REUSE OF CENTER CITY RAILROAD LANDSAn Opportunity for Energy Efficient Urban Design

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REGIONAL/URBAN DESIGN ASSISTANCE TEAM (R/UDAT) REPORT--October 1985A Program of the American Institute of Architects

THE AMRICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS1735 New York Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20006

The preparation of this report was funded in part by agrant from the U. S. Department of Energy and was draft-ed by a team organized by the American Institute ofArchitect's Regional/Urban Design Assistance Teams(R/UDAT) program. The team--made up of design, plan-ning, development, and energy specialists from through-out the countryumet from October 18-20, 1985, in theoffices of the San Francisco Chapter/AIA during whichtime this report was written and illustrated.

Team members donate their time and are reimbursed onlyfor travel and living expenses while. in the field.Since the R/UDAT program's inception in 1967, nearly400 men and women have served as members of 89 teams.

Copyright (Ç 1986 by The American Ins titute of Archi-tects. All rights reserved. No part of this book maybe reproduced, stored in a retrieval system. or trans-mitted in any form by any means without prior writtenpermission of the publishers. .

Published in the United States of America by the AlA,1735 New York Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20006

ISBN: 0-913962-79-1AlA Catalog Number: R343

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REUSE OF CENTER CITY RAILROAD LANDSAn Opportunity for Energy Efficient Urban Design

T ABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 2

1 CASE STUDIESPittsburghSan FranciscoDenver

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2 FACTORS AFFECTING REUSELandEconomicsUrban DesignEnergyPeopleInstitutional Needs/CapabilitiesIntegration of Factors

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3 ENERGY OPPORTUNITIESEnd Use Energy Considerations and

CascadingUrban Form

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4 LESSONS LEAREDGauging ValuePublic/PrivateCritical Large

Planning ProcessesScale Development Issues

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INTRODUCTIONThe Urban Design and Planning Committee of the AmericanInstitute of Architects has sent interdisciplinaryRegional/Urban Design Assistance Teams to 89 Americancities since 1967.

The purpose of the R/UDAT program is to assist thesecities in dealing with specific local problems and is-sues through the participation of citizens, agenciesand local interest groups with an interdisciplinaryresource team. The objectives of the program are toimprove physical design, to stimulate public and pri-vate action, and to provide an opportunity for consen-sus among diverse community groups and individuals.

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The reports written during these visits reveal that,although the problems and solutions are local in con-text and emphasis, some are also national. The AlAhas, therefore, decided to begin a new series ofR/UDATsucalled "Generic" R/UDATSuto occur parallel tothe existing program. The new series will examinethose components of local contexts that are national inscope. Through examining local case studies, the newseries hopes to offer some transferability' andawareness of common national issues.

THE R/UDAT ON RAILROAD LAS AN URBAN ENERGY ISSUES

This is the first of this new series. It examines thereuse of railroad lands in the cores of cities. It isa joint effort of the American Institute of Architectsand the U. S. Department of Energy to investigatethrough an interdisciplinary process the opportunitiesfor comprehensive urban design and efficient energy usein the context of the redevelopment of under-utilizedrailroad land resources.

Following the decline of railroad usage and the clear-ance or consolidation of trackage, huge acreages existadjacent to the existing downtowns of cities of everysize, large and small. These tracts are in some casesso extensive that they present a unique opportunity tomany cities to reconsider the basic form and future oftheir downtown areas. .

It is almost impossible to exaggerate the importanceand magnitude of the opportunity. For most cities,these tracts of under-utilized land represent theirlast major chance to radically redesign and reinforcetheir downtown cores and bring to their cities an in-ventory of their most sought after and cherished goals.

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IOn the other hand, they offer an opportunity to rethinkthe way in which the downtown as a whole is to be usedand marketed for coming generations. Thus every re-source of wisdom and input that the city can marshallufrom the private sector, neighborhood groups, citi-

zens, and institutions to agencies and citygovernmentuneeds to be brought to bear on the task.

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I For the railroads and the city alike emerges the chanceto create comprehensive redevelopment plans that in-clude transportation, conservation, downtown housingneeds, public open space and the reclaiming of naturalfeatures and resources, as well as new developments ina compatible interrelationship with the existing city.

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IOne of the compelling conclusions of this report isthat the planning of these land resources is of suchmagnitude that their interrelationship to themetro-region as a whole is critical, not only in termsof economic growth but in terms of physical form.

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I Railroads are essentially lineal systems, penetratingcities to core destinations. Passenger terminal build-ings at the turn of the century were often grand andornate celebrations of arrival and departure. In somecities the architecture of these buildings has a gran-diloquence equal to city halls, courthouses, and evencathedrals .

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IBut, railroad real estate has other characteristics.Trackage often expanded to huge marshalling yards, orto freight houses and warehousing. Some tracks servedlarge industries. Dependent on relatively flat ter-rain, railroads tended to follow river-banks and toexpand in alluvial flats.I

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In recent years, profound econoUlic changes have beentaking place. The decline of heavy industries, thegrowth of the trucking industry, the decline of passen-ger services, and mergers of competing railroad compa-nies have led to a consolidation of trackage and to astreamlining of services including containerization.Several railroad companies, recognizing the value oftheir land holdings, have formed development divisions.

The AlA has assembled an interdisciplinary team--archi-tects, planners, engineers, economists, real estatespecialists, neighborhood activists--to examine thissituation and recommend some ways in which cities,railroad companies, developers and citizens can developplanning processes together to arrive at concensualgoals and plans that benefit all concerned.

THRE CASE STUDIES:

Three case studies of projects at various stages ofcompletion--located in Pittsburg, Denver, and SanFrancisco--have been used to demonstrate what has beendone to date, and what the future opportunities andplanning processes might be from the lessons learned.For example, one critical element of focus in this re-port is energy efficiency. Another focus is the impactof alternative planning goals and procedures.

The report looks at who the main actors are--in theprivate sector, in goverrunent, among the citizens andin special-interest groups--and it addresses the ques-tions of process and leadership. It also looks at oth-er factors such as ecology and conservation, taxgeneration and employment, and the reinforcement oftraditional established downtowns.

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I 1 CASE STUDIESPITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA

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ITwo rivers, the Allegheny and the Monongahela flowingtogether to form a third, the Ohio, are the historickeys to this city.

IIn the eighteenth century, the French and British rec-ognized the strategic importance of this natural"gateway" to the west and fought over it. The discov-ery of the vast Pittsburgh coal seam lead to the city'srapid growth as an industrial powerhouse and the riversbecame transportation arteriesuboats on their water-ways and railroads along their river banks.

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I Pittsburgh is also a city of hills and valleys. As thecity grew, the valleys were filled with steel mills,other industries, and railroads as well as highways.The hilltops became residential communities.I

IEach of these communities had its own physical identityand its own cultural flavor. Indeed, because of theextreme geography of the city, some were separate ju-risdictions. The rivers in the nineteenth century cre-ated Pittsburgh's city boundaries.

IAlso in the nineteenth century, the pall of sulfuroussmoke that hung over the city, glowing orange at nightfrom its reflection of the open hearth furnances, sym-bolized economic growth and blue collar employment. Bythe mid-twentieth century, the same pollution symbol-ized a city that was ugly and increasingly unlivable.

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In the iiiuiiediate pos L-war years, a series ofpublic/private initiatives were taken to change theimage of the city on a large and dramatic scale. Floodcontrol measures, the nation's first clean air act, andthe nation's first urban renewal legislation werepassed in the 1940s.

As a result, the city was able to clear out large andobsolete railroad holdings from the heart of the cityand turn the land over to new uses. Modern corporateskyscrapers rose from the rubble of old railroad ware-houses to greet the newly-discovered blue sky and clearsunlight above with shining metal and glass. And, atthe confluence of the rivers, the city created a greatstate park in the form of a huge front lawn and gatewayto the city.

Pittsburgh thus became theand dramatically change itsto present to the world--notbut as a city dedicated to atechnological change.

first city to consciouslyimage--a deliberate choiceas city of heavy industry,bright new future based on

Today, Pittsburgh's downtown, The "Golden Triangle," ishome for the nation's third largest concentration ofFortune 500 corporations. And the Triangle itself is adense mini-Manhattan, hemmed into a small spit of landbounded on two sides by rivers, and on the third by thehills and escarpments to the east.

In the 1970s and 80s, the downtown leapt the rivers forthe first time. The development of Station Square andof the Stadium in the seventies, and North Shore in theearly eighties, have led to a new conception of therivers. Now instead of being edges or barriers, therivers form two majestic waterways within a downtownthat has begun to occupy the alluvial flats on theirfarther banks.

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The importance of this to Pittsburgh is obvious. Lessobvious, but no less important, is its relevance forother cities. The development sites in question wererailroad lands. In the case of the sites north of theAllegheny, the railroads were demolished and ceased toexist, leaving cleared land for redevelopment. In thecase of Station Square site south of the Monongahela,the railroad not only remained active but the Pitts-burgh and Lake Erie Railroad became a development part-ner in the project.

Railroad lands are, of course, linear in form--inPittsburgh, a strip of railroad land on the low groundbetween the river's edge and the adjacent hills. Theirphased redevelopment, therefore, occurs like beadsstrung together. Station Square is adding to itselfincrementally east and west. The area known as TheNorth Shore is also planned as a series of incrementswhich will form a continuous redevelopment when theyare completed.

Railroad lands offer the best opportunity to cities forrevising urban form on a macrocosmic basis and forevolving a new image and character for futuregenerations.

In the planning effort that. cities will undergo inseizing this opportunity, it might be well to rememberthat railroad lands are corridors. New rapid transitsystems or new busways tying city neighborhoods andsuburban nodes to the downtown should be considered, aswell as the opportunities and controls for new develop-ment along these corridors that the new transit systemswill generate.

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IECONOMI CS IPittsburgh, in the context of the "rust belt," has seenits population drop from almost 700,000 in 1950 to justover 400,000 in 1985. In contrast, a visitor today toits Golden Triangle would view over nine million squarefeet of new office space constructed in less than tenyears (on a base of less than twenty million). Coupledwith new hotels as well as retail and reuseproj ects ,the 1970's employment of 124,000 will have been in-creased by 40,000. This services/knowledge economy iscreating markets for projects which reuse railroad andindustrial sites rendered obsolete by the city and re-gion's changing economy. No longer "Hell with the lidoff," Pittsburgh has responded to these changesthrough a development policy which recognizes thatland, labor and capital are required for Pittsbùrgh' scontinued economic vitality and that those factors ofproduction must be available in sufficient quantitiesand at appropriate costs for job producing investmentto occur. Land, as the least mobile factor of produc-tion, requires that mature cities such as Pittsburghcreate "new" urban land resources through conversion ofrailroad land and adjacent heavy industrial arid distri-bution uses. The expendable railroad and warehouses ofthe lower Triangle provided the opportunity for thepost-war creation of the office, hotel and open spacecomplex of Gateway Center and Point State Park while,additionally, excess railway and warehouse lands pro-vided the opportunities for Three Rivers Stadium andthe David Lawrence Convention Center in the 1970s.

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Also in the 1970s, market conditions allowed consider-ation of the reuse of the Pittsburgh and Lake ErieRailroad's station and warehouse facilities across theMonongahela from the Triangle. Blending approximately

$7 million in foundation grants with a like amount ofpublic grants and loans, the Pittsburgh History andLandmark Foundation, as master developer, was able toattract private investment for the conversion of the

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freight house to a festival retail center, the stationand its annex to office and restaurant uses, and thewarehouse to office and retail uses, with a relatedparking structure. A hotel and docking facility forthe "Gateway Clipper" cruise fleet completed the firstphase of development by 1984. The reuse and mixed useconcepturelying on the natural amenities of the sitebetween the Monongahela River and Mt. Washington, thequality of the inherited and restored built environ-ment, and the proximity to the rapidly expanding GoldenTriangle, has led to a successful regional center. Thehotel consistently maintains the highest average occu-pancy in the region, while the many chain restaurantsin the festival retail center boast the highest salesper square foot in their respective chains.

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IEarly City concerns regarding encouragement of "down-town" uses across the rivers for the first time inPittsburgh's history have refocused instead on the waysin which the Golden Triangle and North and South Shoredevelopments can be related to one another and as partof a larger downtown to take advantage of the rivers tpotential. Consistent with the land use component ofthe City's Downtown Development Strategy, developmentof new office space at Station Square is limited. Ad-ditionally, the transportation component has led toprovision of "fringe" parking at Station Square toserve the Triangle while the new light-rail systemserving the South Hills-to-Downtown corridor has a stopat Station Square. Urban Development Action Grantfunds were secured both for parking construction andtraffic impact mitigation measures required by the newdevelopment. Furtherance of the City's open-space pol-icies has been met to a degree by river access to theClipper Fleet, but efforts to create a waterfront prom-enade have been stymied by the railroad's insistencethat expensive river wall maintenance be given over tothe city.

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The Three Rivers Stadium project represents changingmarket conditions over a relatively brief twenty-yearperiod. In the mid-1960s, the City selected the areaacross the point to replace Forbes Field in the city'sUniversity neighborhood. The redevelopment projectrequired clearance of the early 1920s railroads andwarehouses which had themselves replaced ExhibitionPark, the city's original home for the Pirates. At thetime, the intended land use was limited to a municipalstadium, parking, and a one-mile riverfront park. Bythe 1980s, however, the unanticipated strength of thedowntown office market produced rising Golden Triangleland costs leading to interest in the fringe areas suchas the stadiumufirst for daily surface parking andthen for development opportunities. At the same time,as part of a renegotiated lease with the Pirates, theCity regained the development rights to the stadiumland. Rejecting a steady stream of unsolicited propos-als for "suburban" office buildings, bargain-rate ho-tels, and floating dinner clubs, the City establishedfour objectives for the site:

The development plan shouldlong-term benefits to the city.

totalmaximize

It should enhance the use of the stadiumthrough expanded parking, improved access andcirculation, and added amenities.

Land uses should relate to stadium activitiesand be supportive, and not competitive with,downtown and other major development sites.

Any proposed use should preserve and enhancepublic access to the riverfront, take into ac-count views from and of the site, and retainthe stadium as the dominant architecturalfeature.

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The City's plan seeks to utilize the region's greatestnatural resources--its riverfront--to transform thesite into a major new complex with over 3,000 new per-manent jobs. The stadium proj ect would include asci-ence and technology center, a tech mart, a hotel,recreational retail shopping, a children's theme park,an outdoor festival area, a marina, improved parkingfacilities, and an enhanced public access to thewaterfront.

The focal point of the Stadium Proj ect would be theCenter for Science and Technology, symbolizing Pitts-burgh's emergence as a leader in the new field of ad-vanced technology. The Center, along with the proposedtech mart, would provide an important link between theJones and Laughlin (J & L) site and Herr's Island, theCity's two other riverfront projects where advancedtechnology uses are proposed.

Once constructed, the Center would be almost entirelyself-supporting because of the exciting new OmnimaxTheatre. To make possible total project funding of$284.5 million, the City has requested state assistanceof $29 million to supplement $155 million of privateinvestment, $10 million of Federal investment, and $83million of tax and revenue bond supported localinvestment.

The project, announced in September of 1984, is likelyto be under cons truction by 1988, when new expres swaysserving the site will be open and will include a re-versible high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lane to serviceboth stadium events and daily fringe parkers. Thiswill reduce energy usage and vehicle emissions and willcomplement a downtown development strategy that pricesGolden Triangle parking to encourage both transitridership and fringe parking usage.

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The J & L project represents the very real and visibletransformation of a portion of the Pittsburgh economyfrom heavy metals to advanced technology. Conversionof the 51 acres of former steel-producing land alongthe Monongahela River to the Pittsburgh Technology andIndustrial Park will take advantage of the site's prox-imity to the Golden Triangle with its corporate head-quarters as well as to the University of Pittsburgh andCarnegie-Mellon University.

