resource-use patterns: the case of coconut-based...

SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATION PROGRAMME ON ENVIRONMENTALLY

SOUND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE HUMID TROPICS

WORKING PAPERS

N"15,1996

A UNITED NATIONS

UHSCO EDUCATIONAL, - SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME

THE THIRD WORLD

UNITED NATIONS ACALEMY OF

UNIVERSITY SCIENCES

The Working Papers series is a publication of the South-South Co-operation

Programme for Environmentally Sound Socio-Economic Development in the Humid Tropics.

The series aims to disseminate the results of the research on Biosphere Reserves on such

topics as (i) the prevailing conservation and resource-use patterns and, (ii) the ways of

improving the traditional practices and orientation for applied research aimed at a more

intensive and sustainable use of the biodiversity to provide a better livelihood to the local

population in the buffer and transition zones. On more general issues, the Working. Papers are

also are an attempt to identify key problems that will become areas of concentration for

international co-operation.

The map on the front page has been produced by using a commercial software programme. The boundaries do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by UNESCO or the United Nations. Neither do the ideas and opinions expressed in the Workina Papers series, which are solely engaging their authors.

The Workina Papers series is published as necessary either in English, French or Spanish depending of the language used by the author.

0 Permission to reproduce any material of the Workina Papers series will be given without any previous authorisation, provided that full reference to the author, title, series title, date, institution editor and place of publication are given.

All correspondence should be addressed to the administrative editor.

Edited by : UNESCO Division of Ecological Sciences South-South Co-operation Programme 7 place de Fontenoy 75 700 PARIS (FRANCE)

Telephone : 33 - (1) 45.68.41.46 Telefax : 33 - (1) 40.65.98.97 E-mail : m.clusener-godt @ unesco.org

lgnacy SACHS ECOLE DES HAUTES ETUDES EN

SCIENCES SOCIALES (EHESS)

Centre de Recherches sur le Bresil

Contemporain (C RBC )

54 Bd. Raspail

75 270 PARIS Cedex 06

FRANCE

Telephone : 33 - (1) 4954.2065

Telefax : 33 - (I) 45.48.83.53

Miguel CLijSENER-GODT Michel Le Berre UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, UNIVERSITE CLAUDE

SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL BERNARD LYON 1 (UCBL 1)

ORGANISATION (UNESCO) lnstitut d’Analyse des Systemes

Division of Ecological Sciences Biologiques et Socio-Economiques

South-South Co-operation Programme (IABSE), Socioecologie et

1 rue Miollis Conservation

75 732 PARIS Cedex 15

FRANCE

Telephone : 33 - (1) 45.66.41.46

Telefax : 33 - (1) 40.65.98.97

43, Bd. du 11 novembre 1916

69622 VILLEURBANNE Cedex

FRANCE

Telephone : 33 - 72.43.12.48

Telefax : 33 - 72.43.12.47

1

The Biosphere Reserves or similar managed areas that are joining the South-South

Cooperution Programme, are requested to produce an overview of their covering area

containing first hand information on its conditions and urging problems.

These reports will be primarily used as background materials for the comparative

projects agreed upon in the programme of activities established at the Chiang Mai meeting,

held in May1994. For more details please report to the newsletter South-South Persnectives

(No 1, October 1994 [28 pp.], UNESCO, Paris [France]).

Given the rich information value of these reports, there are being made available to a

wide audience. They may be obtained by contacting UNESCO/MAB Secretariat, Division of

Ecological Sciences.

For other documents available in the series, see the back-cover

Working Paper N9 15, 1996, UNESCO (South-Sooth Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

-7 T

This paper deals with resource-use patterns in coconut-based agrosystems in the

coastal zones of Kerala, India and Alagoas, Brazil. Its main objective is to provide a

comparative analysis of how two different cultures use their resource bases, in view of the

fact that there are a multitude of similarities between these two zones.

In Kerala, one of the most densely populated states in India, coconut based systems,

the so called homegardens, are widely spread along its coast occupying at least 2.5 million

families. This high population density raises questions related to the carrying capacity of the

coastal environment. The socio-economic importance of homegardens is well recognized and is

of ancient agrarian origins. Coconut has always played a important role in the lives of the

Kerala population.

In Alagoas, on the other hand, where the land is highly concentrated, a monocultural

pattern can be observed and the coconut culture currently faces a severe crisis.

An agroecological analysis of the Kerala’s homegardens is placed within the context

of an analysis of the monocultural patterns of Alagoas. The socio-economic implications of

both systems are also object of consideration vis-a-vis sustainable agricultural and rural

development strategies supported by job-led policies, as suggested by the South-South Co-

operation Programme of UNESCO.

Vinicius NOBRE LAGES : Coconut based agrosystems in India and Brazil

3

Dans cet article l’auteur presente les resultats d’une recherche comparative des

modes de valorisation des ressources dans des systemes agricoles du cocotier, dans les zones

cotieres du Kerala, en Inde, et a Alagoas, au Bresil.

Au Kerala, le deuxieme &tat le plus peuple de l’Inde, les cultures du cocotier

occupent plus de deux millions et demi des familles. Son importance socio-economique ne

peut 2tre mise en dot&e et il est cultive depuis trois mille an&es. I1 est inseparable de la

culture et des traditions du peuple keralais.

A Alagoas, son importance n’est pas moindre quoi qu’il existe plus de 5,000

agriculteurs qui cultivent les cocotiers dans la zone cot&e. Par centre, ils sont cultives selon

un modele monocultural, contrairement aux complexes agrosystemes du cocotier du Kerala, oti

le cocotier n’est qu’une espece parmi plusieurs autres plantes.

En prenant ces deux agrosystemes comme exemples des systemes des ressources,

l’auteur fait une analyse du concept de soutenabilite agroecologique, en considerant des

questions socio-tconomiques et de capacite de charge des Ccosysdmes relevant a ce sujet.

L’objectif majeur est de montrer que ces etudes comparatives sont valables quand il y a des

specificites entre les cas etudies, comme le montrent le Kerala et Alagoas. Ce regard vers

d’autres latitudes du Sud, comme le propose, justement, le Programme de Cooperation Sud-

Sud de l’UNESCO, peut creer des nouvelles perspectives de recherche dans plusieurs

domaines.

The author is particularly grateful for the support received from the Advanced

School of Social Studies-EHESS, Paris, from CAPES-Coordenadoria de Aperfeiqoamento de

Pessoal de Ensino Superior and from the Federal University of Alagoas, Brazil.

Special thanks is owed to Professor Ignacy Sachs from EHESS, for his thoughtful

guidance within this research project and for his insistence on the need for looking at other

Southern latitudes, as correctly stated by the South-South Cooperation Programme of

UNESCO. UNESCO’s support in publishing this paper makes our field observations

available to a wider public, for which we are grateful. We must also express our gratitude to

the Centre for Development Studies in Thiruvananthapuram for its welcoming support during

our stay in Kerala.

Vinicius NOBRE LAGES is a lecturer on Rural Geography at the Federal

University of Magoas (Brazil).

