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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(Business Research Methods)

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Participant Observation

When an observer acquires firsthand data, information or knowledge by being present in the social setting under investigation

Direct participation may bring the observer several advantages in terms of a longer period of interaction and the ability to interact personally and verbally with the individuals whose behaviour is being observed

Observers using the participant mode of observation can make mental notes and field notes, which are analyzed systematically and in regular intervals

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Observation of Physical Objects

Observation can also be used to study physical phenomona, for example, by analyzing physical trace evidence, which is a visible indication of some event or occurence which happened in the past

– Examples 1: by observing a high level of wear and tear on books in a certain part of the library, the researcher may presume that many library users are looking up those books in question

– Example 2: by observing the contents of garbage cans in a certain district inhabited by affluent citizens, or by a certain ethnic group, the researcher can determine what types of food and detergents are used by them

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Content Analysis

Content Analysis is a form of observation in which the researcher analyzes the contents of written or verbal communication mediums, e.g. advertisements, newspaper articles, press reports, letters and statements

A major use of content analysis is to determine how often a theme or subject or word of interest appears

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Mechanical Observation

Mechanical observation refers to an observation technique that uses mechanical instruments such as video cameras, traffic counters and several other types of gadgets in order to record behaviour

Mechanical observation is typically used in situations where behaviour is repetitive, automatic and programmatic as opposed to situations in which behaviour is more complex and unpredictable, and for which human observers are required in order to accurately assess the behaviour of their research subjects

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Examples of Mechanical Observation

Television monitoring to obtain ratings for TV programs in different countries

Website traffic monitoring to determine the popularity of websites or specific webpages

Measuring physical / physiological reactions to certain stimuli with the help of gadgets such as eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers, psychogalvanometers,and voice pitch analyzers

Using optical scanners and bar codes which are imprinted on products in supermarkets, and which also have applications in factories, warehouses and logistics

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Ethical Issues in Observation

Observation can give rise to issues of ethical concern, such as a possible violation of the research subjects‘ rights to privacy and deception, which arises especially in ‚contrived observations‘

The researcher must carefully weigh the informational requirements of his or her research against ethical considerations

Asking permission from research subjects may result in the subjects‘ not acting in a natural manner and thus adversely impact on the observation

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Experimental Research (1)

An experiment is a research method in which the conditions are controlled so that one or more variables can be manipulated in order to test a hypothesis

Typically, the purpose of undertaking experiments is to determine causal relationships between variables (chosen dependent and independant variables), while eliminating or controlling all other variables that may have an impact on these variables under investigation

The simplest form of experimental research involves only two variables: the independant variable, whose value is altered, and the dependant variable, whose value reflects the alteration in the independant variable‘s value

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Experimental Research (2)

An ‚experimental group‘ is the group of subjects who are exposed to the experimental environment

A control group consists of individuals who are exposed to the ‚control condition‘ in a experiment, meaning, that they are not subject to the experiment in question, but are used as a reference to assess the impact on the experimental group

Some experiments can be quite complex, encompassing several independant variables. Special techniques have been developed to deal with such experiments

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Issues in Experimental Design

Manipulation of the Independant Variable

Manipulation of the Independant Variable

Selection and Measurementof the Dependant Variable

Selection and Measurementof the Dependant Variable

Selection and Assignmentof Test Units

Selection and Assignmentof Test Units

Control over Extraneous VariablesControl over Extraneous Variables

FourBasic Elements

of anExperiment

in the BusinessField

FourBasic Elements

of anExperiment

in the BusinessField

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The independant variable‘s value can be altered without bring about any change in other variables – except the dependant variable

In business research, the independant variable can be qualitative or non-quantitative (for e.g., the training programs, financial reporting formats), or quantitative (for e.g., the amount of Rupees spent on training the employees in Organization X)

Issues in Experimental Design:Manipulation of the Independant Variable

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The dependant variable‘s value depends or is determined by changes in the value of the independant variable, which in turn, is manipulated by the researcher as part of the experiment

The choice of dependant variable by the researcher can sometimes be a difficult, not-so-obvious undertaking, and requires considerable skill and insight on the part of the researcher in order to avoid making mistakes which reduce the value of the research (Example: New Products Introduction and Sales Potential)

The time factor should be taken into consideration when choosing a dependant variable, as sometimes the outcomes are measurable after a long time

Issues in Experimental Design:Selection and Measurement of the Dependant Variable

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The Test Units are the subjects of the experimental research and can include individuals, organizational units, sales territories

Examples of Test Units: Consumers, Supermarkets, Functional Departments in an organization

In selecting test units, certain possible types of error must be taken into consideration, e.g. random sampling error (test units in the experimental and control groups should ideally have the same key characteristics but this may not be the case with statistical random assignment of the test units) and sample selection error (an administrative procedural error caused by improper selection of the sample, resulting in the introduction of a bias)

Issues in Experimental Design:Selection and Assignment of Test Units

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Issues in Experimental Design:Control Over Extraneous Variables (1)