This development will capitalize on the demonstratedleadership of Carnegie-Mellon University and the Uni-versity of Pittsburgh in fields such as computersoftware, robotics, and bio-medical engineering. Twoof the projects to be located on the J & L site are theNational Center for Robotics in Manufacturing, with itsintegration of robots into the "factory of the future,"and the Western Pennsylvania Biotechnology Center, withits linkage between state-of-the-art academic researchand commercially profitable industrial applications.These two projects will set a high standard for theremaining research and development, office, and lightindustrial uses.

Seventy-nine million dollars in private investment willbe leveraged by $16 million in state investment, $.5million in Federal investment, and $3 million in localinvestments and will produce 1,100 jobs.

The City will continue to monitor the additional 200acres of railroad and steel mill land stretching alongthe Monongahela for possible reuse. To aid in thisanalysis, as well as to maintain jobs in the metalssector, the City and County will undertake a metalsretention/reuse study.

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The reuse strategy will address the potential new usesof each site, with emphasis on advanced technology ap-plications; estimate the costs of acquisition, clear-ance, infrastructure, and site improvements for eachproposed new use; estimate job creation and tax impactpotential of each new private development; develop ahuman resources strategy for workers displaced by thetransition to a new use; and determine the potentialfor public access to the riverfront on reused sites,including possible sites for public parking.

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ISTATION SQUAR

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In the early 1970s, the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Rail-road (P&LE) owned a series of underused buildings. Itsornate Italianate passenger terminal was vacant exceptfor morning and evening commuter trains. Its freighthouse shovel warehouse and two annex office buildings,were underused or empty, and there were rumors of pos-sible demolition.I

IThe Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation (PHLF)commissioned a master plan and a market feasibilitystudy showing the recycling of the existing buildingsfor new uses and the phased development of the total 41acre site with new buildings.I

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The master plan was predicated on providing the down-town with something that it did not have--a festivalplace to serve the metropolitan region and to attracttourists. The freight house and the warehouse wouldhouse a festival shopping center with an architecturalimagery drawn from the history of Pittsburgh's rail-roads, rivers, and buildings and the terminal wouldhouse a unique restaurant in the old passengerconcourse.

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Offices, a hotel, a dock for riverboats, a parkingstructure, and landscape treatment that included his-toric artifacts of monumental scale were incorporatedinto the master plan. Later phases, yet to be added,included new condominium housing facing the river andthe Golden Triangle.

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TECHNOLOGY AN INDUSTRY PAR

Allied to the Univérsity of Pittsburgh andCarnegie-Mellon University, this 51 acre site is de-signed as a campus of new buildings. Landscaped openspaces provide the buildings with riverfront access andvistas to the south while parking areas and structuresare located conveniently between the new buildings andthe entry-points from the highways along the northernedge.

The site has two entry-points designed not only to makethe phasing of the project easier, but also to symbol-ize the two universities and their researchdepartments.

Southern exposure provides architects and developerswith the opportunity of harnessing active and passivesolar energy while simultaneously insulating theirbuildings within tight thermal envelopes. And, land-scape treatments provide the opportunity for windbreaksand other climate-mitigating protections against winterstorms and sumer heat.

The planning provides for incremental growth, eachphase being a complete piece in itself. In this waythe timing of development can respond both to marketforces and to the technological advances promoted byuniversity research and corporate investment.

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ITHRE RIVERS STADIUM IThe Three Rivers Stadium project inherited componentswhose scale rivals that of the earlier railroad landsand warehouses. Three Rivers Stadium itself, flankedby parking lots, stretching along a mile of the Ohioand Allegheny Rivers, and contained by the interstatehighways and the Ft. Duquesne Bridge, is a dominantfeature of the city's skyline. The urban design schemeaccepted this dominance, and developed a continuouswall of structures on each side of the stadium, alsostretching along the rivers with Roberto Clemente Park.The open space system also extends around the stadium.

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Vehicular entrances to elements of the development oc-cur along roads which are perpendicular to the horizon-tal scheme of the rivers, open space and structures.The structures, housing a variety of uses, are not atrue megastructure, but are reminiscent of the varietyof freight houses, warehouses, roundhouses and termi-nals that comprise typical rail complexes.

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IURBAN DESIGN AND PLANING PROCESS

STATION SQUAR

IIn 1973 Arthur Ziegler, President of the PHLF, askedUDA/Architects of Pittsburgh, to devise a master planfor the 41 acre P&LE site, with an emphasis on recy-cling all of the existing buildings.

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The Allegheny Foundation granted funds in 1974 to en-able an independent market feasibility study. Legalmechanisms to enable PHLF as a non-profit entity tojoint venture with P&LE as a for-profit entity werestudied simultaneously.

I In 1975, following a positive market feasibility reportand acceptance by the IRS of the j oint venture, theAllegheny Foundation granted PHLF a $5 million equitygrant to proceed with the development. Approvals ofthe master plan by the City Planning Commission werethen granted, and detailed architectural drawings forthe Express House, the Grand Concourse and the FreightHouse were begun.

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IThe Express House, the smallest of the three elements,opened as an office building in 1977. In 1978, the 550seat Grand Concourse Restaurant and Gandy Dancer Baropened in the Terminal, following an investment of $2.5million by the C. A. Muer Corporation. The FreightHouse opened in 1978 following $6 million in privatesector investment including $2.3 PHLF equity. TheFreight House included fifty specialty shops andrestaurants.

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Neanwhile, construction of the SheriJton Hotel and therecycling of the Shovel Warehouse for shops and offic-es, to be called Commerce Court, was under way. TheShera ton opened in 1981 and Commerce Court opened in1983 following $21 million in private investment. Alsoin 1983, a four-deck 800-space parking garage was builtwith $3 million private investment to match a $3 mil-lion Urban Development Action Grant.

In 1985, 73,000 square feet of recycled offices in theterminal building above the Grand Concourse opened,following $6.5 million in private investment and theGatehouse building with 50,000 square feet of officesalso opened, with $5.2 million in private investment.

Also in 1985, the PHLF extended its 41-acre site west-ward by 6.5 acres beyond the Fort Duquesne Bridge bythe acquisition of the Northern Star Ice Cream and theLawrence Point buildings.

The proj ect has prototypicalthree maj or factors:

importance because of

Old railroad buildings are recycled rather thandemolished, thus making history the basis foran urban richness extending into the future.

The master plan was based on uses that offeredto the City a festival market place of a kindthe City lacked, thus Station Square was notcompeting with (and weakening) existing down-town businesses.

And P&LE used its land and buildings as equityin a j oint venture development with the PHLF,thus continuing its ownership position in thissuccessful project.

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TECHNOLOGY AN INDUSTRY PARK

In the fall of 1980, Pittsburghers were stunned tolearn that Dallas-based LTV would close its J & L Sec-ond Avenue hot strip mill, which employed 1,500 people,down from a peak of 5,000. The mill, part of J & LIscomplex which stretched along both sides of theMonongahela River, was being closed due to deficientdemand, not technological obsolescence. The City al-most immediately began working with a local developerin an effort to purchase the mill for industrial reuse.However, the mill was sold instead to the Park Corpora-tion,basically for the salvage value of the capitalequipment and structures. In 1983, the City, throughits Redevelopment Authority (UR), announced that itwould purchase the cleared land from Park for develop-ment into an industrial park. The site would becomethe first in-city industrial park of the Regional In-dustrial Development Corporation (RIDC), a quasi-publiccreation of Allegheny County charged with industrialsite development responsibilities. The proj ect is amajor component of "Strategy 21," the cooperative eco-nomic development strategy of the City of Pittsburgh,Allegheny County, the University of Pittsburgh, andCarnegie-Mellon University.

In September 1985, the City Planning Commission ap-proved the preliminary land development plan and recom-mended Council approval of rezoning from a heavyindustry category to a "specially-planned district" forthe Pittsburgh Technology and Industry Park. Siteclearance will be 75% complete by the beginning of1986, with construction of site infrastructure to beginin the spring of 1986.

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The site will be developed by RIDC as master developerunder contract to the URA as landowner. Individualsites will be sold or leased for uses relating to theadvanced technology specialties of the two universitiesand Pittsburgh firms.

THRE RIVERS STADIUM

In 1982, the City of Pittsburgh and its professionalbaseball franchise, the Pittsburgh Pirates, negotiatedthe Pirates' lease for Three Rivers Stadium. By reas-suming the development rights to the surrounding park-ing lots, the City was faced with its secondopportunity in fifteen years to consider the re-use ofthis former railway and warehouse land on the banks ofthe Allegheny and Ohio Rivers.

While the redevelopment project of the 1960s had a rel-atively simple program of stadium, parking and water-front improvements in an era of federal funding forredevelopment and urban parks, the development projectof the 1980s was faced with a scarcity of public prof-its. With the financial target of $1 million per yearto reduce stadium operating deficits and the planningobjectives of the creation of a regionalbus iness/ entertainment/ education complex which wouldnot compete with other existing or planned projects,and a requirement to maintain the minimum of 4,200parking spaces for stadium events (for both practicali-ty and bondholder commitments), the project inherited asite with complexities quite different from those ofthe railroad and warehouse properties of only a fewyears earlier. But the fact that the property had beenassembled into a single tract under the control of theCity and its Stadium Authority allowed the project toproceed with the City contributing land as its equityin proposed development. .

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IThe City Planning Department assembled a multidisci-plinary team of consultants to supplement City staff in1983. This team prepared the mixed use plan announcedin the fall of 1984. The plan was developed as part ofthe City's Downtown Development Strategy, which hasguided the growth of the Golden Triangle and its envi-rons since the late 1970s. The City is now in the pro-cess of negotiating with potential developers whileproceeding with further engineering, design and financ-ing of the parking garages necessary to allow develop-ment to proceed on portions of the existing stadiumparking lots.

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LESSONS LEARD

The Station Square project represents the successfulreuse of railroad buildings in the context of anoperating railroad. The project demonstrates the needfor a private/public/foundation financing partnershipto achieve the dual objectives of preservati on andcreation of a mixed-use destination complex. The at-traction of the buildings, their history and their set-ting proved enough to overcome conventional wisdom re-garding location. The project was considered riskyenough, however, that the financial success of tenantsand sub-developers has yet to be realized by the masterdeveloper--a situation likely to be overcome as accessto the local highway system is improved and future de-velopment occurs. The project also indicates problemsin dealing with railroads and railroad land. The oper-ating rail continues to be a physical barrier to directriver-front access, due to unresolved issues of liabil-ity and riverfront wall maintenance. Railroad corpora-tions are not always structured to respond to develop-ment proposals or to operate as a development partner.

In order to overcome the factors preventing develop-ment, the community and developer may be tempted toaccept lower quality development, which would havea short-term benefit but a long-term cost. Certainly,the hotel at Station Square, as the first entirely newstructure, failed to carry out the architectural vocab-ulary established by the reuse of the railroad struc-tures. Instead, it is a structure which could be foundalong any stretch of suburban highway, and representsmore of an impediment to high quality future develop-ment than did the inherited constraints of railroadland. The public sector, too, in its reluctance to beseen as doing any thing but facilitating an uncertainproject, failed to insist on compliance with its ownplanning and urban design standards which could h~vebeen effective under the planned development zoningcategory.

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The Three Rivers Stadium project, as well as the City'sStrip District project~ demonstrates the value ofinterim use of railroad land. Cities should be pre-pared to resist the temptation to rush into developmentof a railroad site just because it has become availableafter a century or so of active rail use. The scale ofsuch land is frequently large and is added to an exist-ing list of available sites. In densely-developed cit-ies, surface parking may be an appropriate use, sinceit reduces the demand for public and private investmentin parking structures. Fringe parking can be avaluable tool in competition with suburban sites which

typically offer a plentiful supply of free parking.Fringe parking can also be part of a larger City strat-egy to reduce traffic congestion and vehicular pollu-tion within the downtown core by pricing parking toencourage long-term parkers to utilize the fringe park-ing resource or shift. to transit. When market and pub-lic policies dictate structured parking, it canfrequently be provided on the railroad due to lowerland costs and the cost-effective means of constructionon the relatively unconstrained sites. Finally, aninterim use can provide "breathing room," during whichunique needs may be identified as new market ideasemerge. Festival markets may not be the only route tourban salvation forever.

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I Pittsburgh's J & L site offers a lesson on the differ-ing demands on area infrastructure between a railway/industrial use and emerging uses. The former requiredroads capable of handling heavy trucks, for example, aswell as transit and auto traffic for workers in two orthree shifts per day. The latter uses, however, re-

. quire roads to handle traffic generated by one shiftper day in structures with generation characteristicsquite similar to those of office uses.

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I The J & L site, with its waterfront orientation nearboth downtown Pittsburgh and its universities, demon-strates the qualities of under-utilized railway andindustrial land which offer such tremendous potential.Bio-medical engineering and advanced manufacturingtechniques, such as robotics, may occur on the verysites which supported the earlier era of industrialproduction and distribution. Enough such sites may bejust what is needed to keep the festival marketsbooming.

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I SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA--MISSION SAY

IHISTORY

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Civilization came to Mission Bay in 1769 when Aguirresurveyed the western edge of San Francisco Bay andopened the area to Spanish settlement. The Spanishestablished Mission Dolores on a creek that fed MissionBay, a shallow expanse of water and marsh. In 1846,when the United States took California from Mexico,only a few missions, forts and settlements distin-guished Yerba Buena, later named San Francisco, fromwhat it had been for thousands of years. But in 1849,the discovery of gold sparked its transformation into aburgeoning industrial and commercial city.

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Its need for rail access, just sixteen years later, ledto construction of the wood pile supported Long Bridgeat the mouth of Mission Bay in 1865, isolating it fromSan Francisco Bay. Over the next 50 years, Mission Baywas filled for railroad and industial development leav-ing as its remnant Mission Creek -- first a thrivingmaritime waterfront, now the lazy host to wildlife anda picturesque boat/houseboat harbor.

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Mission Bay, consisting of 230 acres of obsolete andunderused railyards and warehouses owned by the SantaFe Pacific Company, and bisected by Mission Creek, anavigable tidal channel held in trust by the Port ofSan Francisco, is the target for a maj or developmentproposaL.

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THE PROJECT

The project being planned consists of 230 acres (origi-nally 195 acres but later augmented through the South-ern Pacific-Santa Fe merger). The site is largely on alevel landfill of what was once a shallow bay withinthe larger San Francisco Bay.

Its current uses are rail-holding yards, which are tobe relocated, and some warehouse and light industrialuses on short-term leases. The site is surrounded by aresidential neighborhood (Potrero Hill) on a hill tothe west, a large wholesale showroom district (Show-place Square) to the northwest, and industrial and mar-itime lises in the other directions. It is locatedabout a mile from San Francisco's financial district.It is buffered on the west and north by an elevatedinterstate freeway which terminates in midair and isnot to be completed. The site has an excellentmicroclimate and good views of the downtown skyline.It has limited direct access to the bay shoreline butcontains within it a narrow inlet called Mission Creek,which has a small houseboat community.

The property is owned by the Santa Fe Pacific Develop-ment Company (the merged land development companies ofthe Southern Pacific and Santa Fe railroads), the City

(developed and underdeveloped streets), the State ofCalifornia (which has an air rights easement for theelevated freeway), and by the Port of San Francisco(Mission Creek). The addition of certain other proper-ties controlled by the Port is being discussed.

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APPROACHES TOWAR DEVELOPMENT

THE GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE-ONLY MODEL: In the early1970s the City sought to encourage the Southern Pacificto redevelop its property. Planning staff prepareddesign sketches and provided rather permissive zoning.The property was held by the Southern Pacific Transpor-tation Company which saw a continuing railroad use andthe City's overture was rejected without seriouscons idera tion.

City policy developed in the late 1970s, and as ex-pressed in its general plan, encouraged some housing ona portion of the site nearest downtown and industrialuse of the balance~

THE "DEVELOPER INITIATIVE-ONLY" MODEL: In the early1980' s Southern Pacific, without prior consultation,presented to City planning officials preliminary plansfor development of the entire site (exclusive of theSanta Fe holdings) as a high-density mixed-use project.The plan was not favorably received because of density,use and design objections. Southern Pacific was en-couraged to try again with new consultants which, withsome initial reluctance, it agreed to do.

