research oriented approach

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Laurea UAS Guidelines

23 August 2013

Research Oriented Approach


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A book section translated from Finnish. The original source is (Ojasalo, K., Moilanen, T.& Ritalahti, J. 2009)

Identifying aresearch/development opportunity

and definingpreliminaryobjectives

Examining thetheory andpractice of

the subject

Creating theknowledge base

Task definitionand scopePlanning the

approach andmethods

Research orientatedapproach

Projectimplementation

and different formsof publication

Assessment ofdevelopmentprocess andoutcomes


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1. RESEARCH ORIENTED APPROACH

1.1. The Role of R&D

Nearly all jobs and tasks involve some level of development in todays organisations.Development work is carried out by businesses and other organisations to create newprocedures, methods, products or services based on the needs of the organisation andthe wider community.

Continuous development is needed in businesses

to improve profitability or to generate growth

to develop, test and commercialise new products and services

to create a functional organisational structure and to motivate the staff

to observe changes in customers preferences

to forecast future demand and other factors which have an effect on operations to improve operations and develop processes

to enter new or international markets

to solve problems detected in the organisation.

Development activities have an increasingly important role in todays businesses andorganisations.

The world around us changes continuously, and businesses must keep up with theprogress. On the other hand, merely adapting to changes is no longer enough forsuccess. The most successful organisations are those that have been able to become

proactive forces of development - they are the drivers of progress. The winners arefound among those organisations that not only can evaluate outcomes but that are ableto assess and anticipate future development prospects and to realise long-termobjectives in a range of different scenarios. For example, new types of business modelsand earnings models have enabled businesses to cross the boundaries between differentindustries to create new types of customer needs and earning opportunities.

The opportunities for innovation are better than ever before. Although innovation isoften seen as technology-led, many innovations have little to do with new technologies.In a broader sense, innovation includes social innovations, new ways of doing things,new practices, and translating practices into routines. Innovations can employ new

technologies or technical methods, but it is by no means essential. Many projects focuson the softer forms of innovation, such as organisational reforms and business modelupdates. For example, in the service industry, activities take place close to thecustomer and solutions are sought for specific customer problems. Customers have a keyrole in services and service innovation, and providing benefits for both the customer andservice provider is a target of development and renewal.

Development and research go hand in hand, and the letters R&D appear everywhere inbusiness: R&D department, R&D budget, R&D staff, etc. Research and development areoften intertwined, and many development projects have a research orientatedapproach. In the figure below, research oriented development is placed in the middle of

a continuum. Scientific researchis at one end of the continuum; at the other end is anuncritical development approach that is based on personal ideas and perceptions. In this


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book, the latter is referred to as common sense-oriented development. In this context,common sense refers to the developers own, unscientific conclusions.

Figure. The nature of research orientated development (Ojasalo et al 2009, 18)

1.2. Characteristics of scientific research

Scientific researchis based on the scientific tradition of research, which includes theresearch problem, research questions, and finding answers to them using commonlyaccepted methods. Before choosing the research methods, the researcher examinesgeneral scientific-philosophical questions: the nature of reality (ontological questions),the nature of knowledge (epistemological questions), and the methods of information(methodological questions). Different scientific paradigms (positivism, constructivism,and critical theory) approach these scientific-philosophical questions in different ways.In scientific research, a theoretical framework is used to demonstrate which area ofscientific discourse is being participated in, and what new information will the researchprovide. Research results are normally published in journals for the scientific

community.

A wide range of books and textbooks on the philosophy of science is available. (e.g.Niiniluoto, I. (1980).Johdatus tieteenfilosofiaan. Ksitteen- ja teorianmuodostus.Otava, Helsinki.)

Scientific research can be divided into two categories: basic research and appliedresearch. Basic research refers to the gathering and production of new information,science for the sake of science, without immediate links to practical applications.Applied research is research that is based on the results of basic research and applied inpractice - often with a commercial value - with the aim of creating new or improved

products, tools, methods or services.

SCIENTIFICRESEARCH

RESEARCH ORIENTATEDDEVELOPMENT

COMMON SENSE-

ORIENTED

DEVELOPMENT

- The aim is to produce new theory

and to test theories.- The tradition of scientific research

is followed: Scientific philosophical

questions are examined and answers

are sought to the research problem

sing commonly accepted methods.

Background theory indicates which

scientific discourse the developers

are participating in. The results are

published in research journals for

the scientific community.

- The research can be " isolated"

from the subject, and interaction

during the research process may beminimal.

- The aim is to solve practical

roblems or to produce new

ractices, and often to produce

new information about workplace

ractices.

- Development activity is

supported by systematic data

gathering both from theory and

ractice and critical evaluation of

all data.

- A wide range of different

methods are used.

- Active interaction with different

arties.

- Writing and presentations todifferent groups in different stages

helps to advance the project.

- The aim is to solve

practical problems or to

produce new practices.

- Data is collectedarbitrarily from practice and

theory.

- Decisions are largely

ased on the developer's

own ideas, no justifications

are given.

- Minimal amount of

critical assessment.

- Minimal amount of

interaction.

- Reports are not producedntil everything is ready.


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1.3. What is research orientated approach?

A research orientated approach is important in development work for a number ofreasons. It facilitates more comprehensive and systematic consideration of the variousfactors related to the development work, and helps to demonstrate and explain theoutcomes. Businesses, industries - even whole nations - have strong prevailing attitudesand beliefs which inform their actions and how they view their operating environments.

