researcharticle manufacture of fine-pored ceramics by the

Research ArticleManufacture of Fine-Pored Ceramics by the Gelcasting Method

BronisBaw Psiuk,1 Anna Gerle,1 MaBgorzata Osadnik,2 and Andrzej Uliwa1

1Refractory Materials Division, Institute of Ceramics and Building Materials, Toszecka 99, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland2Institute of Non-Ferrous Metals, Sowinskiego 5, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland

Correspondence should be addressed to Bronisław Psiuk; [email protected]

Received 9 February 2017; Revised 4 April 2017; Accepted 10 April 2017; Published 26 April 2017

Academic Editor: Fernando Lusquinos

Copyright © 2017 Bronisław Psiuk et al.This is an open access article distributed under theCreative CommonsAttribution License,which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The fine-pored materials represent a wide range of applications and searches are being continued to develop methods of theirmanufacturing. In the article, based onmeasurements on fine-grained powders of Al

2O3, TiO2, and SiO

2, it has been demonstrated

that gelcasting can be relatively simple method of obtaining of nanoporous materials with high values of both specific surface areaand open porosity. The powders were dispersed in silica sol, and the gelling initiator was NH

4Cl. The usefulness of experiment

design theory for developing of fine-pored materials with high porosity and specific surface area was also shown.

1. Introduction

The classification proposed by the International Union ofPure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) divides pores into 3groups, depending on their size: micropores (up to 2 nm),mesopores (2–50 nm), and macropores (above 50 nm) [1]. Acommonly used term is also that of microporous materials,when the pores are in the order of micrometres (i.e., [2]).Moreover, the informal notion of nanopores conventionallyincludes pores having a diameter of up to 100 nm [3]. There-fore, in this article,mesoporous,microporous, or nanoporousmaterials, regardless of the classification, will be referred to asfine-pored materials.

Such materials represent a wide range of applications.An example of fine-pored products applications includethe following: biomaterials used as medical implants [4],carriers of permeating membranes or catalysts [5], molec-ular sieves [6], thermoinsulating materials [7], diffusionlayers in fuel cells [8], composite materials matrixes [9],and porous ceramics infiltrated with metals or polymers[10].

A good method of obtaining porous materials with a setshape is gelcasting [11–22]. Gelcasting is a combination of thetraditionalmethod of forming ceramicmaterials fromcastingslips with the polymerization reaction. The basic idea of thisrelatively new but intensively developing method involves

making a ceramic powder suspension with an addition ofa substance which is subject to gelation when influencedby an appropriate initiator [23–25]. Proportions betweenthe suspension components and the time of suspensionhomogenization are so selected that they enable casting thesuspension into the mould before the gelation process and,at the same time, ensure that gelation does not occur toolate due to sedimentation processes (if they are not desired)[26]. One of the simplest gelling systems is that based onsilica sol (dispersing agent) and NH

4Cl (gelling initiator)

[27].The aim of this article is to prove that the gelcasting

method can be applied in the manufacture of fine-poredmaterials, using relatively simple measures. In the presentedexamples of obtaining fine-pored ceramic materials by thegelcasting method, the suspensions were made with silicasol as a dispersing agent, whereas dispersing powders inthe suspension were compounds commonly used in theceramic industry. Investigations were conducted for thegroup of powders: Al

2O3–TiO2–SiO2. Since the radius of

pore diameter is a fraction of the diameter of grains in aparticular monofraction [28], the investigations were carriedout for dusty fractions.

The proportions of powders in subsequent sets of sampleswere selected according to the experiment design theory forinvestigations into the composition-properties correlation.

HindawiAdvances in Materials Science and EngineeringVolume 2017, Article ID 5923976, 6 pageshttps://doi.org/10.1155/2017/5923976

https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/5923976

2 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

96.096.597.097.598.098.599.099.5

100.0

TG (%

)

−0.05

−0.04

−0.03

−0.02

−0.01

0.00

DTG

(%/m

in)

TG

DTG

80∘C

192∘C

477∘C

Temperature (∘C)

Figure 1: Thermogravimetric analysis of the investigated powderssuspension in silica sol (gelled under NH

4Cl solution). 154.5mg of

sample was heated in the air with heating rate 3.5∘C/min.

The so-called simplex-network Scheffe test for a three-component system was applied [29].

