RESEARCH ARTICLE

Review of energy storage technologies in harsh environment

Yoka Cho1& Hossam A. Gabbar1,2

Received: 19 February 2019 /Revised: 11 July 2019 /Accepted: 15 July 2019# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

AbstractElectrical energy storage (EES) is crucial in energy industry from generation to consumption. It can help to balance the differencebetween generation and consumption, which can improve the stability and safety of power grid. Share of renewable energygeneration and low emission energy utilization at consumption side can grow up via the development of EES technology, whichcould reduce the emission of Greenhouse gas in the whole energy chain. Nowadays, the usage of EES are becoming broader notonly in normal environment but also in some harsh environment such as underground, space and very cold climate, which bringsnew challenges from energy storage element (cell) technology to system packaging technology. This paper reviewed the availableenergy storage technologies, and their special requirements and applications in harsh environment. More attentions were paid tothe usage of EES in cold climate application both for transportation such as electric vehicles (EV), and stationary applicationincluding large/small scale energy storage located in cold area, where stable discharge/charge at temperature lower than −20 °Care required. Finally, a comprehensive review of the current technology from cell level to package was presented, and possibledirections for R&D in the future to widen the operation temperature range of battery were proposed.

Keywords Energy storage . Harsh environment . Low temperature . Hybrid . Battery

Introduction

Electrical Energy Storage (EES) is the process of harvestingenergy produced at one time and storing it in a special medi-um, and returning the stored energy back into electrical energyform to use at a later time when needed. Nowadays, the wholeworld has to face the issue of energy and severe environmentpollution caused by conventional energy production and con-sumption. To achieve the target of reducing greenhouse gases,CO2, CH4, vapor of H2O emissions, the share of convention-al fossil fuels will decline in the future energy generation andconsumption, but on the other hand usage of renewable ener-gy sources and clean way of consumption will increase dra-matically, which has less impact to the environment and moresustainable (Nishioka and Skea 2008). However, there are

several issues for the power grid and end user caused by thegrowth percentage of renewable generation and consumption.Firstly, it is difficulty to stabilize the frequency of power griddue to the dynamic change in the output of renewable gener-ation and it will deteriorate if the frequency deviate too much.Conventionally, the frequency of grid is controlled mostly bythe output adjustment of thermal plant with some positive andnegative capacity margin. But this is not an efficient operationway, because the extra initial cost is inevitable. Moreover, thisoutput margin needs to be increased with the growth of renew-able energy, which decreased the efficiency of thermal plantand aggravate the pollution and emission of CO2 even more.When amount of EES with quick response and high capacityinstalled in the grid its capacity will be big and quick enoughto be able to mitigate the fluctuations, there almost no need forthermal plant to design very big margin and accordingly theycan operate at a higher efficiency. Secondly, renewable energyis affected byweather condition which is unstable and difficultto forecast accurately. Some possible measures can beemployed to solve this issue. One of them is to install muchmore renewable energy, which can provide overcapacity andenable the valley output of renewable energymeet the demandof power consumption. Another way is to install renewableenergy over a wide area and various type, which is able to takeadvantage of weather conditions changing spatially and

* Hossam A. Gabbarhossam.gaber@uoit.ca

1 Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear Science, University ofOntario Institute of Technology, 2000 Simcoe Street North,Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada

2 Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of OntarioInstitute of Technology, 2000 Simcoe Street North,Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42797-019-00002-9Safety in Extreme Environments (2019) 1:11–25

/ Published online: 17 August 2019

temporally and smooth effects expected from the complemen-tarity of different location (i.e. west and east hemisphere) andtype (i.e. wind and solar energy). But these two methods areimpossible unless: a) large enough numbers of installationswith the declining cost of renewable energy to a certain af-fordable point and, b) mutual intelligent transmission net-works which can enable distributed generation to be optimisedby managing all connected energy generation devices throughautomated smart contract (Reyhanloo et al. 2018). And it willcreate new waste due to the overcapacity of installation whichdrag the efficiency again, therefore those strategy are unfeasi-ble anyway. Even though other researchers have made effortsto look for various solutions, including shifting the loadthrough load profile management, interconnecting with exter-nal grids, etc., energy storage is one of the most feasible ap-proaches both from technology and economics aspects (Chenet al. 2009; Status of electrical energy storage systems 2004).ESS is able to supply various functions: (a) meeting peakpower load demands, (b) energymanagement of time varying,(c) lightening the intermission nature of renewable energygeneration, (d) improving quality/reliability of grid power,(e) satisfying electrical vehicle fast charging needs, (f) contrib-uting to the realization of distributed energy and smart grids,(g) reducing electrical energy import or power plant positivemargin capacity for peak demand (Luo et al. 2015).

At the end side of energy chain that consumes a pelenty ofenergy, especially in the transportation field, energy consump-tion option without or with less fossil energy such as plug-inhybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) or electric vehicles (EVs) arereplacing the convectional internal combustion engine (ICE).More precisely, considering well-to-wheel efficiency ICEshould be replaced by motor driven by electricity generatedfrom renewable energy which has less impact to the environ-ment and almost unlimited amount. However, in spite of re-maining issues (high cost, long charging time, short drivingdistance, limited operation temperature range) which is one ofthe biggest obstacles to prevent wide adoption of EV/HEV,EES is the key technology for electrification of transportation(Internatinal Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 2011).