Working Paper NC 15, 1996, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

4

INTRODUCTION.. ...................................................................................................... 5

I- METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK.. ........................................................... .6

II- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND.. ..................................................................... .7

Ill- GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND.. ........................................................... .8 IV- RESOURCE AND LAND-USE PATTERNS: THE COASTAL

ENVIRONMENT ....................................................................................................... 12

FLORA and FAUNA ................................................................................... i 13 V- THE COCONUT-BASED AGROSYSTEMS.. ......................................... .I5

The Kerala’s homeaardens .................................................................... 17

Alaaoas: the monocultural r>attern.. .................................................. .22 VI- COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ...................................................................... ..2 4

VII- CONCLUDING REMARKS.. ....................................................................... .28

References .............................................................................................................. ..3 1


r

5

INTRODUCTION

Resource and land-use patterns have been at the core of the debate on sustainable

development in recent years. Agriculture, one of the major human activities, is here considered

as a resource system of multiple functions and an important vehicle both for food security

and job creation in developing countries.

Following the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio

de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, a group of institutions gathered in Manaus, aiming to transform

the general recommendations of the Agenda 21 into action. After that meeting, the South-

South Cooperation Programme was created, and had among its objectives the goal of fostering

joint research studies from scholars of the participating countries comparing the resource-use

patterns of a given ecosystem in different cultural areas (CLUSENER-GODT et al., 1992).

Other research programmes have also been designed, focusing on small-scale farming and

attempting to develop and validate indices of sustainability in agroecosystems.

The material presented in this paper is intended to further research is this field trying

to follow the general guidelines of these programs. It also follows the conceptual base

proposed by Professor Sachs in his doctoral lectures’ on Comparative Development Studies

at the EHESS.

It reports on current research carried out at the Advanced School of Social Studies-

EHESS, Paris, for which two field studies have been undertaken, both for the states of Kerala,

India and Alagoas, Brazil.

Identifying successful situations which contain ecologically sound environment and

resource use, particularly in agroecosystems, is one of the main objectives of this analysis.

The geographical focus is on the coastal zones of the above mentioned states where

similarities are assumed to be found underlining the comparative approach.

In Alagoas land structure follows the concentrated pattern of Northeast Brazil.

Monocultures of sugar-cane, coconut and grassland for cattle ranching prevail as land-use in

the coastal landscape. Kerala, on the southwest coast, is India’s second most densely

populated state. Land reforms were implemented and its land structure is highly fragmented

where a great number of smallholdings is found. A comparative analysis of their agroecological

sustainability is also one of the objectives of this research.Along with the concept of

agroecological sustainability, questions regarding social equity and economic viability

complement each analysis.

The coconut smallholdings, also called homegardens or homesteads, is the prevailing

form of land-use along the Kerala coast along with rice paddies. It is an age-old production

1 India, Brazil, China and Russia are among the countries considered by Professor Ignacy Sachs’ comparative analysis of development experiences in recent decades. The ecological, cultural, social, political and economic dimensions of development strategies is also a privileged theme of his lectures at the EHESS. Job-led strategies is on the core of his ecodevelopment approach.

Working Paper N” 15, 1996, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

T

6

system which has sustained the population of Kerala through centuries (ABDUL SALAM

and SREEKUMAR, 1991). Considered as an ecologically and socially sound land and

resource management system it is here compared to the monocultural patterns found on the

coast of Alagoas. It is worth noting the state of Kerala, although one of the poorest in India,

has, unlike Alagoas, achieved spectacular developments in the fields of education and health as

largely discussed in the literature.*

Though attention and concentration on the study of resource uses in coconut-based

agrosystems has prevailed throughout, a general overview of the coastal resource base is given.

I- METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

The questions underlying the comparative research method in this paper are related

to how two different cultures use two similar resource bases as well as the implications to the

carrying capacity of their environment. As established above, coconut-based agrosystems is

the focus of such analyse.

According to HOLT and TURNER (1970) and BAARK and SIGURDON (1980)

the comparative method is to the social scientists something comparable to the controlled

laboratory experiment of the natural scientist. In other words, the social scientist is rarely able

to manipulate the variables directly. Through the use of the comparative method and through

the careful selection and/or sampling of research sites, however, the manipulation of the

experimental variables can be indirectly made. It is not assumed here, however, that social

phenomena follow any linear pattern of behavior nor that decision-making process in small-

scale and peasant economies fit with expected economic rationality.

Two major points favoured the choice of Alagoas and Kerala in this research. First,

specific features of the intertropical zone are considered in spite of their differences regarding

the metereological, edaphological, topographical and geomorphological conditions. The Kerala

coast and that of Alagoas have similar potential for the development of the agricultural

activities treated in this paper. The agroecosystems studied are placed on the coastal zone,

where similar geographical features are found. Second, the interchange of plant species which

followed the great navigations period from the XV to the XVIII centuries is at the origin of

many of the widely cultivated crops of today. From the agrosystemic level, it is possible to

’ For a discussion of the Kerala development experience see George,K.K.,Limits to Ker&z Model of DeveZopment,CDS,1993, Franke, Richard W. and Chasin, B.H., Kerala -Development through radical rejorm, Promilla & Co., 1994 and Panikar, P.G.K and Soman, C.R., Health Sfatus of KeruZu- Paradox of economic backwardness and health development, CDS, 1984.


7

see how the farmers of Kerala and Alagoas use their resource bases. It is also possible to see

how biological diversity is linked to cultural and sociodiversity.3

II- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Kerala has a long established history of commercial and cultural interchanges, dating

back to the Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans in antiquity. Its geographical position has helped

to ensure, to some extent, its political and cultural isolation from the rest of the Indian sub-

continent and has also facilitated its extensive and active contacts with the countries of the

outside world. These early foreign contacts were mainly commercial but they led, at very

early period of history, to the introduction of such religions as Christianity, Judaism and

Islam into the land and they helped to mold the culture of Kerala into a composite and

cosmopolitan one (MENON, 1994).

Ancient Kerala is famous for its spices and it was her fame as the land of spices that

brought foreign peoples and cultures to her shores from the third millenium B.C., if not earlier

(RANDHAWA, 1982).

The landing of the portuguese Vasco da Gama at Calicut in may 1498 marked the

begining of a new epoch in the history of Kerala. Much has been written about this fruitful

intechange of this early globalization process4. Many of the crops introduced by the

Portuguese from Brazil such as cashews and tapioca now play an important socio-economic

role in Kerala. In India, cashew is one of the most important foreign exchange earning crops

providing raw material for the labour intensive processing industry. Cashews alone provides

employment for 280.000 workers in 550 processing factories in India and Kerala has 25% of

the total area under cashew cultivation (CHADHA, 1989).

Some of the largely cultivated sugar-cane varieties in Northeast Brazil and in Alagoas,

in particular, are of Indian origin (Coimbatore). Cattle races from India such as nelore, guzeru

and gir, have also been introduced, making a large portion of the cattle stock of Alagoas.

The newly introduced crops and animals added to the already rich biodiversity of the

two countries. It is true that a massive destruction of the existing tropical forests especially in

Brazil after the XVI century, followed the expansion of agriculture. However, in the case of

Kerala, the introduction of cashew, maniac, pineapple and rubber, all of Brazilian origin, now

largely cultivated throughout its coast, blends with its biodiversity producing one of the

richest agrodiversities in India.

3 For a discussion of the cultural dimension of biodiversity conservation strategies see Sachs and Cliisener-Godt (Eds.), Brazilian Perspecfives on Sustainable DeveZopmenf of the Amazon Region, Man and Biosphere Series Vol 15,1995, particularly the contribution of Walter Neves pp. 91-119. 4 Tracy, James D. (Ed.) in The rise of Merchant Empires - long distance trade with early modern world, 2350-1750, Cambridge University Press, 1990, discusses such interchanges between Asia and other continents.

