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Research DesignResearch DesignConceptualConceptual structurestructure within which within which research is conducted.research is conducted.Constitutes the Constitutes the blueprintblueprint for the for the Collection, Measurement and Collection, Measurement and Analysis of data.Analysis of data.An An outlineoutline of what the researcher will do of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final operational implications to the final analysis of data.analysis of data.

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Design Decisions Design Decisions

What is the study about?What is the study about?Why is the study being made?Why is the study being made?Where will the study be carried out?Where will the study be carried out?What type of data is required?What type of data is required?Where can the required data be found?Where can the required data be found?What periods of time will the study What periods of time will the study include?include?What will be the sample design?What will be the sample design?What techniques of data collection will What techniques of data collection will be used?be used?

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How will the data be analyzed?How will the data be analyzed?In what style will the report be In what style will the report be prepared?prepared?

PARTS OF RESEARCH DESIGNPARTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

SamplingSampling DesignDesign: deals with the : deals with the method of selecting items to be method of selecting items to be observed.observed.ObservationalObservational DesignDesign: relates to the : relates to the conditions under which the conditions under which the observations are to be made.observations are to be made.

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Statistical DesignStatistical Design: concerns with : concerns with how the information and data how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed.gathered are to be analyzed.

Operational DesignOperational Design: deals with the : deals with the techniques by which the procedures techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be and observational designs can be carried out.carried out.

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Research Design should Research Design should contain:contain:

1.1. A A clearclear statementstatement of the research of the research problem.problem.

2.2. ProceduresProcedures andand techniquestechniques to be to be used for gathering information.used for gathering information.

3.3. TheThe populationpopulation to be studied. to be studied.4.4. Methods to be used inMethods to be used in processingprocessing

and and analyzinganalyzing data. data.

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Need for Research DesignNeed for Research DesignThoughtlessness in designing the Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in research project may result in rendering the research exercise rendering the research exercise futilefutile..

1.1. FacilitatesFacilitates smoothsmooth sailingsailing of the of the various research operations.various research operations.

2.2. Makes research as efficient as Makes research as efficient as possible yieldingpossible yielding maximalmaximal informationinformation withwith minimalminimal expenditureexpenditure of effort, of effort, time and money.time and money.

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3.3. Has a great bearing on the Has a great bearing on the reliabilityreliability of of the the resultsresults arrived at arrived at . .

4.4. Constitutes the Constitutes the foundationfoundation of the of the entire edifice of the research work.entire edifice of the research work.

5.5. Helps the researcher to organize his Helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form possible for him to ideas in a form possible for him to look for look for flawsflaws and and inadequaciesinadequacies..

6.6. Helps in Helps in critical evaluationcritical evaluation . .7.7. Provides a Provides a comprehensivecomprehensive reviewreview of of

the proposed study.the proposed study.

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Features of a Good DesignFeatures of a Good Design

AppropriateAppropriateEconomicalEconomicalMinimizes biasnessMinimizes biasnessMaximizes the reliability of data collectedMaximizes the reliability of data collectedReliability of data analyzedReliability of data analyzed

One One singlesingle designdesign cannot serve the cannot serve the purpose of all types of research purpose of all types of research problems.problems.

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Basic Concepts Relating to Basic Concepts Relating to Research DesignResearch Design

VariablesVariables::A Concept which can take on A Concept which can take on different Quantitative values.different Quantitative values.It is something whose magnitude can It is something whose magnitude can change.change.Price, Cost, Profit, Saving, Price, Cost, Profit, Saving, Investment, Export, Import, Income.Investment, Export, Import, Income.

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Qualitative PhenomenaQualitative Phenomena or the Attributes or the Attributes are also quantified on the basis of the are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning presence or absence of the concerning attribute (s). (Honesty, Beauty….)attribute (s). (Honesty, Beauty….)Continuous Variable:Continuous Variable: It can assume any It can assume any numerical value within a specific range. numerical value within a specific range. Phenomena which can take on Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in quantitatively different values even in decimal points.decimal points.Non-continuous Variable:Non-continuous Variable: Variables Variables expressed in integer values are non-expressed in integer values are non-continuous variables (Discrete continuous variables (Discrete Variables). Variables).

