research methods-unit i

8/2/2019 Research Methods-Unit I

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Research Methodology

Unit I

Introduction


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Meanings

Research : search again, scientific investigation,inquiry, study, continuous process of searchingnew knowledge, fact finding

Science : body of systematic knowledgei) natural science physics, chemistry, biology(botany and zoology)

ii) social science demography, economics,education, geography, history, law, linguistics,management, political science, psychology,sociology, commerce, anthropology


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Social Research

Research is a systematic method consisting of

enunciating the problem, formulating a

hypothesis, collecting the facts or data,

analyzing the facts and reaching certain

conclusions either in the form of solutions

towards the concerned problem or in certain

generalizations for theoretical formulation.Kothari (1990)


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Objectives

To get answers to questions about social

phenomenon through the application of

scientific method.

To understand society by observing, classifying

and analyzing social facts, but it does not aim

at finding ultimate truth of the nature.

It seeks to find explanation to unexplained

social phenomena.


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Objectives

It aims at understanding the human behaviourand its interaction with the social institution.

It may be the acquisition of new knowledge in

order to gain insights into existing problems. To understand social life and thereby to gain a

greater measure of control over social

behavior. (P. V. Young) To understand the cause-effect relationship of

some social phenomena.


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Concept

A concept is a word or a phrase whichsymbolises the phenomenon and helps tocommunicate the finding.

Concept is simply mental images orperceptions

The object of concepts is to study, organise,

manipulate and isolate the properties ofobjects.

Meanings of concepts go on changing time totime.


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Variables

Concepts that can take on more than one

value along a continuum are called variables.

Bailey (1982)

A variable is also known as the property or

characteristics of any object that can very

within a certain limit. Eg :- age, income


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Types of Variables

Qualitative variables

- related to qualitative phenomena, eg:

gender, employment, locality, religion

Quantitative variables

- series of numerical units, statistical purpose

eg: age, number of children, income


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Types of Variables

Causal explanation, the cause is the independentvariables and the effect is the dependentvariable.

Independent Variables

- variable that can affect in the change of othervariable

Dependent Variables

- variable which cannot affect in the change ofthe other variable and whose value dependsupon the other variable.


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Measurements

It is a process of assigning number to conceptsor variables.

It is an integral part of research

In scientific studies, the terms, concepts orvariables must be empirically measured sothat other researchers can verify the findings.

Quantitative variables like age, height, weight,

income, temperature etc are easy to measure. Qualitative variables are also measured in

social science research


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Levels of Measurement

1. Nominal Measurement categories of avariable and their frequencies (Yes/No)

2. Ordinal Measurement rank order of

preferences or positions (1st, 2nd, 3rd)3. Interval Measurement items are ranked in

an equal interval, values of variables are

measured through certain class-intervals.4. Ratio Measurement allows multiplication

and division of data, ratio scales have anabsolute or true zero


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Reliability

Reliability refers to consistency of a measure.

A measuring instrument is said to be reliable if

it provides consistent results.

In case of a social research, the measuring

instruments are used as questionnaires or

interview schedules which are not

standardized and so that less reliable they are.

There are two aspects of reliability : stability

and equivalence


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Validity

A measuring instrument is said to be valid if itaccurately measures what is to be measured.

There are two aspects of validity : (a) that the

measuring instrument should measure thephenomenon or concept accurately; and (b) itshould not measure some other concepts at atime.

The researcher should use more valid measuringinstruments as far as possible. However assessingvalidity of measuring instruments is debatable.


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Induction

Induction is a process of reasoning wherebywe arrive at universal generalizations fromparticular facts.

Induction involves two processesobservation and generalization.

A perfect induction is the process of

establishing a universal proposition by anexhaustive enumeration of all the instances ofthe type covered by the universal proposition.


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Deduction

Deduction is a process of drawinggeneralizations, through a process ofreasoning on the basis of certain assumptions

which are either self-evident or based onobservation.

In deduction, we deduce generalizations fromuniversal to particular.

Depending upon the premises, everydeductive reasoning is either valid or invalid.


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Generalization

A science is concerned with the generality of

things. When the truth is discovered in a

science, it is expressed in the form of

generalization.

A generalization is a general proposition

regarding classes, objects or events, or the

existence of a definite relationship amongcertain types of events or objects or classes.