THE "DEVELOPER INITIATIVE/GOVERNNT INTERACTION" MOD-EL: The City indicated its willingness to considerchanges in its land use policies for the area withoutgiving a clear indication of what changes it would sup-port. Rather, Southern Pacific was encouraged to ob-tain an analysis and recommendations from its newconsultants which the City would then consider. South-ern Pacific hired I.M. Pei, from New York, and Wallace,Roberts and Todd, from Philadelphia, to work underSouthern Pacific's direction. Over the course of ayear, a plan was prepared with periodic meetings withCity staff and community groups, particularly fromnearby Potrero Hill. Both City officials and community

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groups were in reactive roles, however--reacting tomaterials pre-screened by Southern Pacific, and pre-sented to them by the Southern Pacific and itsconsul tants .

A well-designed but unresponsive plan was developedwhich called for some 16 million square feet of officeand research and development space in structures rang-ing from 4 to 42 stories in height, and 7,000 units ofhousing ranging in heights from 2 to 20 stories, arounda re-created lagoon and canal system.

Repeated objections to heights of buildings and thequantity of office space were made by City officialsand the community. These went unheeded by SouthernPacific. Principal concerns were that, in effect, theplan created a second downtown core, and that notenough housing unitsuvis-a-visprojected employmentuwere being provided. The City wanted the project toproduce a surplus of housing over the demand generatedby the new employees the proj ect would create. South-ern Pacific insisted that it needed the proposed quan-tity of office space to justify its investment in theinfrastructure required to create the environment tosupport the housing.

For these and other reasons (including uncertaintyabout the location of a new stadium), an impasse devel-oped. The Mayor of San Francisco and the President ofSouthern Pacific became directly involved in negotia-tions in an effort to break the impasse to no avail.Citizen groups working with members of the Board ofSupervisors (the local legislative body) were proposinga public referendum on a policy statement that wouldcall for lower heights and less commercial development,There was also talk of the City purchasing the proper-ty, voluntarily or unvolunta.rily. The impasse contin-ued until the Southern Pacific-Santa Fe merger wassuddenly announced, and Santa Fe personnel took charge

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I of the negotiations. They asked the Mayor to delineatespecifically what her administration would support sothat Santa Fe could decide whether it was interested indeveloping under her guidelines, or whether they wouldsimply land-bank the property.I

IEventually, a general land use plan and developmentprogram was developed which the Mayor and Santa Fe,through a written Memorandum of Understanding (MOU),indicated they would both support. It set a maximumheight of 8 stories (compared to 42 under the Peiplan), reduced the maximum office/R&D square footage byover 9 million square feet (eliminating the seconddowntown core objection), increased the minimum numberof housing units, and specified that 3,090 of them wereto be for low and moderate income households, and pro-vided for maj or open spaces.

It was later explained that the corporate objectiveshad changed--Southern Pacific's being to establish max-imum land value, without regard to the duration ofbuildout, and Santa Fe's being to maximize cash flow.

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IA NEW BEGINNING: THE "GOVERNNT LADOWNR CITIZEN PAR-ITY" MODEL: Using the Mayor-Santa Fe MOD as a point ofdeparture, a detailed plan is being developed by theCity's Planning Department (with monies provided bySanta Fe) with the action and direct involvement ofSanta Fe and community groups. These range from thedirectly affectëd houseboat community to city-wide spe-cial interest groups, that had organized into a clear-inghouse for consideration of their varying interests.All three parties--government, landowner and citizenry-are now participating in an open planning process whichwill take another year to complete. If successful, itwill result in a project the three groups can supportand will culminate in the enactment of public policies,development controls, and the execution of a develop-ment agreement that commits the developer and the cityto the staged actions needed to carry out the projectover a 15- to 20-year buildout period.

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PERSPECTIVES ON CITY AND LANDOWNER NEEDS

The City looks to Mission Bay to satisfy its needs forhousing (particularly housing affordable by the City'sworking population), for job-generation (secondary of-fice, blue collar and "new collar" such as office ser-vices, printing, computers, etc.), and for open spacein the park-deprived eastern half of San Francisco.Santa Fe, of course, is looking to create a qualityproject that will convert its land to cash.

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PERSPECTIVES ON LOCATION

Within Mission Bay is Missionchannel that hosts magnificentwingspreads. This amenityenhanced.

Creek, a sheltered tidalshorebirds with six-footcan be expanded and

Mission Bay is surrounded by diverse and vital, yetunconnected areas: Potrero Hill's residential neigh-borhoods, Showplace Square i s designer showrooms,Townsend Street i s office conversions of historic ware-houses, and a transportation depot that is the terminusof the heavy rail peninsula commuter line and its con-nection with a proposed light rail extension of theCity's municipal railway system. The new development,and particularly its central park, can provide a centerand focus for a new district that includes all of theseareas.

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The questions to be resolved in the coming months offormulation of a preferred plánare these:

-Can more than the minimum 7,500 housing units beplanned?

-Can the housing affordabilLty goals be achieved orbettered?

-How much of the maximum 6.7 million square feet: ofcommercial/R&D space is needed to finance the pro-ject? Can R&D activities be attracted to thiscentral city location? Is back office space need-ed here to prevent the migration of clerical jobsto the suburbs?

-Can an 18-acre parcel of Port land be releasedfrom future maritime use?

-What will be the amount and quality of the openspace? Can the tidal waterway be developed as arich natural resource in its own right, or simplyas a decorative amenity for the residential/ com-mercial development?

-What will be the design of the street grids and ofthe general development?

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LESSONS LEARED

Staged projects that are large-scale and long-term canonly proceed if there is a general consensus among thelandowner-developer, government, and the citizenry.Achieving that consensus requires the development ofcompatible objectives as early as possible. It is bestand most quickly achieved if all three groups partici-pate in the planning process on a relatively equalfooting. Failure to achieve that consensus in thefirst three approaches to development of Mission Bayresulted in years of inaction and the waste of millionsof dollars in fruitless planning and lost opportunitycosts.

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DENVER, COLORADO

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Unlike Pittsburgh and San Francisco, Denver reigns overa sparsely populated region. Although its founding. wasalso related to user functions--in this case a rivercrossing--the water is not a significant fa~tor or b~r-rier. Denver is the gateway to the mountains for mil-lions of skiers and sumer tourists it is home to manylarge military and civilian government installationsand defense contractors, and more recently, the servicecenter for regional mineral exploration and extraction.The area is relatively flat before rising to the

moun-tains on the west and to the south would seem, at firstglance, to be unconstrained. But! ~ater is not. univ~r-sally available and there are llmited. area.s in wh~chthe region can grow. Even more constrained is the Cityof Denver which can no longer annex undeveloped landdue to a state constitutional amendment instigated andsupported by suburban jurisdictions.

One of the largest areas of undeveloped land within thecity is the Central Platte River Valley, adjacent toand west of the central business district. Interstate1-25, the South Platte River (100' wide channel) and amoderate bluff form the western edge of the CentralPlatte Valley; the eastern edge of the val~ey and thehistoric district of lower downtown are defined by themain line railroad corridor. The area is further de-fined on the north and south by major access corridorsinto the downtown area and is bisected by Speer Boule-vard and Cherry Creek that forms a diagonal open-spacecorridor that bisects the valley and the city. Thiscorridor defines the flood plain area to the south fromthe northern area which is out of the flood plain. Foryears, that area has been vacant or uninhabited exceptfor an auto crushing facility.

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Several years ago, a major flood occurred that promptedCorbusian "Ideal City" proposals. In recent years,successful attempts have been made to clean the valleyup, remove abandoned railroad uses and tracks, and re-claim access to the South Platte River as an open spacecorridor and amenity. In the meantime, a nwnber ofdevelopment proposals have been proposed for an enter-tainment/ amusement park to a new-town-in-town.

After an unsuccessful attempt in 1974 at redeveloping aportion of the area, Burlington Northern, Inc., througha newly-formed subsidiary, Glacier Park Company, pro-posed the redevelopment of 155 acres under a j oint ven-ture arrangement with Miller-Klutznick-Davis-Gray. Asthe plan developed momentum, other redevelopmentinterests surfaced which, collectively, would impactthe entire Platte Valley. A public/private task forcewas appointed by the new mayor to bring together thevarious public and private interest groups to develop aframework for a study area of approximately 400 acres.This task force--The Platte Valley Development Commit-tee--began their work in January 1984. It is comprisedof representatives of the City Council, the PlanningBoard and other administrative offices, railroads, de-velopers, and neighborhood organizations and landown-ers in the area. It issued its Policy Documentreflecting the agreements reached in the process inJune, 1985. The concept plan will be the basis forzoning, development agreements, and other contractsaffecting the development of the Central Platte Valley.

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ISSUES/CONCERNS/ ASSUMPTIONS

Denver is in a "landlocked" situation because the Citycannot annex additional land and is in competition withsuburban areas that can annex additional land and ex-ceed Denver in area. This severely affects Denver'sability to increase economic development for additionaljobs, residents and tax revenue. The need for suchdevelopment, comes in part, from the fact that Denverhas been losing its economic base to surrounding areas.

Given these circumstances, it is important that theremaining undeveloped land in Denver be put to betteruse whenever possible. The Central Platte Valley isthe most prominent example of such underutilized land.

The Central Platte Valley as it currently exists, mor-ever, offers the opportunity for Denver to activelycompete with suburban developments. This is becausethe land values in the Valley are competitive with sur-rounding projects, there is excellent access to theValley, and it is a location immediately adjacent todowntown services. Also, the Valley presents uniqueamenities, such as an improved South Platte River,Cherry Creek, and new open space opportunities.

There were certain guidelines and constraints in theCentral Platte Valley:

Funds for public acquisition of entire redevelop-ment areas are not available.

Generally, a local government cannot use eminentdomain to acquire land owned by a railroad.

To the greatest extent possible, the developmentin the Platte Valley must pay for the infrastruc-ture which directly benefits the Platte Valley.

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The development in the Platte Valley should com-plement, not duplicate the downtown.

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The development of the Central Platte Valley of-fers the city a special opportunity to achievecertain high priority goals of developingaddi-tional open space and substantial core-areahousing.

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IMajor public funds are not available for develop-ment subsidies of non-economic projects. IThe goal was to create a redevelopment plan thatis economically viable for the private sectorwhile achieving the primary public sector goals ofadditional open space, housing, quality design,and urban character.

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IThe development of the Platte Valley will takeover 25 years, and as such, the development ofdetail expressed in the concept plan must be flex-ible enough to accommodate changing markets, pub-lic objectives, and financing availability.

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IThe transformation of the Central Platte Valley from anarea associated only with railyards and warehouses toone in which the waterways and greenways are prominentcould trigger a significant change in the image of Den-ver for many people. The Platte Valley, for many, iscurrently a transportation crossroads through whichthey travel. For those people, their image of Denveris, in great part, their image of the Platte Valley.The enhancement of the .valley through the improvementsoutlined in the plan, offers the opportunity to createa dynamic and powerful gateway and image for Denver andto reunite neighborhoods that have been cut off by thehighway and railroads.

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Through the addition of landscapes open space, peopleoriented activities (employment, cultural, recreation-aI, and pedestrian/retail), and housing, there would bean opportunity to respond to markets in the core areawhich have not yet been successfully tapped. In addi-tion, these projects could effect substantial change inhow people define Denver. Denver-- facing themountains--will not only be a city of family residenc-es, cultural and recreational opportunities, and myriadparks, but would once again be reconnected to the wa-terways where the city was founded.

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The 400 acre development studythe Platte River, west ofDistrict.

IThe history of the Central Platte Valley has producedits current poor visual image. It is zoned for indus-trial use and has existed for many years as rail yards,warehousing, and small industrial. and processingbusiness--highly dependent on rail usage. The area hasa blighted image and had been in the 100-year floodplain since such records were kept. However, recentimprovements to Cherry Creek have caused those proper-ties north of Speer boulevard to be removed from theflood plain.

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IFor years the Platte River had no care and it, too,added to the blight of the area. But through the1970 i s--due principally to the efforts of the GreenwayFoundation and millions of dollars in expenditures--thePlatte has taken on new beauty through improvements andthe addition of parks along its banks. The Platte Riv-er and Cherry Creek offer the major natural amenitieson which new development can capitalize.

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A major portion of the 400 acre study area is owned bythe rai 1 road companies serving the nnetropoli tandistrict--Burlington Northern, Rio Grande, and UnionPacific, along with the Denver Union Terminal Railroad.The remainder of the land is held by several develop-ment interests, the Greenway Foundation, and the publicsector. Each of these ownership interests was repre-sented in the Platte Valley development planningprocess.

ECONOMI CS

Denver is one of the most rapidly growing cities in itssize class (1.7 million, metropolitan population) inthe country. With rapid growth in the 1970s and early1980s due to its position as a center for mineral ex-ploration and mining, an attractive lifestyle and afinancial and service center for a broad region of theRocky Mountain West, the area attracted unprecedentedinvestment and development interest. Previously com-mitted projects came on line coincident with the down-turn in the national economy in 1983-84 and, as aresult, Denver now has one of the higher office vacancyrates in the nation--due more to the unusually highconstruction rate than the absorption (leasing) ratewhich has actually been at a fairly high level.

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This metropolitan growth will impact Denver and itssuburban jurisdictions. However, Denver is a"landlocked" city in that it is effectively preventedfrom annexing new land. This affects the City's abili-ty to expand the job, tax, and residential base whitesuburban locationsunotably the southeast area alongInterstate 25uare becoming competitive with downtownfor office, hotel, and commercial activity.

Within this context, the Platte Valley project is de-signed to accommodate the continued long-term growth ofDenver and specifically add tax base, jobs and commer-cial facilities on what is the last large tract of un-developed land available in the City of Denver.

The costs of roads, open space, and major utilities areestimated to be around $180 million over a 20-year pe-riod. This is expected to be financed through tax in-crement financing and special districts. Ultimately,with these funds will come private development in theValley, but there are unresolved issues involving theup-front costs and early years' needs while the devel-opment gains momentum.

The total development plan anticipates about 13 millonsquare feet of office. 1.4. million square feet ofretail, 4,000 to 5,000 residential units, 1,200 hotelrooms and many public facilities including, the optionfor a new convention center site.

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PLANING CONCEPTS

1Land Use

The objective of development in the Platte Valley is tocomplement--rather than duplicate or compete with--thedowntown. Denver aims to retain and improve' its shareof metropolitan development, but also to complement,reinforce and enhance the downtown by compatible adja-cent development. The Platte Valley presents an oppor-tunity to achieve these goals, specifically for theprovision of additional open space and substantialcore-area housing.

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Although the maximum allowable development is 25 mil-lion square feet, it is expected that over a 30-yearperiod, market absorption figures will produce closerto 18-20 million square feet. Of this, roughly 65%will be in office and employment uses; 16% in residen-tial; 7% in retail; 6% in hotel; and the remaining 6%for public activities. The retail is conceived as sec-ondary or supporting commercial uses and not develop-ment of regional shopping centers.

Development throughout the Valley will be a variety of. mixed use clusters or sub-districts. The Platte Valleyoffers the greatest opportunity to build a large numberof housing units adj acent to the downtown core. Pre-ferred locations for the residential development areindicated within the 11 sub-areas of the land use plan.

One of the major benefits of opening up the CentralPlatte Valley is the addition of approximately 115acres of new open space and parks. Added to the exist-ing 37 acres, the Platte Valley development, combinedwith this greenbelt, seeks to enhance the South PlatteRiver and Cherry Creek waterways, thereby providing thefocus and key to a significant metropolitan waterway inan arid landscape. The open space will serve residentsand workers in the Platte Valley as well as tourists,downtown, and adjacent Denver neighborhoods.

