ethiopian protected areas system. However, there are also certain

national parks belonging as paper parks due to lack of the intended schemes of wildlife

conservation practices. Thus, sustainable wildlife conservation schemes can help to protect

genetic resources of the country. As well, sustainability can be secured through community

participation and supporting the economic wellbeing of the largest society. Therefore, enhancing

sustainability through participatory approaches and stake in various sectors should be a future

direction of conservation. In the presence of threats it is challenging to pledge sustainable

development agendas. Hence, mainstreaming wildlife conservation practices to school clubs, the

largest community and stake in to different sectors is vital tool of enhancing sustainable

conservation.

Keywords: Threat factors, Wildlife trafficking, Road kill, Sustainable Conservation

1. Introduction Biodiversity is the variety of life, in all of its many manifestations encompassing all forms,

(Plants, animals and microorganisms) and at all levels of biological organizations which

includes genetic diversity, species diversify and ecosystem diversity (CBD, 2012) [6]

.. The

earth’s biodiversity constitutes valuable natural resources in economic, aesthetic, scientific and

educational terms, providing enormous amount of both monetary and non-monetary benefits to

human kind (Kolahi et al., 2012) [21]

. Biodiversity is the wealth of life forms found on earth-

animals, plants, and microorganisms in their millions and their differences, the gene they

contain and the intricate systems they form. The interaction between human being and nature

was started before million years ago when human being was created. Their relationships have

been increased and more intense during the hunt and gathering. Currently, the term wildlife

includes all living organisms that are not domesticated and found in the wild, even those that are

not used for sport hunting (non-game species).



Therefore, wildlife refers to the variety of all living

organisms inhabiting in the wild, at the genetic, species

and ecosystem levels on earth. There are fundamentally

two reasons for conserving wildlife biodiversity. The

first is the moral justification and the second is the

value to human existence. Moreover, biodiversity is

essential to human development because of the goods

and services it provides. An estimated 40 % of the

global economy is based on biological products and

processes (Christ et al., 2003) [8]

. However, on a global

scale, biodiversity is being lost at a rate many times

higher than that of natural extinction. This is caused by

a number of factors, including uncontrolled land

conversion, climate change, pollution, unsustainable

harvesting of natural resources and introduction of

invasive species (Christ et al., 2003) [8]

.

Little information is available on wildlife threats and

their relative severity in protected areas of Ethiopia.

The emphasis given to threats halting conservation is

not monitored along the existing human developmental

efforts. However, ecological monitoring of threats in a

manner that allow park mangers to respond effectively

is a central constituent of realistic conservation of

wildlife. Thus, there is a need to review key wildlife

threats factors from literature and observation

perspective: A way forward for sustainable wildlife

genetic resource conservation Practices in Ethiopia.

2. Status of Wildlife Biodiversity in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has great geographic diversity, and macro-

and micro-climatic variability. The country has ten

ecosystems, and 18 major and 49 minor agro-

ecological zones. As the result, the country is endowed

with great diversity of plant, animal and microbial

genetic resources. Ethiopia is one of biodiversity rich

countries in the world. It hosts two of the biodiversity

hotspots of the world, namely: the Eastern

Afromontane and the Horn of Africa hotspots (EBI,

2014) [12]

.

There are between 6500 and 7000 higher plant species

of which about 12 per cent are endemic. With regard to

animals, there are known to be 284 wild mammal, 861

bird, 201 reptile, 63 amphibian, 188 fish and 1225

arthropod species with about 10, 2, 5, 54, 0.6 and 21

per cent of endemism respectively (EBI, 2014) [12]

.

However, wildlife conservation and management have

been facing many social and ecological problems in

Ethiopia. Several authors have identified some of the

factors affecting biodiversity conservation in Ethiopia,

including land clearing for agriculture and uncontrolled

logging, gathering of firewood (EBI.2014) [12]

.

Ethiopia is known for faunal and floral diversity with

an estimated 6500-7000 species of plants of which

20% are considered endemic (Melaku Tefera, 2011)

[26].