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Dependent Variable:Dependent Variable: If one variable If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as DV. the other variable, it is termed as DV. (Demand depends upon Price)(Demand depends upon Price)Independent Variable:Independent Variable: The Variable The Variable whose value is used for the estimation whose value is used for the estimation of the value of the dependent variable of the value of the dependent variable is called as independent variable. is called as independent variable. (Price influences demand)(Price influences demand)The variable that is antecedent to the The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is known as IV. dependent variable is known as IV.

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Extraneous Variable:Extraneous Variable: Independent Independent variables that are not related to the variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect purpose of the study, but may affect the DV are termed as EV. (Yielding as a the DV are termed as EV. (Yielding as a result of fertilizer used other than result of fertilizer used other than fertility of land). fertility of land). Experimental Error:Experimental Error: Any effect noticed Any effect noticed on DV as a result of EV is technically on DV as a result of EV is technically known as an Experimental Error.known as an Experimental Error.Study must be so designed that the Study must be so designed that the effect upon the DV is attributed effect upon the DV is attributed entirely to the IV and not to some EV or entirely to the IV and not to some EV or Variables.Variables.

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Control:Control: Good research design intends Good research design intends to minimize the influence of EV. When to minimize the influence of EV. When the study is so designed to minimize the study is so designed to minimize the effects of EV, the technical term the effects of EV, the technical term Control is used. (Use of Fertilizer on Control is used. (Use of Fertilizer on yielding).yielding).

Confounded Relationship:Confounded Relationship: When the DV When the DV is not free from the influence of EVs, is not free from the influence of EVs, the relationship between the DV and the relationship between the DV and the IVs is said to be confounded by an the IVs is said to be confounded by an EVs.EVs.

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Research Hypothesis:Research Hypothesis: Is a predictive Is a predictive statement that relates an IV to a DV.statement that relates an IV to a DV.When a prediction or a hypothesized When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is known as scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis.research hypothesis.Predictive statements, which are not Predictive statements, which are not to be to be objectively verified or the objectively verified or the relationships that are assumed but relationships that are assumed but not to be tested,not to be tested, are not RH. are not RH.

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Experimental hypothesis-testing Experimental hypothesis-testing research:research: When the purpose of the When the purpose of the research is to test a RH, it is known as research is to test a RH, it is known as hypothesis-testing research.hypothesis-testing research.Research in which the Research in which the IV is manipulatedIV is manipulated is termed as EHTR. (Fertility of Soil).is termed as EHTR. (Fertility of Soil).Research in which an Research in which an IV is not IV is not manipulatedmanipulated is called as NEHTR. is called as NEHTR. Experimental and Control Groups:Experimental and Control Groups: In an In an Experimental Hypothesis-testing research Experimental Hypothesis-testing research when a group is when a group is exposed to usual conditions,exposed to usual conditions, it it is known as Control Group. (Non-beneficiary of is known as Control Group. (Non-beneficiary of a loan) a loan)

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When the group is exposed to some When the group is exposed to some special conditionspecial condition, it is known as , it is known as Experimental GroupExperimental Group. . (Beneficiary of a (Beneficiary of a Loan).Loan).Treatments:Treatments: The different conditions The different conditions under which Experimental and control under which Experimental and control groups are put usually referred to as groups are put usually referred to as Treatments. (Sanction of loan, Impact Treatments. (Sanction of loan, Impact of varieties of fertilizers on the Yield). of varieties of fertilizers on the Yield). Experiment:Experiment: The process of examining The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment. (Examining known as an experiment. (Examining the usefulness of a newly developedthe usefulness of a newly developed drug).drug).

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Absolute Experiment:Absolute Experiment: Determining the Determining the impact of one variable on other impact of one variable on other exclusively, is a case of Absolute Exp. exclusively, is a case of Absolute Exp. (Impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a (Impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop) crop) Comparative Experiment:Comparative Experiment: Determining Determining the impact of one variable as the impact of one variable as compared to other variables, is a case compared to other variables, is a case of Comparative experiment. of Comparative experiment. (Determining the impact of one (Determining the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of fertilizer as compared to the impact of other fertilizers).other fertilizers).

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Experimental Units:Experimental Units: The pre- The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are different treatments are used, are known as Experimental Units. known as Experimental Units. (Beneficiary, non-beneficiary…).(Beneficiary, non-beneficiary…).