Major elements of the open space include expansion andcompletion of the Platte River Greenway a new 40-acrepark (the Denver Commons), and Rockmont Park servingthe northwest neighborhoods, a new 30-40 acre park be-tween the lower downtown area and the Platte river; anda 1,500-foot promenade along Cherry Creek, and greenwayconnections to adj acent neighborhoods. This promenadewill have a mix of restaurant, entertainment and officewith residential development, and biking/walking pathsalong the south side.

Circulation

Consolidation and realignment of the railroads into amainline corridor are the single most critical facili-tators of Platte Valley development. The existingrailyards will be removed and a single rail travel wayestablished in combination with a proposed transitpath, minimizing the broad dimension of the resultantcorridor and retaining the vacated alignment for futuretransit and pedestrian use. Extensive landscaping willflank the entire route in some locations, there will beparking garages and/or construction using track airrights. General policies have addressed noise) vibra-tion, and visual impacts as well as a light rail tran-sit corridor that will be located within an easementprovided by the main line realignment and will utilizethe Union Terminal as a transit hub. The lightrail

system will serve tbe old and new ai rport.s, lower down-town, the Platte Valley Sports COIlIPll'X, and will con-necL with areas to the south of Denver. Longer termpossibilities include an intermodal front range andmounta in trans it connection.

Other transportation improvements include upgraded in-terchanges and access off Interstate Route to both thePlatte Valley and downtown. Auto access into the de-velopment will be provided by a new or upgraded MileHigh Spine Road and other regional and local accessroutes.

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Mass transit will utilize primarily the extension ofthe 16th Street Mall shuttle service to the Platte Val-ley and provisions for future corridors connecting thevarious activity centers within the Valley and adjacentareas.

A combination of integrated and free-standing and un-derground garages will provide parking. The number ofspaces will be determined by market demand and con-struction costs. Also an extensive pedestrian circula-tion network will be part of the open space network andintegrate the various activity centers within the Val-ley and adjacent areas.

SUB-DISTRICTS

Design guidelines will be utilized to assure characterboth related to valued downtown urban form and to thenew identity emerging in the Valley. With the inten-tions being to create distinctive neighborhoods withinthe Platte Valley.

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VIADUCTS

Bond financing in 1982 has enabled infrastructure re-construction. This in turn has made possible thetransformation of negative imagery into a positive aes-thetic of the Valley built from support elements. Ad-ditionally, viaduct reconstruction will speed directaccess to the Valley floor.

RETENTION OF VIEWS

The city beautiful movement of the turn of the century,established precedents for the preservation of views.Valley development presents the opportunity to maintaina sense of spaciousness derived from existing views ofthe mountains and by opening up new views to the river.Height limitations as well as view corridors, view-planes, framed, and axial views to be retained or ex-tended will be identified for detailed urban designguidelines. Views both to the Platte Valley and backto the downtown will enhance the identity and drama ofDenver. Also, panoramas from elevated points of free-ways will be sought. And views to significant land-marks such as City and State Buildings, the renovatedTivoli Brewery, and views from the City Hall steps,will be preserved.

HISTORIC PRESERVATION

Designation of landmark structures for listing on theNational Register of Historic Places and the estab-lishment of special historic districts will be a by-product of Platte Valley development, particularly theadj acent Warehouse District. Use of the transfer ofdevelopment rights technique will enable retention andenhancement of the Union Terminal.

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IDESIGN REVIEW AND DESIGN GUIDELINES IGiven the scale of potential development, the City willestablish a Design Review Process. This will evolve inconjunction with the ongoing public and private designdevelopment. Design guidelines will be the mechanismfor implementing the Design Review Process.

IIAt the urban pattern scale, design guidelines and rea-

sonable development standards will shape the characterof public rights-of-ways and of public lands abuttingprivate property. Additionally, guidelines and stan-dards will fOßter day and evening street activities byencouraging mixed uses, requesting transparency atgrade, establishing a habitable microclimate, and pro-viding street furniture amenities. Rights-of-way willbe extended through parcels and large mixed usebui ldings .

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Development heights will be sculpted to retain viewsand control the pedestrian scale/microclimate. Higherstructures will be clustered at key locations so that acontinuous "wall" or random siting of tall buildingswill be prevented. A transition will occur between the3,000-6,000 foot downtown buildings the 40-200 footlower downtown and the 30-50 foot existing neighbor-hoods. Building towers will be 18-22 stories, midrisestructures 10-12 stories, and lower structures 5-7stories.

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IStandards for the bulk and scale of buildings will bederived from design precedents found within the ware-house district. The massing and materials of new fa-cades also will relate to those of the warehousedistrict, particularly at Valley edges adjacent to thetowers downtown. The continuous street line eleva-tion--characteristic of the downtown grid. andgrainuwill predominate while cornice setbacks at the90- 100 foot level will be used to maintain existing or

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new views and to provide visual continuity from thepedestrian viewpoint. This is especially appropriatealong Wazee Street and the lower downtown.

I A program incorporating 1% of the cost for public artinto the design of public and private projects willlikely be explored in forthcoming planning phases.

I POLITI CALI INSTITUTIONAL

IIt became evident during the Platte Valley DevelopmentCommittee review process that the huge responsibilityof implementing the development of the Platte Valleyshould be delegated to a separate agency. The commit-tee's report suggests restructuring of the Denver UrbanRenewal Authority, once an active force in the communi-ty, or creating a new community development agency.Its responsibility would be to negotiate with propertyowners/ developers, manage the public sector capitalimprovements, and generally supervise the process.

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The concept plan has been accepted by the Planning Com-mission with some modification and will be presented tothe Mayor and Council with a recommendation to adoptthe document as an amendment to the City's comprehen-sive plan. It is uncertain as to whether the Councilwill accept that recommendation or merely acknowledgethe document as a guideline for the Valley.

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A major commitment must be made in a public/privatepartnership for funding the infrastructure requirementsto protect the economic viability of redeveloping theValley. The City's general fund is not perceived to bethe mechanism for developing that infrastructure where-as public revenue generated by private investment is.The timing of these improvements with private invest-ment decisions will be critical to the City's and de-veloper's ability to maximize the potential the Valleyoffers. The benefits of the redevelopment extend be-yond the Valley and into the central core in terms of

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ingress and egress improvements wtii ell should allow forthe application Df other sources of capital.

Funding mechanisms under review are a tax increment onspecial district applications and a philosophy of pro-tecting the general fund from any increase in annualoperating costs as a result of the revitalization ofthe Platte Valley.

The challenge for implementation of the Central PlatteValley development plan will be to arrive at a resolu-tion between the City and the developers to raise thelevel of specificity on issues of design review, mecha-nisms for residential requirements and, most impor-tantly, the timing and funding of infrastructureimprovements.

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-The timing of proposed public sector actionsnot consistent with development schedules.

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LESSONS LEARED

The maj or lessons learned from the Denver experienceinclude:

-The city needs to have access to resources (peo-ple, talent, money) to work with developers in atimely and efficient manner. (Staff orconsul tants)

-The amount of time, effort, and commitment that ittakes to go through the process.

-The ability of the process to be open andenough to respond to external as well asforces and change.

flexibleinternal

-The need for continuity in the facilitation of theprocess.

-The need for the City to develop project manage-ment capabilities and resources to deal with pro-jects of this scale, scope, and complexity and toeffectively negotiate their position.

-The City must identify thethe project in terms of itsdirection, and bottom line.

overall City needs forneeds, goals, desires,

-The use of an agency for implementation of fundingmechanisms and management will be required.

-The needproach.

for an interdisciplinary planning ap-

-The cooperation of developer interests is impera-tive in reconciling conflicts of agenda.

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FACTORS AFFECTING REUSELAND

HISTORY

Historically, American cities have grown around or ad-jacent to the railroad network that was vital to theeconomic stability of the area. Consequently, former"switching" or "marshalling" yards consuming signifi-cant acreage are located in close proximity or contigu-ous to central business districts. Consolidationsand/or technical advances have alleviated the need forrail-related use of these expansive properties and, inmany cases, the growth of the city is at their door-step. Additionally, these "keystone sites" separatethe growth from desired amenities or opportunities suchas waterfront acreage or ingress/ egress connections tothe city core.

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The nature of past railroad use has left these largetracts virtually without any infrastructure, i. e. roadsand utilities, a deficiency that renders them undevel-opable in their present condition. Existing railroad-owned infrastructure is minimal under current use andwill be totally inadequate if the property is redevel-oped to any higher use.

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in many cases there will be amainline operations throughparcels.

yards may be available,need for continuing theor adjacent to these

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In most instances, each of these properties is under asingle railroad ownership bututhrough the series ofmergers, consolidations, and abandonments within theindustry--the conveyance of fee title between companiesmay not have been complete. Complicating the task ofresolving title issues is the pas t practice of rail-roads not recording the easements, permits, ordinances,and licenses encumbering the property. Extensive re-search of the railroad i s own records may be required tofill this information void.

A current boundary survey would be necessary for thetitle review. Many such areas either have never beensurveyed or the scope of previous survey assignmentsdid not allow the extensive investigation of both pub-lic and private railroad records to form a basis ofcontrol. .

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ECONOMIC FACTORS

This opportunity has been brought about through theinteraction of two distinct but interrelated factors--central city land economics and market conditions aswell as technological innovations affecting the railindustry

The central city once functioned as the focus of bothcommercial and industrial activity. The advent of pro-duction line technology, however, changed the physicalconfiguration of manufacturing plants from a verticalto a horizontal orientation. This required access tolarge tracts of cheap land which were available in thenewly-developing suburbs. Spurred on by federal andstate highway systems ànd FHA mortgage insurance, bothresidents and industrial jobs left the central city.At the same time, the function of the center citychanged to a service-based economy. Land values in-creased, reflecting the development of higher densitycommercial uses.

Commercial and passenger rail facilities have histori-cally served the center city. The commercial rail fa-cilities have served the industrial base onceconcentrated in the center city or its fringe. As baseindustries have relocated to suburban areas, the needfor rail facilities in the center city has diminished.

Technological innovations and structural industrychanges have reduced the amount of land required byrail companies. The introduction of containers andtrailers is gradually phasing out the use of boxcarswhich traditionally required large parcels of land forstorage and maintenance. The industry has implementedother measures that have resulted in greater

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operational efficiencies using less land. Finally,competition within the transportation industry as awhole and a changing regulatory environment have givenrise to mergers that have resulted in the discontinu-ance of certain unprofitable lines and facilities whilecreating opportunities for achieving greater economiesof scale by consolidation.

RATIONALE FOR DEVELOPMENT

There may be many reasons for wanting to develop rail-road properties and differing objectives for cities andowners. The initiative for devtlopment could come fromeither side, depending on the circumstances. To definethe range of circumstances, three axes of a three-di-mensional array may be considered:

MAT STRENGTH: The development pressures may begreat, expansion choices for downtown limited andthe railroad land well-located. On the otherhand, there may be little growth pressure or thedowntown (or even the entire city) is not competi-tive and the railroad land is seen as a resourcefor economic development.

DEVELOPMENT DIFFICULTY: The site may be easy ordifficult (i.e., costly) to prepare for develop-ment. Even if it is well-located, flat, and atthe edge of existing development, as it often is,the infrastructure and development costs (in floodplain issues) may be high in relation to competingsites.

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PUBLIC NEEDS: A city's interest may be spurred byfactors such as a need for economic development ingeneral or a specific public or private opportu-nity that needs a large site and which could belost to the city or region if the railroad sitewere not available. Also, a city may need housing,recreation or complementary facilities to supportthe existing downtown and adjacent neighborhoodsor to provide expansion space or public amenitiesthat would encourage and direct certain types ofland use (residential) in a more desirable direc-tion for downtown or to direct its growth in adesirable direction.

In cities where the public need is great, market pres-sures high, and costs low, it is likely that the rail-road will have taken the initiative. Where marketstrength is low, the city will probably be the initia-tor with its degree of involvement depending on thedifficulty of development. The point is that each sit-uation is different and will require specializedapproaches suited to the particular situation.

PROJECT FEASIBILITY

For development to occur on these lands, the projectmust ultimately be feasible--that is, it must makesense to all parties who are participating and contrib-uting capital, whether tinancial or political, and thecommunity in general. The city must achieve its objec-tives, particularly if it is subsidizing the project ormaking major concessions in its zoning or developmentregulations. The railroad, the property developer (ifthat is a different entity), and the ultimate tenantsand owner must have a fair return and a competitive-ly-priced project.

The infrastructure costs are a critical variable here.Most downtown development has evolved slowly over timewith an efficient economic system that defined land

values and ::et rents within an infra::tructure systemgenerally provided by the public. The lands in ques-tion a re a very different animal and there is no suchhistorical basis for valuation. But, the final productmust compete in the market. In some cases, the infra-structure costs may be so high that public funding isrequired. Or, development concessions must be made toincrease the the scale of the project so that overallcosts can be more widely spread or unit costs reduced.In other cases, it may actually be cheaper to developthe sites in the traditional manner and the project canthen afford to contribute toward the public objectives1n exchange for necessary development approvals.

In any case, both the city and the railroad must know,understand, and appreciate each other i s objectives andnot have unrealistic expectations or demands.

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CHACTERISTICS OF LARGE-SCALE DEVELOPMENT

Planning for development of large tracts (25-200 plusa~res) adjacent to a central business district has muchmore in common with large tract development elsewherethan with other downtown development. Yet, because ofits location, the development is likely to be more ur-ban (i.e., high density, more mixed uses, and less ho-mogenous) than large tracts elsewhere. Some keydifferences between such large-scale developments and atypical downtown project (say, one-half block) are sum-marized in the following table:

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RAILROAD-OWNEDLARGE TRACT

Ownership:

Long-Term Owner

Long-Term Commitment

Can Build Values OverTime

Infrastructure:

Not Generally Available

New Access/CirculationSys tem Needed

New System/Thresholds

Uses:

Wide Range, Mix

Timing:5 to 20 Year Plan

Future Uncertain

Accommodation of Public Needs:

Wide Range Possible

Image & Development Concept:

Evolving Over Time

ITRADITIONALONE - HALF BLOCK IMore

IRecent Purchaser

Shorter Term Involvement IReturn Limited to CurrentProj ect IAvailable ILot Lineto

Fits Into Existing System

IMarginal Impact

Single-- Limi ted Mix

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Immediate Development

Fixed Now

Limi ted RoomII

Staticumustf it in withexisting patternof development.

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IOTHER KEY ISSUES

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Because of the quite different characteristics of rail-road land (or other large tracts) relative to tradi-tional downtown development sites, they offer bothunique advantages and disadvantages. Also special waysof dealing with proposed developments are required.What is appropriate in any community will vary with itsown circumstances, but these similar issues should becarefully examined.

DOWNTOWN COMPETITION: Many communities havegreat investments in their downtown areas.Development of railroad lands can be comple-mentary, competitive, or indifferent to thedowntown economy. The mix, density and charac-ter will determine which.

PA~r FUTURe

I ALTERNATIVE SITES: What if the sites were notdeveloped? Would the development be likely togo instead another site within the city or toanother jurisdiction? The answers may affectthe justification for public involvement in theprocess. The local tax structure may also af-fect the rationale.

ADDITIONAL- DeVEWPMENTtlE. TO R.R. DEV~WPMeNT

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I ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: Will developmentsite bring new economic opportunitiescommunity to create its own character,and pattern of development?

a t theto theimage,

PUBLIC RESOURCES: Does the city have available-- and can it afford -- supporting actions nec-essary to bring about development of the rail-road land or to maximize its beneficial impact?Such actions might include:

I -Creative financing-Tax increment financing-Flexible development regulations-Speedy and firm commitment for publicactions-Equitable tax policies-Effective citizen involvement-Key public amenities .-Supplemental loans, grants, guarantees-Continuity of public actions and priori-ties (through potentially differentadministrations)

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URBAN DESIGN

Urban design ïs an architectural language which de-scribes planning concepts and recommendations in threedimensions. Its purpose is to show how the componentsof the city-- buildings, heights, uses, traffic, park-ing, open spaces and landscaping, etc. --can be woventogether in such a way as to meet the economic goalsand the legislative priorities of the city. Also, TheUrban Design process can carry planning recommendtionsto the threshold of detailed design and implementation.