Because of the great potential and key roles of EES asshown in Fig. 1, the research and development, and industrialapplications have been reviewed by amount of publish fromdifferent perspectives. Saktisahdan et al (2014) conducted atechnical comparison of the various EES technologies focusingon their specific energy, energy densities, cost and suitabilityfor various energy storage usages as Tables 1 and 2, whichindicates that battery, UC and hydrogen (FC) are most properEES technology for mobile energy storage application includ-ing EV/HEV and portable electronic device. Benbouzid et al(2012) reviewed the various EES for marine current energyutilization, which has incredible potential contribution for re-newable energy. Several types of EESs and their application/development status were discussed comprehensively in (Cong

et al. 2009). Tan et al. focused on the EES technologies formicro-grid applications and analysed details including the in-terfaces of power electronics, ESS configuration and topolo-gies, control structure designs for charging/discharging, controlstrategy for combination of different ESS technologies as wellas optimizing the capacity of renewable energies and ESS. Andin order to propose smart ESS as the potential option in thefuture of smart grid, they also discussed the trends and chal-lenges of ESS (Li et al. 2013). Liu et al. presented the state-of-the-art hydrogen storage materials for on-board applicationsand advanced chemical materials for lithium-ion batteries(LiB) and ultracapacitors (Li et al. 2010). The state of technol-ogy and installations of several ESS is presented and theirvarious characteristics are analysed in (Bruel et al. 2014). Thepaper also introduced what kind of characteristics the energystorage technologies should have to be adapted for renewableenergy systems. (Mustafa et al. 2014) offered a review summa-ry about the applications of ESSs for renewable energy integra-tion in different field and the important factors that are crucialfor choosing proper EES technologies for either commercial orhouse applications. Díaz-Sumper et al (2012) and Zhao et al.

Fig. 1 Problems in renewable energy utilization and possible solutions

Saf. Extreme Environ. (2019) 1:11–2512

(2015) reviewed ESS technologies for wind turbine applica-tion. Sumper et al. (2012) discussed existing EES applicationsin wind power in details, whilst paper (Wu et al. 2015) present-ed the operation and control strategies, and the planning issuesof the applications of ESS technologies for the integration ofwind power support. Additionally, as to the application of ESStechnologies applied in transportation field, (Hoque et al. 2017)discussed classifications methods of different energy storagetechnologies based on their energy storage formations, mate-rials, and overall life-time efficiencies. The paper indicated thatcurrent LiB technologies used for EVs still need to be opti-mized to improve the efficiency of EVenergy storage.

However, in addition to those factors discussed in theexisting review papers about ESS/EES such as cost, life time,energy density and efficiency, no mater stational or mobileapplication of energy storage, the future development targetfor energy storage devices need to also be reliable when work-ing in various specific and even harsh environments, e.g. withwiden temperature range, under high or low pressure, vibra-tion to ensure the little or no maintenance for not only normalconsumer, but also for military, industrial, and aerospace ap-plications. Most of the energy storage technology can be used

in normal environment, but proper ESS that can be used inharsh environment still needs to be studied. This review fo-cuses on ESSs that are suitable for harsh environment espe-cially low temperature area.

Challenge of energy storage technologiesin harsh environments

Except for wide utilization at normal conditions, EES devicesare also subject to extreme conditions- defined by the temper-ature and the surroundings. For example, as one of the widelyused portable EES application, batteries in our cell phonesmay suddenly shutdown in extreme cold area or catch fire inharsh hot climates as the environmental temperature is beyondthe limit of battery. The batteries are required to work over awide range of operating temperatures and pressure in areassuch as exploration in under grand (oil and gas resource ex-ploration and exploitation), heat reactors, electronic or electri-cal equipments in defensive industry and aerospace explora-tion. Other examples as drones operating in cold climates andhigh-altitude can experience low temperatures down to−60 °C. Batteries must operate under a predefined wide tem-perature range. Medical devices, for example, normally workat room temperature, but must be sterilized in 120 °C. In someapplications such as energy harvesting, sensors for drillingtools, batteries experience totally different temperatures dur-ing charge and discharge.

Salari et al. (2016) gave a general EES operation tempera-ture range with its applications as Fig. 2. Most of battery appli-cations operate from −20 to 60 °C, but there is increasing de-mand for batteries to work under extreme temperature. Militaryindustry needs batteries to be able to work from – 40 °C to60 °C, and there are still issues existing to produce such batte-ries economically. Electric vehicles require battery systems ableto perform stably in both colder climate (lower than −20 °C)and hot climate (higher than 50 °C). Low temperature leads toinstability of energy supply and device malfunction, and the

Table 1 Technical characteristics of some selected energy storage technologies

PowerRating(MW)

Storageduration

Cycling orlifetime

Self-dischargerate per day

Energydensity(Wh/l)

Powerdensity(W/l)

Responsetime

Efficiency Initial costUSD/kW

Initial costUSD/kWh

PHS 100–1000 4–12 h 30–60 years ~ 0 0.2–2 0.1–0.2 Sec - Min 70–85% 1200 ~2100 30 ~ 100CAES 10–1,000 2–30 h 20–40 years ~ 0 2–6 0.2–0.6 Sec - Min 40–75% 1600 ~ 2200 40 ~ 60FES 0.001–1 Sec – 4 h 20,000–100,000 1.3–100% 20–80 10,000 < sec 70–95% 2100 ~ 2600 1500 ~ 6000NaS 10–100 1 min – 8 h 5000–10000 0.05–20% 150–300 120–160 < sec 70–90% 3500 ~ 6000 260 ~ 700LiB 0.1–20 1 min – days 1000–10,000 0.1–0.3% 200–400 1,300 - 10,000 < sec 85–98% 400 ~ 250 ~ 500FB 0.1–100 1–4 h 12,000 – 14,000 0.2% 20–70 0.5–2 < sec 60–85% 400 315 ~ 1680SC 0.01–1 Ms - min 10,000- 100,000 20% - 40% 10–20 40,000–120,000 < sec 80–98% 500 2400 ~ 6000SMES 0.1–1 Ms - sec Unlimited 0% at 4 K ~6 ~2,600 < sec 80–95% 2000 ~ 4000 5000 ~ 6000

100% at 140 KHydrogen 1–150 Min – weeks 5–30 years 0–4% 600 (200

bar)0.2–20 Sec - Min 25–45% 3000 ~ 6000 1.1 ~ 2 kWh

Table 2 Suitability of different ESS

ESStechnologies

Energymanagement

Powerquality

Transport/portable

PHS ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ×

CAES ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ×

FES ✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓

NaS ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ✓

LiB ✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓

FB ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ×

SC ✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓

SMES ✓ ✓✓✓ ×

Hydrogen ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓

Saf. Extreme Environ. (2019) 1:11–25 13

high temperature causes significant safety issues with a resul-tant catastrophic thermal runaway of the system.