Working Paper Ng 15, 1996, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

T

8

Ill- GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND

The state of Kerala, a narrow strip of land in the Southwest of India lies between

8O18’ and 12’48’ North latitude and between 74O52’ and 77’24’ East longitude. It has a total

area of 38.855 sq Km and a coast line which is nearly 59OKm long (CEMAP l).The territory

of the state may be broadly divided into three natural divisions : the highland, the midland and

the lowland. The lowland streches along the coast on the western side of the state where

coconut-based agrosystems dominate the land.

MAP I: Kerala state and the Indian sub-continent

N KERALA

13

NATAKA

TAMI L

A RAJYIAN

SEA

Guruvoyur . Trichi

Paddy is also extensively cultivated along the coast (Cf. PHOTO 1).

The major soil types of the coastal region are sandy soils, alluvium soils, and clay

soils. Kerala forms the “type locality” of the laterite soils which form the greater part of the

midland zone(VARGHESE, 1993).


T

PHOTO 1: Rice paddy and the coconut-based homegardens

The coastal region is intensively cultivated and largely rainfed. The Kerala coast

enjoys rains from both South-West and North-East monsoons. The monthly rainfall varies

from 22.6 to 350.6 mm. The rainfall is more or less distributed from May to December

enabling the crops to meet the consumptive use from the rainfall itself during the monsoon

period. Temperature ranges from 22’ to a mean maximum of 33OC. It is also referred to as the

megathermal climate where vegetative growth is not inhibited by temperature, but governed

by rainfall alone.

The Kerala coast is rich in wetland ecosystems such as mangrove swamps,

backwaters, lagoons, and estuaries (Cf. PHOTO 2).

Kerala has a high rural population density which is a matter of great concern

regarding the carrying capacity of its environment. A high density of rural population is

concentrated along the coastal and midland region of Kerala. The highest rural density is found

at Karumkulam panchayat in Trivandrum district with 9,223 persons per sq. Km. followed

by Vadakkevila panchayat in Quilon district with 5,109 persons per sq. km. (SUKUMAR et

al, 1992). Kerala is one of the most densely populated parts of the world with an average of

747 persons per sq. km. The only other state in India which has a higher density is West

Working Paper N* 15, 1996, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

IO

Bengal with 766 people per sq. km. The density of population for India is of 267 people per

sq. km. (PlWKASH, 1994)’

PHOTO 2 : The backwaters of Kerala

Alagoas situated in Northeast Brazil lies between 8’48’ 12” North latitude and

10’29’12” of South latitude(Cf. MAP 2). It has a surface of 29,106 sq. km. to a population

of 2,6 millions (Gov. of AlagoasEIPLAN, 1990).

Its coastal zone lenght of 228 km, varies from 2 km in certain portions to 25 km in

the Southern part. Like Kerala, this coastal zone is rich in lagoons, mangrove swamps, and

estuaries (Cf. PHOTO 3).

The agricultural land is covered with sugar-cane, coconut, grassland for cattle

ranching, and subsistence crops like yams, beans, bananas, sweet potatos which are mostly

cultivated by smallholders. The population is urban in its majority with an average density

bellow 100 persons per sq. km. although the state capital, Maceio, has 1,077.77 people per

sq km.

5 The state of Kerala is divided in 14 districts and almost 1000 panchayats, a smaller admnistrative unit.


r --

11

MAP 2 : The state of Alagoas

PHOTO 3 : Estuaries, mangroves, and the coastal landscape of Atagoas

Working Paper N’ 15, 1996, UNESCO (Sooth-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

-I------.

12

IV- RESOURCE AND LAND-USE PATTERNS: THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

The coastal zone in the humid tropics is subject to great pressure due to dense

human settlements, agricultural and industrial activities, and tourism development. Alagoas

and Kerala also suffer from the same pressures6.

In Kerala, unlikely most parts of India, the distinction between rural and urban is

sometimes not so clear. The presence of infrastructure like roads, water facilities, energy,

services and a fragmented land structure prevent people from migrating to urban centres. Since

1971, there has been a continuous decline in the population growth rate. In the 198Os, the

population growth rate in the state was the lowest compared to the rate of all states and union

territories of the country.

The Kerala coast has long attracted the attention of foreign nations. Since time

immemorial known for its spices, Kerala continues to earn valuable foreign exchange up to

present day (TRACY, 1990).

Having a long agrarian history, the landscape seen on the coastal zone is a unique

product of human endeavour. The imense ‘forest’ of coconuts covers almost 800,000 hectares

along the coast, mixed with varied crops in 2,5 million homegardens. Rice is mostly cultivated

in the wetlands. These agrosystems, contrary to the monocultural pattern found in Alagoas,

are complex systems with a large species diversity.

Alagoas, though inhabited by the native Amerindians before the arrival of the

Portuguese on the XVI century, knows a more recent agrarian history (FERNANDES LIMA,

1992). In the beginning, the Atlantic forest provided wood for the European market, Brazil-

trees (Guaiacum officinale) being the most valuable resource explored by the colonizers,

providing a red dye-wood. With the introduction of sugar-cane in the XVI century, a steady

change followed the expansion of such crop, which became the most important agricultural

commodity of the present day’.

The state of Alagoas is the second national producer of sugar and alcohol, and sugar-

cane occupies a great part of its arable land. Coconut is also an important crop along the coast

providing raw material for 5 agroprocessing industries’. Introduced by the Portuguese, most

6 Kurien, 1995 and De Araujo and Power, S., 1993, make a good analysis of these environmental impacts on the coasts of Kerala and Alagoas, respectively.

’ Sugarcane for alcohol and sugar production has been the base of the economy of Alagoas for most of its history. The plantation systems, the sugar mills and later the modem agroprocessing industries are intimately linked to the history of latifundia in Northeast Brazil. See PRADO JUNIOR (1979) and DE HOLANDA (1969) for an analysis of latifundia in this region.

* At the moment of our field trip to Alagoas only two coconut processing industries were actually operating. Recently another unit has started operation at Coruripe municipality.


T ---1

13

probably from the Island of Cabo Verde where it was earlier introduced there from Asia,

coconut is a major landmark in the coast of Alagoas. Coconut are so naturally well blended

with the coastal landscape in addition to being there for more than four centuries that nobody

even questions its origins.

It is important to remark that, the introduction of many crops both in Kerala and in

Alagoas, is credited to the Portuguese. As reported by MENON (Op. cit.) cashew, tobacco,

guava, pineapple, pappaya, rubber and cassava (locally known as tapioca) were introduced to

Kerala by the Portuguese coming from the Americas. On the other hand, mango, coconut,

sugar-cane and some races of cattle were introduced by them in Brazil from the Asian

continent and from India itself.

FLORA and FAUNA

Alagoas

As recently reported by DIEGUES( 1995), the Atlantic forest present on the coast of

Alagoas and other Brazilian states is considered to have great biodiversity. Its original surface,

however, has been reduced to less than 10% and the isolated remains have been severely

degraded.

