reschly rti1 response to intervention in general, remedial, and special education daniel j. reschly...
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Reschly RTI 1
Response to Intervention in General, Remedial, and Special Education
Daniel J. Reschly
615-708-7910
Delaware Department of Education
May 7, 2007
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What To Do With Egbert?? 1st Grade, falling behind in reading Slow progress compared to peers Likely to miss benchmarks related to passing 3rd
Grade reading test Distractible, inattentive, disruptive, non-compliant Sound Familiar WHAT HAPPENS NEXT? Driven by Federal
Legislation Consider NCLB and IDEIA
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What To Do With Egbert?? 9th Grade, failing 3 of 5 classes at first 9 weeks Attendance is declining Homework non completion Poor performance on weekly or unit tests Defiant, distractible, inattentive, disruptive, non-compliant Sound Familiar WHAT HAPPENS NEXT? Driven by Federal Legislation Consider NCLB and IDEIA
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Egbert in the Traditional System Refer Egbert
Preferral “intervention” (check a box) Comprehensive Evaluation-Battery of Tests,
“common battery”? Assessment largely outside of the natural context Dubious generalizations from test behavior to
classroom Eligibility assessment unrelated to intervention Team decision-making SLD diagnoses often inaccurate
5
PROBLEM SOLVING CHART
Does the *%$# thingwork?
Don’t mess with it! You Idiot! Did you mess with it?
Does anyone
else know?
Will you catch hell?
Hide it!
You poor slob! Ignore it
Can you blame somebody else?
NO PROBLEM
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
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What Is Response to Intervention (RTI)?
Scientifically-based instruction/interventions matched to student needs
Formative evaluation including frequent progress monitoring in relation to benchmarks, with decision rules applied
Decisions driven by student RTI, including gen’l ed instruction/intervention, remedial services/individual interventions, sp ed eligibility, placement, annual review and exit
Implementation requires: Allocating (aligning) resources to deliver effective interventions that produce improved child outcomes
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RTI Model Differences Restricted vs Comprehensive System Wide LD Identification
Do Tiers I and II, then traditional evaluation Or Use RTI in eligibility determination and in the design,
implementation, and evaluation of IEPs Academic only or Academic and Behavior False dichotomies: Standard Protocol vs Problem
Solving vs Recognition of Both Choices determined by nature of problem Use of both in many situations
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RESPONSE TO InterventionPOLICY CONSIDERATIONSAND IMPLEMENTATION
Order at:www.nasdse.org
Cost: $15 with discounts for large orders
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Purpose of the RTI Process Improve results in academic, behavioral, and emotional
regulation domains, through High quality interventions Formative evaluation
Student results drive decisions about needs and intensity of interventions
Improve, eliminate disproportionate representation Identification of disabilities through procedures that are
valid and connected to effective special ed interventions Improve special education results and increase exit from
sp ed Prevention and early identification-intervention
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Why RTI?
Dissatisfaction with ach. results Expensive programs with undocumented
benefits, General Ed. Title I and Sp Ed Poor overall outcomes re: benchmark tests,
graduate rates, early adult outcomes Overrepresentation in sp ed Disjointed programs across general,
remedial and special ed.-compromised outcomes and wasted resources
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0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Black Latino Native White Asian
Group
NAEP 2005 4th Grade Reading
Prof/Adv
Basic
<Basic58
29
13
54
30
16
52
30
18
24
35
41
27
31
42
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Special Education Placement Effects: High Incidence Disabilities
Treatment/Intervention aEffect Size
EMR/Special Classes (IQ 60-75) -.14
Special Classes (IQ 75-90) -.34
Resource for SLD and E/BD +.29
Traditional Placement Practices Have Weak Relationships to Outcomes
Special Education as a Solution?
Note: Effect size is expressed in SD units, analogous to a z-score
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Old Assumptions re: High Incidence Disabilities (SLD, MMR,
E/BD) Disabilities Inherent in Individual?-BUT,
Context and prevention are crucial Identify and Treat Underlying Causes-BUT,
Failure of process training Prescribe Methods that Capitalize on
Strengths and Avoid Weaknesses-BUT, Failure of Aptitude by Treatment Interaction in Research and Practice
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Old Assumptions, cont.
Unique Treatment Methods and Teacher Training by Disability But, Same methods work for virtually all High Incidence I SWD, LD, ED, EMR
IQ Essential to Accurate Classification-BUT Same kids found with problem solving processes and measures
Identifying Disability and Sp Ed Placement Solves Problem
Dubious Effects of Special Education
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Meaningfulness of Special Education High Incidence Categories
(www.ideadata.org) Table 1-13, retrieved 1-16-07
Category Prevalence Range Factor of Notes MR: 0.4% (NJ) to 3.0% (WV) 7Xs (9 at 0.4) ED: 0.2% (AR) to 2.4% (DC) 12Xs (VT=2.0) LD: 2.2% (KY) to 7.7% (OK) 3Xs Sp/L: 0.5% (HI) to 4.3% (WV) 8Xs OHI: 0.5% (CA) to 2.4% (RI) 5Xs All: 8.9% (CO) to 15.9% (RI) 1.8XsNotes: Child disability count as a percentage of the 6-17
population.