In subsurface field, for example, in order to get real-timedata, such as porosity of apparent neutron, density of forma-tion bulk and photoelectric factor to understand formationporosity and lithology while drilling, the Logging-While-Drilling tool (Columbia University n.d.) are widely employedin oil exploration. They record geological data and need to bepowered by a battery to avoid the inconvenience of usingextension cords in high-angle, extended-reach, or horizontalconditions in many of wellbores. The temperature of wellboreis a complex function of wellbore geometry, depth, flow rate,fluid composition, and formation properties. The temperaturein those area typically varies from 60 to 120 °C (Hagoort2005). But it could be ten-fold greater in thin-crust areas suchas volcanic and geothermal areas. The tool must work in sub-surface well where the temperatures routinely range from 20to 100 °C but can get as 200 °C or higher. Therefore, threetypes batteries (Table 3) which has relatively wide temperaturerange were addressed in the early time. The wireline operatormust have the battery packs short circuited intentionally toheat them up over 50 °C which is necessary minimum tem-perature for chemical reaction, before lowering the tool intothe hole. Because cells might leak, the reusable battery hous-ing must be gastight to prevent tools from being corroded byleakage from the encapsulated cells in case. A pressure reliefvalves is necessary to enable emitted gas vent. In addition, thebattery cells must be well designed to prevent anodes andcathodes from shorting during shock and vibration application(Evaluation of Oilfield Batteries 1998). Sui et al. (2015) pre-sented two types of encapsulation methods for autonomous

sensing microsystems to withstand high pressure and corro-sive environment. They successfully tested the encapsulatedsystems at temperature 150 °C and pressure 10,000 psi respec-tively in environments of concentrated brine, oil, and cementslurry. Figure 3 illustrated the typical application scenariowhere the microsystems collecting, and logging data as beingtransported by fluid flow along the wellbore and the fractures.At a depth more than 3500 m underground, the temperaturemay be over 125 °C, and the pressure might range from 1000 to6000 psi, and the chemical environment may have salinitylevels from 50,000 to 150,000 ppm (Chapman and Trybula2012). The chemical and pressure tolerance requirement can

Fig. 3 Diagram of LOGGING-WHILE-DRILLING tool (Evaluation ofOilfield Batteries 1998)

Fig. 2 Temperature dependentapplications of energy storagedevices (Salari et al. 2016)

Table 3 Battery used for subsurface environment

Chemistry Temperature operating range

Alkaline −30 to 80 °C

Lithium copper oxide −30 to 125 °C

Lithium copper oxyphosphate 50 to 175 °C

Saf. Extreme Environ. (2019) 1:11–2514

be achieved by packages design, but the temperature tolerancemust be built into the sensor system which causes morechallenges to the battery cell and package design. Osswaldet al. (2011) reported a graft copolymer electrolyte (GCE)-based LiB that has operation temperatures up to 120 °C, whichsupplies another possible option for the subsurface application(Fig. 4).

Another field of applications in extreme environment forenergy storage systems is the defense and aerospace indus-tries. Modern developed countries army are equipped withincreasing number of high-tech defense products, such as un-attended ground sensors, GPS, IR vision and radio systems.But all those equipments depend on battery systems for theirprompt and freely mobile function (Oman 2002). Defenseequipments are often used in extreme environment, carriedby soldiers on their backs for extended period. Therefore, fordefence applications, batteries must operate over a wide rangeof temperature and altitude conditions, light-weighted, andexhibit minimal energy loss when it stands by. Furthermore,when used in miniature explosive devices, thermal batteriesneed insulation layer in order to keep the temperature between400 to 700 °C and to protect adjacent components fromoverheating (Salari et al. 2016).

Researchers and engineers are trying to develop secondarybattery and primary battery as fuel cell technology to meet therequired energy and power demands of aerospace activities.Improved battery performance of battery cells on safety anddurability for astronauts helps to realize a few explorationsystems. Aerospace is extremely harsh environment for anytype of energy storage (Mercer 2010). The future planetaryscience mission concepts are grouped into four categories:1)outer planets, 2) inner planets, 3) Mars, and 4) small bodies.

Outer planetary orbital/flyby missions likely require advancedrechargeable batteries with calendar life longer than 15 years,high specific energy more than 250Wh/kg and energy densityhigher than 500 Wh/l and should be compliant with planetaryprotection requirements. A comprehensive summary of ener-gy technology needs for future planetary science mission wasgiven by NASA as Figs. 5 and 6 (Ahmad n.d. 2003, NASA2017). While more channellings for ESS will come from thefuture mission of inner planet include Venus and Mercury,where the temperature and pressure are 460 °C and 92 bars.However, at an altitude of 55 km where the winds are strongenough to enable aerial missions thereby benign condition of0 °C and 1 bar. If aerial missions are contemplated lower in theatmosphere then batteries may need to operate at higher tem-peratures up to 350 °C corresponding to an altitude of 15 km.Orbital missions require similar battery in specific energy andenergy density as outer planetary missions but longer cyclelife capability that is more than 25,000 cycles. Aerial missionswould require advances in rechargeable battery technologieswith high specific energy (>1000 Wh/kg) and wide tempera-ture operational rang (25 °C -350 °C) over the altitude range of55–15 km, while near-surface aerial systems would need re-chargeable batteries technologies that can work with temper-ature up to 460 °C if exposed to ambient conditions.