The Atlantic forest along with the mangrove swamps constitutes the major forest

ecosystems along the coast.Though protected by law which restricts any kind of intervention,

the protection of these ecosystems is not enforced. Fishermen, hunters and small farmers do

use wood from these areas but major deforestation is mainly associated with large farming and

logging activities.

The remains of the Atlantic forest, though degraded, still hosts a rich fauna and flora,

including endemic species of reptile and birds. The mangrove swamps encroached in the

estuaries, which represent almost 100 sq. km of the coastal zone are of great

importance to the life cicle of many species of the nektonic fauna. The nektonic

fauna of the Mundau-Manguaba lagoonal system with 55 sq km, is rich of 52 families, 90

genera and 12 1 species of fish and 9 families, 13 genera and 22 species of crustacea, most of

them of great importance to the local fishermen communities (TEIXEIRA and FALCAO,

1992).

Kerala

The Kerala coast is also rich in fauna, flora and mineral resources. Its forests and

mangrove swamps abound in a variety of species of mammals and birds, many of them

endemic (KOTHARI, 1993). The mountains and hills are not included in this research study;

9 It is very difficult to specify the origin of certain crops though in Brazil, with a more recent agrarian history, the introduction of the above mentioned crops is credited to the Portugueses.

Working Paper NQ 15, 1996, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

1 .--------I-

14

nevertheless, the importance of the Western Ghats is worth mentioning. It is not only the

habitat of many endemic species, but it hosts elephants, tigers and bears which are nowadays

circumscribed to the protected areas. Location of many Hindu temples, some of the most

important pilgrim centres of Kerala are located on the top of the hills or in their

valleys(MENON, Op. cit.).

Rivers, estuaries, backwaters, mangrove swamps and the waters of an extensive coast

line are an important source of livelihood for millions of people. Fish and fisheries play a

crucial role in the well-being of Kerala’s economy. Kerala’s coastline of 590 kilometres is only

about one tenth of the whole coastline of India. The inshore or coastal waters of 12,570 sq.

lun is estimated to yield, on a sustainable basis, about 400,000 tonne of fish per annum or

about 30 tonnes per sq. km. This makes Kerala’s coastal waters the most productive in India,

constituting more than one-fourth of the country’s total. Almost three quarters of the animal

protein intake of the Kerala’s population is derived from fish (KURIEN, 1994).

Backwaters play an important role to the coir industry’o which use their waters to

submerge the coconut husks for a few months before being transformed into manufactured

products (Cf. PHOTOS 4 and 5).

PHOTOS 4 : The labour intensive coir industry

lo Coir industry occupies the foremost place among traditional industries in Kerala which provides direct employment to 383,000 workers mostly in rural areas. Coir is the name given to the fiber of the cocunut husks which can be manufactured into products such as ropes, carpets, door mats, etc.

Vinicius NOBRE LACES : Coconut based agrosystems in India and Brazil

PHOTO 5: Coconut husks being prepared for

V- THE COCONUT-BASED AGROSYSTEMS

Coconut-based agrosystems were selected as examples

the coir industry

of resource systems due to

their importance to the local economies of both states. In Kerala coconut is primarely

cultivated for the nuts from which are obtained copra, coconut oil, coconut oil cake and fiber

(coir). The juice of the inflorescence is also extracted from less productive trees and allowed to

ferment to produce an alcoholic beverage called toddy. It is estimated that in Kerala at least

2.5 million smallholdings are involved in the production of coconuts.

The coconut (Cocos nuczjkra L.) has a recorded history of over 3,000 years in India.

No single part of it is lost and because of its utilitarian and desirable features it has been

rightly called KaZpawikdza,‘the tree of heaven’ in the sansktit language, the tree that provides

all the necessities of life (Cf. FIG. 1).

One of the religious beliefs in India is that the coconut palm is heavenly tree which

has been brought down to earth by one of the incarnation of God for the prosperity of the

people of Kerala. The name of Kerala itself means the land of coconuts and it is from there

that the cocunut was spread to other parts of the country. India is the third largest producer

of coconut in the world after the Philippines and Indonesia. The state of Kerala, which

accounts for about one per cent of the total land area of India, contributes to about 56.6 per

cent of the surface cultivated with coconuts and 47 per cent of the production and is by large

the most significant producer in the country.

Working Paper NP 15, 1996, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

16

FIG.1 The multiple uses of the coconut tree (modified from Mon tenegro, 1993)

The dietary, religious, economic and cultural importance of coconut to the people of

Kerala is overwelming. It has been inseparable from their lives and traditions since time

immemorial. A vast number of a&anal and industrial products as well as the great amount of

uses for every single part of the coconut tree is a good example of its cultural importance. The

same is obseved for several other plants found in the homegardens as reported by JOSE

(1991).

Tourism, is a growing activity both in Kerala and in Alagoas also benefits from

coconuts, since their sunny beaches, lagoons and backwaters are beautifully framed by these

trees attracting tourists from all over the world.

The state of Alagoas is the fifth largest coconut producer in Brazil. Its production

involves around 50,000 workers. The coconut also plays an important role in the local diet

including many fish preparations. Though its socio-economic importance is less when

compared to Kerala, the coconut industry is one of the major agroprocessing industries in the


state. The coconut culture is facing severe difficulties due to phitossanitary problems, the

absence of credit or favourable agricultural policies and poor technical assistance, which

primarily affecting small and medium size-farmers.The area under coconut growth in the state

of Alagoas was reduced by at least 20 per cent in the recent decade: the state lost its second

position and has fallen to the fifht producer nation wise. Coconut is mainly produced for the

extration of ‘coconut milk’, grated dissected copra and coconut cream for culinary uses.

Another part of the production, particularly the dwarf varieties is used for the consumption

of its juice”.

The Kerala’s homeaardens

Agriculture in Kerala is unique in the sense that homegarden a multistoried mixed

agroecosystem with coconut as the base crop prevalent in almost all parts of the state.

Homegarden or homestead refers to the home and its adjoining land owned and

occupied by the dwelling unit and the space used for cultivation of trees and vegetables and

unutilised space, if any (HANMAN, 1986).

The average size of the homegarden is less than 0.4 hectares and food production is

its primary function. Quite often it involves mixed farming and agroforestry systems, wherein

a variety of agricultural crops, tree crops, farm animals and poultry are combined on the same

area surrounding the home.

The coconut based homegardens cover more than 50 % of the cultivated area in

Kerala. Coconut is the most dominant crop, but other perennial crops like arecanut, black

pepper, cacao, cashew, jack fruit, bread fruit, mango and rubber are grown in different spatial

arrangements. Seasonal food crops like yams, maniac, pulses, vegetables, spices, medicinal,

and ornamental plants are also found. It is a labour intensive systems. According to NAIR and

SREEDHARAN (1986), a homegarden with a large crop mix and livestock requires about

1000 labour days per hectare annually, while monocrops of coconut and rice cultivated

isolated demand only 150 and 400 days per hectare annually respectively. JOSE (199 1) in a

survey of 80 homegardens in the village of Pallode, Kerala, discussed labour productivity as a

measure of efficiency, She argues that the Chaianovian labour intensification can be observed

in the homegardens, particularly in the gardens with livestock. The higher output observed in

the homegardens of small size is produced with very low labour productivity. The entire

labour for livestock is provided by family members who do not have other paid employment.

In an attempt to increase productivity of the scarce land resources, the labour productivity

declines.

