An information and resource book on Tobago’s environment for teachers and other educators

Principle Authors Contributing Authors Anoushka Visvalingam Graham Wellfare Nicole Leotaud Dr Owen Day Kamau Akili Environment TOBAGO volunteers Environmental Education in Primary Schools was published in 2003 by Environment TOBAGO and funded by the BPTT Leader Award. All pages in this book may be copied without the written permission of Environment TOBAGO for environmental education use.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction

Acknowledgements -------------------------------------------------------1

Environment TOBAGO Mission Statement -------------------------- 1

About the Environmental Education in Primary Schools

Programme -----------------------------------------------------------------1

Rationale Behind the Environmental Education in Primary Schools Programme ------------------------------------------------------2

Overall Goal ---------------------------------------------------------------2

Aims ------------------------------------------------------------------------2

The Philosophical Foundation ------------------------------------------3

The Psychological Approaches ----------------------------------------4

Environmental Education Activities -----------------------------------6

Teachers who took part in the Environmental Education in Primary Schools Programme 2003 -----------------------------------------------7

Information on Tobago’s Environment

Major Environmental Problems Affecting Tobago -------------------8

Fact Sheets on the Environment Coral ---------------------------------------------------------------------9 Coastal Sewage Pollution ------------------------------------------- 11

Littering and Solid Waste Disposal ------------------------------13 Sustainable Harvesting of Game Animals ------------------------15

Sea Turtles ------------------------------------------------------------17 Wetlands of Tobago -------------------------------------------------19 The Tobago Forest Reserve ----------------------------------------20

Tropical Rainforests by Graham Wellfare-----------------------------21

Mangroves and Coral Reefs by Dr Owen Day -----------------------36

Wetland Information Pack by Nicole Leotaud -----------------------50 Sources of Information and Resources

Useful Resources and Sources of Information -----------------------72

Field Trips -----------------------------------------------------------------76

Planning a Unit of Lessons

Planning a Unit of Lessons ----------------------------------------------77 Lesson Plans

Using the lesson plans ----------------------------------------------------87 Infant 1--------------------------------------------------------------- 88 Infant 2 --------------------------------------------------------------101 Standard 1-----------------------------------------------------------115 Standard 2 ----------------------------------------------------------130 Standard 3 ----------------------------------------------------------149 Standard 4 ----------------------------------------------------------158 Standard 5 ----------------------------------------------------------173

Glossary -------------------------------------------------------------------184

Acknowledgements Environment Tobago (ET) wishes to express its thanks and gratitude for the contributions made by the following organizations and individuals towards the successful implementation of the Environmental Education in Primary Schools Programme and the publication of our teachers’ resource book. In particular, ET would like to express its appreciation to British Petroleum Trinidad & Tobago (BPTT), for their financial assistance through the BPTT Leader Award, which made this programme and the development of this teacher’s resource book possible. In addition we would like to thank the Tobago House of Assembly (THA) Department of Education for their co-operation, St Josephs RC Convent School for the use of their facilities to host the teacher training workshops, Vice President of ET, Kamau Akili, who was the main lecturer at the teacher training workshops, former ET Education Officer, Nicole Leotaud, who devised many of the lesson plans, Gillian John, Angela Ramsey and Kamlyn Mellville from the THA Department of Environment and Natural Resources and Dr. Owen Day from Buccoo Reef Trust who provided information and lectures on Tobago’s ecosystems, field naturalist, David Rooks and ET volunteer, Graham Wellfare who conducted field trips for the teachers to observe and learn about Tobago’s rainforest, reefs and wetlands, ET volunteer, Anoushka Visvalingam who co-ordinated the programme, devised lesson plans and conducted demonstration lessons and finally, all the teachers who participated in the programme. Environment TOBAGO – Mission Statement Environment TOBAGO conserves Tobago’s natural and living resources and advances the knowledge and understanding of such resources, their wise and sustainable use, their essential relationship to human health and the quality of life.” About the Environmental Education in Primary Schools Programme In 2001, Environment Tobago succeeded in winning the BPTT “Youth in Education” Leader Award for an innovative education programme that seeks to improve student learning and achievement in the academic field. Initially ET developed a pilot programme in three Secondary Centres in Tobago, using environmental education as a tool for interdisciplinary hands on teaching across the Secondary Centre curricular. In 2002, the programme was adapted for Tobago’s Primary schools, in order to develop a methodology and teaching guide for infusing environmental education across the Primary school curricular. With the current emphasis on the core curriculum subjects, ET felt that this was the best way of ensuring that environmental concepts were taught. 30 teachers, from around Tobago attended the teacher training workshops and field trips in order to learn about Tobago’s ecosystems, environmental issues around the island and how to plan lessons to infuse this information into the Primary school curricular. ET’s eco-classroom then visited schools, conducting demonstration lessons for participating teachers. Finally, this teacher resource book was put together, providing information on environmental issues and lesson ideas. It has been distributed to all Tobago’s schools, both Primary and Secondary and all other interested parties.

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Rationale Behind the Environmental Education in Primary Schools Programme Environmental education is the fundamental strategy used in the fulfillment of Environment TOBAGO’s mission of environmental conservation and sustainability in Tobago. At present, there is a great need to raise awareness and concern of environmental issues on the island, as it faces many problems. Thus, we believe that environmental education is crucial for the protection of Tobago’s rich and diverse natural heritage. What better place to start than Tobago’s Primary schools? It is vital that, from an early age, children acquire a good knowledge and understanding of their surroundings and the natural resources it provides. Only then can we hope to create and foster a respect for the environment and a desire to preserve it. In addition, to increasing children’s knowledge and awareness of environmental issues, environmental education uses methods of teaching that are very effective for learners of all abilities. Learning is experiential, inter-active, hands- on, creative and stimulates interest and excitement about learning. Environmental education is holistic and interdisciplinary and uses nature as a teaching tool to deepen understanding of curriculum areas. It therefore provides an important mechanism to support and enhance learning within the school system, by inspiring students to explore their environment, while at the same time gaining the knowledge and skills they need for life. Overall Goal The overall goal is to help primary school teachers expose their students to important environmental concepts, principles, problems and issues within the curricula structure. Aims For students

• To heighten environmental sensitivity and empathy toward the environment. • To increase awareness and understanding of the principles, problems and issues

relevant to the interactions and interrelationships between human beings and their environment.

• To aid in the instillation of a positive environmental attitude or ethic. • To contribute to the development of positive actions and behaviours towards the

environment. For teachers

• To provide teachers with lesson plans featuring creative, hands on ways to include environmental learning into the existing syllabus for each subject, so that learning about the environmental topics facilitates or enhances learning about the topics in that subject.

• To provide teachers with background information on environmental topics that they can use to prepare for these lessons.

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The Philosophical Foundations The conservation and protection of the natural environment, in the context of sustainable development, is recognized as one of the major challenges facing our society today. The need for appropriate education sector responses has been identified in the Trinidad and Tobago Education Policy Paper (1993-2003) that proposes the following:

While Environmental Education may not be a new ‘subject’ or ‘concern’, the immediacy and urgency of environmental issues demand that we address it anew in our school curriculum. As a matter of strategy and for effective accommodation within an overcrowded curriculum, Environmental Education must be pursued by way of an ‘infusion approach’ thereby giving it added focus and emphasis appropriate in every subject. The danger that Environmental Education might become the responsibility of none can be avoided through training and enabling supervision.

Environment Tobago strongly supports the above stated proposals and in response has developed an Environmental Education Programme for the formal education sector based on the following underlying philosophical assumptions:

- A learner-centered approach to education is most appropriate to existing individual and social needs;

- The school is an open system that is influenced by the external environment and

in turn exerts influences on the external environment;

- The school must be regarded as a learning community in which students, teachers

and other stakeholders are engaged in lifelong learning; - A flexible curriculum is necessary to allow adaptation to a rapidly changing

environment;

- The curriculum must seek to integrate the various disciplines; - Environmental education must be infused into all disciplines;

- Cognitive, psychomotor and affective development of the learner is essential for

creating the environmental stewardship necessary for effective environmental conservation and protection;

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The Psychological Approaches

Any attempt at education including environmental education must be based on sound

understandings about how children learn. The challenge however is that a number of

different and sometimes conflicting psychological theories of learning exist in the

field of pedagogy. The approach taken in developing this environmental education

guide is eclectic, i.e., a mix of different theories. The major learning theories that

have been applied are behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism and multiple

intelligences.

The application of behaviorism is illustrated by the use of behavioral objectives in the

sample lesson plans and some emphasis on observable behavior. It should be

recognized however that the behavioral approach has limitations including the

difficulties of accommodating all possible learning outcomes for a class.

Cognitivism differs from behaviorism in that the observed behavior is not the primary

objective but rather an indicator of what is going on in the learner’s head. The focus

is on the learning process. In this context this guide has attempted to give significant

attention to cognitive or thinking processes, particularly higher level thinking that can

contribute to the development of the values and attitudes that are critical to

environmental stewardship.