For example, it is common for companies to believe that their products and services arein order, that they are fully aware of their customers needs, that the customers willalways stay and be satisfied with the service, and that the competitors will always bethe same ones and operate in the same way. In reality, such beliefs have been provenfalse in many industries. By then, it is too late for the company to take action - someoneelse has probably examined the situation and analysed the operating environment. Ifdecisions are based solely on ones own, uncritical views instead of a researchorientated approach, the decisions can be influenced by common beliefs, and anobjective view is not possible.

The research orientated approach is often understood in too narrow a context. It

doesnt just refer to the use of research methods such as surveys or interviews. Theresearch orientated approach is something broader and more significant. It is a keycompetence often needed in professional life. In a development project, the researchorientated approach is, first and foremost, a systematic, analytical and criticalway ofimplementing the project.

The research orientated approach also means that the developers own solutions anddata are based on existing knowledge. This includes an understanding of what is meantby the dialogue between theory and practice. The ability to transfer theoreticalknowledge into practice should be present. This means that development endeavoursshould be based on existing theories about the subject, and the knowledge base they

provide. The ability to connect the projects results and documented information totheory is also needed. In a research orientated development project, the developershould be able to show what knowledge base (theories) the work is related to andwhether it contributes new information. At its best, development work can provide newpractical theories - it can document and produce models for workplace practices. Tacitknowledge at workplaces and the developers own experience-based professionalknowledge introduce challenges to the choice of methods. Private knowledge, personalexperiences and abilities cannot be used as research data unless they are subject tocritical examination.

In development work, new knowledge is gained in the very environment where the

examined activity is practised: information is produced and applied in the sameenvironment, and it comes from real-life activity and the need to address problems.

The researchorientated approach manifests in development projects as

systematicity: development activity is not a collection of random actions

gathering of data: development activity is supported with research data andpractical information

analytical thinking: a range of different methods are used to identify, analyse andprovide different views

critical thinking: different views, personal choices, processes and results are

assessed


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production/dissemination of new data: the process and the outcomes arecarefully documented.

1.4. The nature and process of research orientated development

Research orientated development projects can originate from various different startingpoints, such as the development needs of an organisation or the desire to changesomething. This means that research orientated development often involves solvingpractical problems and producing and implementing new ideas, practices, products orservices. Typically, the aim is to draft solutions, develop and implement them. Adevelopment project does not just describe and explain things: it searches for betteralternatives and takes them forward on a practical level. It could be said that researchorientated development questions the traditional view of scientific research, thatcommonly accepted methods guarantee acceptable results. Indeed, the main differencebetween scientific research and research orientated development can be found in their

goals: is the primary objective to produce new theory out of findings, or does the workcontribute practical improvements or new solutions. Naturally, this difference inobjectives informs the development process and the related approaches and methods.

Nevertheless, producing text and new data is also important in research orientateddevelopment. Even though goal setting is aimed at achieving the practical developmentobjective, the project should also aim to produce new data from the practical activity.When the importance of documentation and publication of results is given dueconsideration, the project can produce entirely new vocational knowledge. For example,when tacit knowledge at workplaces is documented, it can be used to regenerate thecompetence and knowledge base, which then provides a good basis for future

development projects.

In research orientated development, project and development skills are needed inaddition to knowledge about the topic. As in all projects, planning and controlled,timely progress are important in development work. Reporting is often done usingdescriptions similar to project reports, outlining the starting points and objectives, workmethods, the process, and the outcomes. On the other hand, in addition to thisplanning-centric approach, research orientated development can also be process-likeand unscheduled. Research orientated development starts from an idea stage, followedby the development of different ideas through to a solution, its implementation andassessment. In other words, research orientated development is about action, seeking

improvements to current states, and verifying the viability of ideas and solutions bymeans of research. It provides a new approach to both theory and practicalimplementation. Instead of theoretical goals, research orientated development isprimarily guided by practical goals that are supported with theory. The value of theproject outcomes is based on transferring them into practice and implementing thedeveloped ideas.

In addition to knowledge about the topic and project skills, the developers obviouslyneed development skills. This means initiative, the ability to evaluate own work,innovativeness, interaction, networking, the ability to produce information, andknowledge of a variety of different methods. The ability to apply, modify and create

new solutions is crucial in development work. In research orientated development, thepurpose of both existing theory and methods is to facilitate the attainment of


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development objectives. What is important is the ability to identify and solve problems.In other words, the production of new professional knowledge is not just about solvingproblems. Research orientated development is about interaction, formulating andexploring questions, producing information, forming new cooperative relationships,seeking and guiding change, exploring uncharted territory, facing uncertainty andhandling unprecedented challenges.

Development activity is often described as a process, a series of consecutive stages. This

is because development takes time and it often consists of clear stages. Examiningdevelopment as a process helps to employ a systematic approach and to consider whatactions are needed at each stage before moving to the next one. For example, thedevelopment objectives should be defined before deciding on the suitable methods.Research orientated development is often a highly challenging task, and it can take allthe time that is available. Therefore it is highly important that the process is carefullyplanned to ensure progress according to the schedule.

All development projects can be broken down and viewed as a simple process forchange. The first stage involves identifying the development challenges, setting theobjectives, and drawing up a plan for achieving these objectives. This is the planning

stage. The second stage of the change process is the implementation of the plan; this isthe implementation stage. And finally, an assessment is carried out to determine howsuccessful the change process has been. In many cases, the assessment provides a basisfor planning new development projects.

A student's development project can form a smaller component of a broader process forchange carried out at a business or other organisation. In this case, the developmenttask may involve only one of the process stages described above. For example, thedevelopment task can provide support in the planning, implementation, or assessmentstage. Implementing changes in practices typically happens over a long period of time,whereas a students development project is relatively short in most cases. For this

reason, when agreeing on the details of the development project, it is advisable to worktogether to first determine what the entire change process is and to agree which stagethe student should focus on in his or her work. The students development work formsits own process within that stage. The stages of a research orientated developmentprocess are outlined in the following chapter, followed by a detailed examination ofeach stage.