In every urban design situation there is the past andthe future -- the past offering its inheritance of lo-cation, physical infrastructure, and buildings and thefuture reflecting our hopes, policies, and investmentintentions.

Our cities today are perforated into open lots and ob-solete buildings awaiting redevelopment. These are theelements of the city's perpetual rebirth. But, thereare few opportunities in our cities as large as ourinheritance of underused railroad lands. These provideunprecedented opportunities to develop new and complexurban design recommendations, reflecting the goals ofour urban futures.

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In developing these designs for underused railroadlands, we inherit sites which, because of their pastusage, usually have no infrastructure of roads, sewers,or utilities. This enables us a unique freedom. Italso challenges us to tie the sites, and the new devel-opments they will carry, meaningfully into the existingframeworks of adjacent city sectors. This challenge todevelop a unifying design framework for the new key-stone areas will perpetually remind us that, in forgingour new designs, we have to capitalize not only on fea-sibility but on the best aspirations of our citizens,investors, elected officials, and government agencies.

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IRailroad lands, from Grand Central Terminal in Manhat-tan to the massive yards of Chicago and the mainlinesof numerous small towns , were the form-giving elements

of 19th- and 20th-century communities. Frequently fol-lowing natural corridors of original settlement, theyare now part of a regional pattern of movement systemsand the distribution of people and economic activities.

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I Now as changes occur in technology, transportation andproduction, the utilization of these corridors is di-minishing. Communities are well advised to examine there-use of these rail corridors as corridors--for bus-ways, mass transit, bikeways or linear open spaces assystems or segments of connecting linkages. The widthof these corridors varies and presents a variety ofopportunities. The choice of uses for a corridor mayinfluence the evolving form of the community and themetropolitan area.

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The rail corridor could continue to represent a barri-er, and the barrier condition can be worsened if thecorridor is used for multi- laned highway purposes. If,however, the corridor is used for a two- laned parkway,busway or transit way, the barrier effect might be re-duced and new activity centers--or common areas of com-munity use to stitch areas and neighborhoods backtogether or provide access to natural amenities or usespreviously cut off--introduced at access points. Whenrail corridors are used for recreational purposes, bar-rier effects may be reduced even further, and neighbor-hoods may be enhanced at the micro-level. Recreationaluse of these corridors may provide the only opportunitywithin a community or region to substantially changeand improve the recreation opportunities availablethrough public park systems and provide new linkageswith the core area. This potential has been realizedin numerous rural areas and urban areas alike whererailroads, with their trestles and tunnels, now accom-modate bikers and hikers. '

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Changes in urlJan form may be most dramatic when rail-roads are located adjacent to natural amenities such aswater and mountains. It is in these areas that thechoice is most profound, and the barrier effect can bereinforced rather than ameliorated. In other situa-tions when mainline railroads are consolidated, re-aligned, or removed, opportunities exist to gain accessto these natural amenities by combining them with othertransportation corridors on highways, or by adjustingtheir alignment either vertically or horizontally.

When communities are not prepared to choose among fu-ture uses, corridors should still be retained. Once acorridor is allowed to be partially used, sold or oth-erwise dismantled, it is usually too expensive toreassemble.

Finally, these options do not necessarily require aban-donment of rail uses. It may be possible to introducenew uses such as busways, light rail transit, or bike-ways into the active rail corridor. When a busway ortransit project can also finance the relocation andreconstruction of new, welded rail along one side ofthe corridor, the railroad gains while providing theopportunity for a new public resource.

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LARGE PARCELS AN REGIONAL IMPACT

Large parcels adjacent to or within a central businessdistrict present special opportunities for large scaleurban infill development at a regional scale which caninfluence the urban. form of the city and metropolitanarea. They can create their own market image and havean impact which is unequaled in modern times. Thisopportunity can be viewed either as competitive to thedowntown (in scale and use) or as complementary andreinforcing. These opportunities take on two bas icapproaches:

-Creation of a separate, but linked,regional/urban activity center that takes on aspecial character-image and sense of place thatis complimentary to the existing urban core.

-Growth of the existingtrict by extending thedowntown and built upavailable vacant lands.

central business dis-infrastructure of theadj acent areas into

Due to the large scale of the project, it allows for amore flexible development strategy, a greater mixtureof land uses and activities, and an opportunity of ful-filling various city-wide needs--such as close-in down-town housing and large scale opens pace , as well asassuring the economic vitality of the project.

Because the location of the land is likely to serve asa gateway location to the center city, its presence canhave considerable influence on the quality of surround-ing development, as well as enriching the image of thearea and the downtown.

SITE DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Due to size and lack of existing infrastructure, largeparcels can be developed in a much more flexible man-ner, without most of the constraints and developmentpressures found in a typical urban single land parcel.Also, the proj ect can be phased according to marketneeds and can develop interim uses that ultimately al-low redensification to the desired market potentials.

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Densities of commercial land use on the project sitecan be manipulated in a way to provide housing oppor-tunities--important in serving city needs as well asproviding a means of transition between office dis-tricts and surrounding residential neighborhoods--andenergy efficiencies in transportation, heating, andcooling.

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COMPATABILITY OF URBAN FORM

Issues of compatability of urban form and character,patterns of development, and uses and activities withinadjacent areas are key elements to be considered.These large land parcels are typically surrounded byexisting patterns of development which have establishedcertain relationships of views, access, and. physicalform with their natural surroundings. The issues ofphysical form relative to acceptance by adjacent devel-opment interests and affected neighborhoods has been acentral issue in the political and community acceptanceof proposals for these large parcels of land.

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DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES

A variety of development opportunities exist with thereuse of railroad lands and their corridors. Theseinclude but are not limited to:

-Preservation and reuse of historic railroad andancillary use buildings (i. e., terminals, sta-tions, warehouses, maintenance facilities, round-houses, etc.).

-New development opportunities of a variety ofscales and mix of uses which are compatible inurban form, pattern, and use.

-Air rights development over new or existing rail-road corridors which integrate the railroad ortransit functions within the proj ect and providefor connection opportunities wi thin the develop-ment and open space uses over the corridor.

QUALITY OF DEVELOPMENT

With the size and scale of the proposed development,there is an opportunity to set the qualitative stan-dards and guidelines from the start that would influ-ence the overall quality, character, and image of thetotal project, its key components, and the individualelements in both the public and private sectors.a~~--=

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INEW PUBLI C INFRASTRUCTURE

IDue to the lack of adequate existing infrastructurewithin and leading to new redevelopment opportunities,there suddenly exists the opportunity to create a newsystem and aesthetic of public infrastructure--onewhose form, location, and function can be determined byeither a new urban form or one that evolves from theextension of existing street patterns or grids. Thepotential to remove antiquated, outdated models, bridg-es, and infrastructure elements can lead to new build-ing forms by considering new levels of service anddelivery of goods, energy, utility, and transitsys tems .

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ICONNCTIONS

I Within the elimination or the minimization of the rail-road as a barrier, the opportunity exists to createphysical and visual connections and access to existingand new natural amenities (i.e., waterways, views, andpreviously ~naccessable areas) and to expand the size,use, and activities along existing open space corridorsand connections. Also, the chance exists to re-useabandoned portions of consolidated railroads rights-of-way for transit and open space connections to regionalamenities and adj acent areas forming a network or aframework of .connections. It can also develop newcross-connection opportunities over or under existinghighways, rail, or transit corridors.

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I EDGES AN SEAMS

IWith the development and re-use of large parcels ofrailroad land within and adjacent to the existing cor-ridors, new edge conditions and opportunities arisebetween adjacent areas and land uses. These edge con-ditions can be used as buffers or seams between areas

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to allow for finishing off adjacent patterns of devel-opment or to provide for separations and clear defini-tion of the image and character between adjacent areas.

They can also provide opportunities for connections andbridges between adjacent areas at key intersectionswith either open space, appropriate common or jointuses and activities, or structures.

PEDESTRIAN ZONES/PLACES

The opportunity exists to create, plan, and providefor--at the outset--a pedestrian oriented environmentand network that can offer a continuity, and variety ofpedestrian oriented spaces, places, and connections.They could eliminate pedestrian-vehicular conflicts andprovide an organizing structure that relates and tiesold and new development opportunities together with thenatural features of place, environment, and use.

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GATEWAYS

Due to the historic nature of the location of railroadproperties on the "backside edge" of downtown areas,such properties provide opportunities for the estab-lishment of new gateways and entrances to the downtown,new development parcels, and adjacent areas that beforewere unaccessible physically or visually. They canestablish points of orientation, and access, introducea new character and image, and serve as a point oftransition from one area or district to another.

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IANCILLARY RAILROAD LANS IRailroad lines, sidings, and yards frequently were de-veloped to satisfy the specifc needs of adjacent users.Whether these users were warehouses or manufacturers,the decline in fortunes of the railroads and their us-ers mirrors the early period of growth. Thus, theavailability of railroad land is accompanied by theavailability of ancillary ~ buildings or land. A funda-mental difference exists, however, since structuressuch as warehouses have adaptive. reuse possibilitieswhile industrial artifacts such as steel mills do not.

III

In the first case, the railroad track areas allow forinfrastructure changes and infill development to sup-port the transformation of an area with adaptive reuseof the railroad i s warehousing, transfer and producebuildings. In the second case, the railroad track ar-eas may not have any development potential unless theindustrial behemoths can be removed, usually at greatexpense. Removal and re-use of these railroad and in-dustrial properties represents a profound change inurban form and image, including the community's sharedimage of itself. Improperly handled, this change canrepresent a period of decline. Properly handled, itrepresents rebirth.

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URBAN DESIGN TOOLS

Large-scale development enables the use of more flexi-ble development controls which, in turn, facili ta temore creative urban design. Special use districts,planned unit developments and (in California) specificplans, and (in Florida) developments of regional im-pact, can be used to provide for:

-A mix of uses specified for the whole projectarea, not small individual parcels.

-A concentration of diversity to achieve larger,more useful openspaces and more interestingbuilt forms.

-A staging of infrastructure and development torelate to area absorption rates and competingprojects.

In some jurisdictions (e. g., California), developmentagreements can be employed to protect both governmentand the developer by providing certainty that subse-quent phases of the project will be carried out. Theycan lock in the development program and freeze the zon-ing, thereby justifying major front-end infrastructureinvestment by the developer. This investment can thencreate a "quality environment" in which "quality devel-opment" can take place over an extended period of time.

The American Law Institute i s Model Land DevelopmentCode provides a vehicle for the creation of speciallyplanned districts, in which a designated Land Develop-ment Agency can provide a zoning mechanism for largescale, planned developments which require maj or newinfrastructure investments for development and whichcan be realized only over a long time horizon. (Pitts-burgh recently adopted a variant of this process forimplemening its larger projects which frequently in-volve recycling railroad land.)

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ENERGY

The development of unused or underused railroad landoffers unique opportunities for executing energy-con-scious design and urban planning. Because of the scaleof development, it is possible to control not onlyend-use conditions (how buildings use energy) but alsohow that energy is supported and to seek an optimiza-tion between supply, delivery, and end-use systems.Further, it is possible to control external conditionswhich impact on how a building consumes energy. Theseexternal conditions include solar access andmicro-climate.

In addition, non-building considerations such as trans-portation access waste disposal and material handlingmay be manipulated to reduce overall energy resourceconsumption.

These energy use reductions will result from the opti-mization of individual systems but, more importantly,from the combined effects of the interaction of multi-pIe systems selected and designed based on their abili-ties to function integrally with each other. It isthis ability to coordinate systems and subsystems--internal and external to individual buildings--thatoffers unique energy conserving possibilities.

The opportunities for energy-conscious design fall intotwo general categories. First are those considerationsthat would apply to any large-scale development, andsecond are those that result from the particularitiesof former railroad land.

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The first energy considerations, those which deal withany large development, generally pertain to opportuni-ties to use systems that require some minimum size forviability. Related to this is the possibility of es-tablishing special building standards regarding energyperformance and end-use demand characteristics.

The second group of energy factors are those which takeadvantage of the unique nature of former railroad prop-erties. These characteristics include:

-generally open land adjacent to or with-in central business districts-little or no existing infrastructure;and-part of regional corridor.

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PEOPLE

ROLE ICitizens can perform a valuable and legitimate serviceby articulating one pole of development issues and con-cerns, the developer formulating the other, and thecity moderating toward a balanced and compatible de-sign. Without informed and active citizens, a develop-ment can be shaped exclusively by developer interest,market forces, and political expediency. If such adevelopment is not sufficiently responsive to peoples iperceived needs, the development can collapse when itencounters public opposition instead of needed con-sent--in general, this consent will consist of publicsupport in financing , legislative referenda, or actualmarketing.

IIIIIINTERESTS

ON-SITE: Residents, businesses, property owners,and other users of the site are interested andwant to be comfortable with its future develop-ment. They can provide valuable information aboutthe virtues of the site that should be recognizedin its development.

NEIGHBORS: Neighboring residents, business, in-dustries, and others are concerned with the devel-opment i s impact on their land values, traffic,parking and other environmental impacts. They arealso concerned with other infrastructure elements,views and other amenities, and the continued eco-nomic and social health of their own areas. Theycan provide valuable information as to needs andways to integrate the development into itssurroundings.

CITY WIDE: Residents, businesses, and industriescity wide are concerned with the development'simpact on the form and fabric of the city's eco-nomic viability, on its infrastructure, on itssatisfaction or exacerbation of the city's needsfor housing, jobs, open space, industry and com-merce. They can provide valuable information asto the general political viability of developmentproposals.

SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS: Groups who are not di-rectly impacted by the development may, non~the-less, be interested in special potentialitiesoffered by the site such as its natural resourcesopen space potential, or added environmental im-pacts of noise and air pollution.

TOOLS AN STRATEGIES

The citizens' chief tool in gaining a substantial voicein the development dialog is their power to delay theproject through legal or political means. This is apowerful tool for developments of the scale of thisstudy. Delays can cause a developer or project tofail. Citizens should therefore understand that theirpower is a two-edged sword--negative and positive.Used constructively by developers and by the city, cit-izens can form a resource pool of pride, wisdom andcreative input that can contribute to the formal andmarket success of the project and can ease the approvalprocess.

Citizens should be advised that the other two parties--the developer and local government--are very interestedin the predictability of the process. The way for cit-izens to acquire and keep a place in the developmentdialog is to have clear goals that are limited to the

developer/goverrunent i S ability to grant, and to cooper-ate with those other parties in formulating and expe-diting the process in direct proportion to the degreeto which those goals are achieved or agreed to. Ifcitizens' goals are achievable within a developmentthat could be sponsored by the owner--and that could bepermitted by the government--then the ideal place forcitizens is at the initial design/negotiating table.To achieve such a place requires citizens to exhibitconsistency, responsibility, clear goals, good faith,and a clear and authentic structure for citizen partic-ipation. The likely alternative to this approach isfailure or replanning of a project because citizen in-terests were ignored.

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Since the scale of these projects can have such a pro-found impact on the city, it is imperative that govern-ment has a very clear sense of what it wants out of theproject. The greater the specificity at the outset,the greater is the assurance that the city will getwhat it wants and that the project will proceed withoutmisunderstandings and disagreements in the future. Atthe same time, it should be recognized that all detailsof a large scale project cannot or should not be workedout in advance and that some flexibility is required onboth sides to allow for changing circumstances. There-fore, mechanisms should be developed and agreed towhereby matters can be made more specific over time,with the appropriate governmental agency retaining theright of review and approval over these specifics. Forexample, the initial agreement should cover such basicsas general distribution of land uses and formcontrols--height, bulk and general design guide-lines--and should define, as precisely as possible, thescope of future review over what issues and what theprocedure for review should be.