I1 As observed by the author in a survey of 107 coconut producers in Alagoas, most of them do not valorise the byproducts of the coconut tree as intensively as observed in Kerala. However, a larger use for the leaves and husks in smallholdings is common practice. There was no research being developed and no incentive for the alternative use of such materials. On the contrary, in Kerala, the Coir Board and the Coconut Board are leading institutions regarding the research and the promotion of coconut products.

Working Paper Ne 15, 1996, UNESCO (South-Sooth Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

T

18

A higher species diversity is observed in larger holdings. On the coastal zone the

homegarden may include an extended garden and rice paddy if appropriate land is available.

Livestock such as goats, poultry, buffalo and cattle may be present along these systems

generating extra income as well as improving the diet of the family. Food, fodder, fuel and

some timber for the family requirements are partitially met by these products available in the

homegardens (Cf. PHOTO 6)

Plant diversity can be viewed as a agrarian strategy to reduce risk, and to achieve

food security in a very limited surface. Higher profits, distribution of returns throughout the

year are also cited as the reasons for choosing higher plant diversity’*.

PHOTO 6: Livestock kept in the homegardens

ALTIERI (1987; 1989) indicates that polyculture systems offer greater agronomic

advantages as compared to monocultural systems. Total yields per hectare are often higher

that sole-crop yields, a better use of light, water and nutrients by plants of different heights

and canopy structure contributing to a better nutrient cycling within the system. A reduction

of diseases and pests is also observed as well as weed suppression. It is worth remarking that

in the case of Kerala coast where heavy rains are expected, an appropiate soil cover not only

reduces soil erosion but also prevents flooding through the reduction of run-off. It can be also

argued that a better soil cover reduces the evapo-transpiration processes within the plant

I2 The author has personally interviewed several farmers along the coastal zone and the reasons for plant diversification coincided with those appointed by JOSE (Op. cit.) and BAVAPPA (1995).

Vinicius NOBRE LAGES : Coconut based. agrosystems in India and Brazil

19

community. GLIESSMAN (1990) indicates that a higher species diversity permits a higher

degree to all but very damaging pertubations, enhancing the resilience of the agroecosystem.

Agroecological sustainability, or the ability of an agroecosystem to withstand disturbing

forces, is inherent to species diversity as discussed by CONWAY(1993).

Homegardens in Kerala, being highly complex systems, have a multilayered canopy

structure. Land is intensively cultivated and this horizontal and vertical arrangements do

provide a better use of light, water and nutrients. Coconut trees form the architectural base of

the gardens, around which other crops are planted. Several strata could be identified as such:

the first layer is within 2 meters distance from the ground and is constituted by vegetables,

tuber crops, grasses, and other herbaceous plants (Cf. PHOTO 7).

PHOTO 7: The first strata where perennial crops are cultivated.

The second and third layers which may include coffee, jambo, banana, cocoa,

papaya, and young coconut trees, are almost continuous in their overlapping structure,

making them indistinguishable. The uppermost canopy is formed with jack fruit, arecanut

palms, adult coconut and other trees reaching up to 25-30 meters (Cf. PHOTO 8).

JOSE (op. cit.) in her survey of 80 homegardens mentioned above, has found a list of

3 1 tree crops, 40 other trees, 6 herbaceous perennials, 23 annual crops,1 8 medicinal plants

and 61 ornamental plants. The total number of species per homegarden ranged from 26.3 to


20

The homegarden blends so well with the surrounding landscape that it often

mimetizes natural forest ecosystems in structure and function. The stratified nature of the

forest is due to the higher species diversity, and the forest continously grows and regenerates.

All the species pass through all these stages before attaining the climax form and the

stratification may often become discontinuous, as can be observed in the homegardens of the

Kerala coast.

Being a perennial crop, coconut may live as long as 80-100 years, thus limiting the

intermixing patterns upon achieving maturity. The coconut trees are usually spaced at about

7.5-8.0 meter apart, though a higher density can be observed, particularly in very small units’3

PHOTO 8 : The upper strata of the homegardens

Coconut trees are used as the guiding pillars of the horizontal structure and other

crops are arranged accordingly to the available space. Although in appearance highly

disorganised, hapharzardly arranged, plant selection and its place within the system follows a

deliberate decision of the farmer. The soil type, topography, proximity of the household,

presence or absence of livestock, marketing and labour requirements are all factors that

influence such decisions. Shade tolerant plants like banana, cocoa and tralling plants like black

I3 Farmers argue that it is the total output per hectare that matters rather than individual tree’s productivity. By adding a few more trees of coconut, for instance, they might be able to have a greater output on their small plots.


21

presence or absence of livestock, marketing and labour requirements are all factors that

influence such decisions. Shade tolerant plants like banana, cocoa and tralling plants like black

pepper, yams and some varieties of beans and curcubitaceae are placed accordingly to these

functions.

Since homegardens have a highly dynamic structure, peasants consciously

manipulate the ecological succession ensuring yields of different crops along the seasons.

Annual crops which have a short cycle may be planted during the early stages of the growing

phase of perennial trees while space and light is available (Cf. FIG. 2).

FIG. 2: A diagram representing a homegarden lives tack

with mixed crops and

Experimental trials with mixed crops have been conducted at the Central Plantation

Crops Research Institute-CPCRI at Kasaragod and at Kayamkulam, as well as at the research

station of the Kerala Agriculture University at Kottarakkara i4. These experiments attempt to

I4 See BAVAPPA (Op. cit.) and NAIR (1979) for a discussion of such experiments.


modelise the optimal plant diversity and spatial arrangements in coconut based homegardens

(Cf. PHOTO 9)

PHOTO 9: The experimental models of homegardens at the CPCRI,

Kasaragod.

Alaaoas: the monocultural pattern

As previously stated, the land structure in Alagoas is highly concentrated following

the examples of other Brazilian states.

Out of a total of 5,225 coconut based systems existing in the state37.8% have less

than 1 hectare and 16% have between 1 and 2 hectares. The medium and large size farms,

however, occupy most of the coconut cultivated land.

In the general land- use pattern, coconut is planted in the sandy soils along the coast,

in reclaimed wetlands or in marginal stretches of soil where most other crops don’t thrive, like

sandy soils near the beaches. Although the agronomic recommendation by EMBRAPA, the

national institution for agronomic research, is that other crops should be introduced into the

system particularly during the initials years of the implantation of the coconut crop, such

practice is seldom observed. It is true that the great majority of the coconut trees are age-old,

thus mature and covering a greater part of the soil, but it is always possible to introduce other

crops. The lack of incentives, the absence of technical know-how, cultural tradition and

technical assistance from the government agricultural extension services limit its use by local

farmers. However intercropping and mixed cropping are usually spotted in smallholdings,


- T--

23

technical assistance from the government agricultural extension services limit its use by local

farmers. However intercropping and mixed cropping are usually spotted in smallholdings,

where cassava, sweet potato, yams, beans and other vegetables are cultivated for household

consumption (Cf. PHOTO 10).

The former Centre for Coconut Research of EMBIUPA, at Aracaju in the state of

Sergipe, has recently published a research programme (EMBRAPA, 1994) which considers

sustainable agriculture among its objectives. Intercropping, agroforestry and other forms of

mixed farming is recommended particularly to smallholders. It also considers the introduction

of other crops as a way to enable farmers to cope with the high costs of cultivating coconut in

isolation. Since there is no consistent agricultural policies favouring such directives and the

governmental technical assistance agencies do not fullfill the farmer’s needs, no real

advancement has been observed so far.

