research design and types of research

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RESEARCH DESIGN

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Page 1: Research Design and Types of Research

RESEARCH DESIGN

Page 2: Research Design and Types of Research

Research Design

Research Design is a blue print for collection, measurement and analysis of data

Page 3: Research Design and Types of Research

Research Design can be divided in to

1. Sampling design-deals with the method of selecting items for the study

2. Observational design-relates to the conditions under which the observations are made.

3. Statistical design-deals with how information and data are to be analysed.

4. Operational design-deals with techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

Page 4: Research Design and Types of Research

Important concepts relating to Research Design

1. Variable2. Control3. Confounded relationship4. Experimental and Non-Experimental hypothesis testing

research5. Experimental and Control Groups

6. Treatment and Experiment

Page 5: Research Design and Types of Research

The definition of a variable:

A phenomenon or a situation that can take different quantitative values and can be measured.

A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are generally used to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another.

Continuous variable – Phenomena which can take quantitatively different values, even decimals. Eg: Age

Non-Continuous variable or Discrete Variable – Only expressed in integers. Eg: No. of Men

Page 6: Research Design and Types of Research

The difference between a concept and a variable

Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning varies markedly from individual to individual. It cannot be measured

Variable can be subjected to measurement by subjective /objective units of measurement.

e.g.- Satisfation ,Domestic violence Concepts___>Indicators_____>Variables

indicators- a set of criteria reflective of the concept which can then be converted into variables.

Page 7: Research Design and Types of Research

Types of variables:

1. Independent variables – the cause supposed to be responsible for the bringing about change in a phenomenon or situation.

2. Dependent variables – the outcome of change/effect brought about by change in the independent variable

Eg: Height depends on age/individual sex(Height – DV)

Page 8: Research Design and Types of Research

3. Extraneous variable –IV’s that are not related to the purpose of the study but affects DV

1.Intervening variable – a variable whose existence is inferred but cannot be manipulated or controlled

2.Moderator variable – a variable that may or may not be controlled but has an effect on the research situation/phenomenon.

Page 9: Research Design and Types of Research

For example:

• Does a commitment to ethics among media practitioners depend on their educational or professional training?

1. Independent variable: educational attainment of journalist.

2. Dependent variables: ethical behavior, knowledge of Code of Ethics

3. Intervening variable: newsroom policies

4. Moderator variables: civil status, age, years of work experience

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2. Control

Controlled- The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, the study is set up in such a way that it minimizes the effect of extraneous variable

This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a laboratory.

However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are not possible.

Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.

Page 11: Research Design and Types of Research

3. Confounded Relationship

When the DV is not free from the influence of EV, the relationship between DV and IV is said to be confounded by an EV

Page 12: Research Design and Types of Research

4.Experimental and Non-Experimental hypothesis testing research

Research in which IV is manipulated is termed as hypothesis testing research

Research in which IV is not manipulated is termed as Non-Experimental hypothesis testing research

Page 13: Research Design and Types of Research

5. Experimental and Control Groups

In an Experimental hypothesis testing research, when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is called control group but when exposed to special conditions, it is called experimental group.

Page 14: Research Design and Types of Research

6.Treatment and Experiment

Treatment – The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put is called a treatment

Experiment – The process of statistical testing of hypothesis is called experiment

The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an Experiment.

E.g.:-

we can conduct an Experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug.

Page 15: Research Design and Types of Research

Types of Research

Page 16: Research Design and Types of Research

TYPES OF RESEARCHTYPES OF RESEARCHDescriptive vs Analytical ResearchDescriptive vs Analytical Research

1.1. Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research is a fact finding investigation is a fact finding investigation which is aimed at describing the characteristics of an which is aimed at describing the characteristics of an individual, situation or a group (or) describing the individual, situation or a group (or) describing the state of affairs as it exists at present. state of affairs as it exists at present.

Descriptive research studies deal with collecting Descriptive research studies deal with collecting datadata

and answering questions through asking questions and answering questions through asking questions from individuals in the situation (through from individuals in the situation (through questionnaires or interviews) or by observation questionnaires or interviews) or by observation (Survey type research).(Survey type research).

Page 17: Research Design and Types of Research

Descriptive Research (Example)Describe the characteristics of relevant groups

Internet usersWho buys our products?Where do they buy it?

Page 18: Research Design and Types of Research

2. Analytical Research is primarily concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or information already available. (Cause-Effect)

Analytical/Explanatory

Page 19: Research Design and Types of Research

Applied vs Fundamental ResearchApplied vs Fundamental ResearchApplied ResearchApplied Research or Action Research is or Action Research is

carried out to find solution to a real life problem carried out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision a society or requiring an action or policy decision a society or business faces.business faces.

Goal: To improve human condition (i.e., improve the Goal: To improve human condition (i.e., improve the world) (e.g., how to cure cancers?)world) (e.g., how to cure cancers?)

Driven by practical needsDriven by practical needs High impact examples: computers, transistors, High impact examples: computers, transistors,

vaccinations, …vaccinations, … The boundary is vague; distinction isn’t importantThe boundary is vague; distinction isn’t important

Page 20: Research Design and Types of Research

Fundamental Research which is also known as basic or pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice.