Different Research DesignDifferent Research Design

Research Design in case of Research Design in case of Exploratory Exploratory Research Studies.Research Studies.Research Design in case of Research Design in case of Descriptive Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies.and Diagnostic Research Studies.Research Design in case of Research Design in case of Hypothesis-Hypothesis-testing Research Studies.testing Research Studies.

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RD in case of Exploratory/ RD in case of Exploratory/ Formulative Research StudiesFormulative Research Studies

Major emphasis in such studies is on Major emphasis in such studies is on Discovery of Ideas and InsightsDiscovery of Ideas and Insights..Main purpose is that of formulating a Main purpose is that of formulating a problem for more problem for more precise Investigationprecise Investigation or developing the working hypotheses or developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view.from an operational point of view.The RD must be The RD must be FlexibleFlexible enough to enough to provide opportunity for considering provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem.different aspects of a problem.

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Necessity is to make changes in the Necessity is to make changes in the research procedures for gathering research procedures for gathering relevant data.relevant data.

Three Methods in RDThree Methods in RD

Survey of Concerning LiteratureSurvey of Concerning LiteratureExperience Survey Experience Survey Analysis of ‘Insight-stimulating’ Analysis of ‘Insight-stimulating’ examples.examples.

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The Survey of Concerning The Survey of Concerning Literature:Literature:

Hypotheses stated by earlier workers Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be may be reviewed.reviewed.Usefulness of the hypotheses be Usefulness of the hypotheses be evaluatedevaluated as a basis for further research. as a basis for further research.Need to consider whether the already Need to consider whether the already stated hypotheses suggest stated hypotheses suggest new new hypothesis.hypothesis.Researcher should Researcher should review and build uponreview and build upon the work already done by others.the work already done by others.

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In cases where hypotheses have not In cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, the task is to yet been formulated, the task is to ReviewReview the available material for the available material for deriving relevant hypotheses from it.deriving relevant hypotheses from it.Bibliographical surveyBibliographical survey of studies of studies should be made by the researcher should be made by the researcher for precisely formulating the for precisely formulating the Problem.Problem.Works of Works of creative writerscreative writers provide provide a a fertile ground for hypothesis fertile ground for hypothesis formulation.formulation.

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Experience SurveyExperience SurveySurvey of peopleSurvey of people who have had practical who have had practical experience with the problem be studied.experience with the problem be studied.Helps in obtaining Helps in obtaining insightinsight into the into the relationships between variables.relationships between variables.Facilitates with Facilitates with new ideasnew ideas relating to the relating to the research problem.research problem.Need for Need for careful selectioncareful selection of the people of the people (respondents), found to be competent (respondents), found to be competent who can contribute new ideas.who can contribute new ideas.Need for preparation of an Need for preparation of an interview interview schedule. schedule.

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Need for Need for systematic questioningsystematic questioning of of informants.informants.Interview must ensure Interview must ensure FlexibilityFlexibility – – respondents should be allowed to raise respondents should be allowed to raise issues & questions.issues & questions.Need for sending the questions Need for sending the questions in in advanceadvance to the respondents – advance to the respondents – advance thinking and for contributing effectively.thinking and for contributing effectively.Facilitates to define the problem more Facilitates to define the problem more conciselyconcisely and helps in the and helps in the formulation of formulation of the research hypothesis. the research hypothesis.

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Analysis of ‘Insight-stimulating’ Analysis of ‘Insight-stimulating’ Examples:Examples:

Suitable in areas where Suitable in areas where little little experienceexperience to serve as a guide. to serve as a guide.Consists of Consists of intensive studyintensive study of selected of selected instances of the phenomenon.instances of the phenomenon.Existing recordsExisting records may be examined. may be examined.Unstructured interviewingUnstructured interviewing may be may be done.done.Drawing together diverse information Drawing together diverse information into a into a unified interpretationunified interpretation is the main is the main features for evoking insights.features for evoking insights.

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Study of Individuals who are in Study of Individuals who are in transition from one stage to another.transition from one stage to another.Reactions of Individuals from Reactions of Individuals from different social strata.different social strata.

RD must continue to be Flexible.RD must continue to be Flexible.Many different facets of a Many different facets of a Problem may be considered as Problem may be considered as and when they arise.and when they arise.

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Overall Design:Overall Design:Flexible Design. Design must provide Flexible Design. Design must provide opportunity for considering different opportunity for considering different aspects of the problem.aspects of the problem.Sampling Design:Sampling Design:Non-probability sampling design- Non-probability sampling design- Purposive or Judgment sampling.Purposive or Judgment sampling.Statistical Design:Statistical Design:No pre-planned design for analysis.No pre-planned design for analysis.Observational Design:Observational Design:Unstructured instruments for Unstructured instruments for collection of data.collection of data.

