resource-efficient building materials for a sustainable ... · resource-efficient building...

Container City: India Wharf, London, UK

Resource-efficient building materials for a sustainable built environment

John E. Fernández

Ferrousmetals

Cast irons

Carbon1.8-4%

(weight%)

Steels

Carbon0.04 - 1.7%(weight%)

Ductile iron

Gray iron

White iron

High alloy

Low alloy

Plain

Plain

Plain

High strengthlow alloy

Low carbon

Medium carbon

High carbonHeat treatable

Tool

Stainless steelFe+chromium (13-26%)

Tool steelFe+tungsten, cobalt

ChromiumCr

LeadPb

TitaniumTi

ManganeseMn

MagnesiumMg

AluminumAl

NickelNi

TinSn

ZincZn

CopperCu

Pure copper

BrassCu + Zn

BronzeCu + Sn(10-30%)a

CupronickelCu + Ni(30%)

1000 Series>99% Al

2000 Series

3000 Series

4000 Series

5000 Series

6000 Series

7000 Series

Al + 4Cu + Mg,Si,Mn

Al + 1Mn

Al + 3Mg,0.5Mn

Al + 0.5Mg,0.5Si

Al + 6Zn + Mg,Cu,Mn

Al + Si

Casting alloysAl + 11Si

Al-lithium alloysAl + 3Li

Ti-6 Al 4V

Cast irons

High carbon steels

Medium carbonsteels

Low carbonsteels

4

3

2

1

0Weight% carbon

Commonnonferrous

metals

aAll alloying proportions given in terms of percentage weight.bAluminum series 1000-7000 Figure by MIT OCW.

metal foams

0 0.2 0.4

Strain

Stre

ss (M

Pa)

0.60

4

8

12

16

Quasi-staticDynamic 3609/s

0 20 40

Axial Compression (mm)

Axi

al C

ompr

essi

ve F

orce

(kN

)0

20

40

60

3

Foam filled tube

Empty tubeFoam

Sum +

80

60 80 100

42

1

1 2

Figure by MIT OCW. Figure by MIT OCW.

1000

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1200 1400

Data from thermometer (red) and from tree rings, corals,ice cores and historical records (green).

Year

Dep

artu

res

in te

mpe

ratu

re (o

C) f

rom

the

1961

-19

90 a

vera

ge

1600 1800 2000

Northern Hemisphere

(b) the past 1,000 years

Figure by MIT OCW.

Million metric tons

200

100

Figure by MIT OCW.

0Finland

1995

Note: Hidden flows are included in fossil fuels, metals and minerals or are represented by excavation and erosion.

Composition of Total Material Requirement (TMR; in Tonnes/Capita) in the

European Union, Selected Member States and Other Countries.

Germany1995

Japan1994

Netherlands1993

Poland1995

USA1994

EU-151995

10

20

TMR

30

Fossil fuelsMetalsMineralsExcavationBiomassErosionOther (imports)

Figure by MIT OCW.

Air and water

Foreignhiddenflows

Imports Exports

Domestichiddenflows

Domestic extraction

DMITMR

TMR (Total Material Requirement) = DMI+Domestic Hidden Flows+Foreign Hidden FlowsDMI (Direct Material Input) = Domestic Extraction+ImportsNAS (Net Additions to Stock) = DMI-DPO-ExportsTDO (Total Domestic Output) = DPO+Domestic Hidden FlowsDPO (Domestic Processed Output) = DMI-Net Additions to Stock-Exports

Economic Processing

TDO

Stocks

Domestichiddenflows

Domestic Environment

Domestic processedoutput (DPO)(to air, land and water)

Watervapor

Figure by MIT OCW.

MATERIAL INPUT ECONOMY MATERIAL OUTPUT

TOTAL INPUT 5348 TOTAL OUTPUT 4411

Net additions to stock

ExportsAbiotic raw material 3443

Used:1) minerals2) energy carriers

898253

1996296

Unused:1) non saleable extraction2) excavation

Waste disposal(excl. incineration)

1) controlled waste disposal2) landfill and mine dumping

2329

119

2210

Emission to waterfrom material 639

938

228

Emission to air1) CO2 2) NO2, SO2, CO and others

1005990 15

Biotic raw materials (fresh weight) 225

Erosion 126

Dissipative use of products and dissipative losses 47Emissions to water 37

Imports 475

1080Air

Figure by MIT OCW.