The major agroprocessing industries in Alagoas, engaged within the free market

economy advocated by the federal government are buying grated coconut from Asian

countries such as Sri Lanka contributing to the fall of coconut prices in the local market.

Recent government decrees tried to impose taxes on these imported goods but they did’nt last

long. The culture of coconut faces a severe crisis including phytossanitary problems, lack of

support from government agencies, and declining productivity. Coconut trees are abandoned

without proper care which even further increases the degrading situation. Farmers along the

coast wait until they receive a good offer for their land from housing or tourism development

offices.

PHOTO 10: Mixed cropping as practice in smallholdings in Alagoas

Working Paper Ng 15, 1996, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

24

The monocultural pattern limits therefore the prospects of farmers in finding

alternative sources of income to cope with these periods of low price”. No doubts this has

great social consequences increasing unemployment in rural areas.

VI- COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

At this point it is important to recall the major points of this comparative analysis:

Photo 17: A model of homegarden as conducted by the CPCRI

Agricultural Research Station at Kasaragod, Kerala.

i) As discussed by ALTIERI (Op. cit.), GLIESSMAN (Op. cit.) and CONWAY

(Op. cit.) agroecological sustainability, or the capacity of an agricultural system to maintain

l5 A kilogramme of coconut at the farmer’s level during the month of July 1995 was reported to be less than 10 cents of a US dollars, far bellow the 25 cents of a US dollar claimed by the coconut producers to be the break-even price.


25

productivity, stability and resilience is better achieved when species diversity is higher than

the oversimplified monocultural systems. The adequate agroecosystem design, where crops

for different purposes are carefully arranged sometimes including livestock as complementary

components of the system, is claimed to be the key to agroecological sustainability. A larger

soil cover as observed in Kerala homegardens contributes to reducing soil loss aiding the

efficient recycling of nutrients.

The homegardens are in fact constituted of several crops and other plant species and

may include animals such as goats, buffalo, cattle and poultry. That not only contribute to a

better use of the available space both horizontally and vertically, but also to the integrated use

of all parts of the crops included in these agrosystems. The recycling of agricultural and

animal wastes are wisely adopted. Besides partially meeting the household needs for food,

farmers also obtain fodder, wood and materials used as fuel, wood for construction and

medicinal and ornamental plants, which in the case of Indian culture are essential goods. The

homegardens have also aesthetical and religious importance since part of the plants are used

either for religious practices or for decoration;

ii) No discussion on sustainable agriculture and resource uses should be isolated from

the questions of social equity or economic viability. After all, these agrosystems are not in a

socio-economic vacuum. As natural systems transformed for the purpose of agriculture, the

resulting agroecosystems are not only regulated by ecological process but by economic and

social decisions. As argued by CONWAY(Op. cit.) the resulting system is as much a socio-

economic system as it is an ecological system, and has a socio-economic boundary although it

is not as easy to define as the biophysical one. Therefore, the political and social background

which enabled Kerala to achieve one of the best social indicators of the developing world must

be highlighted. In the state of Kerala land reforms have been implemented, giving land access

to thousands of people. That is a striking difference vis-a-vis Alagoas, where land is extremely

concentrated and where no such reforms have taken place. A limited access to land is reported

to be one of the causes of rural poverty (JAZAIRY et al. 1992). In Kerala, the smalllholders

have access to the means of production, even if they do not meet all their needs from their

holdings they reduce their dependency as agricultural labourers. In addition, rural areas in

Kerala when compared to other developing countries offer quite good services and

infrastructure, which improve the quality of their lives. Social indicators such as infant

mortality, life expectancy, literacy, fertility, even among rural dwellers favourably

differentiate the state of Kerala (PRAKASH, Op. cit.). Alagoas, on the other hand, besides its

unsustainable monocultural pattern of agriculture, has one of the worse social records not only

in Brazil but even worse that most poor African countries (Gov. of AlagoasMPLAN, Op.

cit.).


26

The limited amount of land available for the smallholders in Kerala impedes a better

provision of food and income for their families. Fragmentation of land which follows marriage

and inheritance after the death of the parents is a problem, making the remaining land

insufficient for the needs of a single family (JOSE, Op. cit.). Nevertherless, considering the

high population density of Kerala, the non existence of sufficient job opportunities both in

the rural and urban economic sectors, the homegardens still have an essential function for the

local population.

Land reforms which could improve social equity, are not full effective when not

followed by a series of public policies which improve the quality of life of its beneficiaries.

Social equity, the social dimension of a sustainable development strategy could be better

achieved in the case where land reforms are followed by such policies. Agroecological

sustainability has no sense if it is not paralleled by the overall improvement of social

life(SACHS, 1994; 1995). That is why even considering the small size of Kerala’s coconut

based homegardens, they can be considered as sustainable systems because they are inscribed

in a reasonably favourable social and political environment;

PHOTO 12: The cottage coir industry, a job-intensive activity

throughout the Kerala coast.

iii) Though not strictly market oriented since they had been primarely concerned

with household food security, homegardens are also affected by the prevailing economic

policies.

Vinicius NOBRE LACES : Coconut based agrosystems in India and Brazil

27

JOSE and SHANMUGARATHAN (1994) have analysed the pressures the

homegardens are going through. The introduction of cash crops such as rubber is contributing

to an increased reduction of species diversity in the homegardens. The area under paddy

cultivation which is complementary to some homegardens is dwinding fast. Kerala as a food

importer state, may face severe consequences for food security and self reliance. Urban

development, soil mining for brick production and the conversion of paddy for other crops are

observed throughout the coastal zone.

PHOTO 13: Raising animals such as goats and chickens is a

complementary source of food and income for the homegarden family.

Even though some single crops in the homegardens do receive public incentives

through agricultural policies, there is no comprehensive programme encompassing the entire

homegarden system as a whole. Therefore, the extra costs of keeping such complex systems is


T -__

28

borne by the farmers themselves. When labour constraints and low profitability become a

serious problem land use shifts are common. That’s why the agricultural research centres like

the CPCRI at Kasaragod support crop diversification as exemplified in the mixed cropping

systems, in search of a model for the homegarden economic viability, while maintaining its

already existing advantages. That can prevent farmers from shifting to a more simplified

system, such as with the introduction of rubber which has better price and credit incentives.

In Alagoas, although the monocultural pattern can not be considered sustainable from

any given aspect., social, economical or agroecological, there is no doubt that any decline in the

already degrading situation of the coconut economy can add to the existing social problems of

the rural poor. For that reason, sustainable strategies of rural and agricultural development

should be implemented, if any step toward poverty alleviation and job creation can be taken.

In that case, the examples offered by the Kerala’s development experience is a valuable

contributory source, particularly in the improvement of the rural poor and smallholders in

Alagoas.

VII- CONCLUDING REMARKS

At the end of the XX century, in spite of considerable agricultural development,

most developing countries still face severe problems of food security and rural poverty. As

recently recalled by Professor Ignacy Sachs, these problems may be agravatted by the urban

explosion both caused by the attraction of cities and by the massive process of repulsion from

the rural areas due to the absence of jobs, infrastructure and basic services. This

maldevelopment process has produced dramatic consequences to the lives of millions of

people in the developing world (SACHS, Op. cit.).