More recent research in cognitive psychology supports the theory of constructivism

which proposes that learners construct knowledge for themselves and each individual

constructs his or her own perspective of the world based on individual experiences

and schema. Constructivism is not a new idea however modern education research

has given it new life. In applying constructivism in this guide significant emphasis

has been given to ‘active’ learning, reflective activity and learning as a social activity

with the major goal of developing problem solving capabilities.

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The theory that human intelligence has multiple dimensions has also been applied

particularly because of the identification of the naturalist intelligence that is defined

as the ability to understand, relate to, categorize, classify, comprehend, and explain

the things encountered in the world of nature. The development of this intelligence

has significant implications for environmental protection and conservation. Multiple

intelligence theory also offers the opportunity to address many different aspects of the

learner’s development in dynamic situations in which one intelligence can be used to

enhance other intelligences.

In summary, the psychological approach taken has been to apply different learning

theories based on the recognition that all theories have inherent advantages and

disadvantages and all have been applied in the school system to a greater or lesser

degree. Ultimately, it is the teacher who must select the approaches that are most

appropriate to the demands of the specific teaching and learning environment.

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Students examining pond life.

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Demonstrating how sediment runs off the land to pollute coral

reefs

{ EMBED PhotoSuite.Image } Playing “wetland metaphor”

game with students.

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Boat ride at Kilgwyn Wetlands

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Field trip to mangrove swamp

Students playing the “food web” game

Teachers who took part in the Environmental Education in Primary Schools Programme

Teacher School Jaqui Dillon Scarborough RC

Brigid London Scarborough RC Eulalie Hills Scarborough RC Sherla James Scarborough RC

Anne Williams Scarborough RC Dave Phillips Scarborough RC

Emlyn Charles David St. Andrews AC Edna McMillan St. Andrews AC

Gareth Gray St. Andrews AC Rosetta Ross St. Andrews AC

Alison Roberts St. Andrews AC Patricia Phillips Gregg St. Andrews AC

Winnifred Douglas St. Andrews AC Patricia Malcom St. Andrews AC Euestine Beckles St. Andrews AC

Eileen Gregg St. Andrews AC Carla Kerr Plante Mason Hall Government

Henrietta Caton Joefield Mason Hall Government Rawle Anderson Scarborough Methodist

Wendy Dalrymple Scarborough SDA Irwin Benjamin North Regional SDA Tricia Timothy Castara Government Milton Eastman Mt St. George Methodist

Lenney Blackman Roxborough AC Sonia Osmond Golden Lane Government

Marilyn Murray Golden Lane Government Tress Hilaire St Josephs Convent

Dorothy Campbell St Nicholas Kerleen Alexander Harmon SDA

Meave Nelson Hope AC

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Major Environmental Problems Affecting Tobago

Some ideas for environmental themes to be taught

Littering and illegal dumping

Loss of vegetation in built up areas

Wildlife depletion due to over hunting and habitat destruction

Soil erosion due to poor agricultural and land development practices

Loss of wetlands due to resort development

Noise pollution

Sewage pollution from households, resorts and yachts

Air pollution from motor vehicle emissions

Loss of coral reefs due to sewage pollution, siltation and reef walking

Mining of beach sand leading to coastline erosion

Mining of river gravel

Over fishing

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CORAL These are coral polyps, the animals responsible for building the beautiful coral reefs that surround Tobago. Over thousands of years, billions of these creatures have built the world’s reefs, some of which are hundreds of miles across. Coral reefs are one of Tobago’s most precious natural resources. Within the world's oceans, the greatest variety of life (bio-diversity) is found on coral reefs. These fragile reefs play a critical role in sustaining a thriving ocean habitat, especially in tropical oceans. They also provide many benefits to humans as well. Nearly 400 million years ago, before there were any animals on land, the primitive ancestors of coral reefs formed in the seas. Today's coral reefs were built up during the last 10,000 years, as the last Ice Age ended and the glaciers receded. Coral reefs are the oldest complex natural communities or ecosystems existing on Earth. Buccoo Reef is the largest and most famous reef in Tobago, but there are also reefs at Speyside, Arnos Vale, Englishman’s Bay, Charlotteville and many other bays all around Tobago. The seas around Tobago support rich coral growth because of adequate temperature conditions (between 23°C and 28°C), and relatively clear water, with little suspended matter. Much like their relative the sea anemone, coral polyps have sticky tentacles with stingers to catch passing prey for food. At night, the polyps feast on small floating organic material called plankton, which populate the oceans. But their primary source of food are microscopic plant cells called zooxanthellae (pronounced “zoh - an – thell – eye”) that actually live within the tissue of coral polyps. These plant cells also provide the coral's wide variety of colors. Coral polyps grow in colonies, which means that each individual animal is attached to another, and then another. Food can be passed from one polyp to another through tubes connecting the polyps called coenosarcs. A colony can grow to be quite large. In the reef at Speyside is one of the largest brain corals known worldwide, over 10 feet in diameter! It contains many thousands of individual coral polyps all living together. Reef-building is a very slow process. Staghorn coral, for instance, grows at approximately one centimetre per year. It is estimated that present-day Buccoo Reef represents ten thousand years of coralline growth and reef formation. There are about 735 species of reef-building corals the world over of which 39 are known to exist in the waters around Tobago.

LIFE ON THE REEFS Tobago’s reefs boast an array of brightly-coloured fish including, among others, parrot fish, wrasses, spot-fin and other butterfly fish, trumpet fish, toadfish and angel fish. Reef fish feed on smaller organisms found within the confines of reef waters and, in some instances, on the coral themselves. Fishes however, are not the only colorful components of the reef ecosystem.

In addition, there are the flambouyant sea whips, fans, brittle stars, molluscs and different varieties of sea urchins (sea eggs), some of which are transparent, and of different shapes and sizes. To say nothing of the sea anemones and sponges and various algae (sea weeds) which abound in the coral reef habitat.

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FACT SHEET - No. 1 December 1998

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THREATS TO THE REEFS A wide variety of human activity has damaged almost all of the world's coral reefs in recent years. Human damage also weakens the reefs' ability to recover from natural disasters (see Coral Bleaching). Some experts predict that unless changes are made soon, most of the world's coral reefs will be dead in just 20 to 40 years from human causes. This would be a major catastrophe for life in the world's oceans, and for the human communities dependent upon the reefs for food, income, medicine, and coastal protection. • Pollution poisons coral polyps. Pollution takes on many forms including oil and grease, pesticides and other

chemicals, sewage and garbage. Fertilizer runoff and untreated sewage introduce added nutrients to coastal ecosystems. These elevated nutrient levels promote algae growth. Unfortunately, high concentrations of algae or solid sewage can overwhelm and smother the polyps. Under normal conditions, herbivores, fish and some invertebrates keep the algae population in check.

• Deforestation degrades more than just land habitats. When tropical forests are cut down to clear land for agriculture,

pasture, or homes and roads, topsoil washes down rivers into coastal ecosystems. Soil that settles on reefs smothers coral polyps and blocks out the sunlight needed for corals to live.

• Coastal development and dredging ravages reefs. This development includes building seaside homes, hotels, and

harbors. • Besides fishes, fishermen harvest a variety of exotic seafood from the reef including conchs and lobsters. Visitors to Buccoo Reef can view the reef through glass-bottomed boats. The practice of allowing tourists to leave the boats and walk over the reef has severely damaged areas of the reef and this practices continues today, even after Buccoo Reef was designated a restricted area in 1973.

CORAL BLEACHING Every coral species maintains a symbiotic (meaning both species benefit) relationship with microscopic organisms (algae) called zooxanthellae. The zooxanthellae provide the coral with oxygen and some organic compounds they produce through photosynthesis. When stressed, coral expels its zooxanthellae. The polyps of the coral are left without any pigmentation (zooxanthallae give coral its beautiful colours) and appear nearly transparent on the animal's white skeleton. This is what scientists mean when they talk about coral bleaching. Numerous laboratory studies have shown a direct relationship between bleaching and water temperature. A two or three degree rise in temperature (above 28°C) can trigger the bleaching effect. Corals can recover from bleaching unless high water temperatures persist for too long a period or become too warm to permit recovery. The coral's ability to feed itself in the absence of zooxanthellae seems to be a key to survival. Reestablishing the symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae can take from two months to a year. When the level of environmental stress is high and sustained however, death of the coral may result. This will go on to affect the rest of the ecosystem in a highly negative way. Coral bleaching is a global phenomenon. Since the 1980s nearly all of the world’s coral reefs have been affected. Many scientists attribute bleaching to global warming caused by the green house effect. Some experts predict that if a global warming trend continues coral mortality could reach 95%. Coral bleaching was reported in the reefs around Tobago for the first time in 1998. The THA Marine Affairs Section conducted a Coral Disease Survey in 1998 as part of CARICOM’s Caribbean Coastal Marine Production project. Reefs at Buccoo, Speyside and Pigeon Point were studied and bleaching was seen at each location. At one particular area 50% of the coral was affected. Water temperatures as high as 30 degrees C were recorded. Reports of bleaching have been received by Environment TOBAGO at many other bays.