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RD in case of Descriptive and Diagnostic RD in case of Descriptive and Diagnostic Research StudiesResearch Studies

Concerned with Concerned with narration of factsnarration of facts and and characteristics of an individual, group characteristics of an individual, group or a situation.or a situation.Diagnostic Research Studies Diagnostic Research Studies determine the determine the frequencyfrequency with which with which something occurs (whether certain something occurs (whether certain variables are associated).variables are associated).Aim is to obtain Aim is to obtain complete and complete and accurateaccurate information–procedure must information–procedure must be carefully planned.be carefully planned.

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RD must enough provision for protection RD must enough provision for protection against biasagainst bias and must and must maximize maximize reliabilityreliability..RD must be RD must be rigidrigid and not flexible with and not flexible with focus on:focus on:

1.1. What the study is about?What the study is about?2.2. Why the study is being made?Why the study is being made?3.3. What techniques of gathering data will What techniques of gathering data will

bebe adopted?adopted?4. How much material will be needed?4. How much material will be needed?5. Where can the required data be found? 5. Where can the required data be found?

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5. 5. What time period should the data be What time period should the data be related?related?

6. How the data will be processed and6. How the data will be processed and analyzed?analyzed?7. What style will be followed in 7. What style will be followed in

preparing thepreparing the report?report?

First, the First, the objectivesobjectives should be clearly should be clearly specified to ensure that the data specified to ensure that the data collected are relevant.collected are relevant.Second, Second, techniquestechniques for collecting data for collecting data must be devised.must be devised.

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While collecting information, adequate While collecting information, adequate safeguards againstsafeguards against bias bias and and unreliability unreliability must be ensured.must be ensured.Questions must be Questions must be well examinedwell examined and and be madebe made unambiguous unambiguous..Interviewers must be instructed not to Interviewers must be instructed not to express their express their own opinionown opinion..Observers must be trained to Observers must be trained to uniformlyuniformly recordrecord a given item of behavior. a given item of behavior.Pre-testingPre-testing the data collection the data collection instruments are necessary.instruments are necessary.

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StructuredStructured Instruments are necessary for Instruments are necessary for such studies.such studies.To make statements about the To make statements about the population, population, samplesample has to be designed. has to be designed.Random SamplingRandom Sampling procedure should be procedure should be followed.followed.Data should be examined for Data should be examined for completeness, consistency and completeness, consistency and reliability.reliability.Processing and analyzing procedure Processing and analyzing procedure should be should be planned beforeplanned before research work research work started.started.

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Statistical computations like averages, Statistical computations like averages, percentages and coefficients must be percentages and coefficients must be worked out in the most proper way.worked out in the most proper way.Layout of the report needs to be Layout of the report needs to be well well plannedplanned..Minimization of Minimization of biasbias and maximization and maximization of of reliabilityreliability of evidence collected of evidence collected should be ensured.should be ensured.Overall Design:Overall Design:RigidRigid Design. Protection against Design. Protection against biasness and maximization of biasness and maximization of reliability. reliability.

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Sampling Design:Sampling Design:Probability Sampling Design.Probability Sampling Design.Statistical Design:Statistical Design:Pre-planned Design for Analysis.Pre-planned Design for Analysis.Observational Design:Observational Design:Structured or well thought out Structured or well thought out Instruments for collection of Data.Instruments for collection of Data.Operational Design:Operational Design:Advanced Decisions about Operational Advanced Decisions about Operational Procedures.Procedures.

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Research Design in case of Research Design in case of Hypothesis- testing Research StudiesHypothesis- testing Research Studies

Researcher tests theResearcher tests the hypotheses hypotheses of causal of causal relationships between variables.relationships between variables.Helps in drawingHelps in drawing inferences inferences about about causality.causality.RD often mean the design of RD often mean the design of Experiments- Experiments- known as Experimental Studies.known as Experimental Studies.The study of Experimental Designs has its The study of Experimental Designs has its origin in origin in Agricultural Research ( Prof. Agricultural Research ( Prof. Fisher). Fisher).