Demand vs. Biocapacity

0.01961 1971

Demand

World Biocapacity

1981 1991 2001

Foot

prin

t (#

of p

lane

ts)

0.5

1.0

1.5

Figure by MIT OCW.

Material Resources

19000.0

1.0

2.0

Bill

ion

Met

ric T

ons

3.0

4.0

1920 1940Year

1950 1980 2000

Agriculture and FisheryWoodNonrenewable OrganicsMetalsIndustrial MineralsStone, Sand and Gravel

World War I

World War IIGreat

Depression{

{

Oil Crisis

Recession

U.S. Flow of Raw Materials by Weight, 1900-2000(non-fuel and non-food resources)

Figure by MIT OCW.

Renewable

Nonrenewable

85%

15%95%

5%

U.S. Copper Ore Grade Percent, 1880-2000

1880

Perc

ent

0

1

2

3

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Herfindahl(avg)CoppaMcMahonMYB-allMYB-conc

1907: beginningof open pit mining

1920+: flotation process for concentrating sulfide ores

Figure by MIT OCW.

STAF Project© Yale University 2004

PROCESSING FABRICATION USE DISCARD MGT.

ORE ENVIRONMENT

IMPORT/EXPORT

Figure by MIT OCW.

Japan Copper cycle: One Year Stocks and Flows, 1990s

© STAF Project, Yale University

ProductionUSE

Lith. ENVIRONMENT

Mill, Smelter,Refinery

Discards

StockStock

Tailings0.3

2

18 Slag

950

500

120Cathode

170

Prod. Alloy

Cathode

Old ScrapBlisterConcentrate1100 1

7 700

-2 +200

Ore

16 52

WasteManagement

Fabrication &Manufacturing

NewScrap,Ingots180

500

Semis, FinishedProducts

Landfilled Waste,

Dissipated200120

Old Scrap

280

240

34

New Scrap

1200

IMPORT/EXPORT -830

Prod.Cu

180

80

System Boundary Japan Units : Gg/yr

Figure by MIT OCW.

Zambia’s Copper Cycle: One Year Stocks and Flows, 1994

ProductionFabrication &Manufacturing

USE

Lith. REPOSITORIES

OTHER REGIONS

WasteManagementMill, Smelter,

Refinery

Discards

StockStock

Tailings

ReworkedTailings

360

46

47

4 Slag

15 12 2

2New Scrap

2 1Semis, Finished

Products

ProductsCathode

Old Scrap

Landfilled waste,Dissipated

1

CathodeConcentrate14 340

1 10

-360

+330

+4

Ore

14 3

UNITS: Gg/yr

Base Year: 1994 Unit: Gg Cu / yr

System Boundary: Zambia (ZM)

© STAF Project, Yale UniversityFigure by MIT OCW.

China’s Copper Cycle: One Year Stocks and Flows, 1994

ProductionUSE

Lith. REPOSITORIES

Mill, Smelter,Refinery

Discards

StockStock

Tailings

ReworkedTailings

510

46

6

10 Slag

1150 150

490Cathode

62

ProductsCathode

Old ScrapBlisterConcentrate220 86

5 1000

-510 +160

Ore

48 27 270

UNITS: Gg/yr

Base Year: 1994 Unit: Gg Cu / yr

WasteManagement

Fabrication &Manufacturing

NewScrap200 350

Semis, FinishedProducts

Landfilled Waste,

Dissipated 87

280Old Scrap

1974110

New Scrap

1060

OTHER REGIONS -1000

260

System Boundary: China (CN)

© STAF Project, Yale University Figure by MIT OCW.

2002 Estimated In-Use Copper Stocks in Beijing—3D ViewSource: T. Wang and T.E. Graedel, unpublished research, Center for Industrial Ecology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 2005.