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Some things do not make sense
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Progression of Research, Policy, and Legal Requirements
RESEARCH: Scientific research with practice demonstrations leading to
POLICY: Multiple policy analyses in presented in prestigious reports leading to
FEDERAL LAW: Multiple layers of Federal legal requirements leading to
STATE LAW: Changes in state rules leading to SCALING UP: Scaling up efforts in states
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What Works? See Kavale (2005), Learning Disabilities, 13, 127-138 and other sources
Treatment Effect Size Applied Behavior Analysis. + 1.00 CBM+Graphing+Formative
Evaluation + reinforcement + 1.00 Explicit Instruction and Problem
Solving + .70 to 1.50 Comprehension Strategies +1.00 Math Interventions +.60 to 1.10 Writing Interventions +.50 to .85
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Policy and Legal Influences NICHD LD Studies Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S. & Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998). Preventing
reading difficulties in young children. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.pdf
National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council Panel Report http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10128.html
LD Summit Researchers Recommendations (Bradley et al., 2002) Presidents Commission on Excellence in Special Education (2002)
report, http://www.ed.gov/inits/commissionsboards/whspecialeducation/reports.html
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Commonalties in Policy Recommendations
Accountability-Improved results for all students and better results are possible!! (Gloeckler)
Integration of general, remedial, and sp ed through multiple tiers of intervention
Scientifically-based interventions with problem solving Progress monitoring with formative evaluation Decisions at all levels driven by child response to
intervention Abandon IQ-Achievement discrepancy in LD
Identification
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Progression of Federal General and Special Education Legislation
1960-70s To 2000s
Assistance Results
[__________________________________________]
ESEA EHA NCLB/
Rdg 1st IDEA 2004
Procedures Outcomes
Number Served Improvement
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Major Legal Themes (NCLB, IDEA)
Scientifically-based instruction More frequent assessment, progress
monitoring, formative evaluation Well integrated multiple tiers of Intervention Decisions driven by child responses to
instruction-intervention in general, remedial, and special education
Alignment of resources to enhance positive outcomes
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Changes in Legal RequirementsIDEA (2004)
‘‘(A) IN GENERAL.—Notwithstanding section 607(b), when determining whether a child has a specific learning disability as defined in section 602, a local educational agency shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, or mathematical reasoning.
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Response to Intervention (IDEA, 2004) ‘‘(B) ADDITIONAL AUTHORITY.—In deter-
mining whether a child has a specific learning disability, a local educational agency may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention as a part of the evaluation procedures described in paragraphs (2) and (3).
Does response to intervention appear in the law?
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Final Regulation NEW AND SIGNIFICANT: (b must consider, as part of the evaluation described data that
demonstrates that— (1) Prior to, or as a part of the referral process, the child
was provided appropriate high-quality, research-based instruction in regular education settings, consistent with section 1111(b)(8)(D) and (E) of the ESEA, including that
the instruction was delivered by qualified personnel; and (2) Data-based documentation of repeated assessments of
achievement at reasonable intervals, reflecting formal assessment of student progress during instruction, was provided to the child's parents.
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Prevention-Early Intervention
LEA can use 15% of federal IDEA funds to support prevention and early identification-treatment
Purpose: minimize over-identification and unnecessary sp ed referrals
Provide academic and behavioral supports; and professional development re: early literacy and behavior
MUST use the 15% if LEA has “significant disproportionality
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Academic Systems Behavioral Systems
5-10% 5-10%
10-15%
10-15%
Intensive, Individual Interventions•Individual and Small Groups•Intense, Prolonged Intervention
Intensive, Individual Interventions•Individual and Small Groups•Intense, Prolonged Interventions
Targeted Group Interventions•Some students (at-risk)•Standard protocol readinginterventions
Targeted Small Group or Individual Interventions•Some students (at-risk)•Targeted Individual Behavior •Interventions
80-85% 80-85%Universal Interventions•Effective Academic In-struction
Universal Interventions•School-wide positive Behavior•Effective classroom and Behavior management
Multiple Tiers Implemented Through Progress Monitoring and Formative Evaluation (Sugai, Horner, & Gresham, 2002)
Enter a School-Wide Systems for Student Success
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Multi-Tiered Academic Interventions of Increasing Intensity and Measurement Precision
Tier I: General Education: All students; Effective instruction, 80-85% at benchmarks
Tier II: Standard Protocol and Problem Solving: (about 10 to 20 weeks) Small group and individualized interventions
Decision Making: Continue Program, Modifications, Comprehensive Evaluation??
Tier III: More Intensive, Sustained Instruction in General and/or Special education
Key Mechanism: Formative Evaluation
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Multi-Tiered Behavior Interventions of Increasing Intensity and Measurement Precision
Level I: General Education : School wide positive discipline, effective classroom organization and management, teacher assistance teams
Level II: Individualized Problem Solving re: Behavior: Targeted, intense individual interventions in general education
Decision Making? Continue Program, Modifications, Comprehensive Evaluation
Level III: More Intensive, Sustained Instruction in General or Special education
Key Mechanism: Formative Evaluation
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Formative Evaluation Frequent assessment of progress Referenced to goals based on benchmarks
toward passing state tests Decision rules regarding modification of
goals or instructional programs All decisions about student needs and
instructional intensity are based on child RTI
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Characteristics of Effective Formative Evaluation Measures
Direct measures of skills Natural settings Efficient re: costs and time required Sensitive to small increments of growth in relevant
skills Results can be graphed in relation to goals Reliable in terms of stability Valid re: relationship to broad indicators of
competence Example: CBM oral reading fluency and reading
comprehension
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Tier I: General Education, Universal Stage, Primary Prevention
Academics and Behavior Scientifically-based Explicit instruction Systematic intervention Inter-related, reciprocal relationships, mutually
supported Discuss separately here, but acknowledge the
essential inter-relationship of academics and behavior
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Tier I: Academic Interventions
Scientifically-based instruction in reading Curricula-content-Big ideas, e.g., reading
Phonemic Awareness Alphabetic principles Fluency Vocabulary Comprehension
Study of IHEs pre-service preparation in rdg 14 of 72 taught all 5 components and many taught
none, see http://www.nctq.org/nctq/
34
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
3-D Column 1
15% 11% 7% 11%13%
43%
IHEs and SBRR Five Components
SampleN=72
5 Components1. Phonemic2. Alphabetic3. Fluency4. Vocabulary5. Compre-
hension
Sourcehttp://www.nctq.org/nctq
N=11 N=8N=5
N=8 N=9
N=31
Components 5 4 3 2 1 0
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Tier I: Academic Interventions Teaching Methodology Explicit Instruction
Modeling, guided practice, practice to automaticity, integration; You do it with feedback, You do it independently, You do it automatically
Frequent responding with feedback, Brisk pace Systematic Instruction
Sequential, Hierarchical Include all reading components each day Beat the odds teachers:
http://rea.mpls.k12.mn.us/BEAT_THE_ODDS_-_Kindergarten_Teachers.html
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Tier I: Assessment: Academics Routine Assessment of Progress
Screen all students, begin in kindergarten; 3 times per year with appropriate early literacy measures
More intense instruction and monitoring within classroom for students below trajectories toward passing state benchmark tests
Grouping, instructional materials, time, paraprofessionals Pat Vadasy at U of WA
Increase assessment to 2 Xs per month
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Reading Benchmarks (DIBELS)Age/Grade Measure Fluency (FL) Criterion
Winter KTG Letter Naming Fl
Initial Sound Fl
25 sounds per minute (pm)
Spring KTG Phoneme Seg 35 sounds pm
Winter 1st gr.