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ProcedureProcedure : Dividing Agricultural fields : Dividing Agricultural fields into different blocks and conducting into different blocks and conducting Experiments on each blocks, Experiments on each blocks, information gathered and inferences information gathered and inferences drawn found to be more reliable.drawn found to be more reliable.

Three Principles of RD:Three Principles of RD:

The Principle of ReplicationThe Principle of ReplicationThe Principle of RandomizationThe Principle of RandomizationThe Principle of Local Control The Principle of Local Control

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Principle of ReplicationPrinciple of ReplicationExperiment should be Experiment should be repeatedrepeated more than more than once.once.Each treatment is applied in Each treatment is applied in many experimentalmany experimental units.units.Facilitates in bringing the Facilitates in bringing the statistical accuracystatistical accuracy of of the experiments.the experiments.Example:Example: Examining yield rate of two varieties Examining yield rate of two varieties of Paddy: Dividing the field into of Paddy: Dividing the field into several partsseveral parts, , grow one variety in grow one variety in half half of these parts and the of these parts and the other variety in the other variety in the remainingremaining parts. parts.

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Drawing conclusion by comparing the data of Drawing conclusion by comparing the data of yield rate of the two varieties.yield rate of the two varieties.The result so obtained will be more The result so obtained will be more reliablereliable by by applying the principle of Replication.applying the principle of Replication.Increases the Increases the precisionprecision of a study. of a study.

Principle of RandomizationPrinciple of Randomization

Provides Provides protectionprotection against the effects of against the effects of Extraneous factors by Randomization.Extraneous factors by Randomization.

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Indicates that designing the Experiment should Indicates that designing the Experiment should be done in such a way that the be done in such a way that the variationsvariations caused by caused by ExtraneousExtraneous factors can all be factors can all be combined under the heading of combined under the heading of ‘Chance’.‘Chance’.Example: Growing of rice in first half of the Example: Growing of rice in first half of the parts of a field and the other variety in other parts of a field and the other variety in other half, it may so happen that the fertility of land half, it may so happen that the fertility of land may be different in both the cases resulting in may be different in both the cases resulting in unrealisticunrealistic findings. findings.Assigning of variety of rice to be grown in Assigning of variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of different parts of the field on the basis of Random Sampling TechniqueRandom Sampling Technique. .

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Randomization principle Randomization principle protectsprotects the effects of the effects of the Extraneous factors (soil fertility differences) the Extraneous factors (soil fertility differences) and helps in and helps in better estimationbetter estimation of Experimental of Experimental error.error.

Principle of Local ControlPrinciple of Local ControlThe Extraneous factor is made to vary The Extraneous factor is made to vary deliberately over a wide range as necessary so deliberately over a wide range as necessary so that the variability can be measured and that the variability can be measured and eliminated from the experimental error.eliminated from the experimental error.Example: Treatments (Varieties of Rice)Example: Treatments (Varieties of Rice)

Extraneous factor (Soil fertility)Extraneous factor (Soil fertility)

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As per the Principle : As per the Principle : DivideDivide the field into the field into several several homogeneous partshomogeneous parts, known as , known as blocksblocks..Then Then dividedivide each such block into parts equal to each such block into parts equal to the number of the number of treatmentstreatments. . Assigned the Assigned the treatments randomlytreatments randomly to these to these parts of a block.parts of a block.Blocks are the levels at which we hold an Blocks are the levels at which we hold an Extraneous factor fixed, to measure its Extraneous factor fixed, to measure its contribution to the total variability of the data.contribution to the total variability of the data.

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Types of Experimental DesignTypes of Experimental DesignExperimental Design refers to the Experimental Design refers to the frameworkframework or or structurestructure of an Experiment. of an Experiment.Types:Types:Before-and-after without control DesignBefore-and-after without control DesignAfter-only with control DesignAfter-only with control DesignBefore-and-after with control DesignBefore-and-after with control Design

Before-and-after without control DesignBefore-and-after without control DesignA A single testsingle test group or area is selected. group or area is selected.The Dependent variable is measured The Dependent variable is measured before thebefore the introduction introduction of the treatment. of the treatment.

