Review Instrument Final

Instrument Currency

• “To act as PIC of an aircraft on an IFR flight plan, one must have logged (within the preceding 6 months):– 6 approaches– holding– intercepting and tracking navigation courses– or passed an IPC

Spatial Disorientation

• Conflict between the signals relayed by your central vision and information provided by your central vision

• Movement of snow or rain out the window

• Airplane next to you begins to taxi

Hypoxia

• Hypoxic– high altitudes

• Hypemic– CO, anemia, smoking

• Stagnant– high G’s

• Histotoxic– alcohol, drugs

Slip and Skid

• Slip - rate of turn is too slow for the bank and the ball moves to the inside of the turn

• Skid - rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank and the ball moves to the outside of the turn

Magnetic Compass

• Errors– Variation - the angular difference between the

true and magnetic pole– Deviation - errors due to magnetic interference

with the metal components of the aircraft– Magnetic dip - the compass tries to point down

deep inside the earth

ISA

• International Standard Atmospheric Sea Level - 150 C - 29.92 in HG

• Before IFR flight the altimeter set to the current altimeter setting should be within 75 feet of the actual elevation

Fundamental Skills

Cross Check Instrument Interpretation Aircraft Control

Instrument Failure

Any instrument may fail separately In addition, any system may fail.

– Vacuum system failure– Electrical system failure– Pitot system failure– Static system failure

Ground Facilities - VOR Operate in 108.0 - 117.95 MHz Band Standard Service Volumes (SSV)

– High Altitude(HVOR) - 200 watts, up to 130 nm, used for airways

– Low Altitude(LVOR) - about 100 watts, up to 40 nm, used for airways

– Terminal(TVOR) - 50 watts, 25 nm, used for approaches

VOR Receiver Checks VOT

– 180’ TO, 360’ FROM; +/- 4’ VOR Ground Checkpoint

– Indicated radial; +/- 4’ VOR Airborne Checkpoint

– Indicated radial; +/- 6’– Centerline of airway; +/- 6

Dual VOR Check– Within 4’

DME

Ground based - VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, LOC/DME

Interrogation and response – rate * time = distance

Uses slant distance - 1 NM away for each 1000’ elevation

Pilot Responsibilities

• See and Avoid

• IFR Climb Considerations– Optimum until 1000 feet of assigned altitude– 500 to 1500 feet per minute for last 1000 feet

Pilot Responsibilities

• Adhere to a clearance – Emergency– Violate an FAR– Responding to a traffic alert and collision

avoidance system resolution advisory (TCAS RA)

Elements of an IFR Clearance

• Aircraft identification

• Clearance limit

• Departure procedures

• Route of flight

• Altitudes or flight levels– Cruise clearance

Abbreviated IFR Clearance

• Cleared as file

• Clearance limit or destination airport

• SID name, number and transition

• Altitude and additional instructions– frequency and transponder code

Readback

• Initial enroute clearance in entirety

• Subsequently – Altitude Assignments– Radar Vectors– any instruction requiring verification

• ATC clears, ATC advises, ATC requests

Tower Enroute Clearance

• Short, low altitude routes between terminal areas

• Published in Airport/Facilities Manual

• Generally below 10,000 feet, less than 2 hours in nonturbojet aircraft

IFR Departure Procedures

• Standard– 200’/nm climb gradient– 35’ at end of runway– 400’ HAA before turning

• Nonstandard– Avoidance by climb or heading– denoted by T on IAP– description in front of IAPs

Rate of Climb Table

80 90 100 120

200 267 300 333 400

250 333 375 417 500

300 400 450 500 600

350 467 525 583 700

Ground SpeedClimb Rate

Ft. per NM

REPORTING PROCEDURESRADAR/NONRADAR

• Anytime– Leaving altitude– Leaving any assigned holding fix– Missed approach– <500 fpm climb/decent– TAS varies>5% or 10 kts– Time & altitude reaching a holding fix– Loss of Nav/Comm(Equip)– Unforecast weather

REPORTING PROCEDURESNONRADAR (position reports)

• At required reporting points– I D– P osition – T ime– E levation– E TA next– N ext next

REPORTING PROCEDURESNONRADAR (position reports)

• Example– KC center– KS81– Salina– 1530– FL300– HYS 1545– Lamar next

Holding Pattern

• Race track shaped pattern

• 1 Min Inbound legs <14000’ MSL

• 1 1/2 min > 14000’ MSL

• Standard holding pattern is right turns

• At Nav facility, intersection, or Radial/DME

Departure and Arrival Charts• DPs, STARs and visual approaches are

routinely assigned by ATC

• DPs and STARs are issued to simplify clearance delivery procedures.