A typical research orientated development process is illustrated in a circle diagram onthe main page of this Optima workspace. These process models are needed in order toform a holistic view of the stages involved. In practice, the process can rarely be dividedinto such clear stages, and the stages can be difficult to differentiate from one another.

In many cases, the process goes back and forth between different stages before itadvances. You should not be concerned if your process does not progress exactly asdescribed here.

1.5. LbD: learning and research orientated development intertwined

In real-life workplace development projects, students apply learnt knowledge in

practice and, more importantly, learn a lot more. Development work teaches studentsto be systematic, organised, and to engage in independent and critical thinking. Inaddition, students learn how to gather and evaluate data, use latest scientific


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literature, studies and other publications, and practice verbal and writtencommunication. Other key skills that can be learned in development work includeproblem solving, interaction and cooperation skills, the courage to take action, andresponsibility for seeing things through. Ideally, developers can find developmentopportunities independently, create a solution - often with others - and implement thesolution in practice. In addition, they are able to evaluate their own actions and theoutput of their community throughout the entire process.

Development work teaches us to

Identify development opportunities and to engage in them with a goal-orientedapproach

Gather data efficiently and systematically using different methods

Critically evaluate information acquired from different sources and our owndecisions

Identify interdependencies between different issues

Solve workplace problems and produce new solutions and new knowledge aboutthe workplace

Distribute information to other experts Carry out development projects in a systematic way.

Although development work is often carried out in collaboration with others, it is ofteninherently independent. Developers must focus on gathering data independently, onself-leadership, and on a goal-oriented and critical approach to work. Independentdecision-making improves skills related to life-long learning and critical thinking. On theother hand, networking skills are increasingly important in professional life. Anindividual's progress is no longer dictated by personal strengths alone; social capital andrelationship networks are crucial. Real-life workplace development tasks can provideessential skills for tomorrows employees. One of the foremost objectives of workplace

development projects is the sharing of expertise and the transfer of new knowledge toworkplaces and professional networks.

When learning takes place through real-life development activity, we call this learningby developing. Learning by developing (LbD) is based on real-life workplacedevelopment. The aim is to produce new products, services, operating models orworkplace cultures. The development project is rooted in the professional world, and itsprogress requires partnerships, responsible collaboration and joint action. Learning bydeveloping is characterised by authenticity, partnership, experiencing, research andcreativity.

Authenticity means that learning by developing is based on a real-life professionaldevelopment project focussing on a topic in which the student wishes to developexpertise. The project idea may come from a workplace, from the student or a teacher,or it can be developed together. Alternatively, the idea can be based on a problem,which means looking for a solution to a real-life workplace issue. On the other hand, theidea can arise from the need of reform - the objective is a new solution, or eveninnovation.

Partnershiprefers to collaboration, competence-sharing and learning together. The keyactors of LbD projects include students, workplace experts and tutors. Partnershipincludes sharing and agreeing on roles. Recognising a shared value base is also importantwhen building partnerships. The community learns through the progress of thedevelopment project. Goals are achieved by exploring together, by evaluatingachievements and milestones, and by accumulating shared knowledge. Project


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participants continuously evaluate their own learning processes, shared learning, theprogress and effectiveness of the project, and new accumulated knowledge.

Experiencingrefers to the importance of active and responsible participation by allproject partners in the joint activities, development and personal learning. Experiencesare gathered and shared. They arise as the process progresses and solutions are found.

Research refers to an investigative and critical approach, the application of research

data, and the accumulation of new data by scientific research methods. In LbD, personaland communal learning, and the effectiveness and results of the project aredemonstrated by research-based methods.

Creativityis a resource for the development project. Development projects are ofteninspired by a shared need for change: something new is needed, but the outcome is yetunclear.

2. IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH/DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITY

2.1. Starting point: Problem-based research or a novel idea?

A research orientated development project starts from identifying and understanding adevelopmentneedand the factors related to it. Development projects usually focus ona business or workplace, and the objective is to bring about some kind of a change.Possible objectives include

1.

Refining and productising a new business model, product or service, or expansionto a new market2. Development and redesign of processes,3. Developing new models or methods, or4. Developing a new workplace culture.

The project planning stage centres around consideration of what is expected of theproject in the workplace, and how these expectations relate to the workplaces dailyoperation. This provides the basis for drawing up the initial development objectives.

As described, development starts from identifying a development need and the initialobjectives. Finding a suitable subject for development is a crucial stage in many ways.

Although students often carry out development projects commissioned by commercialcompanies or other organisations, the ability to identify development opportunities inorganisations, work practices and occupations is nevertheless very important.Development projects can be problem-based or regenerative. Problem-baseddevelopment seeks solutions to practical problems or challenges.

Suitable subjects for development typically include a current problem of an organisation(e.g. discontent among staff, high staff turnover) or other areas that requireimprovement (e.g. low sales).

The current problem can manifest in areas such as customer complaints or issuesidentified by members of staff. Broader problems include issues such as a drop inprofitability, underuse of a new IT system, or high wastage. These issues require


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thorough additional investigation before the actual development task can be accuratelydefined.

Regenerative development refers to new solutions which are often sought at differentinterfaces. The objective can be a new business model, product or service, businessprocess reform, or generating a new workplace culture.

As described, development starts from identifying a development need and the initial

objectives. Finding a suitable subject for development is a crucial stage in many ways.