3. Wildlife Conservation and Protected Area in

Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a signatory party of the Convention on

Biological Diversity (CBD) thereby, has been

undertaking efforts in biodiversity conservation (EBI,

20014) [12]

. Smilarly, Ethiopia has developed a national

biodiversity strategy and action plan with the

objectives of conserving representative examples of

remaining ecosystems through a network of effectively

managed protected areas under sustainable use and

management by 2020 (EBI, 2014) [12]

. However, a

significant biodiversity conservation challenge was

evident in several protected areas (Alemneh Amare,

2015) [1]

.

Protected area can play critical roles in safeguarding

biodiversity and maintaining a sustainable world

(Borrie et al., 1998) [4]

. Wildlife conservation is the

science of analysis and protecting the Earth’s

biological diversity, which is the variation of life form

within a given ecosystem, or for entire Earth. Wildlife

conservation is also defined as the process by which

individuals and organizations protect and preserve the

species through conservation policy, which entails

preservation of habitat and management of wildlife

species (Idowu et al., 2011) [19]

.

In Ethiopia, 40 protected areas cover roughly 16.4% of

the country’s land area (186,000 km2). These areas

face many challenges due to growing populations,

border conflicts, and recurring drought. A chronic and

growing issue for Ethiopia’s largely pastoral rural

people is local access to grazing lands (Ashenafi and

Leader-Williams, 2005) [2]

. As in other parts of the

developing world, increased concern over the burden

that conservation often places on local communities

has led to efforts to incorporate development goals into

conservation practices (Hulme and Murphree, 2001)

[17]. Residents living in the highlands in and around

Bale Mountains National Park raised horses, sheep,

donkeys, and cattle. In contrast, lowland residents in

and around Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park, Awash

National Park, and Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest

Sanctuary raised goats, sheep, donkeys, camels, and

cattle (Mekbeb Tessema et al., 2007) [25]

.

4. Role of Protected Areas for Livelihoods

Improvement in Ethiopia

Protected areas safeguard biological and cultural

diversity, help to improve the livelihoods of local

communities, provide the homelands for many

indigenous peoples and bring countless benefits to

society in general (Sandwith, 2001). Biodiversity

underpins all ecosystem goods and services responsible

for providing food and water, buffering the impacts of



climate change, controlling the outbreak of diseases

and supporting nutrient cycling. Biodiversity also

serves as the foundation of many spiritual, recreational

and cultural benefits (CBD, 2013) [7]

.

Ethiopia has so far established several protected areas

which include 21 national parks, 4 sanctuaries, 8

wildlife reserves, 20 controlled hunting areas, six open

hunting areas, six community conservation areas and

58 national forest priority areas (Young, 2012) [32]

. In

Ethiopia, protected areas cover 19% of the country.

They play key roles in economic, ecological and social

structure of the community. Similarly, they have

significant roles in conservation, recreation, eco-

tourism and employment. Direct and indirect annual

economic values of some protected areas are estimated

at 1.5 billion USD (EBI, 2014) [12]

.

Fig 1: Role of Protected areas for socio-economic improvement of adjacent community (Bale National Park)

5. Paper Parks in Protected Area Systems of

Ethiopia

Due to the less emphasis given to our protected areas

most of Ethiopian national parks are facing sever

threats. The protected areas are showing some sort of

conservation improvements. However, there are paper

parks devoid of the intended schemes of conservation

and management practices. Therefore, we need to scale

up the practical conservation than listing the areas in

paper. Thus, supporting sustainable development

through mainstreaming conservation approaches in

tourism and stake in to various sectors working in

similar endeavor.



Fig 2: Typical example of paper parks in Ethiopian protected area system (Abijata Shalla lakes national park)

Severely threatened protected areas in Ethiopian

protected areas system (Abijata Shalla lakes national

park) shown in (figure 2) might possibly belongs to

paper park. This is in consideration of large scale

settlements, school and expansion of other

infrastructural services inside the park.