I = P x A x T

resourceMI =

unit service

Source: Fernandez

Type I

Unlimited Resources

Ecosystem Component 1



Ecosystem Component n

Unlimited Sinks

Mi MoEo

Mi = Material resourcesMoEo = Wastes

Ecosystem

Type I icon

Source: Fernandez

Limited Resources +

Energy





Limited Wastes

MiEi MoEo

MiEi = Material and energy resourcesMoEo = Wastes

Ecosystem

Type II icon

Type II

Source: Fernandez

Energy





Ei

Ei = Energy input (solar radiation)

Ecosystem

Type III icon

Type III

BUILDING

SITE

Life cycle assessment

Consumption attributes of contemporary buildings

Temporal

• Actual service lifetimes are uncertain (shorter or longer than intended)

• Buildings often outlast the firms that build them

• Buildings are one of the very few human artifacts that can span generations

Spatial

• Buildings are immobile over lifetime

• Materials and processes (energy) converge to site

• Materials (wastes or “residues”) are dissipated from site

Physical

• Buildings (cities and infrastructure) constitute the largest single stock type

• Each building is a “prototype”

• Buildings are meta-systems composed of complex semi-autonomous systems (with distinct lifecycles)

Comparative analysis of resource requirements

1.Brick and concrete masonry block wall

2.Glass and aluminum curtainwall

3.Precast concrete panel and structural steel stud wall

4.Structural straw bale, wood stud and exterior finish plaster construction

Data sources:

US EPA Lifecycle Methods (1993)

SETAC (1993)

BEES (2000)

ISO 1401 (1998)

Scientific Certification Systems (1995)

Keoleian, G. (2001)

CES Materials Selector 4.5 (Beta version)

1.0m 1.0m 1.0m 1.0m 1.0m 1.0m

6.0 m

1.75

m

1.0m6.8m

0.4m

0.4m

1.0m

1.0m

1.0m

1.0m

1.0m

1.0m

Figure by MIT OCW.

00

20

Wor

ker T

rans

porta

tion

Ener

gy (%

)40

60

80

1 24 5 28

1016

11

867

1415

91213

3

20 40Construction Energy (MJ/m2)

60

Concrete

Wood

Steel

80 100 120 140

29

36

35

34

38

39

3233

3031

37

17

26 1819

24

2223

27

31

3332

35

3630

2928

34

3839

00

20

Wor

ker T

rans

porta

tion

Gre

enho

use

Gas

es (%

)

40

60

80

100

5Construction Energy (kg/m2)

10

ConcreteWood

Steel

20 2515

17

2627

12

5

123

14

2425

20

18

3721

(b) Worker Transportation/Construction Greenhouse Gas Emissions

(a) Worker Tranportation/Construction Energy

2521

20

Figure by MIT OCW.

0Wood

Con

stru

ctio

n en

ergy

(MJ/

m2 )

Con

stru

ctio

n gr

eenh

ouse

gas

es (k

g/m

2 )

Steel Concrete

20

40

60

80

0Wood

(a) Average Construction Energy for Wood, Steel and Concrete Assemblies

(b) Average Construction Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Wood, Steel and Concrete Assemblies

Steel Concrete

4

8

12

On-site equipment use

Equipment & materialstransportation

Worker transportation

Figure by MIT OCW.

Source: adapted from, Bras, B. and Graedel and Allenby

Low energy buildings and resource content(whole building)

Increased energy efficiency continually recalibrates proportion of pre-use to use phase energy investment.

For example:

Single family detached house (USA)

Typical systems

9% pre-use, 91% use phase

Low energy systems

26% pre-use, 74% use phase

Keoleian, G. et al. 2001. Life-cycle energy, costs, and strategies for improving a single-family house. JIE Vol.4, No.2: pp. 135-156.

00

25 50Years

91% use phase9% pre-use

74% use phase26% pre-use

Overall reduction of 60%

Res

ourc

e C

onte

nt

75 100 125

Figure by MIT OCW.

Strategies

Pre-Use

• Integrated delivery (construction) including premanufactured assemblies for dematerialized built environment (renewable and non renewable).

Issues: employment, quality, material flow control, waste control and reuse, transportation energy in construction, firm MFA analysis, product LCA.

Use

• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) or better yet Extended Industry Responsibility (EIR): product LCA

• Material reclamation, recycle, downcycle.

• Comfort/Carbon Tax

Post-Use

• “Cities are the mines of the future.”, Jane Jacobs

Are we any closer to a Type III ecology?