Although students often carry out development projects commissioned by commercialcompanies or other organisations, the ability to identify development opportunities inorganisations, work practices and occupations is nevertheless very important.Development projects can be problem-based or regenerative. Problem-baseddevelopment seeks solutions to practical problems or challenges.

Suitable subjects for development typically include a current problem of an organisation(e.g. discontent among staff, high staff turnover) or other areas that requireimprovement (e.g. low sales).

The current problem can manifest in areas such as customer complaints or issuesidentified by members of staff. Broader problems include issues such as a drop inprofitability, underuse of a new IT system, or high wastage. These issues requirethorough additional investigation before the actual development task can be accuratelydefined.

Regenerative development refers to new solutions which are often sought at differentinterfaces. The objective can be a new business model, product or service, businessprocess reform, or generating a new workplace culture.

2.2. Preliminary plan

Once the development opportunity has been identified, the initial developmentobjectives can be defined. Development often involves a broad issue or topic, andobjectives can help to narrow the focus in the early stages.

However, these early objectives are often indicative only, since there normally isn'tenough practical or theoretical data at this stage to draw up a final project definition.

For example, if a service company has received a number of customer complaintsrecently, the quality of service can be identified as a development opportunity.

When determining initial objectives, it is worth keeping in mind that research orientateddevelopment should also provide the kind of information about the workplace and itsdevelopment that can improve and regenerate its competence and knowledge base. Forexample, if the project concerns the quality of a companys services, the developershould consider not only the developed solutions, but also the overall role of the qualityof service in the company as a whole.

A vast amount of experience-based, tacit knowledge is hidden in workplaces along withsituational knowledge and competence that develops as part of social interaction withinprofessional communities. Without research and documentation, all this informationwould remain as tacit knowledge of a handful of individuals or workplaces. This


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empirical knowledge should be made available to everyone to benefit from and to refinefurther. The more the tacit knowledge of workplaces is disseminated and refined, themore developed, defined and widespread it becomes. This should be taken intoconsideration from the early stages of the development project.

3. EXPLORING THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE SUBJECT

3.1. Why are research literature and other literature needed?

Research literature is an important part of research orientated development. Theory isan important tool that helps to understand the background to the developmentopportunity and the solutions. Research literature helps to understand the broadersubject and to narrow and define the project objectives. Literature can provideinformation about how other research and development projects related to the sametopic have been implemented and what kind of results they have produced. Theseresults can often be directly utilised in further development projects. Researchpublications can provide tips about which methods are available and have beenpreviously used to study the phenomenon in question.

Typical source materials for development projects include specialist books which areavailable at universities and other libraries. Electronic books are also available on manytopics. However, the best sources for scientific research are international scientificjournals. Research articles published in these journals are often available online.Scientific journals publish limited, in-depth research results, and they are often morerecent and up to date than textbooks. Information published in journals can also bemore reliable, as the articles are subject to rigorous peer review before publication.Research articles are often written in English due to its status as the de facto languageof research in business and economics. The language should not be seen as a barrier tofinding and reading scientific articles, since these articles can provide a fast source ofnew information.

3.2. Exploring the subject and the field

Before project planning can begin in earnest, it is important to have thoroughknowledge of the subject. If background information is neglected, and the history andthe current state of the subject is not explored in sufficient detail, it can result in a lotof unnecessary work. The lack of background information can even lead to the wrongsubject being chosen for development, if the researcher only looks at the symptoms(e.g. fall in sales) and not the actual causes (e.g. staff exhaustion due to poororganisation of work).

Instead of superficially considering how the project should be implemented, thedevelopers should take time to explore the nature of the issue in sufficient detail.

Assumptions and starting points based on previous studies and practical evidence aretaken into account in a successful development project. Identifying and exploring thecore question of the development project provides the best starting point. This requires


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a robust knowledge base which combines workplace and organisational knowledge andinformation published in research materials and other sources. Fact-finding is animportant, often time-consuming stage which should be completed thoroughly. Rigorousfact-finding saves time in the later stages and usually ensures better results.

Information from various different sources is required before the developmentobjectives can be defined in detail. This includes information such as 1) companybackground information, 2) leadership philosophy, company values, strategies, etc. 3)

individuals attitudes and observations, and 4) information about the sector andoperating environment. For example, closer examination of the sector and operatingenvironment can reveal issues that take the project in a completely different directionthan viewing the phenomenon purely in the context of a single company. The situationcan involve challenges which apply to the sector as a whole, such as foreign competitorsentering the market, changes in legislation, reduced strength of consumer spending, orchanges in consumer behaviour. Another reason why it is important to understand thesector as a whole is to ensure that the solutions produced in the development projectare based on the reality of the company and its everyday operations, and not solely ongeneric, theoretical business models and concepts. For example, in a developmentproject involving a restaurant business, it is important that the structure and practicesof the industry are identified and understood. Useful information about differentindustries and changes in the operating environment can be found from various nationaland international statistics, reports and studies conducted by different publicorganisations. These are often available online.

At this stage, it is advisable to go on site to observe the organisations environment anddaily events, conduct open interviews and discussions, and collect documentaryevidence about the subject. For example, the management and staff can be asked toexplain in their own words what they do, how, why, when and where. Different types ofgroup discussions and brainstorming sessions can be used at this stage. These methods

can give practical insight into the subject, help identify development needs, and provideopportunities for discussing and planning the project together. This increasesunderstanding of decision-making motives within the company and other factors relatedto the development project. At the same time, project participants can familiarisethemselves with the concepts and terminology of the environment. It is important not toforce links to concepts used in research literature or other sources. Instead, the aim isto understand the concepts that are commonly used in the environment and laterexamine the patterns between those and established concepts.