2. Manufacture of Materials

The experiments were done on a gelling set based on silicasol, in which the gelling initiator was NH

4Cl. The following

ceramic powders from Evonic were used: SiO2Aerosil P90

(having a developed surface area of 90m2/g), Al2O3Aeroxide

Alu C (100m2/g), and TiO2Aeroxide P90 (90m2/g).

Each time the sample preparation procedure was verysimilar: after adding a set amount of powder to the silicasol (the proportions will be given in tables in the furtherpart of the article) the suspensions were homogenized duringan appropriate time (usually half an hour) in a magneticstirrer. Next, an appropriate amount of gelling initiatorwas added so that the time of sample gelling would rangefrom several to several dozen minutes. To avoid unevengelling (formation of lumps), the silica sol-based sets gellinginitiator—NH

4Cl—was added to the suspension in the form

of a water solution. A 23% solution was prepared. As thedifferent suspensions require the use of a solution in variousconcentrations, the solution prepared was most frequentlydiluted. Table 2 does not contain the concentrations calcu-lated each time but the proportions of additional diluting(this manner of providing information was considered betteras in reality, apart from the additive concentration, also thecontent of water in the solution was changed). The gelledsuspensions were dried slowly (for 2-3 days the temperaturewas gradually increased to 195∘C). After drying all the sam-ples were fired at an appropriate temperature (600∘C, 1000∘C,1400∘C), with a hold time of 4 h. Temperature progressionwas 2∘C/min. The samples fired at 600∘C and 1000∘C wereadditionally held at 250∘C (60min) and 400∘C (60min).Temperatures at which the samples were additionally heldwere aimed at preventing the samples’ cracking due to arelease of a large amount of gases—they were determinedon the basis of thermogravimetric investigations (Figure 1).For the samples fired at 1400∘C slow heating rate was onlyapplied.

3. Measurement Techniques

The open porosity, apparent density, and water absorptionof the prepared samples were determined by the methodof hydrostatic weighing in water. The crystal structure ofmanufactured powders was investigated by X-ray PowderDiffraction (XRD), using an X’Pert PRO MPD (CuK𝛼)diffractometer produced by PANalytical. The specific surfacearea (BET method) was determined by means of a Gemini2360 analyzer produced by Micromeritics using nitrogen asan adsorbed gas. Moreover, for selected samples measure-ments of pore distribution were taken with AutoPore IV9500Mercury Porosimeter produced by Micromeritics. Photos onthe investigating samples were taken with the use of high-resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM) Mira IIIfrom Tescan.

4. Results and Their Analysis

As mentioned before, the experiments were based on Scheffetest designs. Seven samples of the appropriate proportions(Table 1) were prepared in a way which enabled calculatingthe coefficients of the third-degree polynomial (in this case)for the three-component mixture.

For the design in question one can determine the resultof composition correlation from the following formula:

𝑌 = 𝑏1𝑥1+ 𝑏2𝑥2+ 𝑏3𝑥3+ 𝑏12𝑥1𝑥2+ 𝑏13𝑥1𝑥3+ 𝑏23𝑥2𝑥3

+ 𝑏123𝑥1𝑥2𝑥3,

(1)

where relevant coefficients are calculated from the followingdependence:

𝑏1= 𝑦1(analogously 𝑏

2= 𝑦2, 𝑏3= 𝑦3)

𝑏12= 4𝑦12− 2𝑦1− 2𝑦2etc.

𝑏123= 27𝑦

123− 12 (𝑦

12+ 𝑦13+ 𝑦23)

+ 3 (𝑦1+ 𝑦2+ 𝑦3) .

(2)

Based on initial investigations, it was found that in thecase of mixture homogenized with the magnetic stirrer (forthis type of devices the stirring force is relatively small) theproportion for the abovementioned oxidematerials would be9 g of oxides mixture powder per 60 g of silica sol. The firstbatch of samples (obtained by firing at 600∘C) were based onsuspensions having proportions given in Table 2.

It can be visible (Table 3) that results of apparent density,open porosity, and water absorption obtained on the basisof hydrostatic method are coherent with values of specificsurface area fromBETmethod.The highest values of porosityand specific surface area have samples with presence of Alu Cpowder. The selection of powders based on the experimentdesign theory allows observing certain general tendenciesconcerning the selected properties of the samples obtained,depending on the substrates’ proportions. In this paperthe parameter analyzed by the three-component Scheffeestimation is open porosity. The determined function of

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 3

Table 1: Design matrix for the third-degree polynomial for the three-component system.