Spring 1st gr.
Spring 2nd gr.
Spring 3rd gr.
Nonsense WD
Oral Rdg Fluency
Oral Rdg Fluency
Oral Reg Fluency
50 sounds pm
40 wds pm
90 wds pm
110 wds pm
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 4 7 10 13 16 Scale
FallJanuary
KTG: Initial Sound Fluency Fall to January 05-06 Yr.
Benchmark: Winter KTG25 sounds correct/min.
New KTG Teacher and Traditional Instruction
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
FallJanuary
KTG: Initial Sound Fluency Fall to January 05-06 Yr.
Benchmark: Winter KTG25 sounds correct/min.
Experienced Teacher Direct Instruction
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 4 7 10 13 16 Scale
JanuaryMay
Phoneme Seg. Fluency: Jan to May 05-06 Yr.
Benchmark: 35 correct
New KTG Teacher and Traditional Instruction
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
FallJanuary
Phoneme Seg. Fluency: Jan to May 05-06 Yr.
Benchmark: May 35 per minute
Experienced Teacher Direct Instruction
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 4 7 10 13 16 Scale
JanuaryMay
Nonsense Word Fluency: Jan to May 05-06 Yr.
Benchmark: 25 correct per minute
New KTG Teacher and Traditional Instruction
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
FallJanuary
Nonsense Word Fluency: Jan to May 05-06 Yr.
Benchmark: 25 correct per minute
Experienced Teacher Direct Instruction
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
FallJanuary
KTG: Initial Sound Fluency Fall to January 05-06 Yr.
Benchmark: Winter KTG25 sounds correct/min.
Students needing greater Gen’l Ed monitoring and Interventions
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
F W
1st Gr. Nonsense Word
Fluency
Benchmark: Winter First Grade50 Words Per Minute
??
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0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
F
W
Second Grade Oral Reading FluencyBenchmark: End of 1st=42 WCM
Winter=71 WCM End of 2nd=100 WCM
??
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Behavioral Assessment
and CBM Measures Focused on determination of change Formative evaluation critical Tied to effective practices and better
outcomes Applications in general, remedial, and special
education Identification of disabilities-integrates
identification with treatment
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Why Behavior Assessment (including CBM) Determine current levels in academics and
behavior; degree of need Monitor progress, assess change Foundation for formative evaluation-
improving interventions Determine success of interventions Decisions based in child response to
interventions
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Foundations of CBM
Deno & Mirkin (1977) Breakthrough Brief samples of behavior
Use of oral reading fluency samples Production per unit of time Fluency and accuracy combined Words read correct per minute
Math-digits correct Spelling-letters correct
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Prior Barriers to CBM Use
Cumbersome for practitioners, developing own passages
Conceptual issues: Passages from curriculum or generic passages?
Teachers’ concerns about comprehension: Word calling??
Inertia; satisfaction with current practices IDEA: assessment of change not required
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Reading CBM
Combines fluency (speed) and accuracy Broad range of competencies including
Letter naming (Ktg) Sound identification (Ktg) Nonsense words or real word identification (Ktg
to first grade) Oral reading fluency (mid first to high school Comprehension (maze, other methods)
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Importance of Standardized CBM Procedures
Standardized meaning uniformity in administration, scoring, interpretation
Prerequisite to use of data in Determining risk status within classroom or
school Measuring change for individuals or groups Predicting later performance
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Oral Reading Fluency
What is it? Reading aloud fluently and accurately from text.
Why do it? Indicator of proficiency in reading that is sensitive
to growth Highly correlated with performance on
standardized tests and tests of comprehension Provides information that may be used to evaluate
effects of instruction Word Calling Myth
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Administering Oral Reading Passages Essential Items
-One student copy
-One administration copy
-Timer or stopwatch (make sure to time exactly 1 min)
-Administration script
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Instructions to Child When I say “please begin” start reading
aloud at the top of this page. Read across the page. [Demonstrate by pointing] Try to read each word. If you come to a word you don’t know, I’ll tell it to you. If you get to the end of the page, start over. Be sure to do your best reading. Are there any questions? [Pause] Please begin.
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Examiner’s Administration Rules
After reading instructions to students,
Start timer. If the student fails to say the first word of the passage after 3 sec., tell him/her the word and mark it incorrect. If the student stops or struggles with a word for 3 seconds, tell the student the word and mark it incorrect. If the student reaches the end of the page and does not continue, point to the first word and ask the student to start over. At the end of 1 minute, place a bracket after the last word and say, please stop.
