*PART 3 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGYTHE RESEARCH DESIGN

*What is a research design?After the task of defining the research problem, the researcher next turns to determining the design of the research project-i.e research designA research design is a plan (arrangement) for a study used as a guide to collect and analyze the data to achieve study objectives;According to Kerlinger (1986), a research design is a plan, conceptual structure and strategy of investigation conceived as to obtain answers to research questions or problems.

*What is a research design? (contd)It constitutes what researcher will do to complete study- processes like; Design study sample- set criteria, How to measure the items/(variables) in the study,Operationalize variables to data items, thus Identify what data to collect: ensure data to answer each objective is identifiedDecide method to be used to collect data,How to analyze the data collected In summary in research design , you make design decisions, and answer the how about your research

*What is a research design? (contd)A research design thus serves two functions:Identification, development of procedures /logical arrangements of a studyTo ensure adequacy of procedures for obtaining: valid, objective and accurate answers to research questions

It is similar to the plan drawn by an architect for a house.

*Types of research designCorrelationalField (survey)ExperimentalQualitativeLongitudinalExploratory researchMeta-analysisDescriptive and diagnostic research studiesCausal(statistically speaking) to asses cause and effect.

*Types of research designThe research design also reflects the purpose of the inquiry, which can be characterized as one or more of the following: Exploration -high levels of uncertainty and ignorance about Description -provide an accurate and valid representation of (encapsulate) the factors or variables Explanation /analytical study - causal links Prediction- Evaluation

*Benefits of a research designA research design thus ensures:i) that the study will be relevant to the problem at hand

ii) that the researcher will use economical procedures

iii) that the procedures used will give valid, objective and accurate answers to the research questions

.Benefits (contd)iv) offers a guide that directs the research action, and helps to rationalize the use of time and resources

v) helps to ensure all aspects of the research are covered

vi) helps minimize biases during data collection

vi) makes replication easier and more effective

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*The research design decisions are therefore made in respect of:What is the study about? name of the study design: is it descriptive, cross-sectional, exploratory, experimental etc

Why is the study being conducted?- purpose

Where will the study be carried out and for how long?

What type of data is required?-qualitative or quantitative data or both

*research design decisions (contd)v) Where can the required data be found?-sources of data; primary or secondary or both

vi) From whom will the data be obtained?-sample units

vii) How will consent be obtained from them?

viii) How should respondents contact the researcher if they have queries (in case of questionnaires being left behind)

*ix) In case of interviews, where will they be conducted?

How will ethical issues be taken care of ?

xi) How will the data be analysed?

By the time you are done answering each of these questions, you have your research plan in place

*Features of a good designA good design is characterised by flexibility, appropriateness and efficiency.

The design should minimise bias and maximise the reliability of the data collected and analysed.

It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem.

It takes into consideration the nature of the problem to be studied

*..features of a research design are:

It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the data face to face interviews; telephone interviews?.

It also takes into consideration the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints.

*Summary- In short, always choose a research design that will give answers to the research objectives in a cost effective way and will provide reliable data

*Concepts & VariablesThe various concepts relating to designs1. Dependent and independent variables A concept which can take on different quantitative values (a variable) Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantifiedIf one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable --- a dependent variable, the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable --- an independent variabl

*Concepts & VariablesConcept: A concept is a mental impression, image about something. Meaning of concepts differs from one individual to another. That is,Concepts are subjective impressionsConcepts cannot be measuredVariable: A variable is a rational unit of analysisAssumes any number of designed set of values,Takes on different values with changing conditionsIs a concept that can be measured

When concepts are operationalized, they become variables--- and can now be measured

*Concepts relating to research designVariable: A concept takes on different quantitative values, and its called a variable. Concepts such as weight, height, income are all examples of variables.

Qualitative concepts such as marketing strategies are also variables that are quantified on the basis of their presence (or absence) in the subjects under study.

* Example 1How would you measure a group of peoples academic achievement so as to determine those with high academic achievements and those with low academic achievements?