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PUBLIC CAPABILITIES/TOOLS

Much of the local government experience with federallysupported redevelopment is applicable to the develop-ment of large railroad lands through a public-privatepartnership but, with one major difference. Ratherthan a public agency acquiring title to the propertyand disposing of it subject to controls, controls mustbe imposed through exercise of the police power. Zon-ing tools, such as special use districts and planneduni t developments and, in some jurisdictions, develop-ment agreements can be designed to contain the kind ofcontrols generally found in redevelopment plans andland disposition agreements.

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Depending on the administrative capabilities of theparticular jurisdiction, it may be appropriate to callon the staff expertise of the redevelopment agency toadminister these zoning controls.

CITY NEEDS

Since they are often large enough that dramatic changesin land use can be achieved without displacement andrelocation, vacated railroad properties afford the op-portunity to meet city wide needs that are difficult tomeet on an infill basis within the existing developmentfabric. For example, in a developed. city it is diffi-cult to add major increments of housing within estab-lished neighborhoods whereas it is possible to createwhole new residential neighborhoods on large vacatedrailroad properties. Similarly, the parcel may belarge enough and isolated enough to support stadiums orlocally undesirable land uses such as refuse disposalfacilities, which could not be located elsewhere in thecity.

INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS/CAPABILITIES

The approach to land development will be colored by thefinancial needs and objectives of the railroad. If thefinancial objective is to enhance the book value of theland asset, the railroad may wish to establish a highdensity commercial development program that will maxi-mize land value without regard to the marketing period.On the other hand, if the objective is to maximize cashflow, the railroad may opt for a less intensive mixeduse project to speed up project build out and paybackon investment. Often the land will have been owned for

a long tiiie and tJierefore its carrying constructs willbe low, allowing the railroad to take a longer termview of the project. However, the need for major frontend and infrastructure investment may eliminate thisadvantage.

The approach to land development may also be colored bythe organizational capabilities of the railroad. Insome cases, the railroad will have a development armthat wishes to become the long-term developer. In oth-er cases, it may not and may choose not to add thatcapability. Here the object may be to get the develop-ment potential of the land established and approved inorder to market the land at a higher value to entitiesthat would undertake development.

51

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(

I INTEGRATION OF FACTORSAll of the elements discussed offer a unique opportu-

I nity in planning the optimum use of the unique resourcepresented by large-scale railroad lands adjacent todowntown areas. To sumarize these issues:

ENERGY

ILAN

-Efficienciesdevelopment-Control for solar access orientation-Landscaping for microclimatic improvement-Design for pedestrian environment-Support and extend mass transit opportunities-Cogeneration, energy cascading, and infrastructure efficiencies-Daylighting and buffering commercial buildings

of scale and patterns of

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-Size and shape usually usable-Topography generally flat-Few physical constraints-Title often difficult to clear-Location near existing city resources

PEOPLE

I ECONOMICS-Need to respond to citizens' interests on site,1n adj acent neighborhoods, and city wide.

I

-Infrastructure costs high. -Massive undertaking by railroads and city-Realistic and feasible project needed-Innovative financing and public/private cooper-ation needed-Project can build values over time-Interim land uses and staged density inversespossible

-Need to communicate with citizens as individu-als and as special interest groups.

-Need to respect ability of citizen groups toassist or deter development.

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POLITICAL/ INSTITUTIONAL

URBAN DESIGN-Need for clarity of city-Unique opportunityneeds--e.g., housing,open space-Need for development controls that are bothspecific and flexible-Need for staff capability to manage projectcontrol and delivery in a timely manner

objectives .to meet citywidepublic facilities, or

I -Unique opportunity to improve city's image andeliminate blighted and underutilized land-Often at water's edge and near city resourcesand amenities-Large enough to create internal image and senseof place-Must caution to stay in city vernacular-Opportunities for city open space and regionalconnections

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3 ENERGY OPPORTUNITIES

INM COVfR?ION

The energy required for building operation and con-struction represents well over one-third of all energyconsumed in the u. s. annually. Slightly less thanthirty percent of national energy use goes into build-ing operation (heating, cooling, lighting, etc.). An-other five percent of national energy use is committedto building construction. This includes energy re-quired to produce the building materials as well as theenergy used on the construction site itself.

0Iv.i. In addition, building development and urban planning

have a significant impact on a number of non-buildingconstruction sectors including electric and gas utili-ties, roads and highways, water and sewer facilities,and local transportation systems. The construction inthese categories adds another three percent of totalnational energy consumption to that controlled or in-fluenced by architectural and urban planning decisions.

Finally, transportation, which is significantly affect-ed by planning decisions, consumes another twenty-fivepercent of the energy used in the US

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CON VENTIONAl.

While it is clear that not all of this energy use canbe manipulated by architectural and planning decisions,it is equally apparent that any large scale developmentwill have a sizable impact on energy use and that in-formed decisions can significantly reduce energy usefor these developments.

A discussion of specific opportunities for energy-con-scious design follows. However, several overridingfactors must be borne in mind. First, to most partiesinvolved in a major development program, energy consid-erations are likely to have a very low priority. Given~he vast array of issues that require resolution, there

II.I..II

is a strong tendency to regard any divergence from usu-al practices as distractions from the major goal ofrealizing the project.

Second, energy issues tend to be highly site and pro-ject specific. The options that are discussed here areintended to raise issues and suggest factor involved intheir evaluation and should no.t be taken as definitive.

Third, based on current technologies and economics,some of the options are likely to prove viable today.Others, because of either technical or economic fac-tors, are theoretically valid but not generally realiz-able at this time. In these cases, considerationshould be given to what must be done during the plan-ning process to avoid precluding these options if andwhen they become available.

Fourth, and related, given that development is mostoften staged rather than completed in a single phase,some of the options which require a "critical mass" toachieve viability must wait until a project is wellalong. The issue of how to accommodate these opportu-nities during the early phases of a project until thiscritical mass has been reached will bear seriousconsideration.

With all of the-above in mind, it is also necessary tostress that although energy issues may be perceived aslow priority items by the parties involved in a majordevelopment project, they have the possibility of in-crementally enhancing a proj ect, perhaps contributingto the ultimate success of the effort. Further, thesocietal benefits of reduction of energy use can fre-quently be achieved in ways which are, at the sametime, beneficial to all interested parties (lower cost,greater access to view, reduced environmental impact,etc.) However, this will only occur through activeefforts to this end.

END USE ENERGY CONSIDERATIONSAND CASCADING

The first step in introducing energy-consciousness intothe design or planning process is to clarify the usesto which the energy will be put and to ascertain whichof these uses are essential and constructive and whichare included merely out of habit. These uses may in-clude building, heating and cooling and lighting. Theymay also include process uses and motor-driven systemssuch as elevators, fans, pumps, and so forth.

DEFINE ENERGY FORM/BY-PRODUCTS

Once these end uses have been established, it then isnecessary to define the form of energy required to meetthese demands and the kinds of energy resources thatcan achieve these forms. For example, light (form) canbe supplied by daylight, electricity, and, in some cas-es, gas flame, candles, etc. (kinds of energyresources) .

It is also necessary to identify the by-products or"waste" associated with the supplying of these variousenergy forms. For example, when light is delivered toa space, heat is an inevitable result. This heat maybe a positive or negative factor in the building opera-tion. Similarly, when steam is provided at a laundry,waste hot water, at a temperature too low to be used inthe laundry, will usually be dumped into the sewer sys-tem. And yet this water contains heat energy whichcould be used for any operation requiring low tempera-ture thermal energy (such as a source for heat pumps,pre-heating domestic hot water, or snow melting).

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END USE DEMAS

In order to know what end use demands might make wasteenergy into useful resources, it is necessary to havethe whole energy picture available for review. It isgenerally the case that the greater the diversity inenergy demands, the more likely it is that there willbe demands for "waste" energy. In recent years, thekind of analysis described above has been applied mostoften to individual buildings. However, when such itis possible to look at an entire community, chances offinding the kind of match which will permit the use of"waste energy" increases greatly.

ENERGY AT THE LOWEST POSSIBLE LEVEL

The most efficient use of energy resources will occurwhen energy is provided at the lowest possible levelconsistent with the final demand. Each time that ener-gy is transformed from one level to another, wastageresults. For example, the goal of providing spaceheating to a building is usually to maintain a tempera-tUre of about 70°F. In order to do this, heat energymust be introduced into the space at a temperature suf-ficiently above 70°F that the heat will flow from thesupply medium to the space. This might require a sup-ply medium at 175°F. Ideally, an energy resource tomeet this demand should be heat at about this tempera-ture. Heat is the lowest form of energy and therefore,any other form of energy resource represents a morerefined source than is necessary and, consequently,means that waste has occurred in order to achieve thismore refined form.

Take for example, the use of electric resistance heat-ing. A heat source (low energy form) is used to pro-duce steam which in turn drives a turbine to createmechanical energy (higher energy form).

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IIn this process, as much as two-thirds of the originalheat energy may be as rejected as waste heat. The me-chanical energy is then converted to electrical energy

(still higher form) with an additional loss in the formof heat. The electricity, is then transformed andtransmitted to its point of end use where it is passedthrough a resistance device to be converted back intoheat (lowest form). The end result is that less thanone-third of the original heat energy is finally deliv-ered to the end user.

III

Energy is never destroyed. It is simply changed fromone form to another and when it performs a task it al-ways drops to a lower level. Therefore, when tasksrequire high level energy forms it is inevitable thatlower level energy forms will be the by-product and iftasks requiring this lower level energy forms can beidentified, this by-product becomes a resource ratherthan a waste.

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This pattern of using energy resources at successivelylower forms is called "cascading". The impact thatthis has on saving energy resources is clear. Fuel isconsumed to produce a unit of high level energy. Thisunit does a high level task and, in doing so, it istransformed to a lower level. If this lower level formis then used to do a lower level task, it eliminatesthe need to consume fuel that would otherwise be re-quired to do this lower level task.

In addition to the energy resources that result as by-products to the transformation which takes place whenenergy performs tasks, there are other resources thatare due to activities that are not primarilyenergy-related. For example, the burning of wasteproducts results in the production of heat. This heathas, most often been rejected to the atmosphere throughstacks. If captured, however, it is a potentially val-uable resource provided that a use can be identifiedfor it.

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The larger and more diversified the potential usingcommunity, the greater the chance for finding an appro-priate use.

URBAN FORM,

Energy is typically a minor factor in the creation ofurban form, partly because energy conservation is un-derstood primarily at the building scale and also be-cause other urban design and economic factors typicallytake precedent. Seen in the lower form, the energyconcerns of urban form are rarely in conflict withthose other factors and often augment the viability andlivability of a large development. There are severalprincipal ways urban form offers energy consumptiondependent on climate, building type and the mix of useswithin an area. Regarding energy use in buildings, theorientation and massing of urban blocks can have a sig-nificant impact on heating and cooling demands. Dif-fering urban forms and densities can offeropportunities for day lighting commercial buildings bylimiting the depth of each floor or providing for sky-views. Urban form and its pattern of mixed use canencourage or undermine a mass transit system. It canshelter and promote a pedestrian environment or it canliterally force people into their cars. What is impor-tant to acknowledge is that energy strategies at thisscale--from daylighting and passive solar access toconvivial pedestrian paths--offer the livability .anddesirability of an area as much as its energy profile.

RES IDENTIAL

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Housing as a mixed use componeht for inner city areasis a high priority. Affordable housing is often ahigher priority. The viability of energy-efficienthousing is contingent on many factors of which the ur-ban form and building type rank very high. Given awell -insula ted building, orientation, solar access andshaping can contribute major energy savings.

Given that climatic conditions vary considerably acrossthe nation, only general concerns and options can belisted. For areas requiring heating, orientation andsolar access are primary. Both can easily conflictwith other urban design treatments such as street ori-entation and economic densities. However, the openquality of railroad properties and the indeterminablemix of building types afford opportunities to avoidtypical conflicts. For a heating climate, the follow-ing guidelines are applicable:

- If a "street wall" urban formshould be long in the east-westing more southern aspectsbuildings.

is used, the griddirection, provid-for residential

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57

-Single loaded corridorbuilding types shouldnorth-facing units.

"stackers" or town housebe utilized to avoid

-Solar access should be preserved by usinglow-rise, high-density building types that arespaced to allow winter sun to the majority ofunits.

-High-rise slabs should be located to shade indus-trial or office buildings rather than other resi-dential units, open space, or pedestriancorridors.

For a climate in which cooling is dominant, the follow-ing guidelines are possible:

-Westerly aspects are to be avoided and, given thatheating may also be a criteria, southern overnorthern aspects emphasized.

-Single loaded and stacked townhouse building typesshould be utilized to provide for crossventilation.

-For cooling-only climates, shading can be providedby neighboring buildings, plant materials, or ar-chitectural means.

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I-High-rise towers should be slender with a ffaj orityof corner units to provide for cross ventilation. I

ITo sumarize, residential buildings should be plannedin a grid which emphasizes a southern orientation forsolar heating as well as ease of shading.

In climates requiring heating, buildings should beplaced to avoid shading and/or mixed with buildingtypes that don't require daytime heat. For areas whichare strictly residential, 100% solar access allowsapproximately 40 units/acre. Higher densities are pos-sible at residential edges where shading doesn't impacton other residential buildings.

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OFFICES

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Energy conservation in office buildings is largely abuilding systems problem. In any climate, heating is arelatively small load because of large internal heatgains and relatively small surface areas. Cooling andlighting are the controlling energy constraints. Giventhese concerns, the following guidelines may apply:

-Daylighting can potentially save energy but careshould be taken to avoid increasing cooling loads.Where slender buildings are programatically appro-priate, side lighting into the first two work sta-tions is possible if the high light transmissionglass is well shaded. The heat gain or loss in-volved with increased glass areas may outweigh thelighting savings.

-Where day lighting is feasible, east and west fa-cades must be carefully considered as they tend tobe difficult to shade while admitting light.

-Office structures should be sited and massed toavoid shading residential areas, open space, orhigh-use pedestrian paths.

INDUSTRIAL, RETAIL AND PUBLIC

These building types are rarely dependent on urban formfor energy conservation. For retail and public build-ings, the criteria of use and economics far outweighpossible energy conservation strategies (i. e., reducedlighting demands). Industrial buildings have a histor-ic opportunity for daylighting through roof apertures.But, this is possible in any form or orientation.

MICROCLIMATIC EFFECTS

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Urban form can affect the microclimate of an area and,therefore, its livability and energy demand profile.Given many climatic conditions, it is difficult toidentify generic and universal strategies but a listfor various conditions would include:

-Shaded or structured parking areas avoid heatbuild-up in hot climates (Sacramento, for example,is on average hotter than the surrounding agricul-"tural land because of asphalt areas).

I

-Mirror glass buildings should be avoided in hotclimates as they can increase microclimatetemperatures by reflecting heat into streets,parking areas, and other buildings.

-Urban form can, in very complex ways, increase ormitigate strong wind conditions. Increased windcan affect residential heat loss but rarely af-fects the energy performance of sealed commercialbuildings. Wind can, however, create externalimpacts at entrances and pedestrian areas adjacentto the building.

-Landscaped open space and major water elements canhave a considerable cooling effect through tran-spiration and evaporation.

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-Larger atriums or glassed arcades can bufferbuildings, thus reducing heat losses and shelter-ing year-round pedestrian activities in cold cli-mates. Such buffer spaces are best configured toallow winter sunlight and exclude sumer sun

TRANSPORT A TION

Mixed-use planning at the scale made possible withlarge railroad properties can have a major impact ontransportation utilization and future energy use.There are three ways the impacts can be manifested:trip length, trip mode, and number of trips generated.Reductions in trip length and number of trips absolute-ly reduces transit energy demands. A shift in mode,from auto to light rail, say, may reduce energy cOn-sumption depending on the passenger efficiency of thesystem. An efficient auto with three passengers may bemore efficient than a low occupancy light rail train orbus.