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Generalizations

Generalizations may be taken as the media ofcollecting fresh and new knowledge aboutdifferent phenomena.

Generalization itself helps to bring new factsand new knowledge.

The present generalizations may become the

basis of future investigation into facts andcircumstances, and therefore, it may be thebasis of future generalizations.


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Types of Generalization

There are two types of scientific generalization:

1. Empirical Generalization

- based on empirical observation and

experience, it does not say as to why thesituation has happened, but it simply describesthe situation.

2. Explanatory Generalization

- provides the explanation for the tendencies,regularities or uniformities observed by thescientists, it explains the cause of thephenomenon.


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Hypothesis

A Hypothesis is a proposition that is stated in a

testable form and predicts a particular

relationship between two (or more) variables.

(Bailey 1974)

A Hypothesis is indispensible for any scientific

investigation. The hypothesis always guides and

gives direction to the scientific investigation.Without a hypothesis, a scientist cannot know as

to what to observe and how to observe.


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Uses of Hypothesis

Hypothesis forms the starting point ofinvestigation.

Hypothesis makes observation and experimentpossible.

Hypothesis is an aid to explanation

Hypothesis makes deduction possible.

Hypothesis helps researcher to know what types

of data are to be collected and what not. Hypothesis is always useful for drawing proper

and reasonable inferences for theory building andtesting them.


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Types of Hypothesis

In the context of testing hypothesis, we

often talk about two types of hypothesis

1) Null Hypotheses:

2) Alternative Hypothesis:


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Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis (Ho) is a statistical

proposition of no difference between variables. It

specifies the independence of variables. The term

null refers to invalid. The null hypothesis assertsthat there is no relationship between variables.

Eg : The drug is not effective for curing malaria

Here, the variables drug and malaria areindependent or there is no relationship between

these variables.


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Alternate Hypothesis

When the null hypothesis is rejected, theinvestigator turns to an alternate hypothesis.Or, alternate hypothesis is to be accepted if

the null hypothesis is rejected.The alternate hypothesis states that there is a

relationship between variables. Alternatehypothesis (Ha or H1) is also known asresearch hypothesis.

Eg: The drug is effective for curing malaria.


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What is a theory?

A theory is a set of concepts plus theinterrelationships that are assumed to existamong these concepts.

A theory is a tested and establishedhypothesis.

A theory is nothing but a set of systematically

related propositions specifying the causalrelationships among the involved variables.

A theory contains not only interrelated piecesof knowledge but it also provides a definite

mechanism for producing new knowledge


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Role of a Theory It gives the necessary orientation to a science by

defining the area of study. A theory gives us a structure of concepts. With the help

of a theory, a system can be built up on the basis of theobserved data and fact.

A theory can give a satisfactory summary of the

empirical generalizations. A theory gives rise to some implications which may be

called the predictions. There may be several types ofpredictions of a theory.

A theory fills up the gap in our knowledge bysummarizing the information and also by predictingfacts.

A theory provides guidelines and directions forconducting research by pointing out the areas which

would be meaningful for conducting the study.


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Interrelationship Between Theory and

Research

When a hypothesis is verified and found to betrue, it becomes a theory. This theory when itworks satisfactorily and is proved, is generally

accepted. It then becomes an instrument offurther explanation and prediction. At thisstage, the theory becomes a law. Thus thehypothesis ripens into a theory, a theory into a

law and the law becomes so familiar that itbecomes a fact. To test the fact again researchis done. Thus there is interdependence ofresearch and theory.


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Ethics in Social Research

Ethics is the appropriate or standard behavior of a

person. If one person becomes unethical, some

other persons may be harmed by that behavior.

Every professional researchers must be ethical.In the context of social or biological research, ethics

refers to the appropriateness or acceptability of

methodological application as well asresearchers behavior for preserving the rights of

the research subjects.


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Guidelines to be ethical in Social

Research

You should seek informed consent from theparticipants.

You must not misrepresent your ability during

rapport building. You should motivate and must not compel the

people to participate in your research

You should not exaggerate the likely benefits of

your research to motivate the respondents

You must respect the rights to privacy of researchsubjects and their dignity.


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You must preserve the confidentiality of data

and individual anonymity

research methods-unit i

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