Data and ideas are documented as information about the subject is accumulated. It isuseful to keep a diary during the observation visits and record or type out all discussions

so that the material can be easily revisited in the later stages of the project. Inaddition, all sources of information should be carefully logged, as they can be difficultto remember afterwards. In the early stages of the project, many dont realise the vastamount of information that is accumulated over the course of the process and whichmakes it impossible to remember all events and details. It is vital that the initial fact-finding stage is also the first stage of a systematic development process. Documenteddata is easier to interpret, and it can be revisited again and again. In addition, it iseasier to base decisions on documented data rather than recollections alone.


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4. CREATING THE KNOWLEDGE BASE/BACKGROUND THEORY

4.1. What is the role of the knowledge base/background theory?

In order for the project to succeed, it is essential to have a thorough understanding ofthe topic and to find a suitable approach to the development task. The right approachcan be identified using theoretical concepts that can be applied in the subject area inquestion. In research, existing theories are often referred to as literature review orbackground theory. In this book, existing information that provides the basis for theplanning and implementation of development projects is referred to as the knowledgebase.This term was chosen because it is descriptive of its purpose as part of thedevelopment process: the knowledge base is a collection of relevant knowledgethatprovides the basisfor the development work. In short, the knowledge base is a system ofconcepts and their relations. It is a purpose-designed set of information based onsystematic thinking.

The knowledge base describes the key theories related to the subject, any existingmodels that describe these theories, and the latest research results. Theory is a group ofprinciples or definitions that systemise a specific phenomenon. It guides the search fornew information and provides a structure for collected data. Theories and models arebased on the concepts that describe the subject. Concepts are the building blocks oftheories and models. They are integral to the success of research orientateddevelopment projects because they

provide a basis for communication

indicate the chosen approach

help to analyse and define the phenomenon.

5. DEVELOPMENT TASK DEFINITION AND SCOPE

5.1. Defining the development task/research problem

The development task is a detailed definition of the project objectives. For example, ifa service company finds that the number of customers and sales has plummeted in theprevious six months, the development task definition could be to design and implementnew services based on customers' needs.

The development task often involves producing a tangible output, practice or a writtenpresentation of development proposals.

Development tasks can also involve modelling. Models are developed for variousdifferent purposes at workplaces. For example, product modelling involves defining abrand, product type, purpose of use, specifications, special requirements, competitors,market share and development needs. In process modelling, the entire process isdefined including the division into work stages and the logic for the division, the


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can be used in different approaches, and all methods are suitable for at least one of theapproaches.

Once the development objective and task have been determined and consideration hasbeen given to the approach, it is time to start planning the methods to be used in thedevelopment work. It is possible - and advisable - to use a range of different methods,including ones that have not been traditionally used in scientific research. This chapterprovides an overview of both common and less well-known methods.

Research methods are traditionally divided into quantitative and qualitative methods.

Typical examples of quantitative methodsare questionnaire surveys and structuredsurveys which involve asking the same questions in identical format from a large numberof respondents. The group is a sampleof the examined population. Quantitativemethods are suitable for testing a particular theory. Theories include hypotheses-arguments and assumptions - which are tested in surveys. For example: the argument is"The speed of the service process has an effect on customer satisfaction. After thesurvey, the hypotheses are reviewed. If the hypotheses hold true, they are verified; ifthe hypotheses don't hold, they are falsified.

When using quantitative methods, the researcher should have sufficient theoreticalknowledge of the subject in order to be able to measure it controllably. This means thatthe questions are drafted so that they can measure the validity of the theory, instead ofcoming up with a random selection of questions. The survey material (data) is analysedusing statistical methods, and the information can then be generalisedto thepopulation. When using quantitative methods, the researcher does not influence theresearch subject. Researchers should distance themselves from the object of theresearch, and in many cases, they do not even have contact with the research subjects.

In quantitative research, the precision of the study is evaluated in terms of reliability

(of data) and validity(of indicators).

Typical qualitative methodsinclude thematic interviews, open interviews, focus groups,and participatory observation. Qualitative research methods are used to gain a betterunderstanding of a topic where little prior data exists. When using qualitative methods,the number of research subjects is considerably smaller than in quantitative research,but the volume of analysed material (e.g. transcribed interviews) is often high. In otherwords, the aim is to gather a lot of information about a narrow subject in order to gain abetter and broader understandingof the phenomenon. Since the objective is to producenew data, existing theories are not as important in the design of qualitative methods asthey are in the design of quantitative methods.

The basic purpose of qualitative research is to describe real-life events. In this context,reality is seen as a multifaceted whole that cannot be arbitrarily divided intocomponents. Qualitative methods use purposive sampling. This means that the object ofresearch is a consciously chosen topic about which the researcher wants moreinformation. In qualitative methods, it is typical for the researcher to be closeto thesubjects, often even taking part inthe activity. The researcher can also use his or herown interpretationsabout the phenomenon.

It is essential to provide a detailed description of the research process and justificationsfor the interpretations so that the reader can use them to make conclusions about thereliabilityof the research. The reliability of results can be improved by triangulation.This means that the phenomenon is examined from multiple points of view, typically


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with the aid of different materials and data gathering methods - sometimes evenmultiple researchers.

It is important to remember the basic differences between quantitative and qualitativemethods in order to understand the different starting points of the methods and to beable to use them correctly. That said, the line between quantitative and qualitativemethods becomes unclear in research orientated development: the methods have mostlyinstrumental value in that they can help to find the best possible new practices. Some

traditional methods are examined in the following chapter, including different types ofinterviews, observation, surveys and analyses of documentary evidence. Examples aboutforecasting-related methods and brainstorming methods are also provided, along with afew other methods which may provide new ideas for development projects.