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TRIP LENGTH

Given an urban environment, a downtown location forhousing will most certainly reduce trip length to mosttypical destinations. Therefore, merely includinghousing in the program for redevelopment of centralrailroad properties is perhaps the most significantenergy-conserving strategy if the housing replacesgrowth at the suburban fringe. Beyond this macro ef-fect, the mixed use plan can further reduce triplengths by employing the following program guidelines:

-Providing a balance between the income level ofnew jobs created or jobs in the immediate area andthe cost of housing. Although the opportunitiesfor regulating a correspondence between workplaceand dwelling is slight, economic viability is themost positive encouragement for people to live andwork in the same neighborhood.

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-Provide neighborhood retail facilities withinwalking distances of residential units. This pre-supposes a sufficient market area and density.

- Investigate the viability of including a regionalretail facility resulting from combining the newhousing with existing housing in a typical marketarea.

-Provide passive and active recreational facilitieswithin walking distance.

-Provide public services (libraries, post offices,schools, etc.) wi thin walking distances.

The image of an urban village or urban quarter suma-rizes the criteria for efficient transportation. Themore an area can include a full range of destinations,the less transit will be required. Some railroad prop-erties may be enough to create a semi -large urban vil-lage. Others may provide space to balance and completean existing zone. The goal is to draw together into ahuman-scaled vicinity the diversity of a city.

TRIP GENERATION

The configuration and quality of an area can encouragewalking and the combination of trips, thereby poten-tially reducing the total number of trips per house-hold. Reducing distances is the first step inproviding for a pedestrian environment, but the qualityof the paths is of equal importance to encouragingnon-auto trips. In addition, locating destinations insequences can reduce the number of household trips byallowing combinations and on-the-way stops when usingthe car or mass transit:

-Locate neighborhood or regional retail and publicservices at transit arrival points or along pathsto housing.

-Provide bike paths and pedestrian paths to majorrecreational areas.

-Combine work places with restaurants, convenienceretail, and open spaces to avoid mid-day trips.

-Transit stations or stops should provide opportu-nities for joint development of employment andshopping facilities to eliminate the need foraddi tional trips.

Above all, make the pedestrian comfortable. Paths needto be shaded in sumer and sheltered in winter. Theyneed to be entertaining, exciting, and/or at the centerof activities. They also need to feel safe; therefore,residential surveillance, automobile proximity andlighting are key.

TRIP MODE

The railroad i s corridors and terminals occupy a centrallocation for mass transit alternatives in mature cit-ies. There property can often provide the access fornew mass transit systems at a macro scale and should beseen as a pathwäy as well as a destination. Beyondthis macro scale, their central location can reinforcethe existing urban mass transit network by placinghousing and jobs within the system. Low parking allot-ments and convenient connections to existing mass tran-sit systems can significantly reduce automobile use perhousehold. Zoning mechanisms should offer incentivesto encourage this.

COGENERATION AND DISTRICTHEA TING/COOLING

Cogeneration is a special case of cascading energy re-sources. As a rule it refers to the recovery of"waste" heat from electrical generation. This recov-ered heat is usually utilized for industrial process orbuilding heating, cooling and domestic hot water or acombination of these.

The simplest form of cogeneration results when a singleuser takes the entire thermal output recovered from agenerator, using conventional means to make up any de-ficiencies in the quantities of thermal energy, andwhere there is an unlimited demand for the electricaloutput. This is generally the case when a cogenerationfacility is electrically connected to the utility gridand delivers its thermal output to a large industrialuser. While this arrangement has the advantage oftechnical and institutional simplicity, it has limitedapplicability, relying on the existence of large indus-tries with major thermal loads. It also does little toreduce energy costs to residential and commercial ener-gy users.

TOTAL ENERGY SYSTEMS

A second form of cogeneration is the small, self-con-tained individual building unit which may be IItotalenergy" , that is, completely independent of outsideelectrical connection and may be grid-connected inwhich case it can obtain peak and emergency power fromthe utility or sell excess electricity to the utility.

There are several problems with individual buildingcogeneration:

-The small scale of the demand requires equipmentwith less than optimal efficiencies.

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-The operating and maintenance requirements may bea deterrent to the individual buildingowner/ operator.

-With the "total energy" approach, the cost forback-up capability to provide power during mainte-nance periods or in the event of equipment failurebecomes a maj or cost penalty.

-With minimal diversity, the individual building islikely to show maj or peaks and valleys in demandfor both electrical and thermal energy. For the"total energy" system, this will result in severeunder-utilization of the system which, in turn,will mean a high capital investment relative tothe energy saving. If the grid-connected systemavoids under-utilization by installing a smallersystem and purchasing a significant amount of pow-er from non-cogenerated sources, it will fail tomaximize the potential savings from cogeneration.

A DIVERSIFIED COMMITY

A third form of cogeneration avoids these drawbacks.This is the cogenerated central plant connected to adiversified community. This connection may be onlythermal with all of the electric output being sold tothe electric utility. Alternatively, the system mayalso sell electricity to the community. In this secondcase, the system may be stand alone or be grid-con-nected with the grid providing back-up and peaking pow-er and serving as a market for excess electricity.

The thermal connections to the community require thatsome form of district heating system be installed.This will be some form of steam or hot water systemrequiring piping. Here, large, open sites, free ofexisting instructure are ideal. A thermal distributionsystem installed as an integrated element in a compre-hensive infrastructure can have lowet costs and greater

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Irationality than one which must work around a maze ofexisting utilities. I

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At this time there is general concurrence that hot wa-ter is the preferrable medium for thermal distributionin district energy schemes. It is possible to runpressurized water at relatively high temperatures tomeet process demands for steam. The new Trenton, NJ,Integrated Community Energy System distributes hot wa-ter at 390°F in order to permit connection to existingbuilding systems using medium pressure steam. However,it is desirable to provide heat at substantially lowertemperatures if possible. Lower temperatures meangreater heat recovery potential, lower heat loss duringtransmission, and less expensive piping.

A low temperature distribution system requires thatstandards for end use equipment (equipment within thebuildings) be established. Here, again, the charac-teristics of large railroad tracts couples well withthe development of district heating as there are few,if any, buildings on the site at the outset of the pro-ject and any buildings which do exist are most likelygoing to receive new mechanical systems. This is aspecific case of matching end-use demand to an avail-able energy resource.

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A gas or combustion turbine functions similarly to thesteam turbine, however instead burning fuel to generatesteam, the hot gasses from fuel combustion drive therotor directly. Turbo-prop aircraft engines are, forexample, combustion turbines. For cogeneration, thehot exhaust gasses are passed through a heat récover-ing, boiler and produce either steam or hot water.

II

rDeisel engines are probably the most commonly known ofthe cogeneration prime movers; although for cogene-ration, the scale of the engines may be far larger thannormally pictured. With deisel engines, waste heat isnot only recoverable from the engine exhaust but alsofrom jacket cooling water (similar to a car i s radiator)and from the oil cooler. In each of these technolo-gies, the spinning shaft of the prime mover is connect-ed to an electric generator which produces theelectricity.

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It is not the intention of this section to detail thedesign considerations of cogeneration alternatives.However, several characteristics of the various systemsmay provide useful background.

I Steam turbines are generally most useful in large size--modules beginning at capacities of 20-50 megawatts(electric) and extending up to the range of large, cen-tral station generating facilities.I

ICombustion turbines have, as a rule, the lowest firstcost but also the lowest efficiency in producing elec-tricity. They do, however, release their waste heat atthe highest temperature of the three technologies andmay therefore have advantages in applications wherehigh temperature heat is required. Combustion turbinesare commonly available in modules from about 800 kilo-watts (0.8 magawatts) to 25 megawatts electric.

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Deisel engines range from moderate to extremely highefficiency in electric production. Their primary dis-advantage to use in cogeneration is that a substantialportion of the waste heat is at relatively low tempera-ture. If, however, a low temperature demand can beestablished, deisels exhibit a high overall efficiencywith a large portion of the total energy in electrici-ty. Deisel modules range from very small (less than

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100 kilowatts) through 25 megawatts, aud large; al-though for cogeneration purposes, the engines in therange of 2-3 megawatts and larger show substantiallyhigher efficiencies (in electric production). '

Cogeneration with district heating seems to require aminimum building community of 1-2 million square feetof building with significant benefits from increasesabove this level. It also requires a diverse communityin order to maximize utilization of the equipment.Since thermal distribution is both material intensiveand expensive, a dense community will enhance the at-tractiveness for a district heating system. All ofthese characteristics are likely to be present in theredevelopment of former railroad property.

EMBODIED ENERGY

At present, it is unlikely that the energy embodied inbuilding materials will have a significant effect onplanning decisions. However, given that energy re-sources are finite, we will undoubtedly face futurecrises in which reduction of energy consumption willagain become a major national goal. Thoughtful plan-ning now can mitigate these future problems.

The energy required to construct buildings (includingthat required to manufacture, fabricate and transportbuilding materials) represents about five percent ofnational energy use or about one-sixth of the energyrequired to operate buildings. There is, however, an-other way of looking at the relative importance of em-bodied energy in buildings. The embodied energy persquare foot of new construction ranges from600,000-700,000 Btu/sf for residential construction to1,000,000-1,600,000 Btu/sf for commercial buildings.(These figures represent "source" energy, and includelosses in generation and transmission.) With currentsource energy figures for commercial building operation

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Iat 100,000-150,000 Btu/sr, it can be seen that the en-ergy required to construct a building may equal ten ormore years of that building i s operation energy. ..

Strategies for reducing embodied energy in new con-struction are outlined in the HABOOK OF ENERGY USEFOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, U. S. DOE Document CE/20220-1available from NTIS, U. S. Department of Commerce, 5285Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.

Consideration should also be given to the energy embod-ied in existing buildings. The Handbook permits atake-off and sumary of the energy content of buildingsor portions of buildings already in place. However,without having to analyze this embodied energy in de-tail, it can be said that whenever a building or por-tion of a building can be reused, there is a saving ofenergy. Some examples of the quantities of energysaved are as follows:

1 cubic yard of concrete 2,590,000 Btu

(18 gallonsoil)

of

100 square feet of 8" thick brickwall 28,100,000 Btu

(195 gallons ofoil)

1 ton structural steel 45,400,000 Btu(315 gallons ofoil)

It should be pointed out, however, that the primaryreasons for preserving buildings are not energy consid-erations but are, rather, issues of urban and historiccontinuity.

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4 LESSONS LEARNEDGAUGING VALUE

The three case studies have one conunanding feature incommon. Each of them demonstrates the extraordinaryand unique opportunity that underused railroad landsoffer to cities to reconsider their revitalization andto restructure their future form from within.

If the Pittsburgh, Denver and San Francisco examplesare in any sense prototypical --and clearly they are--this is the one overriding message they send to cities,large and small, across the nation.

As awareness of the potential of railroad lands withincities grows, several railroad corporations are formingstrong real estate divisions within them. In some cor-porations these divisions are set up as individualprofit centers within the company, bringing them to theedge of becoming speculators, entrepreneurs ordevelopers.

In two of the three case studies, the railroad compa-nies had not conducted planning, marketing or urbandesign studies to investigate the potential of theirholdings. Consequently the value of their lands couldonly be gauged by the going market rate for unused andunimproved sites in relatively depressed locations incities that have faced years of decline due to obsoles-cence and the pressures of competing suburbanization.

The case studies demonstrate, however, that truer landvalues can be gauged only after planning processes haveestablished future directions and reuses, and some de-termination of phasing, front-end capitalization, mar-ket absorbition, and division of responsibility forimplementation and management has been made. Planning,economic, and urban design studies to explore futureuses and potential are, therefore, an essential tool.

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PUBLIC/PRIVATE PLANNING PROCESSES

The three case studies revealed that the gross extentof railroad land available for new development is larg-er in each case than the acreage of the traditionaldowntown. This fact alone shows the extent of the op-portunity that many cities have for reshaping theirfuture form for generations to come. And, for most ofthese cities, the opportunity is unique. The opportu-nity is all the more extraordinary in that these landsare for the most part in single or limited ownerships,and due to their often slighted conditions are rela-tively low in land value. The fact that a developmentprogram might become the basis for adj usting land valuemeans that a balance between all the aspects of a de-velopment pro forma can be arrived at.

Another important aspect of the opportunity is thatlittle or no relocation is required. Railroad landshave by tradition not been housing areas. And the for-cible relocation of viable industrial uses is unlikelyto be necessary or advisable, except in unusual circum-stances, since employment in most cities is of vitalconcern. Relocation is generally not a maj or issue.

It is therefore deeply in the mutual interest of boththe public and the private sector to engage in joint orat least closely interrelated and coordinated planningefforts.

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COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING:THE POWER OF IMAGE

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In recent decades, city centers have been weakened bysuburbanization. Residential, commercial and institu-tional growth has occurred on the edges of traditionalcities, not in their cores. Older neighborhoods havestruggled for survival, older industries have becomeobsolete.

Railroads have suffered parallel declines. The growthof the trucking industry and of the passenger airlineindustry have whittled away at their traditional mar-kets, and the decline of traditional heavy industriesas in the steel mill valleys of Pittsburgh andCleveland--have further crippled their traditionalrole.

But, new counter-trends are also in evidence. The ex-citement and culture of traditional downtowns are be~ginning to be rediscovered. Cities are learning how tomarket their richest resources, and how to build ontheir traditions.

On the public side there exist a series of perceptionsand agendas for the city's future which are in turnrelated to public programs, employment, tax revenueproj ections, and the perceived wishes of citizens.These are important starting-off points for comprehen-sive planning processes, since it is ,the advantage ofall concerned to arrive at comprehensive plans that areat once feasible but which also coincide with the bestpublic interest.

Urban design is a critically important tool in thisprocess. Through planning, economit market analyses,and infrastructure studies, directional recommendationscan be made. But urban design provides us with the

three-dimensional images that show how everything canfit together and be made to work in harmonious interre-lationships. The case studies presents in this reportdemonstrate how critically important the power of urbandesign images are in the portrayal of intentions.

In the San Francisco case history, two previous compre-hensive planning efforts were rejected once the urbandesigners revealed what the intentions and recommenda-tions looked like in three-dimensions. The Pittsburghcase history, on the other land, shows how urban designimages became the basis for market feasibility projec-tions for Station Square, for rezoning and planning,and for the comprehensive interrelationship of publicand private capitalization inputs that became keys toproject i s success. Similarly, urban design studies forthe Stadium project will be a critically important toolas the project moves forward into implementation.

In Denver, the urban design studies helped shape thepatterns of development, density, use, and activitywhile preserving views and creating and reinforcingexisting urban features and amenities.

REMOV AL OF BLIGHT

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Underused railroad lines in city cores have a blightingimage. Weeds growing tall between rusting railroadlines, empty warehouse buildings with broken windows,and derelict pieces of unused machinery are the lan-guage of decline. They have a deeply negative influ-ence on city centers struggling' to survive thechallenges of suburbanization.

Comprehensive planning and urban design processes pro-vide images that show how the elements of blight canbecome the keys to a new future. The Pittsburgh Sta-tion Square- case study shows how old and underusedrailroad buildings can be recycled and have a new and

richly imageable future, while also becoming the arriia-ture for new developments to follow in further phasing.

This kind of success--the transformation of minus con-ditions into plus conditions--tells the world at largeand the regional market in particular, that the citycenter is on the march. Station Square now attractsover 3 million visitors annually.

The Denver case study reveals, on the other hand, how acity and a number of railroad companies together candevelop alternative futures. The planning, market, andpolitical forces at play on the Platte River Valleysite offer alternative themes that are now in the pro-cess of exploration. Their comprehensive resolutionwill have a deep impact on the economic future and bal-ance of the entire core area.

ROLE OF CITIZENSPublic policy issues are within the purview of citizeninquiry and participation. The absence of citizen en-franchisement in San Francisco's early Mission Bayschemes turned out to be an Achilles heel. As the re-port indicates, citizens wield great power. They can--as we know from both Denver and San Francisco--defeator delay projects, cutting deeply into their ultimatefeasibility.