Ecologies of Construction 03.20-21.06 Dept. of Architecture, MIT

Material flow analysis (MFA)

REGION

CITY

M

E

M

EBUILDING

SITE

Life cycle assessment

Metabolism: the consumption of resources for the purpose of providing a unit of service.

Pre-UsePhase

Mo

Eo

Mi

Ei

System(product) boundary

End-of-LifePhase

Use Phase

Figure by MIT OCW.

Industrial ecology as steward of tools of analysis for resource consumption

[Mi,Ei] = [Mo,Eo] + [A.S.]

Mo

Eo

Mi

Ei

Anthropogenic Stock

Anthroposphere

Figure by MIT OCW.

0

20

40

Building Types

Mat

eria

l Con

tent

/Are

a

60 Percent80

100

KEY

1

2

3

1 = Residential2 = Commercial3 = Industrial

Figure by MIT OCW.

Time

Energy

Materials

Rapid Urbanization

StabilizingUrbanization

IncrementalDensification

Mat

eria

l Con

sum

ptio

n Energy Consum

ption

Figure by MIT OCW.

01990

Per C

apita

Ann

ual E

lect

ricity

Con

sum

ptio

nK

Wh/

Pers

on, (

Thou

sand

s)

1995Year

2000

1

2

3

4

5

AB

C

D

A = ShanghaiB = NanjingC = HangzhouD = National average

Figure by MIT OCW.

Figure by MIT OCW.

Santa MonicaSustainable City Initiative

Source of recycled materials

Minimize waste stream

Local Resource System Boundary: Urban Center and Local Ecology

Maximize material resource transfer

Local site materials

Greater Los Angeles Basin(source of post-industrial and post-consumer materials)

Ordnance Plant

Arden Hills, Minnesota

Built: 1930s

Dismantled: 2002

Materials recovered:

20,000 maple tongue and groove flooring,

500,000 board feet of structural timber

Cost of disassembly: $183,000

Cost of demo/landfilling: $600,000

Sears Catalog Warehouse Center

Chicago, Illinois

Built: 1906

Demolished: 1992-1994 (full 2 yrs of demolition)

Size: 9 story, 3 million sq. ft.

Materials recovered:

7.5 million board feet timber,

23 million bricks

Site recovered for housing

The photographs on this and the following pages were removed for copyright reasons.

Murray Grove Apartments

London, England

Cartwright Pickard Architects

(Yorkon Building Modules)

Built: completed 2001

Size: 30 apartments, 5 stories

On-site construction: 2 weeks

Overall cost reduction: 10% (affordable housing contract)

Premanufactured building modules

Yorkon

Foreman’s

Premanufactured components for buildings

source: photo J. Fernandez

Container City

India Wharf, London, UK

Food

Dep

leta

ble

(Coa

l, O

il, N

ucle

ar)

Energy

Goods

A) 'Linear metabolism' cities (consume and pollute at a high rate)

CITYInputs Outputs

Organic Wastes(Landfill, sea dumping)

Inorganic Wastes(Landfill)

Emissions(CO2, NOx, SO2)

Food

Ren

ewab

le

Energy

Goods

B) 'Circular metabolism' cities (minimise new inputs and maximise recycling)

CITYInputs

Organic Waste

Recycled

The 'Metabolism' of Cities: Towards Sustainability

Inorganic Waste

OutputsReduced Pollution and Wastes

Recycled

Figure by MIT OCW.

Domain of the built environment

Extraction of natural resources

Processing into materials

Manufacture into components

Assembly into buildings

Building use

Disassembly

Waste for dumping

Recycling of materials

Reprocessing of materials

Reuse of components

Relocation of entire building

Construction

De-construction

Materials cycles in construction

Scope The analysis of the metabolism of the city of New Orleans may

provide a unique understanding of the relationship between anthropogenic structures of industry and the built environment and the natural ecology of the lower Mississippi Delta.

1. System boundary

i. Municipal (political)

ii. Regional (geographic, ecological, etc.)

2. Physical accounting

i. Listing of entities to ‘track’ (key resources)

ii. Data sources

resource-efficient building materials for a sustainable ... · resource-efficient building...

Documents