research perspectives

Research Perspectives

•  Identifying a Research Topic •  Format for a Proposal •  Writing Tips •  Publishing Your

Results •  Ethical Issues

Identifying a Research Topic

•  Read, read, read (record notes) •  Observation (record notes) •  Talking with others (record notes) –  Mentors –  Colleagues –  Stakeholders

•  Seek to identify a problem –  Something causing a problem for people, resources –  Phenomena that are not well understood

Format for a Proposal

•  Introduction – Statement of the problem •  Problem stated in one concise sentence •  Significance

– Who would be interested in your study? –  Place your study in the context of bigger problems


•  Introduction (continued) – Purpose and objectives (or research

questions) •  Overall purpose stated in one sentence •  Itemize objectives (specific tasks) that must be

achieved •  Objectives could be replaced by research

questions


•  Introduction (continued) – Research questions or hypotheses •  Research question: what do you want to know

(could be redundant with objectives) •  Hypotheses: predictions

– Null hypotheses vs. alternate hypotheses – Directional vs. non-directional alternate hypotheses


•  Introduction (continued) – Definition of terms •  Define all terms in proposal: title, problem

statement, purpose & objectives, theory, research questions & hypotheses, literature review, methods

•  Define when first used


•  Introduction (continued) – Delimitations and limitations •  Delimitations: narrow scope of your study

(variables, location, approach) •  Limitations: potential weaknesses of your

study


•  Review of the literature – Organize your note-taking by “central

argument” – Write-down ideas in your words – Demonstrate that you are familiar with the

literature on this topic – Summarize what is already understood and

what is still NOT well understood – Do competing schools of thought exist?


•  Review of the literature – Has the topic been studied anywhere? If

so, what was found? What remains to be understood?

– Has it been studied in your study area? If so, previous findings? If not, what might be different about your study area?


•  Methods – General research approach •  Quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods •  Field, lab, maps, remotely sensed imagery,

archival… – Techniques of data acquisition •  What variables: how many samples, where, how

often


•  Methods (continued) – Techniques of data analysis •  lab work, statistics, computer analyses, etc.

– Justify why each procedure is needed and why that particular method is best suited


•  Expected Results – Preliminary studies, pilot studies – How will raw data be reported? •  Tables, maps, figures, descriptive statistics,…

– How will data interpretations appear?


•  References Cited •  Appendices – Timetable •  list of tasks for each objective and when that

work will be undertaken – Budget •  outline the expected costs & sources of funding

– Where will findings be reported? •  thesis, journal publication, professional

meeting

Writing Tips

•  Getting started – Take the notes from your literature and set

next to guidelines for proposal writing – Develop an outline of ideas, sentences – Track objectives/research questions

through proposal (“coherence”) •  Literature review •  Methods •  Expected results

Writing Tips

•  Write your first draft – Shift and sort your ideas – Share your ideas with friends, colleagues,

advisor

Writing Tips

•  Readability – Voice tense (in proposal) •  Past/present tense in problem statement •  Future tense in purpose and objectives: “The

purpose of this study will be to… •  Past tense in literature review: “Jones (2006)

found…” •  Future tense in methods

Writing Tips

•  Readability – Does each paragraph develop one idea

fully? – Smooth transition between paragraphs? – Proper use of subheadings?

Writing Tips

•  Critique – see Marston handouts – See example of copyediting

Writing Tips

•  Grammar – The word “data” is plural •  Write “…the data show” not “the data

shows.” – Be consistent in using terms: avoid

synonyms

Publishing Your Results

•  Co-Editor-in-Chief, Geomorphology

•  Member of Editorial Board, Annals of the AAG

•  Frequent reviewer •  Edited 1500 manuscripts

•  261 manuscripts, excl. editing

•  217 research grant proposals


•  Why should you publish? •  Sense of

accomplishment

•  Making a contribution

•  Getting that first job

•  Promotion (and tenure in academia)

•  Brunn (1987): Five levels of research-oriented faculty…seek a good match…you & employer •  Publish in 4-5 major disciplinary and

interdisciplinary journals each year •  Publish 1-3 major papers per year •  Publish a paper every other year