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Coastal Sewage Pollution In nature, nothing exists alone. Living things relate to each other as well as to their non-living but supporting environments. These complex relationships are called ecosystems. Each bay in Tobago is a delicately balanced ecosystem in continuous interaction with the surrounding air and land. Whatever occurs on the land and in the air also affects the water. If man-made pollutants enter the sea, the water can purify itself biologically but only to a degree. The water can absorb only so much. It reaches a point where the natural cleaning processes can no longer cope.

Types of Pollution There are many types of pollution that can negatively effect Tobago’s coastal waters and the marine life they sustain. Among these are fertiliser run-off, siltation from erosion and construction, garbage, gray water from homes, schools, hotels and other establishments, chemicals (paints, oil, grease, cement, etc.) from construction, gasoline and diesel fuel from service stations and sewage. Sewage is the waste (faeces and urine) from humans and animals.

Sewage Pollution and Disease Sewage pollution is of special concern because it can carry disease-causing micro-organisms called pathogens. Pathogens usually come from land-based carriers. If a person or animal is carrying a disease then the waste from that person or animal will contain the pathogens that cause that disease and if this waste is not treated properly the disease carrying pathogens may enter the sea. A range of diseases can be carried by pathogens, including gastroenteritis, dysentery and hepatitis. The consequences of these diseases can be more severe for children, the elderly and those with weakened immune systems. Bathing in water contaminated with sewage can cause skin infections, rashes and infections of the eye, nose and eyes.

Sources In Tobago sewage pollution can come from: 1. Non-functioning sewage treatment plants. The Environmental Management Authority reports that there

are 13 non-functioning treatment plants in Tobago (1996 State of the Environment). 2. Domestic and commercial pit latrines and septic systems. The combined effluent from pit latrines and

septic systems of homes and small commercial establishments can leach through the soil and enter storm drains, gullies and rivers and flow to the sea.

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FACT SHEET - No. 2 December 1998

3. Yachts. Yachts usually have no on-board waste treatment systems. Raw sewage is held in tanks and then expelled into the sea.

4. Animal farms. Many people in Tobago raise pigs, goats, chickens and cows. Often the waste from these

animals is washed into the surrounding environment and can enter storm drains and road gutters to be carried to the sea.

Tobago Community Water Watch Network

With the participation of school students and community volunteers, Environment TOBAGO is testing the water quality of several bays in Tobago, as well as the drainage systems of several coastal villages, an area where yachts moor and commercial and residential treatment plants. The results of these tests indicate that in some areas dangerous amounts of sewage are entering Tobago’s coastal waters.

Historical Perspective The problem of sewage pollution in Tobago is a very good example of how environmental concerns are so often overlooked as a developing society strives to raise its standard of living. Limited resources are used up providing basic necessities such as health and social services, infrastructure and food with no thought as to how the environment may be effected by these activities. In the case of sewage disposal, negative effects may not be noticeable as long as population levels are low. Nature can absorb man-made pollution to a degree. As development increases, this natural limit is passed.

The Present Situation The situation in Tobago is now critical. With the rapid expansion of the tourist industry added to our already overloaded and insufficient commercial and residential waste treatment facilities, sewage pollution has reached a point where we can no longer ignore the consequences.

Recommendations Regulations must be put in place to ensure that all sewage is properly treated before being released into the environment. An island-wide water quality-monitoring programme must be implemented. Regular testing of rivers, drains and beaches will provide the data needed to begin the process of reducing sewage pollution. A monitoring programme will also show us where dangerous levels of pollution exist so that these areas can be avoided by bathers. Serious efforts and adequate resources must be directed towards the elimination of coastal sewage pollution in Tobago.

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Littering and Solid Waste Disposal Littering is the improper disposal of bits of trash by individuals. When you drop an empty bottle on the ground you are littering. All man-made waste except sewage is considered solid waste. Solid waste is everything that we no longer want and need to get rid of. It may be composed of glass, metal, plastic, wood, paper or cardboard. Chemicals and vegetable material also form part of our solid waste. In Tobago, there is only one place where solid waste is supposed to end up: the Studley Park Integrated Waste Facility. Here, garbage of all kinds is dumped and covered with soil. It is called a land fill. Dumping any kind of garbage anywhere else in Tobago is illegal. Littering is also illegal. Littering becomes a serious environmental problem when the practice is widespread. Even though one person may only drop a single bottle or candy wrapper on the ground per day, if thousands of people are doing this, then the resulting garbage on our streets and in our countryside becomes an eye-sore and a health problem. Trash thrown in our rivers will be carried to our beaches and into our coastal waters. Plastic bags floating in the sea can be eaten by sea turtles (they mistake the plastic for a jelly fish, which is their main diet). Many sea turtles have been found dead after choking on plastic material. Illegal dumping of garbage is far too common in Tobago. There are many areas where people can dump truck loads of their garbage without being seen. Any undeveloped area a little way off the main road will do. It is also easy to dump garbage off of steep hillsides, either into thick bush or into the sea.

Historical Perspective In days gone by, most waste was made of wood or cardboard. There wasn’t as much glass, metal, plastic or concrete as there is today. And there weren’t as many people. Wood, cardboard and plastic could be burned. Small quantities of glass and metal and could be buried. As our population grew and our island became more modernised, more products came on the market made of, or packaged in, glass, metal and plastic. Reinforced concrete became the preferred building material. At some point it became necessary to implement a system of solid waste disposal. The objective of this system was, and still is, to gather all solid waste and transport it to a location where it can be safely dumped and covered.

Garbage Is Ugly In Tobago, before each Christmas, Tobagonians spend several days fixing up their homes. They buy new curtains, wash or repaint their walls, sweep and mop their floors and generally make their home look as shiny and new as possible. In fact, cleaning our homes is a daily chore all year round. We wouldn’t think of letting trash and old food build up in our kitchen or parlor. And yet it seems that many people on Tobago have no objection to seeing (and smelling) garbage all around them as they walk or drive around our island. The same

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FACT SHEET - No. 3 December 1998

litter that is ugly and unwanted in our homes and yards is OK on our beaches and streets. Many people also think the system works like this: we throw it down, others pick it up. These attitudes need changing!

Garbage Equals Disease Garbage is a breeding ground for flies and mosquitoes. Flies lay their eggs in wet organic garbage. Mosquitoes lay their eggs in standing water. Water collects in thrown away bottles or any bit of garbage that can hold water. Flies and mosquitoes carry diseases. Dengue fever is carried by mosquitoes. At the Studley Park Facility, bull dozers are used to cover garbage with soil to ensure that no garbage is exposed to the air and no flies or mosquitoes can reach the garbage.

Bio-degradable vs. Non-bio-degradable Some material will degrade biologically in nature. If vegetable matter is buried, it is broken down by bacteria and soon becomes part of the soil and in fact adds nutrients to the soil which is good for plants. Many gardeners create compost heaps in which they combine soil and vegetable matter which over time becomes an effective fertiliser for their crops. Paper and cardboard are made of wood and will eventually decompose and become part of the soil. This is why bio-degradable matter can be buried and will pose no problem. Other materials are non-bio-degradable. Iron-based metal degrades very slowly by rusting. Glass and most plastics degrade even more slowly – over tens or even hundreds of years. If you look at our river mouths and our beaches, you will see mostly old objects made of glass and plastic or rubber. Non-bio-degradable objects do not disappear when thrown away.

Recycling In most developed countries solid waste disposal became so expensive and problematic (they were running out of places to put it) that people began to look at waste from a different angle. They reasoned that instead of spending more and more money to properly dispose of garbage, they should find ways to use the garbage again. Glass bottles were one of the first things to be “recycled” on a mass scale. Instead of throwing bottles away, they are collected and sterilised and used again. Old paper is made into pulp and mixed with new wood pulp to make into new paper. Metals are melted down and made into new products. In China, you must return your old toothpaste tube before you can buy a new tube of toothpaste! By recycling, we can greatly reduce the amount of garbage needing disposal. In Tobago, several attempts have been made to introduce glass recycling but they have all failed. Bottles and jars have to be collected. Glass has to be crushed and shipped to Trinidad. In order to succeed, recycling must provide a profit for those doing the work. So far, this has not been possible in Tobago.

Recommendations

Littering and illegal dumping must stop. To stop littering, people’s attitudes must change. Litter must be put into litter bins. More litter bins must be provided and they must be emptied regularly. Stores must become responsible for transporting their garbage to Studley Park instead of dumping it on and around overflowing litter bins. People’s attitudes to illegal dumping must change as well. Laws against illegal dumping must be enforced to stop those whose attitudes cannot be changed. Only the concerted effort of each and every Tobagonian with the support of the relevant public agencies will result in a litter free Tobago.