The agricultural experience observed in India and Brazil in recent decades, following

the modemization and the Green Revolution approach, have some parallels but stricking

differences. India with more than 900 million people and a more restricted land-man ratio, has

maintained so far almost of its population in rural areas. Kerala, with 30 million people and

the second most densely populated state in India, exempiftes how this urban explosion can be

avoided. Kerala although a net importer of food from other states is well endowed by nature

with adequate rainfed soils, challenging the fears of population explosion and its implications

to the carrying capacity of its environment. Its 2.5 million coconut-based homegardens, yet

with a very limited size, are complex agrosystems capable not only of providing partial needs

of food, but of fodder, fuel, wood, medicines and ornamental plants. As labour intensive

systems they provide job opportunities for the family members although the limited size of

the holdings do not allow full-time employment for all of them.

Agricultural policies which not only privilege cash crops but a larger number of

species in the homegardens is considered a way to improve the economic viability of such

systems. However, considering the limited surface of land available for distribution,


T -

alternatives of employment must be developed. In that respect, Kerala’s economic

backwardness could be a serious problem limiting the effects of the outstanding improvements

in health and education already achieved.

Kerala is a large exporter of agricultural commodities such as spices, rubber and

cashewnuts, and produces one quarter of Indian fisheries. Aggregating value to these products

at the agroprocessing industries is an area of further development. Acquaculture is yet not

fully exploited and Kerala’s backwaters and lagoons could be certainly better integrated to its

economy in a more sustainable way. The shrinking surface of paddy, which may further

compromise food security at the state level, is another area of concern. Attempts to curb any

further reduction of paddy and homegardens surface rest a great challenge to the future of

Kerala’s agriculture. Coconut oil, facing concurrence from other imported vegetable oils, may

affect profitability of the coconut producers. If public support policies change following the

new economic environment of the structural adjustment programme, the consequences to

small farmers could be severe. It is import to recall that in the case of coconut-based

homegardens, it is the lives of at least 2.5 million families involved in its production which

could be affected.

Up to the present days, the miracles of the biotechnology revolution have not fully

‘reached the unreached’ as SWAMINATHAN (1994) correctly puts. A lot has yet to be done

to make the advancements of this enlarged Green Revolution to work for the small farmers of

the developing world. The rich diversity and the agroecological sustainability found in the

homegardens of Kerala, of long agrarian history, is a good example of an agrosystem to be

examined in the light of such biotechnelogy discoveries.

As far as the monocultural patterns of Alagoas is concerned, it is evident by now

that it can not be portrayed as a sustainable system. The crisis facing coconut producers and

the immense mass of rural poors are both faces of a development paradigm which has

abandonned the countryside to its own fortune exemplifying the Brazilian case.

Before concluding it is valuable to mention the positive aspects of this comparative

study. Visiting both states, discussing with farmers, agricultural scientists, scholars, and

policy makers has helped me to construct an analytical base for continued research. Often

advocated in the literature, the careful1 arrangement of plants in agrecosystem design is a major

component of the sustainable agriculture approach. Studying Kerala’s homegardens as

compared to the monocultural systems of Alagoas permitted me to verify how ingeniously

the use of resources in agrosystems can be, through the multiple combination of plant species

and animals and spatial arrangements.

It also permitted me to enlarge the views on the interconnectedness of biological and

cultural diversity as remarkably exemplified by the Kerala’s homegardens. Lessons from this

example could allways be drawn considering the reduction of market dependence at the

household level, the adequate and integrated use of resources and soil available and the spatial


30

configuration found in the Kerala countryside which prevents massive urban migration while

providing better services and infrastructure for rural dwellers.

Considering the similarities existing in these studied areas my conclusion is that a

closer co-operation programme between both states or countries should be attempted.

Alagoas and Kerala, as well as India and Brazil have much in common and face such similar

development problems that is worth considering a continued research in that direction. This

issue will be object of further consideration in our doctoral thesis under preparation for the

EHESS, Paris.


31

REFERENCES

ABDUL SALAM, M. and SREEKUMAR,D., Kerala homegardens- a traditional agroforetry system from India, in: Agroforestry Today,3(2), April-June, 1991 (10 pp).

ALTIERI, M. A., Agroecology - the scientific basis of alternative agricuhure,Westem Press, London, 1987.

ALTIERI,M. A., Agroecology: a new research and development paradigm for World Agriculture kAgrkxIture,Ecosystems and Environment, 27, 1989, pp 37-46.

BAARK,E. and SIGURDON,J. (Eds.), India-China comparative research -Technology and Science for Development, Studies on Asian Topics, no 3, London, 1980 (154).

BAVAPPA, K.V.A.,C~ou.nut-based cropping systems, kIndian Coconut Journal, february 1995 @p.6-8).

CONWAY,G. R., Sustainable agriculture : the trade-offs with productivity,stabihty and equitability, in: Economics and Ecology: navfiontiers and sustainable development, Edward B. Barbier (Ed.), London, 1993 (pp 46-65).

CHADHA,K.L., Raw nut sources drying up,in : The Hindu Survey of Indian AgricuZture,Hindu Daily,Madras, 1989 (pp138-141).

CLOSENER-GODT, M. and SACHS, I. (Eds.), Brazilian Perspectives on Sustainable Development of the Amazon Region, Man and Biopsphere Series, Vo1.15, UNESCO and The Parthenon Pub. Co., New York, 1995.

CLifSENER-GODT, M., SACHS, I. and UITTO, J-I., Final Report of the Conference on Environmentally Sound Socio-Economic Development in the Humid Tropics, Manaus,Brazil, 13 to 19 June, 1992, UNAMAZ, MAB/UNESCO,UNU,TwAs, 1992.

DE ARAUJO, L.M. and POWER, S., Nature conservation with refemce to the State of Alagoas,Brazil, The Environmentalist, Vol. 13,N” 4, 1993 (pp. 297-302).

DE HOLANDA, S. B., Raizes do Bras& Jose Olympo Editora, Rio de Janeiro, 1969 (1 st Ed. 1936) (155 pp).

DIEGUES, A. C., The Mata Atlantica Biosphere Reserve: an overview, South-South Cooperation Programme, UNESCO, Working Papers, no 1, Paris, 1995 (36 pp).

EMBRAPAKPATC, Plan0 Diretor do Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria dos Tabuleiros Costeiros, Brasilia, 1994 (37 pp).

FEXNANDES LIMA, I., Ocupacao Espacial do Estado de Alagoas, SERGASA., Maceio, 1992 (160 pp).

FRANKE, R. W. and CHASIN, B.H., Kerala - Development through radical reform, Promilla & CO. Publish., New Delhi,1994 (1st Ed. 1992) (144 pp).

GEORGE, K.K., Limits to Kerala Model of Development - an analysis of fiscal crisis and its implications, C.D.S. Monograph Series, Thiruvananthapuram,199S (137 pp).

GLIESSMAN, S-R, Agroecology: researching the ecological basis for sustainable agriculture,in: Ecological Studies, Vol. 78, S.R. GLIESSMAN (Ed.), 1990.

GOV. OF ALAGOAS/FIPLAN, Resenha Estatistica de Alagoas, Maceio, 1990 (24 pp).