INDEPENDANT VARIABLE INDEPENDANT VARIABLE

DEPENDANT VARIABLE DEPENDANT VARIABLE

ExtraneousVariable A

ExtraneousVariable A

ExtraneousVariable B

ExtraneousVariable B

ExtraneousVariable C

ExtraneousVariable C

ExtraneousVariable D

ExtraneousVariable D

Experiment Environment

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Issues in Experimental Design:Control Over Extraneous Variables (2)

There are types of extraneously-conditioned errors which have to be considered in the experimental environment as hey effect the quality of the research:

Constant Experimental Error – This occurs when extraneous influences which are not controlled or eliminated have a similar impact on the experiment‘s dependant variable(s) every time the experiment is performed

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Issues in Experimental Design:Control Over Extraneous Variables (3)

Demand Characteristics – This occurs when the research subject(s) are unintentionally exposed to the experimenter‘s hypothesis, causing them to respond or act in a manner which they may not have adopted were they not exposed to this information

Experimenter Bias – This occurs when the experimenter‘s presence, actions, or comments influences the research subjects‘ behaviour, making them to try to appear more favourable to the experimenter

Guineau Pig Effect – This occurs when the theme of the experiment causes the research subjects‘ to consciously modify their attitudes in order to please the experimenter

Hawthorne Effect – This is the unintended effect on the results of a research experiment which is caused by the subjects knowing that they are the participants

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Issues in Experimental Design:Control Over Extraneous Variables (4)

In order to reduce the chances of errors from reducing the value of an experiment, several counter-measures can be adopted, for example:

Making it difficult for the research subjects to know what the experiment is all about

Using trained and experienced experimenters

Designing experimental situations with a view to minimizing the chances of error

Preventing social interaction among research subjects so that they don‘t influence each other (joint decisions as opposed to the desired individual responses)

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Issues in Experimental Design:Control Over Extraneous Variables (5)

Many times, extraneous variables cannot be controlled or eliminated by the experimenter. However, researchers do have some options at their disposal to help mitigate the impact of the extraneous variables on their experiments:

Consistency of Conditions – This means that the subjects in experimental groups are exposed to situations that are exactly alike, except for the differing conditions of the independant variable (e.g. all experimental sessions are conducted in the same room at the same time by the same experimenter)

Counterbalancing – This strives to eliminate the so-called ‚order of presentation bias‘ which arises when research subjects, who are participating in multiple experimental phases, acquire experience in the initial experimental phase which enables them to perform better in subsequent phases (e.g. job assembly)

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Issues in Experimental Design:Control Over Extraneous Variables (6)

Blinding – This is used in order to control the research subjects‘ knowledge of whether or not they have been exposed to an experimental treatment, e.g. research subjects in a Coca-Cola taste test may be told that they have or have not been given a new Cola product in order to test their reactions

Randomn Assignment – This is used to randomly assign the research subjects to experimental groups as a means of curtailing the impact of extraneous variables

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Fundamental Issues in Experimentation (1):Basic and Factorial Experimental Designs

Basic Experimental Designs – A single independant variable is used to determine its impact on a single dependant variable. Basic experiments have the advantage of simplicity and easy measurability, but they also have the disadvantage of not being realistic

Factorial Experiment Designs – These allow for the investigation of the interaction of multiple (two or more) independant variables. Factorial experiments are more realistic but are also more complex and difficult to undertake than basic experiments

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Fundamental Issues in Experimentation (2):Field and Laboratory Experiments

Field Experiments – These are experiments which are conducted in natural settings and which are usually longer term. Field experiments have the advantage of realism, a disadvantage is the experimenter‘s comparative lack of control over extraneous variables and influences that have an impact on the experiment

Laboratory Experiments – These are experiments which are conducted in an artificial (laboratory) environment. Laboratory experiments have the advantage that the experimenter (usually) has full control over the setting in which the experiment is conducted, but the element of realism is lacking

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Fundamental Issues in Experimentation (3):Internal Validity

Internal Validity – This refers to whether the experimental treatment was the sole cause of observed changes in the dependant variable. If the observed results were influenced by extraneous variables, then a valid conclusion about the relationship between the experimental treatment and the dependant variable cannot be made

There are 6 types of extraneous variables that may jeopardize internal validity – history effect, maturation effect, test effect, instrumentation effect, selection effect and mortality effect

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Fundamental Issues in Experimentation (4):External Validity

External Validity – This refers to the quality of the researcher or experimenter to generalize beyond the data of an experiment to other subjects or other groups in the population under study, i.e. the external environment (e.g. are the results of a new product study in district A be applicable to the whole country?)

External validity can be jeopardized if internal validity of an experiment is lacking

Some issues have to be considered in the context of external validity, such as, the choice of research subjects and trade-offs between internal and external validity (e.g.: laboratory experiments have more internal validity than field experiments, but they have comparatively less external vaidity)

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Ethical Issues in Experimentation As with other forms of undertaking research, experimenters must

also take ethical issues into consideration:

– Privacy– Confidentiality– Deception– Accuracy of Reporting Results

Experimenters have to weigh possible bias effects on the part of their research subjects against ethical considerations. Debriefing after the experiment can be a useful venture if information to the research subjects is not disclosed before or during the actual experiment, and they feel deceived as a result