• Use “No DP” or “No STAR” in remarks, if you do not want to use them

Departure and Arrival Charts

• To accept a DP you must at least have the textual description

• Use the rate of climb table in Legend 18 to convert a specified minimum rate of climb per NM to convert the climb rate into feet per minute

Reduce Workload

• Simple, easy to understand, one page

• Accommodate many types of aircraft

• Use VORTACs

• Avoid DME arcs

• Altitude crossing and airspeed restrictions included if normally used

Enroute

• MRA( Minimum Reception Altitude) is the lowest altitude at which an intersection can be determined

• MOCA(Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude) assure acceptable navigation signal coverage only within 22 NM of VOR

Enroute

• MEA( Minimum en route altitude) is the lowest published altitude between radio fixes which assures acceptable navigational coverage and meets obstacle clearance requirements

Enroute

• MCA(Minimum Crossing Altitude) is the lowest altitude at a fix at which an aircraft must cross when proceeding in the direction of a higher MEA

Enroute

• Obstruction clearance in nonmountainous areas is guaranteed for the MOCA and all minimum IFR altitudes providing at least 1,000 ft of vertical distance from the highest obstruction 4 NM either side of the center of the airway

VFR-ON-TOP

• VFR-on-top can be conducted only after a pilot has received a VFR-on-top clearance

• A pilot must request a VFR-on-top clearance

• Must comply with the VFR altitudes

VFR-ON-TOP

• Both IFR and VFR rules apply

• Prohibited in Class A airspace

• A clearance “to VFR-on-top” is to fly through cloud layers to VFR conditions on top

Reports

• Advise ATC when your airspeed changes by 5% or 10 knots whichever is greater

• On a direct routes, the fixes defining the routes become compulsory reporting points

Reports

• When not in RADAR contact on a non-precision approach, report to ATC any time you leave a final approach fix inbound on the final approach

Holding

• Turns are made to the right in a standard holding pattern, and to the left in a non-standard holding pattern

• The entry procedure for a holding pattern depends on your heading relative to the holding course

Holding Patterns

Approach Categories

• Computed as 1.3 VSO

• A - Up to 90 knots

• B - 91 to 120

• C - 121 to 140

• D - 141 to 165

• E - above 165

Approach Charts

• The letters IAF indicate the location of an initial approach fix

• The procedure title indicates the type of approach system used and the equipment required to fly the approach

Approach Charts

• MSA( Minimum Safe Altitude) provides 1,000 ft of obstruction clearance usually within 25 NM

• Neither navigation nor communication coverage is guaranteed

Approach Charts

• Absence of a procedure turn or holding pattern indicates a course reversal is not authorized

• TDZE(Touchdown zone elevation) is the highest elevation in the first 3,000 ft of the landing surface

Approach Charts

• TCH(Threshold crossing height) is the altitude at which you cross the runway threshold when established on the glide slope centerline

• The procedure turn must be completed within the prescribed distance from the facility

Approach Charts

• The precision approach FAF is located at the minimum glide slope intercept point

• When on the glide slope during a precision approach, the missed approach point is the decision height

Approach Charts

• When the glide slope becomes inoperative during an ILS procedure, localizer minimums are used

• Substitution for certain ILS components, when the component is inoperative are permitted

Approach Charts

• If your groundspeed decreases, the rate of descent required to stay on glide slope must also decrease

• Localizer and glide slope indications become more sensitive as you get closer to the runway

Approach Procedures

• An LDA approach is comparable to a localizer, but is not aligned with the runway

• An SDF may offer less accuracy than an LDA approach

Contact Approach

• Must be requested by the pilot, the visibility must be at least one mile, allows the pilot to deviate from an instrument approach procedure and proceed to the destination airport by visual reference to the surface

Weather Factors

• Highs are usually associated with– Good visibility– Light winds– Few clouds– Good weather– Characterized by descending air