HANMAN, F.M., Alternatives ways of incorporating women concerns in farming systems, in: Report of the Asia Rice Farming Systmes Working Group Meeting, 5-l 1 October, 1.R.R.L Manila, 1986 (222 pp).

HOLT, R and TURNER, J.E. (Eds.), The methodology of comparative research, The Free Press, New York, 1970 (419 pp).

JAZAIRY, I., ALAMGIR, M., PANUCCIO, T., The State of World Rural Poverty - An inquiry into its causes and consequences, lFAD, New York University Press, New York, 1992 (514 pp).

JOSE, D., Homegardens of Kerala : small and marginal farmer’s response to changes in agrarian structure and environmental constraints, M.Sc. thesis, Agricultural University of Norway, 1991(138 pp).

JOSE,D. and SHANMUGARATHAN, S.,Vanishing paddy lands: implications for food security and self- reliance, in: Proceedings of the Sixth Kerala Science Congress, january, 1994, Thiruvananthapuram (pp. 440-442).


T

32

KHOTARI, A. Beyond the Biodiversity Convention- a view from India, Maastricht, ACTS Press, 1993 (pp2 - 3).

KURIEN,J., Kerala’s Marine Fisheries Development Experience, in: Kerala s Economy - performance, problems, prospects, B.A. PRAKASH (Ed.), Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1994 (pp. 193-214).

KURIEN, J., Usurping the coastal commons, ix-The Hindu Survey of the Environment 1995, Madras, 1995 (pp. 43-49).

MENON, A. S., A survey of Kerala history, S. Viswanathan Ltd., Madras, 1994 (1 st Ed. 1967) (pp. 177- 198).

MONTENEGRO, H.M., Coconut by-products: their role in the development of the coconut industry, in: Indian Coconut Journal, November, 1993 (9 pp.).

NAIR, M.A. and SREEDHARAN, C. Agroforestry farming systems in the homesteads of Kerala, in : Southern India Agroforesv Systems, 4: 1986 (pp. 339-363).

NAIR,P.K.R, Intensive multiple cropping with coconuts in India - principles, programmes, prospects, Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin, 1979 (147 pp).

NEVES,W., Sociodiversity and Biodiversity, two sides of the same question, &i%azilian Perspectives on Sustainable Development of the Amazon Region, CLUSENER-GODT, M. and SACHS, I.(Eds.), Man and Biosphere Series Vol.15, UNESCO and The Parthenon Pub. Co., New York, 1995 (pp. 91- 124).

PANIKAR, P.G.K., and SOMAN,C.R, Health Status of Kerala - paradox of economic backwardness and health development, Centre for Development Studies,Trivandrum, 1984 (159 pp).

PRADO JUNIOR, C., A Questao Agraria, Editora Brasiliense, Sao Paulo, 1979 (188 pp).

PRAKASH, B.A., Kerala’s Economy - performance, problems, prospects, Sage Publications,New Delhi, 1994 (418 PP).

RANDHAWA,M.S., A history of Agriculture in India, Vol l-8th to 18th Century, ICAR,New Delhi, 1982 @p 176 - 190). l

SACHS, I., Le dtveloppement reconsider& : quelques meflexions inspirees par le Sommet de la Terre, k-Revue du Tiers Monde,T. XXXV, no 137, jan-mars, 1994 (pp 53 - 60).

SACHS, I., A la recherche de nouvelles strategies de dtveloppement - Enjeux du Sommet Social, MOST- Documents de politiques sociales l,UNESCO, Paris, 1995 (48 pp).

SUKUMAR,B., SUKUMAR, A., SIDHARTHAN, S. and RAJU, K., Density of Rural Population : a Panchayat level study in Kerala, in: Transactions of The Institute of Indian Geographers, Vol.1 ‘, n’l, 1992 (pp 89-95).

SWAMINATHAN, M.S., Programme Area 300 - BiovilIages and Sustainable Agriculture, Centre for Research on Sustainable Agricuhural and Rural Development, AnnuaI Report 1994, Madras (pp 69 - 78).

TEIXEIRA, R. L. and FALCAO, G.A.F., Composicao da fauna nectonica do Complexo Lagunar Mundau- Manguaba,Maceio,Alagoas, in:-Atlantica, 14, Rio Grande, 1992 (pp 43-58).

TRACY, J. D. (Ed.), The rise of merchant empires - long-distance trade in the early modem world, 1350- 1750, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990 (442 pp).

VARGHESE, T., Laterite Soils - their distribution, characteristics, classification and management, SEC, Gov. of Ken& Technical monograph no 1, Thiruvananthapuram, 1993 (116 pp).


T I

The Programme is publishing its Newsletter South-South Perspectives,

which can be received free of charge on request.

In the Newsletter, its editors would be glad to write short notes

about books received and other kind of publications

on environment conservation, biodiversity,

sustainable management of renewable resources and

South-South co-operation.

We would also reflect information on present

South-South co-operation activities in these fields.

All comments are welcome.

Documents de Travail

No 1 (1995) : 7% Mata AtfZintica &osphem Reserve (Braril) : An ovenikw Antonio Carlos DIEGUES

No 2 (1995) : The Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve (China) : A Tropical Land of Natural and Cultural Diversity WU Zhaolu, OU Xiaokun

N” 3 (1995) : The Mae Sa-Kog Ma Biosphere Resetve (Thailand) Benjavan RERKASEM, Kanok RERKASEM

N” 4 (1995) : La Reserve de la Biosphere de Dimonika (Congo) Jean DIAMOUANGANA

N” 5 (1995) : Le pan: national de Tai (Cote d’lvoire) : un maillon essentiel du programme de conservation de la nature Yaya SANGARC

N” 6 (1995) : La Reserve de la Biosphere de Mananara-Nom (Madagascar) 1987-1994 : bilan et perspectives Nogline RAONDRY, Victor Solo RAKOTONIRINA, Martha KLEIN

N” 7 (1995) : A study on the Homegarden Ecosystem in the Mekong River Delta and Hochiminh City(Viet #am) Nguyen Thi Ngoc AN

N” 8 (1995) : The Manu Biosphere Reserve (Peru) Gustav0 SUAREZ DE FREITAS

N” 9 (1995) : The Beni Biosphere Reserve (Bolivia) Carmen MIRANDA L.

N” 10 (1995) : La Reserva de la biosfera Sierra de/ Rosario (Cuba) Maria HERRERA A., Maritza GARCIA Garcia

No 11 (1995) : The Omo Biosphere Reserve (Nigeria) Augustine 0. ISICHEI

No 12 (1995) : Environnement nature/ et socio-economique de /a for&t c/as&e de /a Lama (Benin) Marcel A. BAGLO, P. COUBEOU, B. GUEDEGBE, B. SINSIN

No 13 : (1995) : The Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (Mexico). Eckart BOEGE

No 14 : (1996) : Conservation de la biodiversite aux Comores - Le Part National de Moheli. A. S. ALI 81 A. YOUSSOUF

N” 15 : (1996) : Resource-use patterns: The case of coconut-based agrosystems in the coastal zones of Kemta, India, and Alagoas, Brazil. Vicinius NOBRE LAGES

N” 16 : (1996) : The #i/gin Biosphere Reserve: a review of conservation status with recommendations for a holistic approach to management (India). R. J. RANJIT DANIELS

N” 17 : (1996) : Kit&a/u park and the surrounding indigenous communities (Malaysia). Jamili NAIS

I -- .---.-