6.2. Approaches

6.2.1. Introduction

The development task can be approached in a number of different ways. Beforechoosing and designing the methods for the development project, it is advisable toconsider the approach to planning the work. Choosing the approach in developmentprojects is similar to choosing a research strategy in scientific research. Examples ofresearch strategies are case studies and action research, and both of these can also beapplied in development projects. In addition to case studies and action research, thischapter focuses on constructive research and innovation, as both of these are typicalapproaches that can be applied in development projects.

The approach does not refer to the selection of the actual methods, such as interviews,surveys, brainstorming, etc. Naturally, the chosen approach will dictate the choice ofmethods to a certain extent, but it is worth remembering that nearly all methods aresuitable for all approaches. For example, different types of interviews and observationcan be used in all approaches. It should also be noted that a development project oftensuggests a number of possible approaches. For example, if the object of development isthe quality system of a company, the approach is likely to have characteristics of a casestudy, action research and constructive research.

Therefore, the choice of approach should not be too strict; the approach can be draftedcreatively by combining the most suitable elements from different approaches. Needless

to say, such choices must be explained and described clearly in reports related to thedevelopment project and in other publications. For example, the project should not bereferred to as action research, if it does not have the key characteristics of actionresearch. If the development project approach mostly resembles action research withsome elements of constructive research, it is important to specify which researchapproach is applied in which part of the project and to indicate which elements of theseapproaches are excluded from the project.

The choice of approach should be considered carefully so that the research aspect canbe engaged in the project in a meaningful way. The following chapters providedescriptions of typical approaches that are suitable for development projects. These

approaches do not have a single universally accepted definition. Here, they aredescribed from the point of view of development projects.


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6.2.2. Case study

In case studies, the objective is to produce research data about the subject - the focusis on traditional research objectives. The case study approach is suitable fordevelopment projects in which the aim is to gain a deep understanding of the state of

an organisation, and the task is to solve a specific problem or to draw up developmentproposals by research methods. If the project is a pure case study, the change is notactually implemented as part of the project, nor does it involve any concrete measures.Instead, the aim is to produce development ideas or proposals for solutions to observedproblems. In other words, a case study is an in-depth examination of a subject in itsenvironment. The case can be a company, department, personnel group, product groupor customer group, system or process, etc. In case studies, researchers typically use anumber of different data gathering methods in order to achieve an in-depth andcomprehensive understanding of the subject.

6.2.3. Action research

Action research focuses on producing research data and implementing a practical changeat the same time. A typical subject involves changing the way a particular group ofpeople or an organisation operates. The focus is on the practical implementation andevaluation of the change, which means that the development process can take a longtime. A key characteristic of action research is the participation of the organisationspeople in the development activity.

In other words, a group of people act together in this type of research. The researchsubjects should be seen as conscious actors. They are active participants - subjects - inthe research and development process itself. The work or activity is developed andanalysed within the community, alternatives are developed to solve the observedproblems and to achieve the identified goals, and new data and theories are producedabout the activity.

The participatory development methods offers various benefits to the researcher anddeveloper. A jointly developed idea is often a much better solution to the developmentproblem than ideas that come from outside the organisation. This is because themembers of the community know the challenges of their work better than anyone else -

provided that they are ready for change. Bringing a researcher into the group providesoutside insight and theoretical competence which can be crucial for finding a solution tothe challenge or problem. Whats more, a solution discovered by the workplace ororganisation itself may be accepted more readily than a proposal from an outsider.

Action research orientated development projects are usually based on a number ofdifferent methods. This is especially true of projects which have active participation bycommunity members and their interaction is utilised in the project.

6.2.4. Constructive research


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In constructive research, the objective is to solve a practical problem by creating a newconstruction, a concrete output such as a product, information system, guideline orhandbook, model, method or plan. In other words, the change is directed at a concreteobject in constructive research, whereas in action research a typical objective involveschanging the way people operate. Nevertheless, similar methods can be used in bothapproaches. It is important to link the change to existing theory. This is one of the keydifferences between constructive research and consultation. Close dialogue betweenpractice and theory is characteristic of the constructive research approach. Theimplementation of the developed solution, and the evaluation of its practical usefulnessand benefits are integral to constructive research.

6.2.5. Innovation

Innovation is closely related to constructive research. The two approaches overlap inmany areas. The biggest difference is the novelty of the outcome. In constructiveresearch, the outcome is not necessarily an innovation, which is why the two approaches

are discussed separately in this book.

An innovation refers to a new type of product, service, process, operating model, etc.that produces financial or other benefits. The implementation and commercialisation isimportant: an idea or invention alone is not an innovation. There are many differenttypes of innovation processes. The key stages of any innovation process are usually datagathering, generation of ideas, the evaluation and shortlisting of ideas,conceptualisation and commercialisation.

6.3. Methods

6.3.1. Introduction

A variety of different methods are used in development projects. In research literature,the methods are usually divided into quantitative and qualitative methods. Variety ofmethods is a crucial factor in development projects: using a range of different methodsprovides different types of data, points of view and ideas. When a number of methods(surveys, interviews, observation, benchmarking, analysis of documentary evidence) areused, the differences between qualitative and quantitative research are no longerrelevant.

Collaborative methods such as brainstorming are often used in expertise developmentprojects. Development work is rarely carried out alone by a single person. Usually, thedeveloper is in some way involved in the group that the subject concerns. Therefore,sound practical solutions are not the result of the transfer and application of knowledgealone - new solutions require close cooperation and mutual understanding between theparticipants.