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Scoring Rules Words must be pronounced correctly to be
counted as correct (disregard if mispronunciations due to speech
problems or dialect) Ignore inserted or repeated words
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ORF Passage: Making Friends(from Deno and Amy Reschly)
There once was a little girl named Ann who 9was very shy. She was too shy to make friends. 19Ann lived in an apartment building with her mother 28and brother. Ann liked to play at the playground 37near her apartment building. 41
One day Ann was playing on the swings when 50
Total words read = 49Words read incorrectly = 3 Words read correctly = 46
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What is recorded? Give 3 Passages Record the Median Score Example:
If a student’s scores on the 3 passages were:
24 words read correctly
38 words read correctly
35 words read correctly
GO TO VIDEO
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Dad and I took a hike in the woods. We walked for a long 14
time and stopped to take a rest. We sat down on a log and had a 30drink of water. A big hill was nearby. 38
Dad said, "Look, there's an ant hill." 45
I walked up to the hill and took a closer peek. At first it 59looked just like a dirt hill. Then I noticed a few ants running 72around. I looked closer.
Sample passage from DIBELS, http://dibels.uoregon.edu/
The Ant Hill
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The Rainy Day Picnic
I was so sad. This was the day we were going to the park for 15
a picnic. I wanted to go to the playground. I wanted to swing. I29
wanted to lay on the grass and look up at the fluffy clouds. But43
that morning it was raining. There were puddles everywhere.52
And we could hear thunder. I started to cry.61
My mother said, "Wait! We will still have the picnic!"71
I cried, "But how? It won't be fun if it's wet!" 82
Sample passage from DIBELS, http://dibels.uoregon.edu/
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Sample passage from DIBELS, http://dibels.uoregon.edu/
Visiting Aunt Rose
My Aunt Rose invited me to spend the weekend. Aunt Rose 11doesn't have kids. She said I could be her kid for two days. She's 25
like my big sister. 29I like to go to visit my Aunt Rose's home. She likes to do the 44same things I like. I like to go swimming. So does my Aunt 57Rose. The pool where she goes also has a hot tub. I like to sit in 73
the hot tub. So does my Aunt Rose. I always bring my swimming 86
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The Robin's Nest
There was a robin's nest outside our kitchen window. 'I he10
nest was in a tall bush. The mother robin sat in the nest all day 25
long. One day when I was watching, the mother bird flew away. 37
I saw the eggs she was sitting on. There were four blue eggs.50
I watched and watched. Pretty soon the eggs started to move. 61
I watched some more until the eggs started to crack. Finally-, the 73
eggs hatched. I saw four baby birds. The baby birds opened their 85
beaks wide. I heard them peeping. Soon the mother bird came 96
back. Then the mother robin put worms in their mouths.106
Sample passage from DIBELS, http://dibels.uoregon.edu/
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Resources for Reading and Interventions
Good & Kaminski: DIBELS http://dibels.uoregon.edu/ http://www.dibelsassessment.com/
Gary Germann and Mark Shinn AIMSWEBWWW.AIMSWEB.COM ; WWW.EDFORMATION.COM
James Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
Vaughn-Gross Reading Centerhttp://www.texasreading.org/utcrla/
Florida Reading Center-Torgesen/Wagnerhttp://www.fcrr.org/
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Math CBM
Scoring rule: Count the number of correctly written digits in the problems
64 x 722 128 Answer= 128 448__
46208
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Math CBM
Scoring rule: Count the number of correctly written digits in the problems
64 x 722 128 3 pts Answer=17 1280 4 pts 44800 5 pts
46208 5 pts
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Math CBM
Scoring rule: Count the number of correctly written digits in the problems
64 x 722 126 2 pts Answer=12 1380 3 pts 54800 4 pts
56206 3 pts
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Tier I Behavior
Positive Behavior Supports (www.pbis.org) Universal screening for behavior in early
grades Classroom organization and behavior
management Teacher Assistance Teams (many names)
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Tier I Prevention School-wide Positive Behavior Supports
National Technical Assistance Center at www.pbis.org
PBS is a broad range of systemic & individualized strategies for achieving important social & learning outcomes while preventing problem behavior with all students.
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PBIS: Characteristics of Support
1. Common purpose & approach to discipline
2. Clear set of positive expectations & behaviors
3. Procedures for teaching expected behavior
4. Continuum of procedures for encouraging expected behavior
5. Continuum of procedures for discouraging inappropriate behavior
6. Procedures for on-going monitoring & evaluation
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Tier I Behavior: Early Screening
Focus on classroom and individuals Screen all children for behavior
Aggressive behaviors-identify and treat at young ages Treat through age 8; Manage after age 8 Early intervention much more effective than later
Social isolation Bullying Classroom related social skills (or academic enablers
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Tier I Behavior Importance of Prevention and Early Identification-Early Treatment
Walker et al (1995) “If antisocial behavior is not changed by the
end of grade 3, it should be treated as a chronic condition much like diabetes. That is, it cannot be cured, but managed with the appropriate supports and continuing intervention” (p. 6).
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Multiple Gating Procedures (Walker & Severson, 1995) Sopris West
Teacher Ranking of Children ( 3 highest ranked) on Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors
Teacher Rating (Exceeds Norms)
Direct Observations and Parental Questionnaire
Focused Interventions
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Behavioral Earthquakes
Critical Behavioral Events High impact-great intensity-low frequency
behaviors: Behavioral Earthquakes Fire setting, cruelty, extreme aggressiveness,
suicide threats/attempts, physical confrontation, use of weapons, etc.