On the other hand, the vibration often causes electri-cal power systems fatigue failure. Vibrations could re-sult from the roughness of road, gear system, accelera-tion and collision for electric transportation application,which will have serious impact on the mechanical reli-ability and power output. The typical road-induced vi-bration ranges from 0 to 150 HZ (Marco and Hooper2015). While the safety standard of air transportationrequests the battery has to be tested with vibration from7 HZ to 200 HZ and back in 15 min (C. H. B. S. J. S.C. M. P and Williard 2016). Recently, more attentionhas been paid to the impact of the mechanical force tobatteries. Basically, the effect of vibration can beprevented by improving layout and structure of batterypack design (Kume and Murakami n.d.). Successful de-sign of the reliability in mechanics and electrics for thebattery pack structure have been achieved by differentresearchers and institute (Arora et al. 2016; Lee et al.2010).

Based on the reviewed researches above, the environmentsfor energy storage can be roughly classified as Table 3.Normally, it is not so difficult to improve pressure and vibra-tion tolerance via package structure design, because they donot cause energy while operation. However, thermal issueespecially in harsh environment is very challenging, becauseno matter the initial structure design it consumes energy espe-cially in low temperature environment. Therefore, this paperwill focus on the energy storage in low temperature environ-ment (Tables 4, 5 and 6).

Fig. 4 Application of autonomous sensing system in downholeenvironment (Sui et al. 2015)

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Compared to ESSs in the highly specialized and relativelylow volume markets in the above-mentioned industries, thecompetitive and high-volume electric vehicles market, whichhave dramatically increased because it is an environmentfriendly transportation (Keil and Jossen 2014). Theoretically,various technologies can convert electricity to other forms ofenergy and store them for a period of time. These electricalenergy storage technologies can be classified as showed inTable 7: mechanical energy storage including PumpedHydroelectric Storage PHS, Flywheels energy storage FESand compressed air energy storage CAES; thermal storage

including Molten-salt energy storage MSES, Hot-water stor-age, Phase change material storage PCM; electrochemicalstorage including ultracapacitor UC, Superconducting mag-netic energy storage SMES; electrochemical storageLithium-ion batteries LiB, Lead-acid battery LaB, Sodium-sulfur batteries NaS,, Flow batteries FB; Chemical storageincluding Hydrogen, Synthetic natural gas SNG (S. E.Institute 2013). Some important indicators to evaluate theseenergy storage systems are show in Table 1. Nowdays, amongall these technologies, LiB is the most widely used technologyfor transporation application due to its high specific energyand power as indicated in Table 1. Meanwhile the cost ofLiB is becoming acceptable with the rapide growth of produc-tion capacity around the world, e.g. in 2011 the total produc-tion of LiB around the world was just 46.63 GWh while it hadgrowed up to 103 GWh unitle 2015, and is estimated to dra-matically increase to 403 GWH in 2025 (Curry 2017).Therefore, most EVs and HEVs adopt LiBs as their primaryor secondary power source and its increasing specificationsand decreasing cost leads dramaticaly grwoing of EVs andHEVs that is estimated to be 35% by 2040 (Bloomberg 2016).

However, currently the performances of the EVand specif-ically of the energy storage system are still incomparable withICE. One of the reasons why most of the passengers are stillnot willing to choose EV is because the expensive batterieswhich contributes over 30% of the EV cost, and have a lowerautonomy and a shorter lifespan. In addition, the limited op-eration temperature range obstruct the widespread use of EV/

Table 4 Classification of Environment for energy storage applications

Normal Environment Harsh Environment

Temperature −20 to 60 °C < −20, 60 °C

Pressure 11.6 to 106 kPa <11.6, 106 kPa

Vibration < 200 Hz >200 HzFig. 6 Energy consumption of various methods to heat a battery (Ahmadn.d.)

Fig. 5 EVand HEV salesestimation (Blomgren 2017)

Saf. Extreme Environ. (2019) 1:11–2516

HEV in cold climate area further. In circumpolar latitude areassuch as Russia, Canada, or north Europe where the tempera-ture during winter can often fall lower than −20 °C and lastsfor several months, driving an electric vehicle powered bybattery is not reliable, especially when starting after a long-time parking (Boulon et al. 2016). While heating cabin in lowtemperature atomosphere consumps plenty electric energy,which will shorten the driving range further. Unignorable re-duce of both power output and usable energy is caused by thedramatically decreased performance of LiBs, and Li-ion be-comes trend to deposited easily as well, leading to obvious

decrease of lifetime, which also prevent the development ofelectrical vehicles. When the temperature drops down to−10 °C, LiBs lose huge amount of energy and capacity (Lin2001). It was reported that when the temperature drops down to−20 °C the capacity of graphite will drop to 12% of its capacityat 25 °C. The energy density of 18650 type LiB decreases

Table 6 Energy storage technology needs for future planetary science mission concepts

Missiondestination

Missiontype

Energy storage type Energy parameters Life parameters Environmental parameters Planetaryprotection

Primary Rechargeable HighSpecificEnergyWh/kg

High SpecificEnergyW/kg

LongCalendarLife (yrs)

LongCycleLife

HighTemp.°C

LowTemp.°C

Radiation*

Outer Planets Orbital X >250 >15 1,000 Jup OW

Surface X >500 >15 NA −180 Jup OW

Probes X >500 >15 NA −180 Jup OW

InnerPlanets/Venus

Orbital X >250 >10 >50,000

Aerial X >100 >4 >500 25–350

Surface X >200 0.5–1 NA ~460

Mars Orbital X >250 >15 >50,000

Aerial X >250 3000 >5 >1000 −40 X

Surface X >250 >5 >1000 −40 X

Sample X >250 >10 −40 XReturn

Missions

Human X >250 >15 >1000 XPrecursor

Missions

Small Bodies Orbital X >250 >15 >50,000

Surface X >250 >15 >1000 −40 to40

Sample X >500 >5 NA −40 to40Return

X: required; JUP; Jupiter system; OW: Ocean Worlds

Table 5 The performance of LiB working with different electrolytes

Formulation Dischargecapacity(based on roomtemperature)