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Sustainable Harvesting of Game Animals A Strategy for the Conservation and Restoration of Tobago’s Wildlife

“Game animals” are animals living in the wild that are hunted and killed (“harvested”) by man for their meat, fur, feathers or shells. In Tobago, the wild pig (peccary), the agouti, the manicou (possum), the iguana, the tattoo (armadillo), the sea turtle (leatherback, green and occasionally the hawksbill) and their eggs, the pelican and other sea birds and their eggs are all harvested. “Sustainable” means that something can be continued indefinitely. If something is done in a manner such that sooner or later it can no longer be done, then it is unsustainable. For example, if a lumber company cuts down all the available trees and doesn’t plant any new ones, eventually it will go out of business. If hunting is to be allowed in Tobago, then our game animals must be managed wisely to ensure that they are not over-hunted and killed off completely. Many people believe that our wild animals are not being managed wisely and that we are in danger of losing them. No wild animal population surveys have ever been done in Tobago, so there is no scientific proof that populations are declining. But if we look at the historical record, we can see that it is certainly possible for entire species to be wiped out by over-hunting. Almost four centuries ago there were twenty-four land-based mammals, two water-based mammals and two macaws native to Tobago. Hunting for food, fur and feathers destroyed fourteen of these mammals and both macaws. Among those exterminated were the monkey, fox, musk rat, ocelot, deer, manatee and river otter. It is reported that the last member of the Tobago deer population was shot in the 1970’s at Lowlands.

Historical accounts tell of beaches in Tobago covered with nesting sea turtles. Today we find far fewer. Older hunters will tell you that when they were younger the species left today were far greater in number. The Tobago House of Assembly Forestry Division agrees with these hunters. The Assistant Conservator of Forests has stated that “the numbers of game species are much less than they should be.” He said that “the catch per hunting effort is steadily decreasing.” In some cases “such as the agouti and tattoo, their numbers may be too low to be viable.” When he says “too low to be viable” he means that even if all the agoutis, for example, are not killed, the agouti population can become so small that the remaining animals will die out naturally. They become so scarce and separated that males and females cannot find each other to mate.

To achieve a sustainable harvesting of game animals, limits must be placed on the number of animals taken each year. These limits are determined by the animals’ growth rates, or their ability to increase their numbers. Very simply put, the number of animals taken each year should not exceed the number of young born each year.

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FACT SHEET - No. 4 December 1998

{ EMBED CDraw } The Red brocket deer, one of many

ex-Tobagonians

First, we must be sure that our game animal populations are allowed to grow to their maximum levels, which is determined by the size of their habitat (area where they live) and the availability of food. To achieve maximum population levels, a complete ban or moratorium on hunting may be necessary for one or more years. Next, we must ensure that hunters do not kill too many of each species of animal each year. Either the hunters must do this voluntarily or hunting laws must be effectively written and strictly enforced. One way of controlling the number of animals harvested is to impose “bag limits”, so that only a certain number of each species can be taken each year. Finally, we must ensure that hunting seasons correspond correctly with the animals’ mating seasons. Females must be allowed to have their young and the young must be allowed to grow. At present, hunting in Tobago goes on year around. There are not enough game wardens to patrol our forests. Hunting laws are not well-written and are largely un-enforced. There is a serious lack of concern among the general public to the over-exploitation of our wildlife. Sea turtles and sea birds and their eggs, although protected by national laws and international treaties, are nonetheless poached. Churches continue to sponsor village harvest festivals where wild meat, including turtle meat, is featured. In the future, if sustainable harvesting of game animals can be achieved and if hunting is controlled, animals that once graced our island could be reintroduced. Our wildlife would become more diverse and Tobago would become more beautiful.

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Sea Turtles

Turtles are among the most ancient of all living reptiles. Their history reaches back more than 200 million years -- before the Dinosaurs! Today we share our planet with many species of turtle, including seven species which spend their entire lives in the ocean. These turtles are known as "sea turtles", and all are classified as Endangered or Threatened with extinction. This is certainly true of sea turtles in the Caribbean Sea, where older fishermen remember the days when there were more (and larger) turtles in the sea than there are now. The most common species in Tobago (at least on the nesting beaches) is the Leatherback turtle, known to scientists as Dermochelys coriacea -- the "skin turtle." At the right time of year, generally between April and July, you may encounter a leatherback turtle. These giant "soft-shelled" turtles can weigh as much as 2000 pounds. Leatherbacks must travel to the Caribbean to nest because they reside in cooler latitudes of the United States, Canada and the eastern Atlantic Ocean. These areas are far too cold to provide adequate nesting conditions. Thus, Caribbean islands, including Tobago, are very important to the survival of these ancient creatures. Sadly, many of the leatherbacks that come to Tobago laden with eggs are killed when they come ashore. When an adult female is killed, thousands of eggs (which would have been laid in future years) are also lost. Green turtles and hawksbill turtles also nest in Tobago and are also hunted. The hawksbill turtle has become very rare. Although the loggerhead turtles once nested in Tobago, in recent years none have been reported. It is because we have killed so many of the adults that sea turtles of all species are Endangered throughout the Caribbean. Each female must lay many thousands of eggs in order for her species to survive. Did you know that only a few hatchlings in 1000 will survive to maturity and lay eggs of their own? When sea turtles are 20-35 years old, depending on the species, they are old enough to breed. Many are killed, especially by man, before they reach this age. Sometimes we do not kill them directly, but still they perish from our activities. For example, turtles breath air and can drown when they become entangled in fishing nets. Also, turtles are very sensitive to light. When the nesting beach is well lit by hotels and other developments, the baby turtles are attracted by these artificial lights and crawl inland. These hatchlings never find the sea and they often die in the morning sun. Finally, turtles can mistake plastic bags for jellyfish and die when their stomachs become packed with plastic.

What can we do to protect sea turtles in Tobago? Don't sell or purchase sea turtle products. Selling and purchasing these products encourages the harvest of sea turtles. Nearly all countries of the world, including Trinidad and Tobago, prohibit the import and export of endangered species products. Don't discard plastics and other refuse at sea. Watch for sea turtles at sea, they can be struck and killed by boat propellers and wind surfers. Check fishing nets frequently so that sea turtles are not ensnared and drowned.

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FACT SHEET - No. 5 December 1998

Don't harass sea turtles at sea or on land. Don't disturb turtles in feeding areas, shine lights on nesting turtles, or ride turtles. Encourage regulations requiring that lights not shine on nesting beaches. Use structural shields or vegetation hedges. Don't drive vehicles or ride horses on potential nesting beaches. These activities crush incubating eggs, and tire ruts trap hatchlings as they crawl to the sea. Don't leave lounge chairs, sailboats, and other obstructions on nesting beaches at night. Don't litter sandy beaches. Discarded cans and bottles are unsightly and can cause injury to nesting turtles. Remember, it is illegal not only to kill, but to pursue or molest any sea turtle (that is, any egg, hatchling or adult) on land at any time. It is also illegal to capture at sea or offer for sale any sea turtle (or turtle product) during the closed season under the Fisheries Act: 1 March - 30 September.

Leatherback Facts Leatherbacks are the largest of the sea turtles. Females nesting in the Caribbean typically weigh 300-500 kg (650-1100 lb). The largest leatherback on record is a male that stranded on the coast of Wales in 1988 and weighed 916 kg (2015 lb). The species is easily distinguished from other sea turtles because it lacks a bony shell, having instead a slightly flexible skin-covered "shell." The smooth, black skin is spotted with pale yellow or white. The tapered carapace is raised into seven prominent ridges. Leatherbacks are sustained almost entirely on a diet of jellyfish and related animals. To find their prey, they travel thousands of miles throughout the Atlantic Ocean, preferring to feast on enormous cold water species, such as Cyanea, off the coasts of Canada and northern Europe. Leatherbacks love to eat the deadly Physalia, or Man-O-War jellyfish. Leatherbacks have thick layers of fat to keep them warm, as well as a circulatory system which is unique among reptiles but shared by some marine mammals. In this system, the veins and arteries are bundled together in what scientists call "counter-current circulation", an arrangement which prevents body core heat from being radiated and lost to the surrounding environment. Because of their ability to survive in cold water, leatherbacks have the broadest distribution of any reptile on Earth. They are also the deepest divers! Females nesting in the Caribbean have been tracked using transmitters and satellites and have been recorded diving to depths exceeding 4000 feet. Where are the juveniles? There are no local records of immature leatherbacks, although injured juveniles have been rescued in recent years in the waters of Barbados and Puerto Rico. The paths taken by hatchlings leaving their natal beaches are not known. There are no data on growth rate or age at sexual maturity for wild leatherbacks. Most hard-shelled sea turtles require at least 20 years to reach sexual maturity, and this is likely to be true of leatherbacks, as well. Once mature, females return to the beaches of their birth, laden with eggs, every 2-5 years, on average. Thousands of eggs are laid over the course of a lifetime. The temperature of the sand in which the eggs incubate determines the sex of the hatchlings! Warmer temperatures result in females, whereas cooler temperatures favor males. This is true for all sea turtles, and is the reason why incubation in buckets or styrofoam coolers is not a suitable conservation option. Source: Karen L. Eckert, Ph.D. 1998. Environment Tobago Newsletter (Issue 2.2) (pages 2-4).