It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.

Goal: Expand man’s knowledge (e.g., which genes control social behavior of human beings? )

Often driven by curiosity (but not always) High impact examples: relativity theory, DNA, …

Page 21: Research Design and Types of Research

Quantitative vs Qualitative ResearchQuantitative vs Qualitative Research

Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research Research is based on the measurement of quantity or Research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. To camount. To collect and analyze data to explain, ollect and analyze data to explain, predict, or control phenomena of interestpredict, or control phenomena of interest

1.1. Describe current conditionsDescribe current conditions2.2. Investigate relationshipsInvestigate relationships3.3. Study causes and effectsStudy causes and effects

Page 22: Research Design and Types of Research

Basic designs Descriptive Correlational Causal-comparative Experimental

Obj. 3.7

Page 23: Research Design and Types of Research

1.Descriptive Purpose – to describe the current status of a

variable of interest to the researcher Example-Peter O. Peretti and Kris G. Majecen

(1992) interviewed 58 elderly individuals, from 68 to 87 years of age, using a structured interview to investigate the variables that affect emotional abuse among the elderly.

• As a result of the interviews, they found 9 variables are common to elderly abuse, including lack of affection, threats of violence and confinement.

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Page 24: Research Design and Types of Research

2. CorrelationalPurpose – to ascertain the extent to which

two or more variables are statistically related

To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.

To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele.

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Page 25: Research Design and Types of Research

3.CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE/EX-POST FACTO STUDIES Purpose – to explore relationships among variables that

cannot be actively manipulated or controlled by the researcher

Conducted to identify cause-and-effect relationships

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Page 26: Research Design and Types of Research

4.Experimental Purpose – to establish cause and effect

relationships between variables The important characteristics are that there is

greater control over the research environment and the researcher manipulates the independent variable and controls unrelated variables

Some of the examples of an independent variables could be: temperature, pressure, chemical concentration, type of material and conductivity.

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Page 27: Research Design and Types of Research

Pure Qualitative ResearchPure Qualitative Research is a non- is a non-quantitative type of analysis which is aimed quantitative type of analysis which is aimed at finding out the quality/kind of a particular at finding out the quality/kind of a particular phenomenon. Help taken from experimental phenomenon. Help taken from experimental psychologists.psychologists.

General purpose To probe deeply into the research setting to obtain in-depth

understandings about the way things are, why they are like that, and how participants perceive them

Assumptions of the researcher All meaning is situated in a particular perspective or

context ,Different people and groups often have different perspectives and contexts, so there are many different meanings in the world

Obj. 3.8 & 5.1

Page 28: Research Design and Types of Research

Conceptual vs. Empirical Research Conceptual vs. Empirical Research /Experimental/Experimental

Conceptual ResearchConceptual Research is generally used is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or ideas to reinterpret existing ones.or ideas to reinterpret existing ones.

Empirical ResearchEmpirical Research is a is a data based data based researchresearch which depends on experience or observation which depends on experience or observation alone. It is a data based research with verifiable alone. It is a data based research with verifiable conclusions. conclusions. The important characteristics are that The important characteristics are that there is greater control over the research environment there is greater control over the research environment and the researcher manipulates the independent and the researcher manipulates the independent variable and controls unrelated variables.variable and controls unrelated variables.

Page 29: Research Design and Types of Research

Some other types of research..Some other types of research.. One-time ResearchOne-time Research – Research confined to a single – Research confined to a single

time period.time period. Longitudinal ResearchLongitudinal Research – Research carried on over – Research carried on over

several time periods.several time periods. Diagnostic ResearchDiagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research – It is also called clinical research

which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, frequency with which it occurs and the possible frequency with which it occurs and the possible solutions for it.solutions for it.

Exploratory ResearchExploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of – It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the problem. precise formulation of the problem. Hence it is also Hence it is also known as formulative research. known as formulative research.

Page 30: Research Design and Types of Research

Historical ResearchHistorical Research – – • The purpose of historical • The purpose of historical research is to research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends, arrive at conclusions concerning trends, causes or effects of past occurrencescauses or effects of past occurrences. This may help in . This may help in explaining present events and anticipating future explaining present events and anticipating future events.events.• • The data are not gathered by administering The data are not gathered by administering

instruments to individuals, but by collecting them instruments to individuals, but by collecting them from original documents or by interviewing the eye-from original documents or by interviewing the eye-witnesses (primary source of information).witnesses (primary source of information).