Should provoke immediate referral School Archival Records Search (SARS)-Sopris
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Tier I: Behavior cont.: Classroom Organization and Behavior Management (
http://www.cde.ca.gov/ls/ss/se/classroommgmt.asp Kellam, Baltimore Schools
Students randomly assigned to 1st grade teachers, then classroom was the unit of analysis
Classrooms observed during first 9 wks., high rates of disruptive behavior and aggression, large differences across classrooms
Classrooms randomly assigned to, Experimental condition: Good Behavior Game (Barrish, et al,
1969; Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991) vs. Control condition of in-service on general curriculum issues
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Kellam Research: Classroom Organization and Management
Good Behavior Game (Barrish, et al., 1969) Group contingency Two groups formed into teams Define rules and positive behaviors Teams compete for positive consequences Team with highest rate of appropriate behaviors earn
“rewards” Lining up first, Help teacher pick-up classroom,
free time, etc.
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Kellam Research: Effects of Good Behavior Game Were Statistically Significant
Aggression and disruptive behavior continued in control classrooms
Marked reduction in experimental condition Experimental classrooms had higher academic
productivity and achievement Aggressive students in both conditions followed
through 6th grade and first grade classroom effects persisted
First grade experience sets academic and behavioral trajectory
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Tier I: Implications of Behavior
Classroom organization and behavior management are crucial to student success “Teacher’s skills at classroom management were then
critical to children’s socialization, particularly in the face of family poverty.” (Kellam, et al., 1998a, p. 182)
“Teacher training typically does not provide effective methods and experience in classroom behavior management.” (Kellam, et al., 1998, p. 182).
Relatively simple, cost effective interventions can produce large and persistent effects
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Teacher Support Teams For students who need additional support and
intervention (1% to 5% of students) Classroom based, teacher and/or team develops One or two session problem solving Minimal data requirements Attempts over 3-4 weeks Produce changes, then must sustain Apply basic problem solving procedures
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• Implement Plan (Treatment Integrity)
Carry out the intervention
• Evaluate(Progress Monitoring Assessment)
Did our plan work?
• Define the Problem(Screening and Diagnostic Assessments)
What is the problem and why is it happening?
• Develop a Plan(Goal Setting and Planning)
What are we going to do?
Basic Problem Solving (Teachers and School Teams) (Heartland Area Education Agency, Johnston, IA)
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Tier I: Teacher Support Team Analysis What is student doing and why is it a problem When is student successful and less likely to
misbehave? When is student less successful and more likely to
misbehave Why does behavior occur, what is student getting
from the behavior What other factors contribute to the behavior Consider attention, escape, etc.
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Principles: Secondary Level (Sprick, R.S. (2006). Discipline in the secondary classroom. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.) (800-956-7739) Basic behavioral strategies, Key concepts Instructional design and evaluation systems Prepare for routines and procedures Expectations: Teach students to be successful Rules and consequences, responding to
misbehavior Motivation: Enhancing desire to succeed Proactive planning for misbehavior
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Middle and High School RTI Applications
Same principles and goals: Improve Results Evidence-based interventions matched to student
needs implemented with good fidelity Data-based, progress monitoring with formative
evaluation, that is, data on initial status, goals related to benchmarks, progress monitoring against goals, and changes in interventions based on progress
Decisions based on student responses to interventions
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Middle and High School RTI Applications Frequent Goals at Middle and High School
Academic skills deficits Teach skills in basic areas including reading and
math See Florida web site for teaching reading to
adolescents at www.fcrr.org/ CBM used, progress at > 1 word correct growth
per week, goals, graphs, formative evaluation, etc.
Significant needs for basic instruction
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Middle and High School RTI Applications Course Involvement and Completion
Learning strategies: Systematic teaching of methods to learn content http://www.ku-crl.org/
Taught in context of general education classes, by general education teachers or special education teachers (resource program)
Significant effect sizes related to completion of courses, improved grades, and improved content mastery
Many students with these needs
Reschly RTI 86
Middle and High School RTI Applications Effort and Work Completion
Can Do But Won’t Do Unintended reinforcement for poor effort and
low productivity Interventions do improve both effort and
productivity Data are critical!!! Data followed by interventions, etc.
Reschly RTI 87
Middle and High School RTI Applications School Involvement and Drop Out
Drop out not an event, but a process Encouragement to leave or to stay?? Drop out prevention measures
Find at risk kids Ensure teacher encouragement, someone who
cares, monitors, encourages Formal programs like Check and Connect
Reschly RTI 88
Middle and High School RTI Applications Middle and High School Problem Solving
Define problem Determine data, several weeks, months, years
depending on the problem Establish goals, Implement interventions, Monitor
progress, Change interventions as necessary Evaluate results
Reschly RTI 89
Middle and High School RTI Applications Problem Solving Example
Drop Out Scientifically-based interventions Identify proxies for drop out to permit early
intervention, e. g., school attendance, disciplinary referrals, failing courses, etc.
Gather data on current conditions Establish goals Implement interventions Monitor progress and change intervention if results
do not meet reasonable goals
Reschly RTI 90
Middle and High School RTI Applications Problem Solving Example
Failing courses Current status Causes of failure (effort vs skills or both) Goals for improvement (without lowering
standards) Interventions (brainstorm) Monitor progress, change interventions as needed Evaluate results
Reschly RTI 91
Summary of Tier I
Universal level, all students Scientifically-based, right content and direct
instruction Greater intensity and increased measurement
precision for students below benchmark trajectories Criterion for success? 80% to 85% are at or above
benchmarks Assess classrooms, schools, districts Identify students needing additional assistance
Reschly RTI 92
Tier II: Academic and Behavioral Interventions Individual behavior interventions in general education
that meet all criteria for problem solving Individual or small group academic interventions,
following Standard protocol interventions (reading) Individualized academic Evidence based practices.