•  Brunn (1987): Five levels of research-oriented faculty…seek a good match…you & employer •  Conduct research but rarely present papers at

meetings and rarely publish •  “Professionally inactive:” no research, do not

attend meetings, never publish


•  Where should you publish? •  Disciplinary journals •  Annals of the AAG, The Professional

Geographer •  Geographical Review

•  Interdisciplinary Journals •  Mountain Research and Development •  Journal of the American Water Resources

Association


•  Where should you publish? •  Specialty journals •  Geomorphology •  Physical Geography

•  Regional journals


•  Manuscripts must be author’s own original research •  Not previously published elsewhere •  Not being considered for publication elsewhere •  Properly credits meaningful contribution of co-

authors •  No “shingling”

•  Authors shall not plagiarize the work of others


•  Manuscripts must be prepared in the format for the journal •  Abstract & keywords, text, figures, tables

•  Manuscript must be free from grammatical errors •  Authors whose native language is not English

•  Recommended general reference: Geowriting (5th ed., 2004), by Robert Bates, Marla D. Adkins-Heljeson, and Rex Buchanan


•  Why manuscripts are rejected •  Not appropriate for

journal •  Lack of rigor in

methods •  Interpretations not

supported •  Format, grammar


•  If your manuscript is rejected… •  Revise and resubmit!

•  Provide editor with detailed list of how you addressed the comments of reviewers (item-by-item) and comments from editor

•  Submit to another journal



•  Thank the editor!

Ethical Issues

•  Deception in problem statement, purpose, research questions

•  In data collection: letter of disclosure – Permission to access site – Will site be disturbed? – Possibility of information developed during

the study that could be harmful to landowners

Ethical Issues

•  In data collection: Institutional Review Board (IRB) when human subjects are involved – Must assess risk for damage: physical,

health, psychological, social, economic, legal, groups?

Ethical Issues

– Must develop Informed Consent Form for participants to sign before they are engaged •  Right to participate is voluntary and they can

withdraw at any time •  Purpose, methods identified •  Participants have right to ask questions, privacy

will be respected, can obtain copy of final study •  Benefits of study to individual, groups?

Ethical Issues

•  In data analysis & interpretation – Need to protect anonymity of participants? – Archive data for 5-10 years, then discard •  Who owns data? Funding agency? Researcher?

Ethical Issues

•  In data analysis & interpretation (continued) –  February 2010 issue of The American Naturalist

announced an important development in Open Data within biology. The essentials of the policy are…

–  Data underlying an article needs to be archived by the authors at the time of publication.

–  The appropriate form of the data is the final processed form used in analysis..

Ethical Issues

•  In data analysis & interpretation (continued) –  The essentials of the policy are…

–  The data must be archived in an approved repository (one that makes it publicly available, has a guarantee of persistence, etc).

–  The author should provide sufficient details so that a third party can reasonably interpret the data correctly.

–  Embargoes of up to one year may be permitted, depending on the journal.

–  Exceptions may be granted at the discretion of the editor, especially for sensitive information such as human subject data or the location of endangered species.

Ethical Issues

•  In disseminating results of research – Are results proprietary? – Avoid language that express bias against

groups on basis of gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, disability, age, …

– Anticipate repercussions of reporting results to individuals, groups

Ethical Issues

•  Research fraud –  Plagiarizing •  Plagiarism is easy to avoid; credit your

sources. Always credit your sources. Always. •  Plagiarism is easy to detect--your professors

simply pop over to the Google line (Google classic, Google Scholar and Google Books) plus a few of the journal article databases the Libraries subscribe to like Expanded Academic and JStor.

•  And, in the classic phrase of third-graders everywhere, "Don't be stupid.”

Ethical Issues

•  Research fraud –  Fabricating results •  Suppressing •  Inventing •  Falsifying

research perspectives

Education

proposal review

research topic format

proposal writing tips

research questions hypotheses

proposal references

levels of research

research perspectives

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