Measurementnumber

Components and their contents in relation to the maximum amount Result𝑥1 𝑥

2𝑥3

𝑌

1 1 0 0 𝑦1

2 0 1 0 𝑦2

3 0 0 1 𝑦3

4 0.5 0.5 0 𝑦12

5 0.5 0 0.5 𝑦13

6 0 0.5 0.5 𝑦23

7 0.33 0.33 0.33 𝑦123

Table 2: Compositions of suspensions for silica sol-based samples (proportion: 60ml silica sol per 9 g of oxides mixture powder).

Samplenumber

Al2O3Alu C[g]

SiO2P90[g]

TiO2P90[g]

Silica sol[ml]

23% watersolution ofNH4Cl

+ water [ml]1 9.0 0.0 0.0 60 1.0 + 5.0

2 0.0 9.0 0.0 60 2.0 + 4.0

3 0.0 0.0 9.0 60 6.0 + 0.0

4 4.5 4.5 0.0 60 1.5 + 4.5

5 4.5 0.0 4.5 60 1.5 + 4.5

6 0.0 4.5 4.5 60 3.5 + 1.5

7 3.0 3.0 3.0 60 2.0 + 4.0

Table 3: Results of selected physical properties obtained for samples having compositions contained in Table 2 (obtained by firing at 600∘C).

Samplenumber

Apparentdensity[g/cm3]

Open porosity[%]

Waterabsorption[%]

Specific surfacearea[m2/g]

1 1.12 55.8 49.9 114.542 1.63 25.5 15.7 0.733 1.88 23.2 12.3 0.444 1.04 56.1 54.2 110.225 1.17 53.3 45.4 106.246 1.88 17.4 9.2 1.477 1.11 54.2 48.9 106.92

open porosity changes (using formulas (1) and (2)) has thefollowing form:

𝑌 = 55,8𝑥1+ 25,5𝑥

2+ 23,2𝑥

3+ 61,8𝑥

1𝑥2+ 55,2𝑥

1𝑥3

− 27,8𝑥2𝑥3+ 255,3𝑥

1𝑥2𝑥3.

(3)

Transition from the coded scale of coefficients 𝑥1, 𝑥2, and

𝑥3to the natural scale, where the role of the independent

variable is played by the masses of particular powders (pleasecompare the proportion in Tables 1 and 2) and the resultscalculated by substituting a series of mutual proportions ofthe examined oxides into formula (3) allowed drawing anisoline of the samples’ open porosity depending on theirinitial composition. An approximate course of these lines is

presented in Figure 2. The estimation indicates that, for thesuspension containing 9 g of the examined oxide powders,the highest porosity values in 60ml of silica sol should beexpected to be found in the following components: 50–80%of Al2O3, 10–40% of SiO

2, and 0–30% of TiO

2. However,

the interpretation of the diagram should be taken intoconsideration more qualitatively. The isolines course show,primarily, that the porosity value depends mainly on AluC content in the mixture of powders. When the content ofAlu C reduces in the range from 50% to 0% the estimatedvalues of the samples porosity decrease rapidly. On the otherhand, when the content of the alumina is between 50% and100% the estimated values of porosity become high (close to60%) and are only slightly sensitive to the changes of powders


60

30405055

55

50

40

30

20

20

SiO2

TiO2Al2O3

Figure 2: Open porosity isolines (circles) for the system fromTable 2, drawn on the basis of calculations conducted based onformula (3). The dotted lines define the specified powder portionin the mixture (100% at the indicated apex of the triangle and 0% atan opposed side).

Pore size diameter (μm)0.006 0.008 0.01 0.02 0.04

Log

diffe

rent

ial i

ntru

sion

(mL/

g)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Figure 3: Intrusion of mercury as a function of pore diameter forsamples 1 (+), 4 (×), and 5 (∘).

stoichiometry.The estimation indicates that the highest valueof porosity is obtained for the systems where content of AluC is at least 50%.

Thus it was shown that the gelcasting method allowsmanufacturing the materials with relatively high values ofopen porosity.

For samples 1, 4, and 5 pore size distribution was addi-tionally determined and presented at Figure 3.

The results show that manufactured samples are formedas fine-pored material.The distribution of pores is similar forall three presented samples. However it should be noted thatwith higher content of Alu C powder the pore distribution inthe sample has the most sharpness. The dominant pore sizediameter is close to 10 nm.