When choosing the methods, it is important to first consider what kind of information isneeded and for what purpose it will be used. Using a range of different methods

provides different types of data and points of view. It is therefore advisable to use


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several different methods at the same time. The methods complement one another,providing certainty for decision-making in the development project.

6.3.2. Survey

Surveys are suitable for situations where data about the subject already exists but itneeds to be verified. For example, a service company may have a good understanding ofwhat aspects of its operations are important to the customers, but it wants to carry outa survey to determine how well it has realised these aspects in its operations. In adevelopment project, surveys are useful for determining the starting point or forassessing the project results in the final stage. A survey is usually conducted by askingthe same thing in the same manner from a large group of people.

The survey can be a paper questionnaire or an electronic questionnaire, or it can be atelephone survey conducted by an interviewer who completes the questionnaire. Thereare many stages to the planning of a survey. It is important to determine in detail what

information is needed. The survey analysis should also be carefully planned beforeconducting the survey. Surveys should be based on an existing knowledge base. Theconcepts are converted into measurable variables.

Questions should be clear and easy to answer. An important part of surveys involvesestablishing the population and the sample so that conclusions can be made from thesurvey results and the universal applicability of the results can be assessed.

The results are normally presented as distributions and indicators.

Survey reliability assessments are based on the concepts of validityand reliability.

6.3.3. Interview

There are various types of interviews, each designed for a different purpose. Thestructured interview is closely related to the survey in terms of its purpose and method.The interviewer uses a predesigned, detailed interview framework that is used in allinterviews. A semi-structured or thematic interview is ideal in a situation where theresearch subject is not fully understood and the interviewers must avoid leading therespondents.

For example: the management of a service company is unclear about what thecustomers value in the company, and these factors need to be established before asurvey can be designed.

In a thematic interview, the themes are carefully planned in advanced, but the wording,order and emphasis of questions can vary between interviews. In a thematic interviewprocess, later interviews can be adapted based on earlier ones if these revealinteresting issues which were not anticipated.

An open interview is more flexible than the other types described above. It resembles adiscussion rather than an actual interview. It is suitable for acquiring in-depth

information about what people really think or why they behave in a certain way, etc.


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Open interviews require a lot of time and skilled interviewers who can listen, interpretand steer the discussion.


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6.3.4.Focus group

Focus group refers to a type of interview where a group of people (typically 6-12individuals) discuss a theme given by the interviewer. The focus group can be a veryuseful method in development projects. It often brings up valuable ideas for product orservice development.

The advantage of focus groups is that they provide a fast way to collect informationfrom a number of people simultaneously. Topics are often discussed in more depth thanin one-to-one interviews. The group members can help each other remember things thatwould not necessarily come to mind if the members were interviewed alone.Participants are often forced to explain their opinions when the others respond.

Compared to one-to-one interviews, focus groups often provide a more truthful pictureof the issue due to the fact that the interviewer's role is not as prominent. The groupitself steers the discussion forward using everyday language.

6.3.5. Observation

Depending on the objective, observation can also include a number of differentmethods. Observation is a highly recommended method for all development projects. Itis often easier to gather useful information by observing real-life situations on siteinstead of using surveys or interviews.

For example, observing customer behaviour or discussions among staff can provide a lotof useful ideas.

When observations are collected systematically - for example, by keeping a field diarythroughout the entire development process - observation becomes an importantdevelopment method. The diary can be a simple notebook kept at hand for writing downobservations.

However, in most cases observation is more systematic. The observer can monitorselected situations, such as meetings or customer service situations. Observations can bemade as an outsider or by taking part in the activity.

Mystery shopping is a widely used form of observation. It is used to measure propertiessuch as the quality of service. In mystery shopping, the observer makes observations in

the role of an ordinary customer without revealing the nature of the assignment to thestaff.

6.3.6. Analysis of documentary evidence

Documents produced at workplaces for various purposes can provide a lot of usefulinformation about the development subject. These documents include memos, projectreports, minutes of meetings, notifications, handbooks, websites, annual reports,budgets, statistics, reports and databases.

Documentary evidence analyses are usually used in combination with other datagathering methods to provide additional insight into the development opportunity.


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Sometimes, the existence of certain useful documents is not known, and somedocuments may be unavailable for confidentiality reasons.

Analysis of documentary evidence requires a critical approach and careful considerationof what purpose each document has been produced for and by whom, since these factorscan affect the nature of the information contained in the document.

If the volume of documentary evidence is high, it is advisable to select a sample for

analysis. Diaries can also be considered documentary evidence. Research subjects arerequested to keep a diary, which is normally drawn up using clear questions that areanswered periodically. This can provide valuable information about individuals jobs,consumer behaviour, travelling habits or leisure activities.

6.3.7. Benchmarking

In benchmarking, the development subject is compared to another subject - often a bestpractice. A suitable benchmarking partner can be found in a completely differentindustry.

The basic idea of benchmarking is learning from others and questioning own operations.When best practices are adopted from other organisations, their application in thetarget organisation requires creativity, which leads to something new being created.

The aim is to help identify any weaknesses in the organisation and to produce objectivesand ideas for their development. Benchmarking is a highly useful method in thedevelopment of quality, productivity, operating processes, work practices and otherareas of an organisation.

Benchmarking can trigger ideas and inspiration that provide new insight andbreakthroughs. For example, exploring solutions that were originally developed fordifferent industries can reveal new opportunities for their application in the developedsector.