Dischargerate

LiPF6 EC-DMC-EMC(1:1:1)

52% (−40)°C –

LiPF6EC-EMC-MA-tol(1:1:1:1)

50% (−40 °C c/10)

LiPF6 EC-DMC-MB 87% (−40 °C) c/2

LiPF6 PC-EC-MB 98% (−30 °C) c/2

LiPF6 PC-EC-EMC (1::1:3) 83% (−30 °C) –

Table 7 Energy storage technologies classification

Mechanical storage Pumped hydro storage (PHS)Flywheel energy storage (FES)Compressed air energy storage (CAES)

Thermal storage Molten salt energy (MSES)

Hot water storage

Phase change material storage (PCM)

Electrical storage Ultracapacitor (UC)

Superconducting magnetic energy storage(SMES)

Electrochemical storage Lithium-ion battery (LiB)

Lead-acid battery (LAB)

Sodium-sulfur battery (NaS)

Vanadium redox flow battery (VRB)

Chemical storage Hydrogen

Synthetic natural gas (SNG)

Saf. Extreme Environ. (2019) 1:11–25 17

dramatically about 95%, and the power density falls to10 W/l from ~800 W/l as the temperature decreases fromroom temperature 25 °C to −40 °C. Additionally, the saftycharing temperature of LiBs is above 0 °C and chargingwill achieve it higher efficiency when temperature ishigher than 10 °C because of ions are more difficult tomove back from anode to cathode inside of battery i.e.internal resistance is higher at charging than discharging.Furthermore, the mass transport become difficulty at lowtemperatures because the lithium ions become inactive atlow temperature, and it causes lithium dendrite formationand growth, which could cause battery damage due to shortcircuits or even explosion. Therefore, further studies are nec-essary to improve the safety and reliability of battery at lowtemperature, which could help EV/HEV can be accepted bymore customers in wide range of countries and areas.

Cell level studies on energy storagetechnologies in ultra-low temperature

The perofrmacne of LiB could be affected by lots of factors,such as the electrolyte conductivity that affect the motion ofions, cell structure design, thickness of electrode, separatorporosity, wetting properties and etc. The solution conductivityincreases with temperature while its viscosity decreases withtemperature; thus, the movement of the ions becomes difficul-ty in cold environments, causing its internal resistance to in-crease (Zhang et al. 2015). Working at low temperature causethe concentration of electrolyte becomes ununiform seriously,and deteriorates the polarization.More important impact to thebattery is that the lithium-ions transports slowly in the carbonanode but lithium precipitate easily, which may damage thebattery. And this is also the reason that the discharging tem-perature limit is lower than charing limit, e.g. normal LiB candischarge down to −20 °C but has to be charged above zeroCelsius degree (Ji and Wang 2013).

The low temperature performance of LiB is fundamentallydetermined by the electrolyte/electrode composition and mi-crostructure. Therefore, in order to improve the performanceLiB from basic cell materials, several eletrochemical re-searchers have studied how to produce proper electrolyteswith low freezging point and high ionic conductivity, andelectrode with high reactive activity in low temperature.

Studies on low temperature electrolyte

As a medium for ionic transportation, electrolyte demerminesthe internal resistance and also take part in the process ofreaction to creat an solid electrolyte interface (SEI) film onthe electrode, which protect the electrode from further reduc-tion and permits the transportation of lithium ions. The elec-trolyte availabe in the current market for LiB typically

dissolves in ethylene carbonate (EC) and ethylmethyl carbon-ate (EMC), both of which freeze when the temperature below−30 °C. Therefore, various researches have attended to devel-op low-temperature electrolytes.

C. Smart and his coworkers (Smart et al. 2007) impregnatethree types of liquid low-temperatuer electrolytes into gelpolymer electrolyte and tested temperature impacts on all ofthe parameters including rate capacity, cycles,pulsecapability,and etc. Their cells employing a low temperaturecompound electrolyte consisting 4 substances achieved nearlyfull capacity at −40 °C using a C/10 discharge rate. The otherelectrolytes they innovated can even discharge at −60 °C (C/20 discharge rate) with more than 80% of capacity at roomtemperature. Kwang Man Kim and his colleagues (Kima et al.2014) tested three types of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) –based grafted and ungrafted copolymers as additives tocommerical standard liquid electrolyte to see if they can en-hance the LiB performance at low temperature. They foundPDMS-based additive can help liquid electrolyte solutionkeep stable and have good ionic conductivities at−20 °C.Differeing from conventional liquid electrolyte, re-searchers at the University of California San Diego(Rustomji et al. 2017), developed a breakthrough liquifiedgas electrolyte employing difluoromethane that has stableperformace ove an wide temperature rang and enable electro-chemical capacitors work from −78 to 65 °Cwith an increasedvoltage, and helps a 4 V lithium cobalt oxide cathode togetherwith lithium metal anodes to operate with excellent capacitydown to −60 °C.Becaue their electrolytes are made from liq-uefied gas solvents that makes it far more resistant to freezingthan normal liquid one. Characteristics such as, low viscosity,high dielectric constant, good coordination behaviour are keyfactors to choose a proper cosolvents, which can lower thefreezing point and the viscosity of electrolyte while keepinghigh conductive. S. T. C. T. B. V. K and Ein-Eli (1997) inno-vated a binary solvent consisting of methyl formate (MF) andEC, which present excellent conductivity when it was addedto electrolyte at −40 °C. It was found that addition of MF cancontribute to better the performance at low temperature. Someresearchers employed ternary or quaternary mixtures to im-prove the conductivity of electrolyte solution and extend itsliquid range. Research Shiao H.-C.(Alex) et al. (2000) showedthat carbonate solvent or toluene can improve the cycle effi-ciency of LiB cells. There was not apparent reduction in thecapacity even working at −40 °C.