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Wetlands of Tobago What are Wetlands?

As the name suggests, wetlands are land areas that are heavily saturated with water on a permanent or semi-permanent basis. Wetlands are usually found alongside rivers and lakes and in coastal areas. A wetland develops in an area where the level of the land is low, such that water accumulates for most or all of the year. A variety of names have been used to identify wetlands. These include mangrove swamps, estuaries, marshes, river bottomlands, bogs and delta lands. In Tobago the term “swamp” is usually used to designate a wetland area. The Importance of Wetlands. Historically, wetlands were regarded as nuisances by man. Seen as breeding grounds for mosquitoes and producing miasma, wetlands were actually considered to be dangerous to humans. At one time it was believed that the air from swamps would cause disease and death if allowed to enter homes at night. Today, we know better. Wetlands are known to be prolific producers of life. Wetlands rival rain forests in biological productivity. They absorb and store large amounts of carbon thereby preventing it from entering the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and which is the principal agent in global warming. They also release large amounts of oxygen. Wetlands provide feeding, spawning and nursery grounds for many species of fish and shellfish. It is estimated that sixty to seventy percent (60-70%) of our coastal fishes depend upon wetlands. They also serve as habitats for many types of birds. In Trinidad and Tobago, one hundred and fifty seven (157) species of birds are known to depend upon wetlands for their survival. Wetlands also provide more direct benefits to humans. Coastal wetlands protect coastal towns and villages from storm tides. They provide oxygen, lumber and food. Wetlands also function as biological filters to remove harmful pollutants before they reach the sea. The use of wetlands for the tertiary treatment of sewage is now being adopted in many parts of the world. Tourism also benefits from wetlands since these serve as attractions for thousands of birdwatchers annually. Saving Tobago’s Remaining Wetlands. The wetlands of Tobago are disappearing. Over the past three hundred and fifty years, from the start of European colonization to the present, the wetlands of Tobago have declined significantly. Since most of our wetlands are located in coastal areas they have been seen as prime areas for development. Most of lower Scarborough now occupies an area that was once swampland. Other wetland areas in Lowlands, Bon Accord and Roxborough were drained and used to establish coconut or cocoa plantations. Part of Kilgwin swamp was filled in for the expansion of the Crown Point Airport. Those wetlands that have not been totally reclaimed have suffered significantly from the indiscriminate cutting of mangrove, the dumping of garbage, the release of raw sewage, the over harvesting of crabs and other activities that have reduced their biological and economic values. Tobago cannot afford the loss of any more wetlands. At a time when our coastal fisheries are declining, coastal pollution is increasing, ocean levels are rising and we are seeking to boost eco- tourism, our wetlands are needed now, more than they ever were. We now have remaining four major wetlands at PetitTrou, Kilgwin Bon Accord and Buccoo and ten smaller ones at other locations around Tobago. Let us resolve that there should be no further loss of wetlands and that we will do all that is necessary to maintain and restore our remaining wetlands so that we can gain the maximum benefits that they can provide. Environment TOBAGO - Phone: 868-660-7462 - Fax: 868-660-7467 - E-mail: envirtob@tstt.net.tt - Internet: http://www.scsoft.de/et Post: PO Box 503, Scarborough, Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies - Office: 2nd Floor, Rollocks Building, Robinson Street, Scarborough

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FACT SHEET - No. 6 March 1999

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The Tobago Forest Reserve In the mid 18th century there was an English scientist, Stephen Hales, researching the circulation of sap in green trees and the relationship between green plants and the atmosphere. Results of his research displayed the intimate relationship between trees and rainfall. Hales explained this to his close friend, Soame Jenyns, Member of Parliament for Cambridge and one of the Lord’s Commissioners for Trade and Plantations, the organization responsible for settling Tobago after the Peace of Paris in 1763. At this conference the island was ceded to Britain. This era was the height of the sugar trade in Europe. British settlers were arriving in Tobago with land grants from the Crown. They cut down the forest rapidly, replacing it with sugarcane. So successful were they that by the end of that century filthy rich people were said to be “as rich as a Tobago planter”. Jenyns, understanding the ominous reality of Hales’ scientific breakthrough, declared all the area now known as the Main Ridge Reserve as Crown Reserve. It originally totaled approximately 10,000 acres but later another 4,000 acres were added. Jenyns tried to have this protection made law. He suffered strong opposition in Parliament as many of his colleagues were owners of plantations in Tobago and viewed the forest as “timber”. They thought that after harvesting and marketing this valuable resource, they would have more land for planting sugar. Jenyns explained to them that if they continued along that course they would turn Tobago into a desert. Their sugar crop would fail. It took him another eleven years to convince enough of them that he was right. The Governor, Sir William Young, signed the ordinance on the 13th of April, 1776. This, according to Scientific American, left Tobago with the oldest legally protected forest reserve of its kind in the world*. This act itself was marvelous but the words that made it law are incredible. In part it says: Did also in pursuance of your said Instructions remove to Your Majesty a tract of Wood Land lying in

the interior and most hilly parts of this island for the purpose of attracting frequent Showers of Rain upon which the Fertility of Lands in these Climates doth entirely depend.

William Young Assented to by his Honour the Commander in Chief this Thirteenth day of April One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy Six. The forest is mainly Lower Montane Rain Forest. This type of forest is prevalent in the Amazon. In effect our legacy is tiny sample of the Amazon in tiny Tobago. Note - Kings and Emperors throughout history have had forests and parks protected for the purpose of royal hunting and other pleasures. Tobago’s Forest Reserve is unique in the world because it is the first forest legally protected to preserve the watershed. Environment TOBAGO - Phone: 868-660-7462 - Fax: 868-660-7467 - E-mail: envirtob@tstt.net.tt - Internet: http://www.scsoft.de/et Post: PO Box 503, Scarborough, Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies - Office: 2nd Floor, Rollocks Building, Robinson Street, Scarborough

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FACT SHEET - No. 7 March 1999

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TROPICAL RAINFORESTS

A GUIDE TO THE RAINFORESTS OF THE WORLD AND TOBAGO’S MAIN RIDGE FOREST RESERVE

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1.What is a rainforest? 2. Where are rainforests found? 3.The history of Tobago’s rainforest 4.The structure of a rainforest 5. The structure of Tobago’s rainforest 6.Why are rainforests so important – functions. 7. Functions and services of Tobago’s rainforest 8.Biodiversity- The variety of life 9. Biodiversity in Tobago’s rainforest 10.Using Biodiversity- The key to the rainforests survival? 11. Tobago’s medicinal cabinet- secrets waiting to be unlocked 12. Relationships in the rainforest 13. Plant life on the trees 14Nutrient recycling in the rainforest 15. Threats to the rainforest- Deforestation, hunting and climate change 16 Hunting in Tobago’s Rainforest 17. Closing thoughts 18. References

A rainforest is “a tree covered area in warmer regions of the world where rainfall averages over 200 cm per year, allowing for year round growth ” The Green Encyclopedia. This rather brief, dull description of a rainforest doesn’t do justice to these wondrous places. When you think of what a rainforest is what comes to mind? Heat, humidity, noise, claustrophobia, danger, beauty, rain, biodiversity, deforestation, birds, snakes…..the list is almost endless. This is truly what a rainforest is.

This booklet gives you an introduction to the wonders of the rainforest and why they are so important to our future. By focusing on Tobago’s unique forest reserve this complexity begins to unravel. Rainforests are not just about trees and wildlife, they perform many functions essential to the earth’s and our own well being. However, they are still threatened, with repercussions that continue to be disastrous for everyone. Perhaps if the world looked to Tobago and its rainforest reserve the tide may turn on their fate.

Rainforest are found in 3 main areas of the world: South East Asia, Central Africa and Central and South America. Existing in a narrow band North and South of the equator and occupying less than 1% of the earths surface, they have the greatest concentration of wildlife of any ecosystem. The map below indicates where rainforests are naturally found but much of this has been lost, particularly in South East Asia. Huge tracts still exist in Amazonia and central Africa but even these are constantly under threat. 22

You might ask yourself why a small place like Tobago has a rainforest when it is not in any of these regions? Even more remarkable is how this rainforest is still standing when all around the world deforestation is so rampant? Well this is a story of plate tectonics and of one man who had the vision, over 200 years ago, to realise the importance of the rainforests to Tobago’s livelihood.

