Research Philosophies – Grounded Theory

ESUUK Research Methodologies Seminars

7th March, 6:30 PM London Time

Amgad Badewi, PMP, ITIL Cranfield UniversityA.badewi@cranfield.ac.ukLinkedIn: http://www.linkedin.com/pub/amgad-badewi/59/612/910Google +: +AmgadBadewiTwitter: @AmgadBadewi

Outlines

• Research Paradigms• Grounded Theory Research

Research paradigms

Positivist

Interpretivist

Reality is single No Single reality

Reality is external Reality is Internal

Testing Hypotheses Social Construction of reality

Objectivity Subjective

Quantitative - Statistics Qualitative – Narrative – Hermeneutics

Accounting – Finance – Marketing & HR

Operations Management – Information Systems

On

tolo

gy

Ep

iste

mo

log

y

4

Introduction

• Research Paradigms• Positivist• Post-Positivist• Constructionist• Pragmatism

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Logical Positivism• Ontology (nature of reality): positivists believe that there is a

single reality• Epistemology (the relationship of the knower to the known):

believes that the knower and the known are independent.• Axiology (role of values in inquiry): positivists believe that

inquiry is value free.• Generalisations: Positivists believe that time- and context free

generalisations are possible• Causal Linkages: Positivists believe that there are real causes

that are temporally precedent to or simultaneous with effects. • Deductive Logic: There is an emphasis on arguing from

general to particular, or an emphasis on a priori hypotheses (or theory) (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; P.7)

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Post-positivism

• The same as positivists but they are different in• Ontology (Nature of reality): our understanding of

reality is constructed. • Value-ladenness of inquiry: research is influenced

by the values of investigators.• Theory-ladenness of facts: Research is

influenced by the theory or hypotheses or framework that an investigator uses.

(Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; P.8)

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Interpretivism, Naturalism, Constructionism

• Ontology (Nature of reality): Naturalists believe that there are multiple constructed realities.

• Epistemology (the relationship of the knower to the known): Naturalism believe that the knower and the known are inseparable.

• Axiology (the role of values in inquiry): Naturalists believe that time- and context-free generalisation are not possible.

• Causal Linkages: Naturalists believe that it is impossible to distinguish causes from effects.

• Inductive Logic: There is an emphasis on arguing from the particular to the general, or an emphasis on “grounded” theory.

(Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; P.8)

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Research paradigms

Paradigm Positivism Post-positivism Pragmatism Constructivism

Methods Quantitative Primarily

Quantitative

Quantitative +

Qualitative

Qualitative

Logic Deductive Primarily Deductive Deductive + Inductive Inductive

Epistemology Objective point of

view. Knower and

known are dualism

Modified dualism.

Findings probably

objectively “True.”

Both Objective and

subjective points of

view

Subjective point of

view. Knower and

known are

inseparable .

Axiology Inquiry is value free Inquiry involves

values, but they may

be controlled

Values play a large

role in interpreting

results

Inquiry is value

bound.

Ontology Naïve realism Critical or

transcendental

realism

Accept external

reality. Choose

explanations that best

produce desired

outcomes.

Relativism

Current research paradigms

TraditionalSimulations, Descriptive Statistics

(Yin)Traditional

(Walsham , Stake)

Positivist Interpretivist

Quantitative

Qualitative

Grounded Theory

• What is grounded Theory• Grounded Theory Process• Data Collection Methods• Coding Methods• Example from my research• European Journal of Information Systems reviewer

notes about Grounded Theory• Academy of Management Journal reviewers notes

about Grounded Theory

What is Grounded Theory?

• Grounded Theory Approach• Grounded Theory Methodology• Grounded Theory Method

Grounded Theory Process (Analysis)

Data Collection Methods

• Literature Review• Interviews• Document Analysis (Quantitative & Qualitative Data)• Website data• Videos• E-mails/letters• Observation• Participatory Observation

Coding Methods

• Initial Coding• Focused Coding• Axial Coding

Open / Initial coding

• Basically, you read through your data several times and then start to create tentative labels for chunks of data that summarize what you see happening (not based on existing theory – just based on the meaning that emerges from the data).

• Construct short codes• Remain Open• Compare data with data• Move quickly through data

Focused Coding

• The second phase of coding• Codes are more selective, directed, and conceptual • It requires decisions about which initial codes make

the most analytic sense to categorize your data incisively and completely

Axial Coding

•  Axial coding consists of identifying relationships among the open codes.

• What are the connections among the codes? This will be easier to understand when you see the last chart of this blog post.

Grounded Theory in my research

• First Iteration• Second Iteration • Third Iteration

First Iteration

Activity ContentOpening Research Question

Why do some organisations outperform others in achieving different levels of ERP benefits?

Initial data collection open ended interviews and documents analysis

Initial coding and memos are used to develop tentative categories

ERP Benefits (e.g. inventory benefits, HR benefits, purchasing benefits, accounting benefits, marketing benefits), environmental problems (e.g. implementation problems, organizational problems, political problems) and ERP asset problems (integration problems, data migration problems, on-promise specific ERP problems, and Cloud ERP specific problems)

Research Question is enhanced and refined

“How can ERP assets are orchestrated with organizational ERP capabilities to realize maximum benefits of ERP systems?”