The above results are confirmed by SEM investigations.The micrographs presented at Figure 4 show that the mate-rials of all the samples are formed by highly packed grainswith a diameter close to 100 nm. Some of the grains exceed100 nm but there are numerous specimens with sizes of the

order of tens of nanometers. It can be visible that the range ofthe grains diameter in sample 4 is slightly wider than that insamples 1 and 5.Moreover the particles shape in samples 1 and5 looks more isometric than in sample 4. These observationsare in correlation with the mentioned results of the poredistributions in the investigated samples.

For the compositional range with the high porosity addi-tionally the influence of firing temperature (600∘C, 1000∘C,and 1400∘C) was determined. The contents of powders insuspensions and the determined results have been given inTables 4 and 5.

As can be seen, firing at 600∘C and 1000∘C does notcause significant differences in the parameters of the samplesobtained. They are dominated by amorphous or metastable(delta Al

2O3) substrates; samples with TiO

2also contain

anatase and, to a lesser extent, rutile. The slightly highersintering process is visible at 1000∘C. On the other hand, thetemperature of 1400∘Cclearly results in thematerial sintering,crystallization of silica phases, and mullitization of thematerial. In samples containing TiO

2also the transformation

of anatase into rutile is clearly visible. Thus it can be visiblethat temperature of sintering should be carefully selected forthe system based on silica sol and the fine powders.

It should be also added that the described gelled suspen-sions were characterized by high drying shrinkage, reaching25%, which makes it difficult to manufacture large-sizedcomponents, as they could crack in the drying process. Theobtained small samples (order of cm) are characterized bysufficient operational strength, allowing their free movementand arrangement during potential subsequent processes. Forexample, owing to the porosity parameters and high surfacearea development, these materials can be applied as cores ofporousmatrixes infiltratedwith polymers (including the onesmaintained by capillary forces) or metals (macroscopically,smooth surfaces enable thin-walled casting and the fine-pored matrix removes the process gases).

5. Summary

The aim of measurements described in this work was toobtain materials characterized by high open porosity andsmall pore size by the gelcasting method.

The investigations were conducted using fine-grainedpowders of Al

2O3, TiO2, and SiO

2with a specific surface area

reaching ca 100m2/g. The powders were dispersed in silicasol, and the gelling initiator was NH

4Cl. Using relatively sim-

ple methods, we were able to obtain ceramics characterizedby high porosity, small pore diameters, and high surface areadevelopment. The relatively high drying shrinkage causesthat it is hard to obtain large-sized components from theexamined systems. The materials obtained are character-ized by sufficient operational strength, allowing their freemovement and arrangement. The usefulness of experimentdesign theory for developing of fine-pored materials withhigh porosity and specific surface area was also shown. Thesimplex-network Scheffe test allows observing certain generaltendencies concerning the selected properties of the samplesobtained, depending on the substrates’ proportions.

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 5

Table 4: Composition of suspensions based mainly on Al2O3, TiO2, and SiO

2for silica sol-based samples (proportion: 60ml silica sol per

9 g of oxides mixture powder).

Sample number Al2O3Alu C[g]

TiO2P90[g]

SiO2P90[g] Silica sol [ml]

A 5 0 4 60B 5 4 0 60C 5 2 2 60D 9 0 0 60

Table 5: Results of selected physical properties for samples with compositions given in Table 4.

Sample number(firing temperature[∘C])

Apparent density[g/cm3]

Open porosity[%] Phase composition

A600 1.01 55.8 Amorphous phase, 𝛿-Al

2O3

B600 1.09 54.5 Amorphous phase, anatase,

𝛿-Al2O3, traces of rutile?

C600 1.06 54.7 Amorphous phase, anatase,

𝛿-Al2O3, traces of rutile?

D600 1.04 56.2 Amorphous phase, 𝛿-Al

2O3

A1000 1.28 45.6 Amorphous phase, 𝛿-Al

2O3

B1000 1.4 44.2 Amorphous phase, anatase,

rutile, 𝛿-Al2O3

C1000 1.40 42.9 Amorphous phase, anatase,

rutile, 𝛿-Al2O3

D1000 1.20 52.4 Amorphous phase, 𝛿-Al

2O3

A1400 2.38 2.3 Cristobalite, mullite,

quartz, tridymiteB1400 2.52 1.9 Cristobalite, mullite, rutile,

tridymiteC1400 2.45 1.6 Cristobalite, mullite, rutile,

tridymiteD1400 2.48 1.9 Cristobalite, mullite,

quartz, tridymite

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4: SEM micrographs for samples 1 (a), 4 (b), and 5 (c).


Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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