WHAT IS A RAINFOREST?

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WHERE ARE RAINFORESTS FOUND?

When is a rain forest not a rain forest? Other forests exist within the tropics that do not receive enough rainfall to be considered true rainforests. There is generally a dry season that limits growth and causes some trees to shed their leaves. These are known as ‘monsoon forests’, ‘seasonal evergreen forests or ‘deciduous seasonal forest’. While they perform many of the functions of the rainforest they do not have the diversity of life. The forested areas outside of the reserve in Tobago are generally seasonal evergreen forests while Little Tobago is a deciduous seasonal forest.

Tobago’s rainforest is unique in the Caribbean for two reasons. Firstly, it used to be connected to South America and so has much of its flora and fauna. Secondly, it has been legally protected since 1776, making it the oldest protected forest reserve in the western hemisphere. Plate Tectonics Plate tectonics, or the movement of the earths crust, causes continents to move and mountains to form. Between 225 and 65 million years ago, land that eventually became Trinidad and Tobago, was much further west than it is today. This land was periodically connected to mainland South America, through sea levels falling, allowing for migration of plants and animals. Sea levels rose and Tobago became an island about 11,000 years ago. Tobago is believed to have been connected to Venezuela as there are some species that exist here and Northern Venezuela but not in Trinidad.

Protection For millions of years the rainforest here was undisturbed except for maybe the odd natural disaster and some small scale hunting by the Caribs and Arawaks. In the 18th century the British arrived. This was the era of the sugar trade in Europe. Settlers arrived with land grants from the crown and began to replace the natural forest with sugarcane. At the same time, an English scientist Stephen Hales, was researching the circulation of sap in trees and the relationship between these green plants and the atmosphere. Results of his research displayed the intimate relationship between trees and rainfall. If you cut down trees rainfall will decrease. A friend of Hales, Soame Jenyns, an MP in England, understood the enormity of this discovery and tried to get what is now known as the Main Ridge Forest Reserve protected in law. He suffered strong opposition

as many other MP’s were plantation owners and viewed the forest as timber. Jenyns explained to them that if the forest was cut down then Tobago would be turned into a desert and their crops would fail. After 11 years of persuasion, an act was finally passed on 13th April, 1776 to protect the forest for ever. This story is remarkable and it constitutes what many consider to be the world’s first environmental act. But it is also a tragedy, this knowledge has been known for two centuries but deforestation still continues apace worldwide 23

Hurricane Flora In 1963, hurricane flora swept through Tobago devastating 75% of the forest. Many of the birds and animals starved as a result -their food supply had suddenly vanished. But we should not think this was a tragedy, hurricanes are natural events that cleanse forests of disease. In the last 40 years the rainforest has begun to grow back, so when you visit the reserve what you see is almost totally natural. Something very rare indeed for such a small place.

THE HISTORY OF TOBAGO’S RAINFOREST

Main Ridge Forest reserve is in dark shading

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The rainy season should not deter visitors. If it rains, rain usually falls in short sharp bursts, often at night, so the island may be enjoyed all year round. There is a range of accommodation to suit all tastes. Many hotels offer full air conditioning, choice of menu and arranged

Depending on its history and location, rainforests typically have 4 layers: The emergent layer where the giants of the forest occur. Trees here can grow in excess of 50m. The canopy layer this is where the majority of trees exist as well as most of the wildlife as this is where sunlight is most abundant. The under story layer where tree ferns, palms and slow growing trees predominate due to their ability to grow in low levels of light. The ground layer where non woody plants and tree seedlings occur. Little light penetrates here so growth is sparse.

This rainforest structure is relatively stable as there is little light for seedlings to take hold. This is known as a climax community. However as soon as a large tree falls, light becomes available on the forest floor. Almost immediately this space is filled by herbaceous plants and climbers. Through this mess pioneer trees make their way toward the sunlight. In turn, these trees provide shelter for the canopy or emergent trees to grow and eventually fill the gap created many years ago.

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THE STRUCTURE OF A RAINFOREST LAYERS IN A RAINFOREST

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EMERGENT LAYER

Giant Trees

CANOPY LAYER Abundant Wildlife

UNDERSTORY

LAYER Palms

Epiphytes

GROUND LAYER Darkness No wind

Pioneer Trees: Because competition for light is so intense pioneer trees have to be quick growing to prevent themselves from being smothered by other plants. To achieve this they often have huge leaves and lightweight or hollow trunks, both of which maximize photosynthesis for growth. They also have slippery trunks and often enlist the help of ants to avoid other plants hindering them. Pioneer trees provide perfect sheltered conditions for canopy or emergent trees to grow below them and although they may only last 30-40 years, they play a vital role in the rainforest structure.

The rainforest on the main ridge has been classified as lower montane rainforest. This occurs above 250m, where there are no emergent trees because of exposure to wind. The canopy reaches a height of approximately 30m. Hurricane Flora has had a huge effect on the structure of the forest, leaving most of the trees no older than 40 years. However, there are pockets of older trees that escaped the full force of the storm. The most common canopy tree is the rosewood, while a typical understory tree is the palm or mountain cabbage.

You will also find the tree fern here, the only living descendent of a family of trees that died out 290 million years ago. The ground layer is not typical for a rainforest. as more light has been available since the hurricane to allow plants to grow. When a gap opens up in the canopy today a typical pioneer tree will be the Cecropia (bois canot or trumpet tree.)

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THE STRUCTURE OF TOBAGO’S RAINFOREST

The cecropia or bois canot is one of the most common pioneer trees in the reserve.

A common ground plant is the coconut like Cyclanthaceae.

The effect of Hurricane Flora: Near the entrance to the Gilpin trail, the structure of the rainforest can be easily seen. The slender trees and lush ground vegetation indicate that forest growth is new. The sheer force of the wind combined with the enormous volume of rainfall had a disastrous effect at the time. Forty years later the forest once again looks healthy. Fast-forward a couple of hundred years and the huge trees will return while the ground vegetation will diminish.

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FUNCTION OR SERVICE CARBON SINK: Through Photosynthesis the carbon from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is fixed or “sequestered” into the plants and trees. This helps to alleviate global warming. BIODIVERSITY: Rainforests account for a large proportion of the worlds flora and fauna (as much as 50% according to some scientists) yet much of it is still unrecorded. Locally this diversity can be utilized by harvesting the forest for food, timber, medicines and many other useful products. If harvested in a sustainable manner these products could also be traded internationally. Rainforest tourism is growing as people come to experience this variety of life. RAINMAKER: Trees create rain through ‘evapotranspiration’. Water that the tree does not use is transpired through its leaves, evaporating in the heat of the sun. This will condense to form clouds and eventually fall as rain. WATERCATCHMENT: Rainforests act like a sponge allowing excess rainwater to percolate slowly through the soil allowing streams and rivers to run constantly throughout the year. This provides dependable, good quality water for millions of people in the tropics. CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION: The trees in a rainforest break the impact of heavy rain with its leaves and roots. A drop of rain can take as long as 40 minutes to reach the forest floor! ALBEDO EFFECT: Surface albedo or the ‘shininess’ of the land surface is a basic factor in controlling climate. Rainforests have thick, green vegetation which absorbs much of the suns energy limiting the amount of heat reflected back into the atmosphere and so controlling global warming.

The principal causes for deforestation are agriculture and logging for timber. Often agriculture will follow after an area has been logged. The irony is that rainforest soils are very poor for agriculture and areas will quickly be abandoned leading to more areas to be deforested.

EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION GLOBAL WARMING: When trees are cut they are often burnt releasing huge amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This effect is compounded by there being fewer trees to absorb this gas. LOSS OF WILDLIFE: Habitat destruction is the fundamental cause of species depletion and extinction. The effect of this can be devastating. Local economies dependent on the forest would be destroyed, unknown species that might be beneficial to medicine will be lost and tourism will decline LESS RAIN: With fewer trees to create rain the climate will change dramatically. This would not only have repercussions on human life with water supply becoming less predictable but the remaining rainforest could be threatened. It is thought that the Amazon rainforest creates over half of its rainfall through evapotranspiration. Could there be a point in time where there are not enough trees in the Amazon to sustain the rest of the forest? FLOOD & DROUGHT: Without trees to break the heavy tropical rains impact and to absorb most of the rain rivers and stream will begin to flood in times of heavy rain and to disappear in dry periods. Again human health is affected. LANDSLIDES & SILTATION: The heavy impact of tropical rain is multiplied many times with no cover. Soils are washed away downstream leaving local farming devastated. Downstream the effects of siltation can cause dams to malfunction, flooding and coral reefs to die. The roots that bind the soil will disappear leaving hilly areas vulnerable to landslides. CLIMATE CHANGE: Bare soil reflects more heat into the atmosphere and so contributes to the warming of the atmosphere. In turn this has impacts on thermal currents and wind which effect rainfall patterns.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THEY ARE CUT DOWN?