Weather Factors

– Lows are usually associated with• precipitation

• cloudiness

• poor visibility

• bad weather

• turbulence

• Wind

• characterized by rising air

• Example of lows are hurricanes and tornadoes

Weather Factors

• Air tries to flow from high to low– At higher altitudes, Coriolis force makes the

wind flow parallel with isobars– At lower altitudes, surface friction weakens

Coriolis force and flows across the isobars– This airflow is wind

Weather Factors

• In the northern hemisphere– Air flows counterclockwise around a low

(cyclonic)– Air flows clockwise around a high

(anticyclonic)– If one were to fly directly to the center of a low,

the winds would come from the left and get stronger as one got closer

Weather Factors

• Relative Humidity– Measure of how much moisture is present for a

a parcel of air at a temperature.– If a parcel of air has a RH of 100%, it is

saturated. The temperature that it is at is called the dewpoint. If this parcel were cooled more, water vapor would clouds, fog, dew or frost

Thunderstorms

• Conditions– Unstable air– Lifting action– High moisture content

• Stages– Cumulus stage Mature stage– Dissipating stage

Hazards

• Embedded thunderstorms may be obscured by cloud layers

• Wind shear can be found on all sides as well as directly under it

• Greatest intensity during mature stage, which is signaled by precipitation at the surface

Types of Thunderstorms

• Airmass thunderstorms are usually isolated or scattered over a large area

• Frontal thunderstorms associated with frontal activity

• Squall line is a narrow band of active thunderstorms normally containing severe weather

Wake Turbulence

• Wingtip vortices occurs when an airplane generates lift

• They can exceed the roll rate of an aircraft

• Greatest when an aircraft is heavy, slow and clean

Clear Air Turbulence

• Turbulence above 15,000 feet AGL not associated with cumuliform cloudiness is reported as CAT

• CAT is common in a upper trough on the polar side of the jet stream

Mountain Wave Turbulence

• Greatest turbulence occurs approaching the lee side of a mountain range in strong headwinds

• Standing lenticular and rotor clouds indicate the possibility of strong turbulence

Microbursts

• Intense, localized downdrafts seldom lasting longer than 15 minutes

• Downdrafts can be as strong as 6,000 feet per minute

• Performance changes drastically as an aircraft flies through a microburst

Fog

• Radiation Fog - ground fog - forms over fairly flat land on clear, calm nights

• Advection fog- forms near coastal areas when moist air moves over colder ground or water

Fog• Upslope fog forms when moist stable air is

forced up a sloping land mass

• Steam fog occurs as cool air moves over warmer water

• Precipitation-induced fog forms when warm rain falls through a layer of cooler air near the surface

TAF

• Terminal Aerodrome Forecast - valid for a 24 hour period and scheduled four times a day

• Primary source of destination weather

• AMD means and amended forecast

• COR means a corrected forecast

• RTD indicates a delayed forecast

Area Forecast FA

• Issued three times a day and include a forecast period of 18 hours

• We are in the Chicago region• Consists of four sections

– Heading– Precautionary statements– Synopsis– VFR Clouds and Weather

Wind and Temperature Aloft

• Uses a four digit code for wind speed and direction, the first two digits are the wind direction in hundreds of degrees

• The second two digits indicate wind speed

• A two digit temperature code in degrees Celsius follows the wind speed and direction code

• All temperature above 24,000 feet are negative

Types of Briefings

• Standard is the most complete briefing and assumes no familiarity with the weather picture

• Abbreviated is used to update weather information when you need only one or two specific items

• Outlook is used if you departure is six or more hours away. You should update with a standard or abbreviated briefing closer to flight time

In-Flight Weather Sources

• Airmets - WA - Airmans meteorological information are forecasts for a maximum of a six hour period

• Sierra for IFR conditions

• Tango for turbulence

• Zulu for icing and freezing levels

SIGMETs

• Significant meteorological information - WS - – Severe Icing– Severe and extreme turbulence– Volcanic eruptions– Duststorms, sandstorms or volcanic ash

lowering visibility to less than three miles

Convective SIGMETs

• Imply severe or greater turbulence, severe icing and low level wind shear

• Contain either an observation and a forecast or just a forecast for tornadoes, significant thunderstorm activity or hail 3/4 inch or greater in diameter

Center Weather Advisory CWA

• Issued by ARTCC to alert pilots of existing or anticipated adverse weather conditions

• May be issued prior to an AIRMET or SIGMET as a result of PIREPs