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Treatment is then introduced.Treatment is then introduced.The dependent variable is measured after the The dependent variable is measured after the treatment has been introduced.treatment has been introduced.The effect of treatment: Level of Phenomenon The effect of treatment: Level of Phenomenon after the treatment minus the Level of after the treatment minus the Level of Phenomenon before the treatment.Phenomenon before the treatment.Test area: Level of Phenomenon Treatment Level of Phenomenon Test area: Level of Phenomenon Treatment Level of Phenomenon Before treatment (X) Introduced After treatment (Y)Before treatment (X) Introduced After treatment (Y)

Treatment Effect = ( Y ) – ( X ) Treatment Effect = ( Y ) – ( X )

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After – only with Control DesignAfter – only with Control Design

Two groupsTwo groups or areas (test area and control or areas (test area and control area) are selected.area) are selected.TreatmentTreatment is introduced into the is introduced into the test areatest area only. only.The The DVDV is measured in is measured in both the areasboth the areas at the at the same time.same time.Treatment impact is assessed by Treatment impact is assessed by subtractingsubtracting the the value of DVvalue of DV in the in the control areacontrol area from its from its value in the value in the test areatest area..

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Test Area: Treatment Introduced Level of Phenomenon afterTreatment (Y)

Control Area: Level of Phenomenon withoutTreatment (Z)

Treatment Effect = (Y) – (Z)

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Assumptions of the Design:Assumptions of the Design:

Two areas must Two areas must be identicalbe identical with respect to with respect to their behavior towards the phenomenon their behavior towards the phenomenon considered.considered.FailureFailure to assume so, there is possibility of to assume so, there is possibility of extraneous variationextraneous variation in entering into the in entering into the treatment effect. treatment effect.

This Design is Superior to before – and – This Design is Superior to before – and – after without control design.after without control design.

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Before – and – after with Control DesignBefore – and – after with Control Design

Two areasTwo areas are selected for the study. are selected for the study.DVDV is measured in both the areas for an is measured in both the areas for an identical time-periodidentical time-period before the treatment. before the treatment.TreatmentTreatment is introduced into the is introduced into the testtest area only. area only.DVDV is measured in both for an identical time- is measured in both for an identical time-period after the period after the introductionintroduction of the treatment. of the treatment.The treatment effect is determined by The treatment effect is determined by subtractingsubtracting the change in the the change in the DV in the controlDV in the control area from the change in the area from the change in the DV in test areaDV in test area..

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Test Area: Level of Phenomenon Treatment Level of Phenomenon

before treatment (X) introduced after treatment (Y)

Control Area: Level of Phenomenon Level of Phenomenon

without treatment without treatment (A) (Z)

Treatment Effect = (Y - X) – (Z - A)

Time Period I Time Period II

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Completely Randomized Design (C.R. Design)Completely Randomized Design (C.R. Design)Involves two principles: Principle of Involves two principles: Principle of ReplicationReplication and Principle of and Principle of RandomizationRandomization..Subjects are Subjects are randomlyrandomly assigned to assigned to experimental treatments.experimental treatments.ExampleExample: If out of 10 subjects, the study will : If out of 10 subjects, the study will test 5 under test 5 under treatment Atreatment A and 5 under and 5 under treatment treatment BB, the randomization process gives every , the randomization process gives every possible group of 5 subjects selected from a set possible group of 5 subjects selected from a set of 10 an of 10 an equal opportunityequal opportunity of being assigned to of being assigned to treatment A and treatment B. treatment A and treatment B.

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In C.R. Design, all the variations due to In C.R. Design, all the variations due to uncontrolled uncontrolled extraneous factorsextraneous factors are included are included under the heading of under the heading of chancechance variation. variation.Two forms of the C.R. Design areTwo forms of the C.R. Design are::Two-group Simple Randomized DesignTwo-group Simple Randomized DesignRandom Replications DesignRandom Replications Design

Two-group Simple Randomized DesignTwo-group Simple Randomized DesignPopulation / Universe is defined.Population / Universe is defined.From the population a sample is selected From the population a sample is selected Randomly.Randomly.

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Items after being selected Items after being selected randomlyrandomly from the from the population, be population, be randomlyrandomly assigned to the assigned to the ExperimentalExperimental and and ControlControl groups. groups.This yields This yields two groupstwo groups as representatives of as representatives of the population on the basis of Principle of the population on the basis of Principle of RandomizationRandomization..Two groups (experimental and control) of Two groups (experimental and control) of such design are given such design are given different treatmentsdifferent treatments. . RandomizesRandomizes the the differencesdifferences among the among the sample items. sample items.