WHY ARE RAINFORESTS SO IMPORTANT?

Rainforests provide us with many vital functions or services, from climate control to human health. We must remember that these are all provided FREE OF CHARGE. After reading the list below consider how much it would cost to replace all these services if the forest disappeared.

Two hundred years ago Tobago’s rainforest was protected for its rain creating properties. Since then the many other functions it provides have been realised and today, Tobago’s rainforest is still considered vital for the islands livlihoood. Without it the water supply would be disrupted, crops would fail and coral reefs would die. Once again, remember that this is a service provided FREE by the forest. To replace or repair damage caused by deforestation would be enormous. Water Supply: The rainforest provides rain and is the watershed for a large part of the island. It provides year round, clean household water for most of the eastern part of the island. A study done on the Courland catchment area (which provides most of the western half of the island but is outside the forest reserve) suggests that due to deforestation and poor

agricultural practices. Water agricultural practices. Water supply has become less predictable and more costly in this area. Run off has increased in the wet season and water flow has decreased in the dry season. Soil in the water, ‘turbidity’, causes pumping stations to malfunction and costly chemicals are used to reduce the effect. Water shortages could become commonplace in the dry season unless action is taken like re-forestation of the hills here. Coral reef protection: By controlling soil erosion and allowing year round clear water to flow into the sea the rainforest protects many of Tobago’s reefs in the east. The beautiful reefs at Speyside, Englishmans Bay and Castara are all dependent on this service. Deforestation would result in increased turbidity and a change in the salinity of the sea due to flood/drought regimes in the rivers. Both could have a disastrous effect on the reefs. In turn the fishing and tourist industries, which are dependent on the reefs, would decline.

Tourism Tourism is Tobago’s second largest employer and its biggest money earner. The rainforest plays a key role in attracting visitors to this island with its beautiful vistas, stunning wildlife and easy access. Many guides are employed to show visitors these delights. Without it a large sector of the industry would be lost.

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Timber: The reserve is too small and inaccessible to provide a timber industry in Tobago. If timber were to be extracted it should be outside the reserve in conjunction with agriculture

FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES OF TOBAGO’S RAINFOREST

Leads to ⇒

Irregular water supply

Coral reefs threatened

Loss of tourist dollar

Loss of Biodiversity and forest products

Less rain An ugly place you

wouldn’t visit

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Leads to ⇒

Regular supply of clean household water

Protection of coral reefs

Money from tourists

High biodiversity and rainforest products

Rain A beautiful place

to visit

Biodiversity within a rainforest can be viewed on 2 levels: SPECIES diversity-the number of different species and GENETIC diversity - the differences within a species. Of all the earth’s ecosystems rainforests are the most diverse and productive. Although they cover only 6% of the land surface they contain over half the estimated 5-10 million plants and animals.

Awesome statistics abound. A hectare of rainforest in Brazil can contain 500 different species of tree. On one of these trees 400 unique species might be found. The value of this abundance cannot be over emphasised both for its aesthetic value and for its uses it can provide for people. It is these products of the forests- the medicines the food and the chemicals that is one of the keys to their survival.

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For such a small island Tobago is fortunate to have a very rich flora and fauna. This is because it was once joined to the South American continent and so has remnants of the life from the rainforest there. Although many of the larger animals have

been ‘extirpated’ (become locally extinct) it still holds an impressive array of life. Tobago is less rich than its big sister Trinidad but it does have 15 birds, 4 frogs, 1 snake and 1 lizard that Trinidad does not have.

BIODIVERSITY- THE VARIETY OF LIFE BIODIVERSITY IN TOBAGO

Tobago’s Flora and Fauna

Tobago’s rainforest remains poorly recorded except for birds and larger animals. No comprehensive records exist for insects or smaller animals. The last major survey of trees was in 1943, before the hurricane and plant records are rare. It is difficult to specify the number of birds that live in the rainforest on such a small island, as there is a large overlap of habitats. Approximately 100 species of bird can be seen of which the following live exclusively in the reserve.

White tailed sabre-wing hummingbird Golden olive woodpecker Collared trogon Great black hawk Striped breasted spine tail

OTHER ANIMALS 21 snakes 5 large mammals

SPECIAL TO TOBAGO Blue backed manekin Cocrico White tailed sabre-wing Red snake or Tobago false coral

Why are rainforests are so biologically rich?

1. The tropics, where rainforests exist, have escaped the devastating effects of ice ages leaving them to evolve undisturbed for millions of years. 2. Most plants here are pollinated by animals (as there is little wind). The relationship between animals and plants can effect the evolution of both creating new species in the process. 3. Rainforests are perfect breeding grounds for pests, viruses, bacteria and fungus all of which target life. If only a few species were to evolve these would be quickly targeted and die off.

Genetic Diversity- The differences that occur within a species are vital to its long-term survival. These differences allow for adaptation to environmental changes – not every individual or population has the genetic make up to survive change. Habitat destruction decreases the gene pool and so decreases the chances of a species survival.

Although it is the beauty and bounty of the rainforests that attracts us to them in the first place, it maybe the wealth of the forest products derived from this diversity that could hold the key to their survival. The diversity of life in rainforests means that there are more types of plant to use in industry, more types of fruit and crops that can be grown for food and more types of plant and animal that can be utilised for their medicinal purposes. Below are just a few examples of what has been discovered in the rainforests.

.

All this sounds great but the issue is complicated by the manner in which these products are exploited and by the political consequences of some discoveries. For example logging has to be carried out in a sustainable manner so not to compromise its regeneration; property rights need to be addressed for the countries where rainforest products are found and the political will has to found to move away from old technologies when products are found that render them obsolete.

Tobago’s rainforest is no different; there are a wealth of plants used locally for medicinal purposes. However the rainforest plants are poorly documented - much of the knowledge has been passed down through generations by word of mouth. A report does exist that lists plants that need to be

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researched for their chemical compounds. This touches on an important issue. Knowledge like this is invaluable but unless it is written down it could become lost as the culture moves toward a more western dependency of synthetic medicines.

USING BIODIVERSITY The key to the rainforests survival?

Industry: The sap of the Amazonian copaiba when poured straight into a fuel tank can power a truck. It is almost identical to diesel. Agriculture: The dazzling array of fruits and crops from the rainforest offer varieties of food, that maybe resistant to pests and diseases that affect modern crops. Medicine: 70 % of all plants that have been identified as having anti- cancer properties are exclusive to the rainforest. Only 1%of plants have been examined! The rosy periwinkle found in Madagascar gives a 99% chance of recovery from leukemia

TOBAGO’S MEDICINAL CABINET Secrets waiting to be unlocked

The instantly recognizable dead cecropia leaf can be boiled and used as a tea for hypertension and diarrhea

Some Tobago rainforest plants recommended for research into their chemical makeup

Common Name Traditional use Known Chemical

Compounds Bois Canot, Trumpet tree,cecropia (see photo below)

Hypertension, flu and Diarrhea. Shoots chewed for snake bite

Sterols and alkaloids

Bay leaf Flu and Pneumonia Oil is expectorant Wild coffee Purgative Sennosides/alkaloids Zeb-a-pik Diabetes/ malaria Bitter alkaloid Bois Bande Aphrodisiac- bark

used in tea Unknown

Rainforest ecology is complex. Scientists are yet to even scratch the surface of what happens here. Relationships occur between plants, between plants and animals and between plants and fungi. This is what makes the rainforest work. But it also what makes it vulnerable. By interfering in these processes,particularly through deforestation, vital links in the

ecology can be broken, leaving the future of the forest in doubt. The relationship between organisms is called SYMBIOSIS. This can be mutually beneficial, benign or destructive. The following pages give examples of all three. By showing these well known examples the forest ecology can be better understood.

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RELATIONSHIPS IN THE RAINFOREST

An agouti breaks open a Brazil nut pod with its powerful jaws.

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Azteca ants living within the hollow trunk of the cecropia tree

Trees and fungus: Many trees are dependent on very fine fungal threads that grow amongst their roots. These are known as mycorrhizas. The fungi breakdown and absorb vital nutrients from dead plant matter which tree roots are incapable of doing. The roots can then absorb the nutrients that are released in this process. This is another reason why rainforests cannot regenerate after being cut down as the rain quickly washes the fungus away.

Roots on their own are not enough – they need the help of fungus to gather nutrients

The agouti and the Brazil nut: The bertholletia tree in the Amazon region produces a nut whose protective pod is so tough only one animal can crack it, the agouti. By producing more nuts than an agouti can eat in one meal the nuts become dispersed by the rodent who buries them for a later date. Ultimately, some nuts are forgotten and are left to grow into another tree. Remove the agouti and the bertholletia tree will disappear.