6. Overview of physically healthy protected parks in

Ethiopia

Ethiopian protected area system is much of less

protected due to limited resources, skilled manpower

and other infrastructural services in support of

sustainable conservation and management of biological

diversity. However, there are some typical

representations of physically healthy protected areas

with mega biological diversity. Thus sites are shown in

(figure 3). Currently, more than 161, 991 areas have

been reported as protected area in the world data base

of protected areas and the number continues to increase

(Kolahi et al., 2013) [22]

. PA has long been the only

way to conserve ecological regions from the other form

of land use (EEA, 2010) [14]

. Protected areas are

therefore the cornerstone of most national strategies to

protect biodiversity and national resources

(Laverington et al., 2010) [23]

.



A : Bale Mountain National Park

B: Semen Mountain National Park

Fig 3: Overview of physically healthy protected parks in Ethiopia protected area system

7. General facets of Key wildlife Threat Factors

There is a growing evidence of critical biodiversity

breakdown both inside and outside of many Pas.

Accordingly many Pas are presently being degraded

and destroyed (Dudley et al., 2004) [10]

. In most

developing countries, Pas are under pressure from

anthropogenic activities and lack proper management

and maintenance (Kolahi et al., 2012) [21]

.

Overpopulation and overconsumption ( Kolahi et al.,

2012) [21]

, habitat loss, fragmentation, and invasive

species (Meduna et al., 2009) [24]

, associated with

socioeconomic problems and policy failures, week

government structure, policy, and legislation, low

morale, and inadequate funds are underlying causes of

biodiversity loss (Eldredge, 2010) [12]

.

7.1. Wildlife Conservation Threats operating in

Protected Area System of Ethiopia

Ethiopia biodiversity threats and analysis of their root

causes shown that, conservation gaps are associated

with lack of adequate capacity, commitment,

organizational set-up and lack of monitoring of the

implementation strategy on the status & trends of

threats (EBI, 2014) [12]

.

Invasive species, overgrazing and land degradation are

common problems in Babile Elephant Sanctuary,

Yangudi-rasa, Omo, Awash and Nechisar national

parks (Young, 2012) [32]

. Scattered bushland which is

the most important habitat for the wild animals of

Awash national park are declined drastically. In the

park a number of animal and plant species are reported

to be endangered or critically endangered. It has failed

to protect the continuous decline of both faunal and

floral communities (Young, 2012) [32]

.

Ethiopian wildlife biodiversity has shown dramatic

decline in type and size. This decline of nature value is

accelerated at a rate faster than what was then due to

the key threat factors operating against it. As well, the

rapidly growing infrastructural expansion like road,

trans boundary trade are done without staking

biological diversity present in public land of the

country. From the commonly observed problems road

spatial setting (figure 4), road kill (figure 6) (figure 7)



wildlife trafficking along transit routes of the country

are the threats.

7.1.1. Spatial Ecology of Roads Passing Through

Protected Areas in Eastern Ethiopia

Highway extended from Awash to Galafi transit is the

biggest economic corridor with uppermost traffic flow

in the country. Further, with the recent economic

growth of the country, the traffic intensity may

possibly increases considerably. However, within the

highway there are three protected areas, namely Awash

National Park, Yangudi Rasa National Park and

Allideghi Wildlife Reserve set aside for wildlife

conservation (Figure 4).

Fig 4: Spatial ecology of Highway passing through protected areas in Ethiopia (Awash - Mile town, Ethiopia)

The road is passing in the fragmented landscape of the

projected areas exclusive of wildlife crossing

structures. Besides, ecological safety management of

wildlife vehicle collision is poorly designed so that, it

is causing mortality of wildlife of conservation interest.

During our incidental survey, we observed

considerable road kill of wild animals. As well, the

road is also too crowded with heavy vehicles in the 24

hours. The arid climatic condition of the highway

makes the drivers to frequently travel during active

hour of the wild animals. Such kind of traffic

concordance may aggravate the rate of wildlife road

kill in the selected sites. On the other hand,

conservation efforts on road ecology are not practically

feasible due to weak law enforcement and lack of multi

sector involvement before and after construction plan.