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Individual differencesIndividual differences among those among those conducting the treatments are not eliminated.conducting the treatments are not eliminated.FailureFailure of controlling the of controlling the extraneous variableextraneous variable bring misleading results.bring misleading results.ExampleExample: Comparing two groups of Ph.D. : Comparing two groups of Ph.D. scholars who have been scholars who have been randomlyrandomly selected selected and assigned. and assigned. Two differentTwo different treatments- treatments- usual training and specialized training are usual training and specialized training are given to two groups. given to two groups. Ho: Greater gains for Ho: Greater gains for the group receiving specialized trainingthe group receiving specialized training..Study each group Study each group beforebefore and and afterafter the the training. training.

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Compares the Compares the amount of gainamount of gain for the two for the two groups to accept or reject the Ho.groups to accept or reject the Ho.Fails to controlFails to control the differential effects of the the differential effects of the extraneousextraneous independent variables. independent variables. (Individual differences among those (Individual differences among those conducting the training program).conducting the training program).

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RandomlySelected

RandomlyAssignedPopulation Sample

ExperimentalGroup

ControlGroup

Trea

tmen

t ATr

eatm

ent B

Inde

pend

ent V

aria

ble

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Random Replications DesignRandom Replications DesignServesServes two two purposes: Provides purposes: Provides controlscontrols for for the differential effects of the the differential effects of the extraneousextraneous independent variables by providing a independent variables by providing a number of number of repetitionsrepetitions for each treatment. for each treatment. RandomizesRandomizes any individual differences any individual differences among those among those conducting treatmentsconducting treatments..In replication design there are In replication design there are twotwo populations.populations.SampleSample is taken is taken randomlyrandomly from the from the population available for study. population available for study.

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The The samplesample is is randomlyrandomly assigned to assigned to ExperimentalExperimental and and ControlControl groups. groups.Sample is taken Sample is taken randomlyrandomly from the from the population available to conduct population available to conduct ExperimentsExperiments and be and be randomly assignedrandomly assigned to the groups. to the groups.Variables relating to both population Variables relating to both population characteristics are assumed to becharacteristics are assumed to be randomly randomly distributed among distributed among two two groups.groups.Example: Because of eight groups eight Example: Because of eight groups eight individuals should be selected and randomly individuals should be selected and randomly assigned to eight groups.assigned to eight groups.

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Population(Available for study) Population

(Available to conduct treatments)

Random Selection

Random SelectionSample

( To be studied)Sample

( To conduct treatments )Random Assignment

Group 1Group 2Group 3Group 4Group 5Group 6Group 7Group 8

EEEE

C C C C

Random Assignment

Treatment A Treatment B

Independent Variable or Causal Variable

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Developing a Research PlanDeveloping a Research PlanAfter identifying and defining the problem, After identifying and defining the problem, researcher must arrange the ideas and researcher must arrange the ideas and write them in the form of an write them in the form of an Experimental Experimental Plan known as Research Plan.Plan known as Research Plan.Research Plan must contain the following:Research Plan must contain the following:Research Research objectiveobjective should be clearly should be clearly stated.stated.Problem to be studied must Problem to be studied must explicitlyexplicitly be be stated to know thestated to know the information information to be to be obtained for solving the problem.obtained for solving the problem.

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Each Each major conceptmajor concept should be defined in should be defined in operational termsoperational terms which researcher wants to which researcher wants to measure.measure.Should contain the Should contain the methodmethod to be used in to be used in solving the problem. An overall description of solving the problem. An overall description of the approach to be adopted is usually given.the approach to be adopted is usually given.Must state the details of the Must state the details of the techniquestechniques to be to be adopted. (Data collection, Nature of adopted. (Data collection, Nature of instruments to be used etc.).instruments to be used etc.).A clear mention of the A clear mention of the populationpopulation to be to be studied should be made.studied should be made.

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If the study happens to be sample based, If the study happens to be sample based, the plan should state the the plan should state the sampling plansampling plan i.e., i.e., how the sample is to be identified.how the sample is to be identified.Plan must contain thePlan must contain the methods methods to be used in to be used in processingprocessing the data. the data. StatisticalStatistical and other and other methods to be used must be indicated in the methods to be used must be indicated in the plan.plan.Result of Result of pilot testpilot test, if any, should be , if any, should be reported.reported.TimeTime and and costcost budgets for the research budgets for the research should be prepared and laid down in the should be prepared and laid down in the plan. plan.