Reschly RTI 93
Tier II Behavior: Problem Solving Criteria
Behavioral definition of the problem Collection of data reflecting current level of
performance Comparison of current level of performance to
expectations (peer comparisons, age or grade norms) Development of goals for change in performance Analysis of conditions (including prerequisite and
current skills levels)
Reschly RTI 94
Tier II Behavior: Problem Solving Criteria cont.
Development of an intervention plan that is written, systematic, and based on scientifically-based instructional or behavioral intervention principles
Development of an intervention plan that is written, systematic, and based on scientifically-based instructional or behavioral intervention principles
Implementation of the plan with treatment fidelity checks
Reschly RTI 95
Tier II Behavior: Problem Solving Criteria cont.
Progress monitoring data collected frequently, represented graphically, and results compared to goals
Changes are made in the intervention based on progress monitoring data
Evaluation of results with decisions made to consider more intensive interventions which may be special education
Reschly RTI 96
Tier II Academic Interventions (Vaughn et al., 2003 Exceptional Children)
Goals: Move performance to benchmark trajectories and, If needed, consider more intensive interventions
Example of Tier II academic intervention Small group, N=4-5, pull out, similar needs 30 to 35 minutes per day in addition to classroom
instruction Progress monitoring weekly 10 to 20 weeks of instruction 5-component reading interventions, with emphasis on
weak components
Reschly RTI 97
Tier II: Academics and Behavior
Targeted individual interventions in classrooms and in standard protocol academic settings Behavior (attention and on task) predict outcomes
of academic interventions) Standard protocol interventions use a point
system to prompt and reinforce task engagement Improved behavior often is crucial to persistence
of academic interventions effects over time and generalization to classroom settings
Reschly RTI 98
Standard Protocol Reading Models for Tier II
http://www.texasreading.org/utcrla/ U Texas, Vaughn http://www.fcrr.org/ Florida State Torgesen Reading five domains taught each day Direct instruction Weekly progress monitoring Individual graphs, progress against goals referenced to
benchmarks Decisions determined by student response
Fade Tier II and return to general education Consider Tier III based on insufficient response
Reschly RTI 99
0
20
40
60
80
100BenchmarkGoal
Egbert
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Graph Current Status
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Benchmark=24
Egbert=11
Reschly RTI 100
0
20
40
60
80
100 Line 1
Line 2
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Determine Goal: Class=1.5 wd growth per week; Egbert Goal: 2 wd growth per week
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Class=24
Egbert=11
Benchmark
Egbert goal line
Reschly RTI 101
0
20
40
60
80
100Bench
Goal
Egbert
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Monitor Egbert’s Progress Relative to Goal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Class=24
Egbert=11
Benchmark
Egbert goal line
Reschly RTI 102
0
20
40
60
80
100Bench
Goal
Egbert
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Formative Evaluation: Change Intervention
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Class=24
Egbert=11
Benchmark
Egbert goal line
ChangeIntervention
Reschly RTI 103
0
20
40
60
80
100Bench
Goal
Egbert
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Continue Intervention and Monitor Progress
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Class=24
Egbert=11
Benchmark
Egbert goal line
ChangeIntervention
Reschly RTI 104
0
20
40
60
80
100ClassBenchEgbertGoal 2
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Raise Goal to 2.5 WCM Growth
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Class=24
Egbert=11
Benchmark
Egbert goal line
ChangeIntervention
Change Goal
Reschly RTI 105
0
20
40
60
80
100ClassBenchEgbertGoal 2
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Continue Intervention and Monitor Progress
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Class=24
Egbert=11
Benchmark
Egbert goal line
ChangeIntervention
Change Goal
Fade Tier II
Reschly RTI 106
Decisions Re: Egbert
Fade Tier II academic intervention Reduce number of weekly sessions Monitor progress to ensure continued progress
Evaluate behavioral intervention (not shown here) Depending on results, consider enhancing,
fading, or discontinuing Do NOT consider more intensive interventions
Reschly RTI 107
Prevention of Special Education
President’s Commission (2002) Values and Outcomes: Efficacy of special education is not universally
documented—lowered expectations, reduced academic press
Later educational opportunities typically are better if learning and behavior problems can be resolved in early grades
Probable later career opportunities are better if students can complete general education programs
Prevention and early intervention enhance positive outcomes and expand educational and career opportunities
Reschly RTI 108
Case II: Egberta, Academic Intervention
Egberta (Egbert’s twin sister) Similar performance in reading No behavioral issues, described as quiet,
cooperative child who tries hard and does not disrupt the class
Would not have been referred by teacher, but discovered through universal screening
Reschly RTI 109
0
20
40
60
80
100Class
Goal
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Egberta: Determine Goal: Class=1.5 wd growth per week; Egberta Goal: 2 wd growth per week
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Class=24
Egberta=11
Benchmark
Egbert goal line
Reschly RTI 110
0
20
40
60
80
100ClassGoalEgberta
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Monitor Egberta’s Progress Relative to Goal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Class=24
Egberta=11
Benchmark
Egberta goal line
Reschly RTI 111
0
20
40
60
80
100ClassGoalEgberta
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Change Egberta’s Intervention
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Class=24
Egberta=11
Benchmark
Egberta goal line
ChangeIntervention
Reschly RTI 112
0
20
40
60
80
100ClassGoalEgberta
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Implement Revised Intervention and Continue to Monitor Progress
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Benchmark
Egberta goal line
ChangeIntervention
Reschly RTI 113
0
20
40
60
80
100ClassGoalEgberta
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Implement Second Intervention Revision
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Benchmark
Egberta goal line
ChangeIntervention
Reschly RTI 114
0
20
40
60
80
100ClassGoalEgberta
Weeks
Wo
rds
Co
rre
ct
Per
Min
ute
Gap Not Closing: Consider Eligibility and More Intensive Interventions
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
Benchmark
ChangeIntervention
ClassWCM=54
EgbertaWCM=32
Reschly RTI 115
Egberta Consideration of Eligibility
Levels Difference: Large performance differences compared to peers and benchmark expectations in relevant domains of behavior
Rate Difference: Large differences in rate of learning compared to peers and trajectories toward benchmark standards when provided with high quality interventions implemented over a significant period
Documented Adverse Impact on Education Documented Need for Special Education Exit Criteria Exclusion Factors: Rule out MR etc.