Thus, such threats are leading the conservation efforts

problematic.



Fig 5: Spatial view of the Landscape of protected areas with Highway in Afar regional state (Awash park)

7.1.2. Road kills of Wildlife along Highways in

Protected Area System of Ethiopia

Road sector is an imperative tool for the developmental

endeavor of a given nation infrastructural extension.

However, biological resources found adjacent to

highway of economic corridor must be vigilantly

planned in both pre and post construction impact

assessment practices. If the developmental agendas are

not stake in road sector, it causes road kill of various

wildlife species. Some of the observed road kills

records in Eastern Ethiopia protected areas are shown

in (Figure 5).

Fig 6: Road kill of wild animals in various parts of Ethiopian protected areas (Awash National Park)



7.1.3. Wildlife Trafficking As a Conservation

Threat in Protected Area System of Ethiopia

Nationally transboundary illicit trafficking of body

parts of wild animals is unnoticed concern. Based on

our preliminary survey the current pragmatic focus of

customs authority is on electronic devices and other

goods. But, such sites are also prone to trafficking of

trophy and skull of wild animals which have

commercial importance in the global illicit market. The

conservation crime monitoring system practiced by law

enforcement agents in the checkpoint of Awash transit

routes neglects checking local passengers passing

through the highway from Addis Abeba to Eastern

destinations. Poachers can take this opportunity to

traffic wildlife along the transnational transboundary

sites. Globally the fight against transboundary wildlife

crime received a boost at the G8 meeting held from 17

to 18 June 2013 at Lough Erne. G8 Leaders recognized

the need to tackle criminal trafficking and strengthen

border security, including in relation to illicit

trafficking of wildlife noting the links to governance

and the rule of law and sources of funding for terrorists

(EWCA, 2014) [13]

.

Fig 7: Problems associated with wildlife trafficking in various parts of Ethiopia

7.1.3. Protected areas land conversion

Land use conversion due to increasing human and

livestock population is a common experience in

protected areas of most Eastern African countries

(Pomeroy et al, 2003) [29]

. Such a conversion of natural

vegetation cover to other use types such as farmlands,

grazing lands, human settlements and urban center has

been shown to be a cause to loss of biodiversity,

deforestation and land degradation (Milner et al.,2006)

[12]. Moreover, such changes, from forest to various

land use types, in East Africa, including Ethiopia, were

ranked as the highest in Africa at a rate of 0.94%

(1990-2000) and 0.97% per year (2000-2005) (FAO,

2007) [15]

.

7.1.4. Border conflicts among local communities

Ethiopia protected areas may have many challenges

some of which are results of border conflicts among

local communities (Ashenafi and Leader, 2005) [2]

.

Such factors have threatened the existence of many

parks in the country (Belay et al., 2012) [3]

. The

increasing livestock population and illicit exploitation

of resources have impacted resources in Nechisar

National Park (Demeke Datiko, 2011) [9]

.



Although Simen Mountain National Park was reported

to show some positive development, infrastructural

expansion in the surrounding area, deforestation,

agriculture, hunting, and livestock grazing contributed

to the deterioration of the park (Hurni et al., 2008) [18]

.

In Alatish National Park, habitat destruction to expand

grazing land, poaching and forest fire were marked as

primary contributing factors to the decline biological

diversity (Girma and Afework, 2008) [16]

.

