04/10/23 1

Review Questions

Intro Bio

04/10/23 2

Scientific Experiment

• What are the steps of a scientific experiment?• Experimental/control groups• Sample size• Variable• Significance/error bars (or confidence intervals)• Randomized• Blind/double-blind

04/10/23 3

Characteristics of living things

• Metabolism

• Generative Process (growth, reproduction, inheritance)

• Responsive Process (irritability, adaptation, evolution)

• Control Process (nervous systems, hormones, enzymes, homeostasis)

04/10/23 4

Cells

• cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, ribosomes

• nucleus, ER (endoplasmic reticulum – innerplasmic network of

canals), mitochondria, cellulose cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole

• single-celled, multi-cellular

• species

• ADP/ATP - adenosine di/triphosphate

Basic Chemistry

• atoms, electrons, bonding• molecules• covalent and hydrogen

bonds• CHNOPS (98%)• Mineral ions (2%)• Hydrocarbons (C, H) – e.g.

mineral oil, natural gas, vaseline (petroleum jelly)

• Carbohydrates (C, H, O)• lipids (fats & oils,

phospholipids, steroids)

• Glucose = C6H12O6

• O2, H2O, CO2

• methane CH4 –

greenhouse gas– Forms through anaerobic

decomposition

• Ozone = O3

– Keeps UV radiation out

– It can break down into O2 and ½ O = free radical (found in smog)

04/10/23 5

04/10/23 6

Digestive System

• organs and …• …their order• first target of all

substances digested (liver)

04/10/23 7

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides– glucose– fructose– galactose

• Disaccharides– maltose– sucrose– lactose

• Lactose intolerance– lactase

• Polysaccharides– starch- amylose– cellulose – fiber

• Fiber function in nutrition circulatory system

– glycogen – “animal starch”

• Their structure and functions

• carbohydrate digestion– amylase– maltase– sucrase– lactase

04/10/23 8

Circulatory System

• Heart– Arteries– Veins– Capillaries

• Valves in veins– Pumping function of

aerobic exercise supports the heart

• The circulatory system is a closed system

• As opposed to the lymphatic system, which has open ended vessels

04/10/23 9

Energy

• Summary equations for photosynthesis • carbon dioxide + water + Elight –chlorophyll glucose + oxygen

• and cellular respiration• glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + EATP

04/10/23 10

Lipids• Triglycerides

– Fatty acids, acid group, hydrocarbon tail

• saturated• unsaturated• polyunsaturated

– Essential

– omega 6 and omega 3

• target ratio 4 : 1– Inflammatory anti-

inflammatory

– corn, safflower flax, fish, sunflower canola, soy

• Fats dissolve fat-soluble substances (e.g. many pesticides, fat-soluble vitamins)

• Diseases that go along with excessive inflammation = most degenerative disease:

• Heart disease, diabetes, Alzheimers, most cancers, allergies, asthma, arthritis, xyz-itis

04/10/23 11

Lipid functions

• energy storage• insulation• shock absorption

• sex and other steroid hormones– cholesterol– estrogens– testosterone– progesterone

• cell membranes– brain tissue

04/10/23 12

Proteins

• 20 amino acids = monopeptides

• 8 essential– amino group -NH2

– carboxyl or acid group - COOH

– R-groups (20)

• practically infinite number of possible proteins

Fibrous• collagen• elastin• myosin• keratin

04/10/23 13

Globular Proteins

• Antibodies– (cell-mediated) Immunity (vs.

resistance)– Vaccines– B-cells

• Naïve B cells• Mature B cells• B memory cells

Their functions and structure

anti(body)gen = part of the pathogen

• Protein Hormones• Blood glucose

regulation:– Insulin– Glucagon (the hormone

which kicks in when the glucose is gone)

• Triggers gluconeogenesis

– Growth hormone– BMR, BMI

• Membrane Proteins

– Gluconeogenesis• Triggered by glucagon• New creation of

glucose– From liver glycogen– From amino acids

obtained by breaking down muscle protein

– BMR, BMI– Less muscle, lower

BMR

04/10/23 14

04/10/23 15

Blood glucose regulation

• Insulin and glucagon effects

• Normal BG range 70-120 mg/dl

• Glycemic index– Fast vs slow carbs

• Glycemic load– Includes the amounts of carbs -

impact

• Insulin resistance • Obesity• Diabetes

– Adult onset• life-style dependent,

prevention:– nutrition– Exercise– Whole, unprocessed

foods

– Juvenile• Insulin-dependent

04/10/23 16

Oxygen Carriers

• myoglobin• hemoglobin

– 2 x 2 polypeptide chains

• HbA, • HbB/ Hbs

– HbF

– heme groups (4)– iron ions (4)

• Sickle cell anemia– HbB mutated to Hbs

– HbB = dominant allele Hbs = recessive allele

– Different AA sequence• 1 amino acid difference• different shape• sickling, anemia• symptoms

– PUNNET square

04/10/23 17

Oxygen carriers

• Iron deficiency anemia

• Can be caused by lead, which competes with and replaces iron in the heme group

• Lead also competes with Ca

04/10/23 18

Enzymes

• catalysts• digestive enzymes• substrate• product• enzyme pathways

• sulfa drugs block bacterial enzyme pathways

Inhibition• Feedback• Competitive

• antibiotics, penicillin, e.g. compete with substrate

• Non-competitive– allosteric inhibition

(distorts enzyme’s shape)– from toxins

• heavy metals

04/10/23 19

Enzyme malfunction due to environmental toxins

• Mercury– Minamata disease

• Cadmium– Itai-itai disease

• Lead– Affects cognitive

function– Causes anemia– Many Sources:

• Leaded gasoline• Paint• Etc.

04/10/23 20

Ecology

• trophic level– primary producer– first order consumer– second order

consumer

• Energy flow• autotroph/heterotroph• herbivore• carnivore• decomposer

• food chain/pyramid• biomass• bioaccumulation

– DDT DDE– PCBs– heavy metals

• mercury• cadmium• lead

04/10/23 21

Hereditary enzyme deficiencies

• PKU– retardation – 1/1000 carriers– aspartame

• Cretinism– retardation– Iodine cofactor

• Albinism– lack of melanin

• Enzyme genes can have many mutations and malfunction to different degrees– e.g. mild/severe PKU

04/10/23 22

Mad Cow DiseaseBovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)

• What causes BSE?• What is a prion

• What causes misfolding?

• What is vCJD?• At what ages does it

strike?

• A prion• A misfolded,

infectious protein• A properly folded

protein encountering a misfolded protein

• Human SE caused by infection with BSE prions

04/10/23 23

Spongiform encephalopathies• What is Kuru?

– What caused it? • SE in aboriginals

– cannibalism

• What is scrapie?– Se in sheep

• What probably caused the BSE epidemic in Britain?– Cows being fed rendered

sheep (sheep meal)• When did the BSE epidemic

happen in Britain?– 1990ies into 2000s

• Are there still BSE cases in Europe?– Yes

• Is there BSE in the US?– There was 1 case, we don’t

know• What is Chronic Wasting

Disease (CWD)?– SE in deer and elk in the US

• Is it contagious for cattle and humans? – We don’t know, it is being

studied• How many people die in the

US from SEs each year now?> 200