Second Iteration

Activity Content

Data collection to enhance coding to solve the research question

Semi-structure interviews to investigate research question and constantly compare with the initial interviews

Advanced memos are used to refine conceptual categories

ERP Benefits (IT infrastructure, Automating, Planning, and Business Innovation benefits), ERP capabilities (IT infrastructure capabilities, automating capabilities, planning capabilities, and Business Innovation capabilities), and ERP Assets concepts (Assets underpin IT infrastructure, Assets underpin Automating benefits, Assets underpin Planning benefits, and Assets underpin Business Innovation benefits)

Third Iteration

Activity Content

Theoretical Sampling to find out new data

nine semi-structured interviews

Sorting all memos together

ERP Asset Orchestration framework is developed

More Interviews searching for

saturation point

After nine interviews, four consecutive interviews do not add to the conceptual framework.

Validating all the results in focus

group

Conceptual Model , ERP asset , Capability and benefit matrix are presented to focus group of 4 experts to validate the results

Research Findings

ERP Automating & Integrating Assets

ERP Automating Capability

Automating Benefits

ERP Planning & Controlling Assets

ERP Planning & Controlling Capability

Planning Benefits

ERP Business Innovation Assets

ERP Business Innovation Capability

Business Innovation

Benefits+ + = Business Value

ERP Capabilities depend on Practices, Organization

characteristics, Psychological Factors

ERP Assets: ERP Features, Technologies attached, IT Department Competence

Organisational Maturity in ERP utilization

Benefits

Editors Opinion about GTA

• European Journal of Information Systems (EJIS) – When do we call it Grounded Theory?

• Academy of Management Journal – Six Common Misconceptions in Grounded Theory.

EJIS – When do we can call it GTM?

• Theory Development• Constant Comparison• Iterative Coding• Theoretical Sampling• Management of Perceptions• Inextricable link between data collection and analysis

Birks et al (2013)

1. Theoretical Development

• The objective of the study was • To develop theory rather than to test theory or • To provide a rich description of a phenomenon

based on a systematic exploration of the accounts of the phenomenon (through interviews, observations, archival materials or quantitative data sources)

2. Constant Comparison

• Constant comparison should be used to analyse data from different standpoints.

• It should be noted that analytical and theoretical memos act as the pivotal point for comparison, emergence, sampling and theoretical densification

Memos

• Memos are critical, internal sense-making techniques through which constant comparison is achieved.

• They help researchers understand their data, the relations in their data and the gaps in their data.

• Memos are therefore transitional analysis steps that do not require disclosure, but without which grounded theory is not possible (Glaser, 1978).

• Memos can take the form of diagrams, text arratives, propositions, mind maps and other techniques that are suitable to both the idea being documented and to the cognitive preferences of the researcher as sense maker

3. Iterative Coding

• Constant comparison led to theory developed through several iterations of data coding.

• In this process, concepts are defined, their dimensions developed and abstracted out.

• The concepts are then interrelated to each other and, potentially, to the extant literature.

• This coding is not required at the word or even at the paragraph level. Instead, the granularity of the code is defined by research interest, the nature of the data and the researcher’s philosophical stance.

4. Theoretical Sampling

• The data were collected based on theoretical sampling, with collection ceasing when the data reach theoretical saturation.

• Theoretical sampling does not aim to identify representative populations, but rather to enrich the emerging concept.

• In other words, the driver for sampling is the need to understand the nature and dimensions of emerging conceptualisations further, usually by sampling data in a way that varies a particular set of dimensions that emerge from prior data analysis.

• Theoretical sampling also helps reduce sampling bias and insufficient variation in data, while maintaining focus on the researcher’s goals

• Similarly, the notion of theoretical saturation guides the researcher to stay in the field and continue collecting data until new theoretical constructs cease arising and it becomes possible for the researcher to predict what the analysis of the next data point is likely to say.

5. Management of Preconceptions

• The study was not driven by existing theories. • This is not to say that the researcher’s own convictions, based on

their research paradigm, cannot guide their judgements – this is impossible to avoid.

• Instead, GTM requires that we avoid using specific theories pertaining to the phenomenon under study as the starting point for data collection and analysis.

Management of Preconception

• However, a priori theories and other preconceptions regarding the research domain should be dealt with in accordance with the method.

• Specifically, a priori theory of the phenomenon should be treated as a kind of data to be compared against evidence from the substantive field of enquiry, and not as a way of interpreting the data.

• In validating emergent theory, extant theoretical lenses may (and perhaps should) be used to explain how the emergent theory is related to the greater body of literature

6. Inextricable link between data collection and analysis

• The data collection and analysis activities were intrinsically related; done almost at the same time, in a recursive process, in which data analysis alternated with data collection until saturation was reached.

• (New data yields no new insights for the researcher/s involved).

6 Common Misconceptions in Grounded Theory

• Grounded Theory is not• an Excuse to Ignore the Literature• Presentation of Raw Data• Theory Testing, Content Analysis, or Word Counts• Simply Routine Application of Formulaic Technique to Data• Is Not Perfect• Not an Excuse for the Absence of a Methodology

Suddan et al (2006)