O. S. B. S. Herreyre (2001) and his co-workers found thatLiB with electrolyte of EC-DMC-EA and EC-DMC-MBcould work at −40 °C with over 80% of the initial capacity.Zhu et al. (2015) summarized the formulations of electrolytesstudied by different researchers, and the ones can work lowerthan −20 °C was listed in Table 5. It is obvious that PC-EC-MB can output 98% of capacity with attractive cyclic abilityeven at −30 °C, which presents the most excellent low-

Saf. Extreme Environ. (2019) 1:11–2518

temperature performance among all the formulations. Thema-jor drawback is that the SEI of the PC-based electrolyte is notso stable, which, however, could be improved by adding ad-ditives (S.-l.-k. R. Wagner, 2014).

As one of the most important energy storage technologies,ultracapacitors (UC) can deliever very high power more than1000 W/kg but small amount of energy density that is lessthan 10 Wh/kg normally. It is often used for pulsed applica-tions where high power is necessary but its limitted energydensity proven its useage where energy duration is requested.Similaryly, low temperature operation is also a challenge forof UC. Nowadays, commerilized UC cells are normally lim-ited in operation above −40 °C. However, lots of its energy islost when temperature lower than 0 °C. Usually, the electro-lytes of currently available UC in the market employ 1 Mtetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEA-BF4) in propyl-ene carbonate (PC) solutions. Brandon (2010) believe that thefreezing of electrolyte and low ionic conductivity limit theoperation of UC to −40 sC. West et al. (2007).

used multiple-solvent electrolytes due to its low-meltingpoint and reduced viscosity. They impoved the operation tem-peratures of the assembled UC down to −55 °C. Experimentsin NASA laboratory revealed that organic co-solvents wasable to widen the operation of UC as low as −75 °C.However, the voltage window that is less than 3 V deterioratethe durability of UC.

Studies on low temperature electrodes

Graphite is widely used for commerical LiB as anode due toits reliability and low cost. Howerver, because of the highregistance at the electrolyte-anode interface, graphite can notmeet the requirement at low temperature. One of the possibleimprovement way is trying to reduce the electrochemical im-pedance, prevent solvated lithium-ions intercalating and theelectrolyte decomposing, which could be achieved bydowsizing the particle of graphite via heat treatment or wetchemical oxidation (Wen et al. 2015). Other methods of im-provement have been reported such as mixing graphite withnana metal particles (Dsoke et al. 2005; Mancini et al. 2010)and coating oxidized graphite electrodes with nanometer layerof metal (Mancini et al. 2010; Mancini et al. 2009; L. F. H. Z.T. Z. Y. W. H. W. J. Gao 2005) which succeed at −60 °C butdid not reported life cycles. Innovative multilayer graphene(up to ten) anode materials was successfully synthesized byVarzi et al. (2015). The high active surface area created bygraphene enhance electrochemical reaction at anode, whichfacilitate the transportation of lithium ion and keep it dynamicenough even at low temperate down to −40 °C. However, thematerial graphene that is only one atom thickness is still faraway from mass production with affordable cost and stablequality.

Similar methodology has been applied to improve theperformacne of cathode at low temperature. Nano particle sizeof most common cathode materical such as LiFePO4, LiCO2,LiMn2O4 have been tested by different research (Scrosati et al.2008; Wang 2008; Maccario et al. 2008). And obvious im-provement was presented due to small size particles canimporve the diffusion of lithium ions and strength the chem-ical kinetic at low temperature. Coating LiFePO4 with carbo-naceous material could strength the stability of electrolytedecomposintion layers on cathode surfaces and prevent unde-sirable reactions. Comparision with original LiFePO4 in (Guoet al. 2013) showed that the capacity improved abouth 13% at−25 °C after coating with carbon on cathode. But the processcontrol is still an issue to have the coating become a standardprocess in cathode mass production. Because the tap densityof LiFePO4 could be decreased by excessively coated carbonthat could generate byproducts with unclear function.

There are lots researches relating improvement of LiBperformacne in low emperature from cell levels, i.e. studieson materials and process of LiB. However, no matter beingcommericalizated or not all of the cell level solution have touse raw materials and exploy very complex synthesis proce-dures of production. Therefore, the cost of low temperaturebattery even is has been comericalized is several time of normalLiB that can discharge between −20 °C to 55 °C, which causesthem further far away from being acceptable by market.

Pack level studies on energy storagetechnologies in ultra-low temperature

The energy storage performance depends on not only cell tech-nology but also package management technologies. Therefoestudies on pack design is also a potentional direction to im-prove the performance at low temperature. According to thetest conducted by American Automotive Association, the driv-ing range of EV per charge is 105 miles at 23.9 °C but drops by57% to 43 miles at −6.7 °C (“Extreme Temperatures AffectElectric Vehicle Driving Range, AAA Says 2014). Comparedwith heating metholodgy,cooling received a lot attentions asboth motiable and stational application of battery focuse intemperate zone which has major share of market and hightemperatue could shorten lifetime and cause safety issues.Battery performance in low temperature is the major obstacleto have green energy become widely used in cold area. Hestingshould not be a big issue for HEVwhich could utilize the wasteheat from engine, and stational on-grid ESS application whichcan use grid power to heat the battery when necessary.However, in pure EV and remote or off-grid EES application,it will be great challenge to startup when the temperature lowerthan its limit. Such as in most EVs, the possible heat comesonly from powertrain waste heat that is generated from motor(iron loss and copper loss), inverters, and batteries itself. But