7.1.5. Invasive species

Invasive species cause biodiversity loss by competing

native species for feed and habitat and altering the

physical environment in a way that excludes native

species. So far, close to 35 invasive weed species are

identified in Ethiopia, and they are posing negative

impacts on native. Biodiversity, agricultural and range

lands, national parks, water ways, lakes, rivers, power

dams, road sides and urban green spaces with huge

economical as well as social consequences. Some of

these species include: mesquites (Prosopis juliflora),

parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), water

hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), lantana weed

(Lantana camara), Acacia species, and other weeds

such as Orobanche and Cuscuta species that are

identified as major plant invaders. Recent surveys

found also emerging plant invaders such as

Cryptostegia grandiflora, Parkinsonia aculeata,

Mimosa diplorotricha and Nicotiana glauca (Rezene

(EBI, 2014) [12]

.

7.1.6. Unsustainable utilization

Unsustainable utilization (over grazing/browsing,

harvesting and hunting) of biological resources is one

of the major threats to biodiversity and ecosystems in

Ethiopia. Overgrazing/browsing by livestock in many

ecosystems has also contributed to the degradation of

rangelands and forest ecosystems. The consequences of

these impacts include ecological disturbance, loss of

species and ecosystem services thereby affecting

livelihoods of local communities. Farmers found

within the lake watershed were pumping water

unsustainably to irrigate chat (Catha edulis), the main

commercial crop in the area. This eventually resulted

in the disappearance of the lake affecting the livelihood

of the people that have been dependent on the lake

(Brook Lemma, 2011) [5]

.

8. Sustainable Conservation Practices of Wildlife

Genetic Resource

Sustainable conservation of wildlife resources has been

one of the core objectives of wildlife managers and

biologists in many countries in Africa. For centuries,

wildlife has been utilized not only for subsistence but

also for commercial purposes. However, as human

population expands, wildlife resources are increasingly

subjected to severe pressure, which threatens their

existence and sustainability (Milner et al., 2006) [27]

.

Apart from consumptive utilization, other

anthropogenic activities such as agriculture have

indirectly influenced the survival of wildlife species

through manipulation of their habitats (Kideghesho et

al., 2006) [20]

. Since most local communities have a

historical interaction with wildlife in rural areas, efforts

to ensure sustainability have been focusing on

involving local people in conservation. Many

governments have adopted a participatory approach to

conservation as a result of pervasive loss of wildlife

species and the challenges of a “fences and fines”

approach (Nishizaki, 2004) [28]

. Countries in the

southern part of Africa such as Namibia, Botswana,

Zambia, and South Africa have had a good experience

in community-based conservation (Tnfr, 2008) [31]

. In

the rest of Africa, for example in East Africa,

participatory conservation has been confronting some

challenges. This has led to a considerable concern over

community-based conservation initiatives in this

wildlife-rich part of Africa (Saito, 2007) [30]

.

Sustainable wildlife conservation practices are best

choice of the management strategies enabling national

development to be integrated with biodiversity

conservation efforts. Thus, we need to harmonize

conservation practices so as to make use it in the

developmental agenda of our Country.

9. Conservation Implications

The above listed key wildlife threat factors has a wider

conservation implication for reducing the operating

threats. In the presence of threats it is challenging to

assure sustainable development agendas. Moreover, the

above reviewed fundamental threats can decline the

wildlife biodiversity under protection. Hence,

mainstreaming wildlife conservation to school clubs,

the largest community and stake in to different sectors

is vital tool of sustainable development.

10. Conclusion

Wildlife threat is a factory with a negative role in our

effort to conserve and sustainably utilize the biological

capitals. Ethiopia has developed a national biodiversity

strategy and action plan with the objectives of

conserving representative examples of remaining

ecosystems through a network of effectively managed

protected areas under sustainable use and management

by 2020. However, a significant biodiversity

conservation challenge was evident in several protected

areas. As well, due to the less emphasis given to our

protected areas some of the national parks are paper

parks devoid of the intended schemes of conservation

and management practices. There is a growing

evidence of critical biodiversity breakdown both inside

and outside of many conservation areas. Accordingly



many protected areas are presently being degraded and

destroyed. Highway passing through protected areas

set aside for wildlife conservation are key wildlife

threat factors operating in some of our conservation

sites. Moreover, transboundary illicit trafficking of

body parts of wild animals which have commercial

importance in the global illicit market is a serious

problem in some of custom border checkpoints. Land

use conversion due to increasing human and livestock

population is a common experience in our protected

areas. Moreover, boarder conflicts among local

communities such factors have threatened the existence

of many parks in the country. The increasing livestock

population and illegal exploitation of resources have

impacted resources in protected areas. So far, close to

35 invasive weed species are identified in Ethiopia, and

they are posing negative impacts on native

Biodiversity, agricultural and range lands, national

parks, water ways, lakes, rivers, power dams.