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Qualitative Research

Page 32: Research Design and Types of Research

Qualitative Research

Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research is a non-quantitative type of is a non-quantitative type of

analysis which is aimed at finding out the analysis which is aimed at finding out the

quality/kind of a particular phenomenonquality/kind of a particular phenomenon

‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what

people think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what

they say they think and how they say they feel. This

kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings

and impressions, rather than numbers’

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Example: Smoking and lung cancer Research has established the association b/t

smoking and lung cancer Qualitative methodology helps to explain:

The power of tobacco companies and advertising

Reasons why people continue to smoke despite the evidence

Social meaning of smoking (eg among women and the youth)

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Qualitative Research as a Process

Theoretical Approach Method

Analysis

Page 35: Research Design and Types of Research

Theoretical ApproachDeductive

Deductive Theoretical Approach

Seek to use existing theory to shape the

approach which you adopt to the qualitative

research process and to aspects of data

analysis

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Inductive Approach

Inductive Theoretical Approach

Seek to build up a theory which is adequately

grounded in a number of relevant cases.

Referred to as Interpretative and Grounded

Theory

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Method/Types of qualitative research

The case study Ethnography Grounded theory Phenomenology

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1. The Case Study

Interest is in an individual case of a person or an event, a group, or an institution rather than in a method of inquiry

Data may be quantitative or qualitative Focus on what can be learned from the

individual case Eg: Dhirubhai Ambani, Wipro

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2. Ethnography

Ethno = people Graphy = describing something Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close

field observation of socio-cultural phenomena.

Role of the observer Complete observer Complete participant (identity not revealed) Observer as participant (spectator) Participant as observer (reveal your purpose and

gain trust of the group)

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For example, a business can use ethnographers and their ethnographies to better understand the wants and needs of a customer base

Ethnography at Intel initially focused on new markets. The company had provided products only for the workplace, but in 1995 managers wondered whether users at home would become a distinct market. Ethnographic research showed so much potential that Intel set up a business unit to concentrate on processors and platforms for home use.

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3. Grounded Theory

Theory is developed inductively from data that is systematically collected and analysed by a participant-observer.

grounded theory research in business and management is used to develop new concepts and theories of business-related phenomena, innovation etc.

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4. Phenomenology

Rooted in philosophy and describes the structures of experience as they present themselves to consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction, or assumptions from other disciplines

Central question: what is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon for this person/group of people?

Researching entrepreneurship through phenomenological inquiry: philosophical and methodological issues

Page 43: Research Design and Types of Research

Analysis of Qualitative Data: An Approach

Categorisation Unitising data Recognising relationships and developing the

categories you are using to facilitate this Developing and testing hypotheses to reach

conclusion

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Qualitative v.'s Quantitative

QualitativeResearch

QuantitativeResearch

Type of questions Probing Limited probing

Sample Size small large

Info. Perrespondent

much varies

Admin Requires skilledresearcher

Fewer specialistskills required

Type of Analysis Subjective,interpretative

Statistical

Type of research Exploratory Descriptive orcausal

Page 45: Research Design and Types of Research

Different research design

In case of In case of ExploratoryExploratory research studyresearch studyUnaware of ProblemUnaware of Problem

In case of In case of ExploratoryExploratory research studyresearch studyUnaware of ProblemUnaware of Problem

in case of descriptive in case of descriptive and diagnostic and diagnostic researchresearch

Aware of ProblemAware of Problem

in case of descriptive in case of descriptive and diagnostic and diagnostic researchresearch

Aware of ProblemAware of Problem

In case of hypothesis-In case of hypothesis-testing research testing research studiesstudies

Problem clearly definedProblem clearly defined

In case of hypothesis-In case of hypothesis-testing research testing research studiesstudies

Problem clearly definedProblem clearly defined

Page 46: Research Design and Types of Research

Research design in case of Exploratory research design

It is the study of an unfamiliar problem, It is the study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the to make a precise formulation of the problem.problem. Hence it is also known as Hence it is also known as formulative research. formulative research.

Three methods are1. The survey of concerning literature2. The experience survey 3. The analysis of ‘inside-stimulating

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1.The survey of concerning literature

Hypothesis stated by earlier workers is reviewed and their usefulness can be evaluated as a basis for further research.

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2. The experience survey

The experience survey means the survey of people who had practical experience .

The objective is to obtain new ideas relating to the research problem.

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3.The analysis of ‘inside-stimulating

This method consists of intensive study of the selected instances of the phenomenon of interest to the researcher

Eg. of insight stimulating cases- reaction of a group, the behaviour of consumers

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In case of descriptive and diagnostic research

In case of descriptive research study –describing the characteristics of a particular individual , or a group.

In diagnostic research study, it determines the frequency with which some thing occurs

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Difference between Exploratory/formulative and descriptive/ diagnostic Flexible design

Judgmental sampling

No pre-determined design for analysis

No fixed decision about the operational procedures

No flexibility Random sampling Pre-determined

design for analysis Advanced decisions

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In case of hypothesis-testing research studies

Hypothesis-testing research studies known as experimental studies are those where the researcher tests the hypothesis of casual relationship between variables.

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Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal Research(Unaware of Problem)(Aware of Problem) (Problem Clearly Defined)

“Our sales are declining and “What kind of people are buying “Will buyers purchase more of we don’t know why.” our product? Who buys our our products in a new package?

competitor’s product?” “Would people be interested “Which of two advertising in our new product idea?” “What features do buyers prefer campaigns is more effective?”

in our product?”

Degree of Problem Definitionpo

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