Saf. Extreme Environ. (2019) 1:11–25 19

those heat are not unstable and could not contribute any helpfor cold start. The battery of EV could be heated internally viabattery resistance, or externally via resistor powered by grid.However, those heating methods usually can not heat the bat-tery more than 1 °C /min, which cost much time to warm up thebattery to its optimal temperature. And accordingly, the batteryhas to work at low temperture with low efficiency, whichconsum amount of extra energy and shorten the drivingdistacne of EV. Mover, at low temperature battery can not becharged by energy regenerated from braking which could con-tribute about 20% of EV range. Song et al. (2012) tried to usean external energy from charging station to preheat the batterypack of EV in cold environment. The results showed that thebattery retains bigger capacity when it is warmed up to ambienttemperature than the case that there is no preheating. However,this strategy will greatly cause incovenience to customer andworse the customer experience, because the situation that thereis not external energy source available was not considered,which actrually is more common case for EV. Heat transfer inthe preheating strategy of core heating, fluid heating and jacketheating was research simulatly by thermal finite elementmodels (FEM) by Pesaran (2003). They evaluated the batterytemperature at different heating techniques. They specified theinternal heating power of core heating as a linear function oftime. The drawback of their model is that they modeled theheating process of battery as a pure physical heat transfer prob-lem, which is unable to predict more complex nonlinearelectrochemical-thermal coupling behaviors. But the cell inter-nal heating is unignorable for heating study of battery at coldenviroment. In order to speed up the heating process, Chao-yang Wang and his co-wokers (Wang et al. 2016) designed alithium-ion battery cell internally coupled with a Ni foil as aninternal heater as Fig. 7.The self-heating circle is activited firstto warm up the cell before it discharges to the load. It showedthat the innovated self-heating structue enable a cell to bewarmed up from −20 °C to zero degrees Celsius less than 20s at and within 30 s from −30 °C, which are totally acceptablefor most customers. And it only consumed about 4% of the cellcapacity, which can be neglected and could be less in realconsidering the low efficiency working of battery at low tem-perature if there is no quick heating device. However, it causesmany challenges to insert many nickle foils into this battery inmass production process, and their cycle tests demonstrate thatthe self-heating cells survive 500 self-heating test cycles at−30 °C, 1,000 cycles at 45 °C and 2,500 cycles at 25 °C, whichis still little far away from the requrement of commerical EVthus it needs better improvement for application to EV becauseits short lifetime, i.e. higher cost.

Three internal heating methods including internal heating,convectional heating and mutual pulse heating were discussedby Ji and Wang (2013) as shown in Fig. 5. Mutual pulseheating utilized output power of cell and heats another groupof cells internally, namely the battery cells are divided into two

groups and each of them is able to charge or discharge to eachother alternatively. Because the charing voltage must behigher than the discharge voltage, they disigned a DC – DCconverter to increase cell’s discharge voltage when working atdischarging mode. In order to keep the capacity of each groupat a balanced level, the designed controller of battery packswitch the charge/discharge modes of the two groups at ancertain intervals of a period. The mutual pulse heating strategyenable the internal heating realized by cell self output power.A portion energy of the discharging group warms up thecharging group through its internal resistance. Their studyshowed that the mutual heating consumps least battery poweras shown in Fig. 6. In spite of its advantages including lowmaintenance, high reliability, uniform temperature distribu-tion and short heating time, the whole system will becomemore complicated due to the requirement of special circuitand control design which will increase complexity and costaccordingly. In addition, pulse heating maybe cause agingissue because of the possible lithium plating problem.

Study on hybird energy system for lowtemperature performance features

Manystudies focus on how to optimize the energy and poweroutput of battery, because one of the major problems of batterycomes from how to meet its peak power need. Even for con-sumer electronics, most of the battery accidents come fromsudden high power output. This issue is more serious in EV/HEV application, as various factors such as driving habit, ac-celeration, road condition, etc., cause the power output chang-ing rapidly. Because the discharge process of battery is an elec-trochemical reaction, it is good at discharging at constant rate.But this slow discharging feature can not meet the need ofsudden power consumption caused by acceleration of EV.

Same problems happen when the high current generated bybraking has to charge back to battery, because most of thecommerical battery avaiable could not support high ratecharging which could have damage effect to electrolytes andelectronodes. Howerver, this acceleration/braking often hap-pens for EVespecially in urban driving, which can shorten thelife of the batteries. Therefore, in order to complement thisshortage of battery, several studies have tried to design ahyrbide energy storage system (HESS), which integrates bat-tery with EES technologies that are good at power output.Capacitors and fly-wheel are two of most practical optionsto combine with battery and could be integrated in EV.

Electrical energy can be stored in form of electric field bycapacitors which consist two parallel plates divided by an insu-lator. Ultracapicitor (UC) is a special capacitor that can storemuch more energy than other capacitors at a low voltage, whichcan fill the gap between electrolytic capacitors and rechargablebatteries. Typically the capacity of UC can be 10 to 100 times

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bigger than nomal electrolytic capacitors, and is able to acceptand deliver charge much faster than batteries, and has manymore charge and discharge cycles than batteries. As there is noelectrchemical reaction happens, UC has longer cycle life thanbatteries and wider working temperature range (Figs. 8 and 9).

Therefore, several studies could be founded for theconmination of battery and UC to supply both energyand power in an optimal way. The most simple andmajor combination architectures (Pay and Baghzouz2003) for HESS with battery and capacitors is shownin Fig. 10, where the UC and battery are connected inparalle with DC bus. The results showed that it is ableto get rid of big current passing through the batterybank. However, the drawback of this pattern is not ableto controll the power distribution between the batteryand UC. Wang et al. (2014) proposed a new pattern forHESS as shown in Fig. 11, which could lower the necessarypower capacity of the bi-directional DC-DC- converter andfully meet the power need of DC bus. In order to reduce thesize of the battery-UC system and its capacity loss, Li et al.(2014) optimized a semi-active battery/UC HESS for EVusing Heath Hofmann multi-objective method. The strategyof their proposed design is to make sure that the voltage of UCis higher than battery, in which battery will only dischargepower directly when its voltage higher than UC. As a result,the load profile of battery was flattened. Addtionally, regener-ation energy from braking is only allowed to charge UC,which prevented the battery from frequent and high currentcharging to extend its lifetime. The combination pattern of UCand battery could be classified into three types: passive, semi-active and fully active. The semi-active pattern that includesonly one DC/DC convertor has been regonized asmost widely

Fig. 7 Principle of rapid self-heating Li-ion battery (Wang et al.2016)

Fig. 8 Heating strategies of internal heating, convectional heating, andmutual pulse heating

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employed pattern by several researchers (Li et al. 2014; Burke2011; Ashtiani 2006; Capasso 2015).