Sustainable wildlife conservation practices are best

choice of the management strategies enabling national

development to be integrated with biodiversity

conservation efforts. Thus, we need to harmonize

conservation practices so as to make use it in the

developmental agenda of our Country. In the presence

of threats it is challenging to assure sustainable

development agendas. Moreover, the above reviewed

fundamental threats can decline the wildlife

biodiversity under protection. Hence, mainstreaming

wildlife conservation to school clubs, the largest

community and stake in to different sectors is vital tool

of sustainable conservation.

11. Way forward

Ethiopia is one of the biodiversity rich countries but

utilization and conservation of the biota in a manner

that sustains livelihood is poorly considered. Most of

the wild biota belongs to Paper Park owing to the less

emphasis given to the phenomenon. Thus, due

consideration should be given to the natural facets of

wildlife diversity in the physical geography of the

states protected area system. Even though the

economic, social and ecological value of wildlife

biodiversity is known still conservation challenges are

there. Moreover, the threats are challenging

developmental efforts aligned with utilization of biota.

If the sever threats facing wildlife is not monitored in a

way of sustainability biodiversity will be a story to tell

for generation than handing the resources. Therefore,

there is a need to reduce the threats using timely

ecological monitoring approaches so as to rescue the

natural capital for our benefit and the future generation.

Thus, such efforts should be supported by capacitating

protected area personnel in ecological threat analysis

and community based conservation practices.

Road infrastructure plays key role in economic

development of a given nation. Hence, road

networking activities should be supported with post

and pre construction ecological impact assessments so

as to reduce its effect on wild animals. Even though

there are prominent efforts in road infrastructural

development of Ethiopia some of the highways are of

conservation challenge without staking biodiversity

components. Thus, intensive survey on road kill of

wildlife and identification of vulnerable sites should be

done. Moreover, appropriate mitigation measures using

digital sign post for both daytime and night time

derivers should be installed along identified routes of

conservation importance. Moreover, in view of the

upcoming road network improvement and expansion in

Ethiopia, specifically in Eastern Ethiopia, it is

necessary to undertake wildlife vehicle mortality

studies for developing wildlife safety management

measures within protected areas.

Illicit wildlife trafficking cause’s severe conservation

challenges on a state genetic biodiversity. This event

can stand against the fair and equitable access of our

genetic resources. However, the magnitude of the

problem is much more common along the border point

custom check point. Therefore, checkpoint located

along border point should be institutionally capacitated

of wildlife trafficking monitoring structures. As well,

the intended capacity building training should be given

of the dynamic conservation crime tactics. Moreover,

community development frameworks and alternative

livelihood approaches on the range states of trafficked

animals should be a concern of future governmental

directions.

Sustainable wildlife conservation can help to conserve,

sustainably use resource, and pledge fair and equitable

benefit from genetic components. Sustainability can be

assured through community participation and

supporting the economic wellbeing of the largest

community. Therefore, sustainability of biodiversity is

an issue of making use of participatory approaches and

stake in various sectors. Moreover, making use of eco-

technological solutions of developmental based threats

factors should be included in Sustainability affairs.

12. Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge Ethiopian

Biodiversity Institute, Mekelle Biodiversity Center for

providing encouragement to review pertinent key

wildlife threats articles which supports wildlife

conservation at the interest of the local development

needs. I am specifically thankful for the extensive and

useful comments of the anonymous reviewers.



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review of key wildlife threats factors from literature and

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