Best practices can be sought by comparing the indicators (metrics) of differentorganisations and choosing some of them for closer examination. Information about bestpractices is available in publications such as articles, books and the internet. Onlinesources include news sites, company websites, patent websites and the websites ofdifferent organisations.

Benchmarking can be carried out as a visit to the reference organisation. In order toglean as much benefit from the visit as possible, the objectives of the comparison shouldbe determined in detail before the visit, and a list should be drawn up for the plannedobservations/questions.


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6.3.8. Process maps (Blueprint, etc.)

Process analysis examines the business process in order to determine where and whyproblems exist. Based on the analysis, solutions are then sought for the identifiedproblems. As part of the method, a process diagram is drawn up to illustrate the processstages, the possible problems of different stages, and the proposed solutions.

The process analysis is a useful method in service organisations development activities.

The blueprint is one form of process analysis. It involves drawing a roadmap for theservice processes. The process map includes the processes of both the customer and theservice provider, and their interfaces.

The blueprint provides a way to examine the service system as a whole from the point ofview of both the service provider and the customer, and to identify critical points of theservice processes.

6.3.9. Brainstorming

Brainstorming is one of the standard methods of creative problemsolving. The aim is toproduce ideas in a group setting. In a brainstorming session, a group of 6-12 people ledby a coordinator (facilitator) looks for new approaches or solutions to a problem.

The objectives of the session are identified and defined in the beginning of thebrainstorming session. This is followed by a warm-up aimed at breaking unnecessarypreconceptions and any issues that restrict free thinking. The coordinator explains theprinciples of the brainstorming session. The idea stage begins with a free exchange of

ideas without explaining them (evaluating ideas is not allowed at this stage). Thecoordinator writes the ideas on a whiteboard or flipchart, and ideas are developed andcombined continuously. When the flow of ideas begins to slow, the coordinator tries torevitalise it, for example, by using other methods explained in this chapter (excursion,etc.)

In the selection stage, the presented ideas are reviewed and evaluated according to thecoordinators instructions. Participants can take turns to speak to ensure that everyonehas a chance to voice their thoughts. For example, the coordinator can propose the useof the 3+ technique. The ideas can be evaluated by having each participant mark thebest idea/ideas with the plus sign. The idea with the most plus signs is the most feasible

according to the group's majority.

A number of variations of the standard brainstorming exist. In bodystorming, eachparticipant writes down as many ideas as he or she can think of. The idea notes areplaced on the wall, leaving empty space between each note. When the flow of ideasstops, the participants begin to walk around and read the ideas of others. The ideas aredeveloped further, and each new idea is written down and placed near the original idea.

Alternatively, brainstorming can be carried out around a table by using a mind map orindividual idea cards. In the idea card variation, each participant writes his or her ideason separate cards. When the flow of ideas stops, the cards are handed over to another

person who continues to develop the ideas further. Finally, the ideas are placed on thewall, and they can be evaluated using a method such as the plus method describedabove.


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The size of the group is important. Inexperienced brainstormers may initially find itdifficult to come up with imaginative ideas in a small group. On the other hand, a biggergroup can make it easier for a participant to be a silent observer and thus affects theparticipants engagement. The advantage of a bigger group is that everyone who isinvolved in the solution can be engaged in the development activity. Whats more,people commit to a solution much easier if they have been involved in its making.

The group facilitator has a key role in terms of the productivity of the brainstorming

sessions. Brainstorming sessions need a leader who ensures that rules are followed, whospeeds up the process if necessary and provides a rhythm for the session (based on theparticipants needs and requests). Brainstorming sessions can last anywhere from fiveminutes to two hours. Breaks are recommended. The group facilitator should be welltuned in to detect any problems in the brainstorming session and to steer the group. Thefacilitator ensures that ideas are not evaluated during the idea stage. The ideas can beevaluated later, for example, the following day, and the best and most feasible ideasare shortlisted. Participants should take turns to speak, especially in a large group.

7. FORMS OF PUBLISHING THE PROJECT

Different types of R&D reports

Verbal presentations

Posters

Press releases

Thesis presentation

8. ASSESSMENT OF DEVELOPMENT PROCESS AND OUTCOMES

The final stage of the research orientated development project is the assessment.Assessments are also carried out in earlier stages to guide the process and to providefeedback to project participants. The purpose of the final assessment is to identify thesuccesses of the project. The assessment involves systematic data gathering and dataanalyses. The results can be compared to predetermined criteria to evaluate the impactof development activities and the progress of the project. A sound assessment requires

identifying and describing the project objectives and inputs, the process and theoutcomes.

The assessment typically focuses on the projects 1) inputs, 2) change process, and 3)outcomes, and the relationships between these factors. Different levels are examined:activities can be assessed at the individual, group or organisation level. The assessmentcan focus on the planning of the project, the clarity and achievement of objectives, thedevelopment methods, the logic of activities, and interaction and commitment. Projectoutcomes are evaluated based on criteria such as the outcome's significance, simplicity,ease of use, applicability in other contexts, repeatability, and neutrality. Key questionsinclude:

How well were the project objectives and task achieved?

Are the changes the result of the development work?


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Which development activities had the most influence in terms of the achievementof objectives?

Were the objectives achieved within reasonable costs?

Are the project results ready for dissemination?

Possible assessment methods include observation, surveys (e.g. workplace environmentsurvey), interviews (e.g. participants), and analysis of documented evidence (statistics,databases, the organisation's indicators, etc.).


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References

Ojasalo, K., Moilanen, T. &Ritalahti, J. 2009, Kehittmistyn menetelmt Uudenlaista osaamista liiketoimintaan. WSOYpro, Helsinki.