Some studies (Li et al. 2014; Hofmann et al. 2015; Kimet al. 2008) discussed thermal effect to the HESS and heatingstrategy for HESS in subzero enviroment, but comaring tooptimization of power and energy output for HESS, how tocombine different UC and battery technologies with varioustemperature range into one HESS that can cover work overwider range of temperature is still insuffficient.

Except for UC another physical energy storage that hashigh power specific is flywheel. A flywheel is a special me-chanical device to store kinetic energy using rotary wheel. Themount of energy stored in a flywheel is a function of thesquare of wheel speed and its weight. The electric machinecoupled to the wheel functions as a motor or a generator whenit is charging or discharing respectively as Fig. 12. Thanks tothe vacuum chamber and improved magnetic bearing, theefficience of recent flywheel has been up to over 90%.Plenty of successful application for flywheel have been report-ed in different fields. Jiancheng et al. (2002) reproted the con-tribution of flywheel to power quality improvement due to itsquick response which makes it possible to take or get powerfrom grid quickly. Becasue of the fast response and frequent

charge-discharge specification, flywheel can supplymore thantwo times of frequency regulation for each unit power, whilereducing GHG in 50% (Hawkins 2011; Boicea 2014). Due toits low specific energy and energy density, flywheel is notpossible to supply the whole energy needed for EV. But itcan help to assist ICE vehicle when it needs great accelerationor climbs uphill in HEV. At che same time, flywheel cantemperly store the regenated energy from braking and dis-charge to assist the powertrain when it is necessary, whichincrease the total energy efficiency of ICE (Liu and Jiang2007). In space exploration that is almost the most harsh en-vironment for all EES as discussed above, combination offlywheel with batteries has been proved to improve theeficiency and reduce the spacecraft mass and cost (Liu andJiang 2007). Meanwhile, except for supplying solar energystroage, flywheel also function with attitude control for satel-lites (Babuska et al. 2004). The most successful commericalapplication of flywheel comes from uninterruptible powersupply (UPS), which fill the 10 -15 s gap between the shutdown of gri and the start of backup power source. For the UPSapplication needs longer time, flywheel are usually combinedwith batteries, which can use flywheel to work for short timepower intermit and batteries for longer time. This combinationcan prevent battery from frequet charge-discharge which willreduce the lifetime of battery (DOE/EE. Flywheel EnergyStorage 2003). This hybrid energy storage pattern in UPSmainly focused on lasting time aspect. Comparing to the lim-ited researches about the imporvment caused by combinationof UC and batteries, it is worse little studies to investigate theadvantages and disadvantages due to the combination of bat-tery and flywheel. Hossam and Ahmed 2017) developed anovel Flywheel-based Fast Charging Station (FFCS)employing both the fly-wheel and battery in the applicationof fast charging station for electrical vehicle including buses

Fig. 9 Comparison of heatingstrategies using battery power

Fig. 10 architecture of HESS with battery and UC

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and ship. They designed a smart controller to coordinate thepower streams among the quick chargers, the flywheel, solarpanles and the network. This hybrid system can supply opti-mized power and energy solution by employing both the ad-vantages of fly-wheel and battery system, which make it pos-sible to supply quick charing even in remote area withoutupgrade of power grid. That study did not emphasize the wideoperation temperature of flywheel, which could be also con-sidered as an another advantage of combination of LiB batteryand flywheel. Future studies are still necessary to exploit itsthermal features. For example, the heat generated from rotorloss and stator loss (L. Z. a. a. P. M. Co Huynh 2007) isabsolute waste heat for flywheel. But possible utiliztion of thiswate heat to warm up the battery bank can be considered in thefuture study to improve the thermal performance of hybrided

ESS with flywheel and battery for stational application. Ofcourse, due to the short storage time of flywheel and its lowerspecifice energy, it is still difficult to apply this combition totransportation field.

However, no matter the combination patten or employedtechnologies, most HESS studies focus on optimizing thepower and energy. There is little papers studied the advantageof HESS produced by the combination of different EES tech-nologies. Keil and Jossen (2014), comparied three HESSconfigurations:a) high-energy LiB & two layer electric capac-itor, b) LiB & a lithium-ion capacitor, and c) high energy LiB& a high-power LiB. At −10 °C and − 20 °C, the pattern a)and c) were able to increase power output capability and ex-tend driving range accordingly. In 2016 (Jossen et al. 2016),they extended their experimental researches on HESSs toshow the impact of these developments for improved perfor-mance of EV at low-temperature. Both configurations of pat-tern a) and c) enable driving at −20 °C, which was consideredas impossible without hybridization in this research. However,in extreme cold area the temperature in winter often falls lowerthan −20 °C, which is beyond the temperature limit of mostcommercial LiB. Therefore, possible hybrid design combin-ing with different EES technologies that differ in various tem-perature range need further research in order to supply eco-nomic energy storage solution in cold area.

Conclusion

Energy storage in harsh environment face challenges frompressure, vibration and thermal. The issue of pressure andvibration can solved by improved structure design of packageor housing of battery. However, the thermal issues are morechallenging especially the low temperature, which has lesssstudies than heat dispation. Plenty research to improve theperformance at low temperature have been conducted on cell

Fig. 11 Proposed HESS patternby (Wang et al. 2014)

Fig. 12 Cut view of the flywheel energy storage system (Hossam andAhmed 2017)

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levels and shows attactive potential specification. But it is stillfar from commerilization because its special materials request-ed. Hybrid energy systems have been studied by several re-searches to optimize the power and energy performance ofenergy system from syste level. But combination of existingbattery technology which has great possibility to solve the lowtemperature issue of energy system economically and reliabllyis still lack of study.

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