The Concept is: academic achievementOperationalization: Grades/Marks- measured in percentages-----or High, Low, AverageVariables: Percentage of marks obtained in each of the above: if greater than 75%...High, ..; if less than 40---Low else its AverageIndicators: average marks obtained in examinations, average marks obtained in practical work, aggregate marks etc

*Example 2Study: To determine the effectiveness of the Infant welfare Program in Public hospitals in KenyaConcept: Effectiveness: how do you determine effectiveness of something?Variables: Patient (infant) attendance to clinic/weight/deaths- e.g. Attendance indicates effective treatment, increase in weight, Low death rateVariable can be measured by taking -attendance (days, percent) per month; changes in weight (in kgs); rate of mortality/deaths- for those who attend per month etc

Example 3Concept: Social class/Dimensions: Economic class; Variable: Income -level; Empirical referent/Indicator: amount of money

Concept: /Dimensions: Occupational status; Variable: type of occupation; Empirical referent/Indicator: category of job

Concept/Dimensions: Educational status; Variable/: education levelEmpirical referent/Indicator: years of formal study, No. of degrees/certificates obtained*

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Dependent variable: If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, Independent variable, the variable that influences the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. Example: Factors affecting the survival rate of businesses at SIWAKA plaza.Independent Variables_ Biz survival rate factorsDependent Variable- Survival rate/outcomeDiscuss: What is the effect of age on learning ability?(What is the dependent and independent variable here?) Types of Variables-Summary

*Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.

For example, in studying the relationship between marketing strategies and the profitability of a firm, other variables such as disposable incomes of consumers could also affect profitability because they influence peoples purchasing power. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an experimental error. Error term

*Conceptual frameworkPollocks model

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CONCEPT

CONCEPTUALDEFINITION

OPERATIONALDEFINITION

VARIABLE(A STATE THAT TAKES DIFFERENT ATTRIBUTES O VALUES)

*Demand

Survival rateCapital base

Factors affecting survivalof small businesses

Independent VariablesDependent Variable

Conceptual framework

*DemandSalesNo. of customers

Survival rateNo. biz surviving in 5 yrs No. biz started over 5 yrs

Ratio

Capital base- Amount invested

Factors affecting survivalOf small businesses

Independent VariablesDependent Variable

Operational framework

*Types of Research DesignsAssignment for practice

*1. Exploratory Research Design-also called formulative

Its Uses - main purpose of such studiesTypes of research techniques used for exploratory studiesto formulate a problem for more precise investigation.

Very little is known about the problem

discovery of ideas and insights into the problem

To Clarify concepts that are unclear Literature search- Group 1 Experience survey Group 1 Selected case analysis Group 2 Focus groups Group 3 In depth- interviews Group 4 Projective techniques Group 5Observations/Ethnographies Group 6

*2. Descriptive Research Designs

Its UsesResearch Techniques in describing segment characteristics

in estimating how many people behave in certain way (buy, prefer)

in making specific predictionsi) Longitudinal study Group 7 True panel Omnibus panelii) Cross-sectional study Group 8 Sample survey

*3. Causal Research Designs

Its UsesResearch Techniques in providing evidence regarding causal relationships

Used in hypothesis testing research studies Its where the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationships between variables experiments are used to collect data i.e Laboratory experiments Field experimentsGroup 9

*Research Based On QuestioningQualitative research - generally used for exploratory purposes - small number of respondents - not generalizable to the whole population - statistical significance and confidence not calculated - examples include focus groups, in-depth interviews, and projective techniques.

Qualitative research is used for developing new ideas or to get a "gut feeling" for a given subject or problem.

*Research Based On Questioning (contd)Quantitative research generally used to draw conclusions - tests a specific hypothesis- uses random sampling techniques so as to infer from the sample to the population - involves a large number of respondents - examples include surveys and questionnaires.

Quantitative research primarily involves surveys based on representative samples where data is collected using mail, telephone or personal interviews.

*contdResults from quantitative studies can be projected to entire populations and therefore used in predicting.

*Research Based On Observation Ethnographic studies -, these studies are by nature qualitative,

the researcher observes social phenomena in their natural setting - observations can occur cross-sectionally (observations made at one time) or longitudinally (observations occur over several time-periods)

Observation techniques personal (human eye); mechanical (cameras; video recordings);

Example: product-use analysis.

*Research Based On Observation (contd)Experimental research- by nature quantitative, the researcher creates a quasi-artificial environment to try to control factors, then manipulates at least one of the variables

- examples include purchase laboratories and test markets

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.*If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative one, wherein the major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most appropriate must be flexible enough to permit the consideration of many aspects of a phenomenon.When the purpose of a situation or of an association between variables (descriptive study), accuracy becomes a major consideration and a research design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the evidence collected is considered a good design. *