On the other hand the planning and development process-es are so sophisticated that it is difficult to includeuniformed citizens in meaningful roles. Information,open lines of communication, and carefully constructedpublic workshops are tools which, when they are usedprogressively along a meaningful planning timeline,will ensure an increasingly knowlegeable and involvedbody of citizens, with the ultimate goal ofpublic/private concensus.

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The most recent Mission Bay studies show that citizensare a rich resource to be used in planning. A seriesof concerns have surfaced there that have enrichenedthe emerging urban designs--concerns focusing on eco-logical conservation of water frontage, passive andactive recreation, and the proper adjustment of densityand usage to liveability and environmental quality.

The political value of concensus is obvious to both thepublic sector and the private. Citizen backing is alsoan invaluable marketing tool as the project moves for-ward into implementation.

PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES OF RAILROADLANDS 'Railroad lands are linear in form, and generally occupyflat lands. The ideal routes that the nineteenth cen-tury railroad builders used were riverbanks. Riversnot only have the same gradients as those required byrailroads, but millenia of erosion have resulted inalluvial flatlands that have proven ideal for marshal-ling yards and heavy industrial uses.

Also, railroads are by nature link-systems. In coreareas they celebrate their destination with great ter-minal buildings and magnificent concourses. They aretraditional gateways.

Although long-distance passenger services by rail havebeen largely superceded by airline travel, theopportunity exists for consolidated railroad corridorsto provide fast intercity surface services and to be-come rapid transit and mass transit corridors withinmetro-regions.

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Planning the latter corridor usage implies new nodes ofdevelopment at transit stops and points of modal split.This in turn provides the city with a new and compel-ling metro-form of radial corridors--based on tradi-tional railroads, services, and the terminals--albeitin new forms.

Water frontages have become in the past decade a keyelement in downtown revitalization. The fact that inthe past riverbanks have been occupied by railways andindustries but may now be replanned offers the opportu-nity to regain public access to return to the publicone of the most satisfying natural resources that cit-ies can enj oy .

CITY PROCESS

A city that finds itself with major undeveloped landnear its central business district--and with pressurefor development or a clear public need that can benefitfrom development--should undertake a careful process ofanalysis and planning. The three components are:

-Define the situation

-Decide what the development should be

-Decide how best to get it done

This will be a valid framework whether the railroad hascome to the city with a proposal first, or the city hasinitiated the process.

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DEFINE THE SITUATION

Real estate development is highly dependent on localmarket factors and conditions. Because of this, theredevelopment of railroad-owned land will proceed ornot largely in response to unique local conditions.This study has identified four generic redevelopmentscenarios that can assist railroad companies and commu-nities in evaluating the potential for redevelopment.These are illustrated below.

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AAJ L.- OWNeD !.NDDeVei.OPMeNT EQA~IOS

The four scenarios relate the two key economic factorsthat will influence the feasibility and timing of rede-velopment. These factors are:

-The viability of continued rail operations on thesite

-The pressure to redevelop the site to its highestand best use

Scenario One is the most difficul t and complex of thefour presented. Here, there is a viable rail operationin place that is also experiencing pressure to redevel-op. There is the potential for conflict between publicand private obj ectives . Redevelopm~nt under this sce-nario could entail significant costs with respect torelocating viable rail operations.

Scenario Two involves a viable rail operation that isnot currently experiencing pressure to develop. Thissituation may occur when the rail operation is locatedin the fringes of the center city or in a highly indus-trialized area. The implications of Scenario Two isthat the current use of the site is the highest andbest use. As the center city expands and industrialuses are relocated, this situation may change.

Scenario Three is the optimum redevelopment scenario.In this case, pressure to redevelop coincides with thesituation where rail operations are no longer viable orrequired on the site. The opportunity exists for inte-grating private redevelopment objectives with publicpolicy objectives.

Scenario Four describes a situation where rail opera-.tions are no longer viable and there is little to noreal estate demand for alternative uses in the nearterm. Here, the issue becomes one of land banking.Long-term economic development objectives of the commu-nity may warrant purchasing such a site if this is ac-ceptable to the railroad company. However, therailroad company may be willing to do its own landbanking because of the inherent long-term value of alarge site in the center city. Both parties shouldpromote the site i s availability as a component of acomprehensive economic development program. .

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DECIDE WHRE IT SHOULD BE FLEXIBILITY: Flexibility is necessary due to thecomplex timeframe of developing a large-scale pro-ject. The railroad company must be prepared toaccommodate uses, restrictions, and conditions ondevelopment designed to achieve various~ publicpolicy objectives. Such objectives attainedthrough "exactions" may reduce the short-termseconomic returns to the railroad company. For itspart, the local community must permit the railroadcompany the necessary flexibility to respond tochanging market conditions and financial require-ments. The community must be willing to maketrade-offs and compromises.

Ideally, a joint effort among the railroads, the cityand affected citizens and interest groups, the economicplanning for the site must determine the most appropri-ate mix of uses (public and private) and their marketorientation, identify infrastructure needs and costs,include negotiation of public and private responsibili-ties, and prepare pro forma analyses of the project ISfinancial characteristics. Depending on the redevel-0pment scenario facing the city, this process may beinitiated by one party or the other, or one may takethe lead in developing the information. In many cases,each party will develop its own scheme and backgrounddata, but this can cause mistrust and disagreementslater if the information is not shared.

INNOVATIVE: The scale of this type of developmentboth invites and necessitates innövative solutionsto a wide range of social, physical, environmentaland economic issues. The early and meaningfulparticipation of organized interest groups is notonly desirable but critical. Citizen participa-tion in today's legal, political, and regulatoryenvironment can make or break projects. Large-scale development provides the opportunity to im-plement innovative planning and design conceptsthat are not practical for small scale projects.The opportunity exists to have a major and long-term impact on the form and character of the cen-ter city. Large-scale development may have majorenvironmental impacts. Innovative approaches tomitigation are required, while opportunities forenhancing the natural environment can be morereadily pursued. Innovative approaches to financ-ing large scale development will be required.Local governments can no longer depend on federaland state grant programs or unrestricted borrowing.authority to finance land assembly, relocation,infrastructure, etc. Increasingly, local govern-ment must rely on its own financial resources tofinance public improvements. Joint public-privatefinancing strategies must be explored.

DECIDE HOW TO GET IT DONE

In some case studies the land was acquired by the cityfor its own development or resale to others. In othercases the railroad maintained ownership and control.In yet others the railroad sold or leased the land toone or more developers or operations. Whatever theownership structure, the strategy for implementationmust include clear roles for both the city and therailroad. And while the exact mechanisms and organiza-tion will vary from city to city, the process must be:proactive, flexible, innovative, feasible andcommitted.

PROACTIVE: Both the railroad company and the localcommunity need to be provacti ve with respect toeach other and the reuse of railroad property. Aproactive strategy entails both groups being open,accessible and clear about their goals, objectivesand concerns. Both parties need to anticipatechanging market conditions and the needs of thecommunity. Expectations and requirements need tobe clearly defined and differentiated.

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FEASIBILITY: Public policy objectives must be~arefully .w~i~hed in light of their impact on pro-

Ject feasibility. Expectations must be realisticas to the nature and scope of development exac-tions and regulatory restrictions. A high degreeof financial sophistication is required of bothparties. If the development is to be a truepublic-private partnership, there needs to be anopenness and objectivity with respect to the shar-ing of financial information. Financial returnsto the developer must be competitive and reflec-tive of the level of risk. The incentives andpublic expenditures must be designed to insure thel~ng-term success of the proj ect, not merely pro-vide a one-time jump in land value.

COMMITMENT: Both the loca 1 community and therailroad must be committed to the process and pro-ject. Commitment can be measured in terms of thefinancial, political and corporate resources in-vested by both groups. Developers undertakinglarge-scale development are most concerned about:

-Consistency in the application of policiesplans and regulations

-Continuity in political decision-making and

-Timeliness in decision-making.

For its part, the local conuunity is most concernedthat the development delivers what was promised. Theconcerns of both parties must be addressed formallythrough such devices as memoranda of understanding anddeve lopment agreements. A commi tment by both partiesto minimize uncertainty is beneficial to all.

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CRITICAL LARGE SCALE DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

ISSUE PROBLEM

-Government Review Process -Fragmented decision-making-Conflicting/Changing

Requi remen ts

-Delays-Additional Cost-Duplicate Procedures

-Development and DesignGuidelines/Requirements

-Non-Flexible-Conventional-Lack of or premature

specificity

- Infrastructure andPublic Improvements

-High front end cost-Equity (i.e., projectvs. area-wide needs)

-Uncertainty of publictiming and funding

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needs

sector

REMEDY

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-Coordinated Permit Review-Concurrent Processing-Memorandum of Understanding-Development Agreement

-Stage review-Definition of approval andconflict resolution mechanisms

- PUD zoning

-Public funding of certaininfrastructure elements

-Developer financing of "fair-share"-Providing tax-exempt financingto developer

-Developer Agreement

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R/UDA T TEAMTEAM CHAIRPERSON

BEN H. CUNINGHA JR., AlAExecutive Vice President, ArchitectureCRSSHouston, Texas

Group

Ben Cunningham is an architect and urban designer with substantial national andinternational experience in large scale community design and development. Hehas served on three previous R/UDAT teams and is a past chairman of the AlA'sUrban Design and Planning Committee.

TEAM MEMBERS

PETER CALTHORPE, AlAPrincipalCalthorpe AssociatesSausalito, California

Peter Calthorpe is an architect and urban planner concentrating on the design ofaffordable housing and master planning for mixed use commerical and developmentprojects. He has specialized in urban energy issues and is serving as a visi-ting critic of the schools of architecture at the University of CaliforniaBerkeley and the University of Washington.

W. PAUL FARR, ,AICPDeputy Planning DirectorCity of PittsburghPittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Paul Farmer is an urban planner and has served as Deputy Planning Director forthe City of Pittsburgh since 1980. He has taught in the Graduate School ofPublic and International Affairs at the University of Pittsburgh and in theSchool of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. He is the author of PERSONALITY, POLITICS AN PLANING: HOW CITYPLAING WORKS and has served as a Director of the American Planning Association.

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IPETER M. HASSELMA, F AlAPrincipalSandy & Babcock, ArchitectsSan Francisco, California

Iand Planners

Peter Hasselman is an architect and urban designer with nearly twenty-five yearsof professional experience. He acted as the lead designer of the NortheastCorridor Improvement Project between Boston and Washington, DC. This projectfocused on the renovation of railroad stations, maintenance facilities, andrelated urban design implications. Additionally, he is a periodic lecturer,critic, author, and editorial cartoonist. He has served on eight previousR/UDAT teams and is a member of the AlA's Urban Design and Planning Committee.

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BOB ISAACSON, PEProject EngineerSan Francisco Redevelopmentand Secretary,Mission Creek ConservancySan Francisco, California

IAgency

Bob Isaacson is a civil engineer and a founding director of the Mission CreekConservancy. He lives on a houseboat moored on Mission Creek. He is presentlythe Project Engineer for the Rincon Point/South Beach Redevelopment Project andhas extensive experience with several public agencies in California as a staffengineer. The Mission Creek Conservancy is concerned with fostering appropriateredevelopment of the Mission Bay area of the city.

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DAVID N. LEWIS, FAIA/RIBA/ AICPChairmanUrban Design Associates, ArchitectsPittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

IDavid Lewis, founder of UDA/ Architects, is an architect and urban designer. Hehas taught in the architecture and urban design programs at Carnegie-Mellon andYale Universities and has served as chairman of the AlA i S Urban Design andPlanning Committee. He has served on five previous R/UDAT teams, chairing two.His firm is responsible for carrying urban design through architecture to con-struction for a variety of waterfront, railroad, historic, and multi-use devel-opments throughout the US. Additionally, he has authored numerous articles andbooks on urban design, including co-authorship of the forthcoming book on theAlA's R/UDAT program--URBAN DESIGN IN ACTION.

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WILLIAM F. MASTERSONSenior Manager, Real Estate ConsultingPeat, Marwick, Mitchell & CompanyLos Angeles, California

Group ~Bill Masterson is a real estate market and financial analyst, and has worked asa consultant to public and commercial clients throughout the country for overten years. Additionally, he has development policy analyses, evaluation pro-grams, and performance audits for federal, state and local governments. He is amember of the American Planning Association.

DAVID A. OLESON .Assistant Vice-President for Denver OperationsGlacier Park Company of Burlington Northern, Inc.Denver, Colorado

DavesioncialParkmany

Oleson is a real estate development and management specialist with exten-managerial responsibilities in marketing, industrial development, commer-development, property management, and railroad interaction. The GlacierCompany is part of Burlington Northern, Inc., that offers properties inparts of the US and Canada for joint development and investment. ~

BELINDA ORLINGConsultantSan Francisco, California

Belinda Orling is an urban designer and photographer working with architects inthe US and Canada. She has development urban design guidelines for downtownwaterfronts in Halifax and Toronto and has worked with railroad facilities andconducted feasibility studies for railroad lands in Winnipeg and other Canadiancities. She has taught in the fields of urban and environmental design.

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IJ. LEE SAMONS, AI CPSenior Vice-PresidentHammer Siler George AssociatesDenver, Colorado

ILee Sammons is a real estate and economic development consultant who works withboth private and public sector clients. He has completed numerous downtownrevitalization, recreation development, economic, market and feasibility studiesfor residential and commerical land development projects throughout the U. S.This is the second R/UDAT on which he has participated.

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CARL STE IN, AlAPrincipalThe Stein PartnershipNew York, New York

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Carl Stein is an architect practicing energy planning and design and has been aprincipal of the Stein Partnership since 1976. He was principal in charge ofthe Trenton, New Jersey, cogeneration district heating system--the first of itskind in the US--and p.incipal in charge of the largest ornamental brownstonepreservation proj ect in the New' York region. He has chaired the National AlA 'sEnergy Professional Development Program Task Group that conceived and designedcourses that have been delivered to over 5,000 architects.

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RONALD A. STRA, FAIADeputy Director for UrbanCity/County of DenverDenver, Colorado

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Ron Straka is an architect and urban designer who, in private practice, hasparticipated in developing urban design plans for underutilized railroad landsin large and small communities. Since 1984, he has served as Denver's firstDeputy Director for Urban Design and, in that capacity, has led the developmentof urban design concepts for Denver's Central Platte Valley. He has served onten previous R/UDAT teams and is a past chairman of the AlA i S Urban Design andPlanning Committee. He received the AlA's Kemper Award in 1977.

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STEPHEN TOWNSENDUrban DesignerSkidmore, Ownings & MerrillSan Francisco, California

Steve Townsend is an urban designer and trained architect who, during the pastfive years, has worked as project designer on projects ranging from urban cen-ters to large mixed-use developments.

GEORGE A. WILLIAMSAssistant Director, Department of City PlanningSan Francisco, California

George Williams is a lawyer and urban planner and has been with the City of SanFrancisco for the past twelve years. He is in charge of long range and projectplanning and is the principal author of the DOWNTOWN PLA FOR SAN FRACISCO. Heis also responsible for the planning of the Mission Bay project. jj

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R/UDA T TASK GROUP CO-CHAIRMEN.

CHALES F. REDMON, FAIA, Co-ChairmanCambridge, Massachusetts

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RONALD L. KULL, AIA, Co-ChairmanCincinnati, Ohio

R/UDA T TASK GROUP MEMBERS

John P. Clarke, AIA/AICPTrentòn, New Jersey

James Christopher, FAIASalt Lake City, Utah

David N. Lewis, FAIA/ AICPPittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Ronald Straka, FAIADenver, Colorado

AlA STAFF DIRECTORBRUCE M. KRIVISKEY, AICPDirector of Urban Design and R/UDAT ProgramsThe American Institute of ArchitectsWashington, DC 6