The cecropia and the ants: As shown earlier the cecropia is a pioneer tree and needs to grow quickly to establish itself. It does this with the help of a species of ant (from the azteca family). By living on the tree these ants keep the trunk free from any harmful animals or plants. In return, the ants receive a juicy substance from the base of leaf stalk

One of the remarkable aspects of the rainforest is the variety of plant life that lives on the trees. This is another form of rainforest relationship. As so little light gets to the forest floor plants have had to adapt to use areas with more sunlight to live. This could be on the leaves of trees, the trunks or even on the plants already using trees as their home. These plants: lianas (vines or climbers), epiphytes and stranglers play a vital role in the structure of the rainforest. Epiphytes Epiphytes are a truly remarkable group of plants. Orchids, ferns and bromeliads just a few examples. They have adapted to use every available inch on a tree. A tree in an pristine rainforest is often unrecognisable because it can be so covered by these plants. Epiphytes use trees only for support, this relationship is fairly benign, all their nutrients come from falling matter-leaves, dead insects or dust. Orchids and ferns trap this amongst their roots where over time a fine soil is formed. Bromeliads also

retain a reservoir of water at the base of their leaves. When matter falls here, a rich nutritious soup is created. A small bromiliad beginning its life on a branch. Stranglers Stranglers are another remarkable group of plants. They are found only in rainforests and whereas epiphytes do not harm trees stranglers will eventually kill their host. Starting life off as an innocent epiphyte a strangler will often take hold on a branch of a tree. As time goes by roots are sent down to the nutrients in

the soil below. As the roots grow thicker, they gradually join up around the host tree and starve it of its nutrients and sunlight (“strangler” might be a misnomer). Slowly the original tree dies and rots away leaving a hollow, lattice tree in its place. This is a parasitic relationship. A strangler tree (the parrot apple in Tobago) takes a grip on its host 31

Vines or climbers These plants, known as lianas, use the trunk of a tree to reach up toward the light. As they grow aerial roots are sent down to reach the nutrients in the soil. These cables that seem to descend from the sky can grow to be as thick as a mans thigh. Again this is a relatively bengn relationship leaving the host tree unharmed.

A common sight in the forest reserve a cheese plant moves up a trunk to the light.

PLANT LIFE ON THE TREES

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We have discovered that rainforests are home to more species of plants than anywhere else so surely the soils must be fantastically nutritious. WRONG! Rainforest soils are surprisingly poor in nutrients. How can this be? Firstly rainforest soils are typically very old. With all that rain over the millions of years, most of the soluble nutrients have long since been washed away. Secondly the nutrients in dead organic matter such as leaves, wood and animals are very quickly broken down and reabsorbed

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by the plants. The nutrients are locked up within the plants. This rapid breakdown

occurs because of the humidity and presence of bacteria, fungi and certain types of animal (mainly ants and termites). For example a leaf will take about 6 weeks to decompose in a rainforest while it takes up to a year in a temperate forest. All this leaves a very thin, typically 2-4 cm layer of fertile soil. For this reason the roots of trees are very shallow, tapping into the nutrients at the ground surface with the help of fungal threads.

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Despite a widespread knowledge of the importance of rainforests they are still under severe threat. Huge

{ EMBED MSPhotoEd.3 } Leaf cutter ants cut the leaves and take them back to the nest

They are met by smaller ants who cut the leaf up into tiny pieces

Even smaller ants take this substance and place it in the fungus garden

The smallest ants tend the garden and remove unwanted material, the garbage.

The garbage is taken to the dump chambers by the ‘garbage ants’, in Tobago this is often outside the nest.

NUTRIENT RECYCLING IN THE RAINFOREST

Because trees are very shallow rooted they develop ‘buttresses’ to stabilize themselves.

TERMITES AND ANTS

These incredible creatures represent a crucial element in the rainforest ecology. Studies have shown that these tiny creatures can make up a quarter of all animal mass here. Termites are the principal recycler of nutrients from dead wood. Ants are the principal recycler of dead animals of a similar size.

LEAFCUTTER ANTS: This family of ants, known locally as bachacs, is one of the most recognizable animals in the rainforest. Generally viewed as pests (especially in agriculture) they are in fact one of the principal agents in recycling nutrients in the forest. Leafcutters have been practicing agriculture for millions of years and live almost entirely on a fungus they produce from fresh leaves. The waste from this process is incredibly nutritious and is quickly absorbed by plants and trees. In fact the nutrients would probably go back to the very plants that provided the fresh leaves in the first place.

Again even smaller ants chew up the leaves and then defecate on it

THREATS TO THE RAINFDeforestation, hunting and clim

areas are being lost due to deforestation and their integrity is being compromised by over hunting. In addition the silent threat of climate change could well be their ultimate downfall. Deforestation The principal causes of deforestation are: Agriculture: Conversion of forests to agriculture accounts for over 60% of deforestation. Vast areas are cut, burnt and used for crops or livestock. Rainforest soils have been shown to be invariably poor for this type of practice. Often it is poor farmers of these regions that are forced to farm these areas. Within a few years the fertility is gone and the farmers have little choice but to clear new areas, only to repeat the cycle. Logging: Again vast areas are destroyed by the effects of logging. This has been particularly severe in South East Asia where only a small percentage of the original forest remains. Logging not

only often precedes conversion to agriculture; it also opens up areas to be farmed because of the roads built to transport the timber. Deforestation is also being carried out for house building, new roads, mining and oil exploitation. Huge areas are also flooded through the construction of dams. Hunting: Hunting for wildmeat has occurred in rainforests for as long as people have lived there. It is still a vital source of protein to many people in Amazonia and Central Africa. Population sizes in rainforests have generally been small

enough for this to have little impact on the ecology of the forest. However, problems arise when hunting extends to providing for a wider appetite, either in cities or in other countries. This over exploitation of animals can have a subtle but important effect , particularly to the biodiversity. Remember everything is linked- if you loose one species you might loose others dependent on it. The forest could still be standing but the variety of life would be diminished. Hunting for the pet trade, furs and traditional medicines also play a part in species depletion 33 Climate change: The silent threat of climate change could hold the ultimate fate for the rainforest. The loss of forest cover will radically alter the surrounding climate by reducing rainfall and changing the albedo effect. Add to this the enormous amounts of

carbon dioxide released through the burning of the forest and you have a recipe for disaster. However, as there are so many factors involved scientists are not certain what the eventual outcome will be. For example, is there a point in time where there is not enough forest to produce the rain it needs to sustain itself?

Bulldozers are used to help clear forests. They compact the soil, reducing the ability of the forest to regenerate even further.

Why animals are hunted Caiman- Skins meat, oil Snakes- Skins Otters-Skins Primates-Medical science Birds- Plumes, pets Deer- Skins, meat

Rainfall and evapotranspiration

Trinidad and Tobago receives an annual rainfall of approximately 9000 million cubic metres of rain, of which 7900 million cubic metres are returned to the sky through evapotranspiration! In other words 88% of rain is recycled. FORESTS CREATE THEIR OWN RAIN!

HUNTING IN TOBAGO’S RAINF

Tobago’s rainforest is well protected for its treeswell for its larger animals. People have hunted hfirst stepped ashore many thousands of years agolast four centuries Tobago’s larger animals, or ‘gamdecimated. Why has this happened? It is the age-old thinkinsupply” people still believe they can hunt indefirepercussions. Wrong! At the current rate the animjoin the others that have already disappeared Althohunting season this is largely ignored and rarely enf

Iguana

Agouti

Armadillo

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Ocelot

Maned Wolf

Red Brocket Deer

Otter

Muskrat

Rainforests are awe inspiring places. Full of beauty, they provide the earth and its people with the essence of life, not just aesthetically but

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GONE……. but not forgotten. Animals that have become extinct in Tobago

GOING, GOING…… Animals that still survive in the rainforest.

Other Animals

Wild pig Lappe

Raccoon

Blue and Yellow Macaw

CLOSING THOUGHT

practically too. But there lurks a dark cloud over their future that possibly threatens us all. Tobago offers a small antidote to this with its forest reserve, providing the world with a wonderful example of what can be achieved. However, it is a small place and most rainforests are huge in comparison- their protection is difficult and their future looks bleak. Ultimately their fate depends on whether their true value can be recognised, by everyone, from the poor farmer to the people in power. Undeniably this comes down to money and the question:

“ are rainforests worth more standing than they are cut down? ” We hope that we have proved they are, but will the necessary people be convinced? Perhaps all that is needed is a change in attitude, to realise that everything in life, like the rainforests, is connected. Plan for the long term. Think sustainably. Everyone would benefit not just a few…..unfortunately this is probably the hardest task of all.

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REFERENCES

Books and Journals

1.Trinidad and Tobago report to FAO on plant genetic resources 1996. 2.Rainforest Action Network Factsheet no.10 3.Rainforest Action Network Fact sheet no.1 4. Tobago the forgotten island. The Naturalist 4,7. 1983. Dave Hardy

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