Reschly RTI 116
What is a Comprehensive Evaluation
Note Federal Regulation, (g) The child is assessed in all areas related to the
suspected disability, including, if appropriate, health, vision, hearing, social and emotional status, general intelligence, academic performance, communicative status, and motor abilities. (34 C.F.R. 300.532
Meaning? Note “if appropriate”
Reschly RTI 117
Federal Requirements
Multiple domains must be considered Screening in multiple domains followed by, if
appropriate, …… If potential educationally related deficits are
suggested by screening, THEN In depth assessment in the domain
Principle: If screening suggests adequate functioning, then in depth assessment is wasteful and irrelevant
Reschly RTI 118
Comprehensive Evaluation: After Tier II
Domain Screening If depth, if appropriate
Possible
Decision
Health Nurse, records
Referral
MD Eval
Medical condition
Vision Nurse, records
Ophthalmology Visual Impairment
Hearing Nurse, records
Otological, Audiologist
Hearing Impairment
Intelligence Records, Tch ratings, ach. tests
Psychologist, Gen’l Intell Functioning (GIF)
Sig subaverage GIF, possible MR, possible sp ed
Reschly RTI 119
Domain Screening In Depth, If Appropriate
Possible Decision
Reading Class work, Tch eval., CBM, group tests
Individual tests, diagnostic tests
More intense intervention, possible sp ed
Math Class work, Tch eval., CBM, group tests
Individual tests, diagnostic tests
More intense intervention, possible sp ed
Adaptive Behavior
Records, Tch checklist
Observations Parent interview
Possible eligibility for MR
Written Language
Class work, Tch eval., CBM, group tests
Individual tests, diagnostic tests
More intense intervention, possible sp ed
Comprehensive Evaluation: After Tier II
Reschly RTI 120
Domain Screening In depth, if appropriate
Possible Decision
Communication Tchr Observations, Sp/L screening
Sp/L eval, tests, obs.
Sp/Lang need, therapy
Behavior Tchr judgment, checklists, nomination
Observation, Interview, Indiv intervention
Emotional Regulation
Tchr judgment, checklists, nomination
Observation, Interview, Indiv intervention
More intense intervention, possible sp ed
Motor Physical, Tch, PE observations
Medical evaluation
More intense intervention, possible sp ed
Comprehensive Evaluation: Post Tier II
Reschly RTI 121
Special Education Eligibility Determination Using RTI
Recall problems with current system Integrate identificaton with treatment
Level of skills Pattern of skills, deficits and strengths Evaluation of progress Evaluation of outcomes
Enhance effectiveness of special education
Reschly RTI 122
Old Models of SLD Identification
Problems with severe discrepancy criteria Unreliable (especially stability of discrepancy
scores) Invalid (IQ discrepant poor readers do NOT
respond better than IQ non-discrepant poor readers to reading instruction)
Causes Harm (Wait to Fail)
Reschly RTI 123
Old Models of SLD continued Cognitive processing option ??
Scatter is normal, virtually all children will show significant strengths and weaknesses
Pattern of cognitive processes unrelated to More accurate SLD identification Improved instruction Improved child outcomes
No scientifically-based studies showing benefits of designing instruction from cognitive profiles Vested interests? and Burden of proof
Reschly RTI 124
Cognitive Processing Strengths and Weaknesses
ALL children have strengths and weaknesses Normal readers? Not referred despite cognitive
strengths and weaknesses Poor readers? May be referred and, if so, cognitive
strengths and weaknesses will be found So what??
Improve accuracy of identification? Improve interventions?
Cash validity is not sufficient
Reschly RTI 125
Cognitive Processing and Interventions: ATI or Matching Strengths Effects
Treatment/Intervention Effect Size
Modality Matched Instr. (Aud.) +.03
Modality Matched Instr. (Vis.) +.04
Simultaneous/Successive .??
Right Brain/Left Brain .??
Cultural Leaning Style .00
NOTHING FOR KIDS
FEEL GOOD ASSESSMENT
Reschly RTI 126
Results of ATI Research
King of England describing his Danish brother-in-law: There is nothing there.
Cronbach, (1975). “Once we attend to interactions, we enter a hall of mirrors that extends to infinity.” (p. 119)
Kavale (1999) No supportive data, but cannot kill “Phoenix-like” processing claims
Vaughn and Linan-Thompson (2003), “There is no empirical support for the use of modality-matched instruction or learning styles as a means to enhance outcomes for students with LD.” (p. 142).
Reschly RTI 127
Challenge to Cognitive Processing Advocates in SLD
Show the field one scientifically-based study confirming a statistically significant interaction between cognitive processing pattern and teaching methodology OR
Document how cognitive processing can be used by practitioners to make reliable and valid SLD diagnoses, using the joint APA-AERA-NCME Test Standards?
Reschly RTI 128
Digression: Neuropsychology
and Neuroscience Distinguish between neuropsychology and
neuroscience Neuropsychology is dependent on
psychometric profiles Difference scores are less reliable Scatter is normal Base rates for profile variations Flat profiles are atypical
Nearly all have profile variations
Reschly RTI 129
Neuroscience Findings
Instruction in decoding changes brain functioning on fMRI
Neuroscience findings generally refute traditional neuropsychology with learning problems
Neurological functioning more dynamic, less static Little practical application of fMRI to current school
psychology practice No unique LD markers!!
Reschly RTI 130
Digression: fMRI Studies
Science article: fMRIs of boys and girls engaged in decoding-Girls used both hemispheres, boys one
Implications?? Do fMRI to find real LD? Abandon IQ and go to fMRIs Trade the hatchback for an 18 wheeler Cost issues: $3m per machine, plus
maintenance
Reschly RTI 131
More fMRI Implications
Delay reading until both hemispheres work for males simultaneously So that is going to happen?
Equity issue---restrict girls to one hemisphere; hemispherectomy Hey, fair is fair
Improve male-female communication if females could use only one hemisphere at a time Wait until I tell Krisann
Reschly RTI 132
Disproportionality Legal Requirements
§300.173 Overidentification and disproportionality
States must collect data on to determine if significant disproportionality by race exists re:
Identification of students with disabilities by category
Placement options used, i.e., LRE profile Incidence and kind of disciplinary actions including
suspensions and expulsions
Reschly RTI 133
Disproportionality Legal Requirements §300.173 Overidentification and disproportionality
continued If significant disproportionality exists, the state must
Review and, if appropriate, revise the policies, procedures, and practices used in identification or placement
Allocate 15% of IDEA funds to EIS, especially focusing on children significantly overidentified
Require the LEA to publicly report on the revision of policies, practices, and procedures described under paragraph (b)(1) of this section.
Reschly RTI 134
NRC Overrepresentation Panel: Digression: Disproportionality
What were the real issues? Was IQ the issue? Did an IQ test ban resolve disproportionality
or improve outcomes Reschly (1980) Right problem-Wrong
Solution
Reschly RTI 135
NRC Report: Causes of Overrepresentation
Biological factors Social factors General education experiences Special education system
Reschly RTI 136
Centrality of Outcomes in Disproportionality
Judge Peckham commenting on the 1979 Trial Opinion ban on IQ tests,
“… clearly limited to the use of IQ tests in the assessment and placement of African-American students in dead end programs such as MMR.” (Crawford and Larry P., 1992, p. 15).
Reschly RTI 137
Centrality of Outcomes in Disproportionality, cont.
“ Despite the Defendants’ attempts to characterize the court’s 1979 order as a referendum on the discriminatory nature of IQ testing, this court’s review of the decision reveals that the decision was largely concerned with the harm to African-American children resulting from improper placement in dead-end educational programs.” (Crawford and Larry P., 1992, p.23).”
Reschly RTI 138
Overrepresentation PanelNRC Recommendations
Universal early screening for academic and behavioral problems (Ktg-Grade2)
Early identification-interventions Multi-tiered academic and behavioral
interventions RtI for eligibility-eliminate IQ for LD Eligibility: non-categorical for high incidence
disabilities OR change current classification criteria for LD
Reschly RTI 139
Overall Conclusion
“ There is substantial evidence with regard to both behavior and achievement that early identification and intervention is more effective than later identification and intervention.” Executive Summary, p. 5
Efficacy of special education with reading problems after grade 3?
Reschly RTI 140
Solutions to Significant Disproportionality Prevention, especially improving reading
~60% of 4th grade black students read below basic; inexcusable!
Eligibility determination procedures and decision making Focus on RTI and needs, consider alternatives to sp ed
Intensive interventions and special education exit for ~20% to 40% Torgesen et al. studies
Reschly RTI 141
Overrepresentation PanelNRC Recommendations cont.
…. no IQ test would be required, and the results of an IQ test would not be a primary criterion on which eligibility rests. Because of the irreducible importance of context in the recognition and nurturance of achievement, the committee regards the effort to assess students’ decontextualized potential or ability as inappropriate and scientifically invalid. (p. 313).
Reschly RTI 142
RTI in Special Education Programs
Special education programs should be, Scientifically based Matched to student need Progress monitoring against goals (exit criteria) Formative evaluation Goal of passing benchmark tests, exiting
Current special education programs????
Reschly RTI 143
Special Education for Students with High Incidence Disabilities
High Incidence Disabilities Mild Mental Retardation Emotional Disturbance Specific Learning Disability Other Health Impaired-Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder Rate is 1% or more of the general student
population
Reschly RTI 144
High Incidence Disabilities
School age identification Usually not identified as adults Teacher referral due to poor achievement
plus, for many, disruptive behavior No identifiable biological anomaly, normal
appearance Reading is a major concern for most (70%-
80%)
Reschly RTI 145
Improving IEPs Connect individual evaluation with IEP with Special
Education Interventions Critical IEP Components (relevant to the
intervention) (not an exhaustive list) Present Levels of Educational Performance Measurable Annual Goals Specifically designed instruction provided by qualified
personnel Participation in the general education curriculum and state
wide assessments
Reschly RTI 146
Present Levels of Educational Performance
Must be related to the full and individual evaluation
Desirable Stated in terms of the school curriculum Specification of gaps between current
performance and trajectories toward reaching benchmarks
Exit criteria for special education dismissal
Reschly RTI 147
Measurable Annual Goals
Goals are described in objective, measurable terms
Goals are stated in terms of the general education curriculum Rate of progress specified, graphed Skills specified Progress compared to goals Interventions changed or goals changed
depending on progress
Reschly RTI 148
Specially Designed Instruction Uniqueness of special education is NOT in different
methodologies BUT IS IN Intensity, frequency of progress monitoring and
formative evaluation, precision of goals, and specificity of instruction Intensity involves time, group size Specificity of instruction, thoroughness of skills
specification, intentional teaching, integration with other skills
Application of explicit, systematic instructional methods
Reschly RTI 149
Special Education Final Remarks
Special education can be effective Set of services brought to students, not a place Integrated with general education curriculum Strong accountability Implementation of scientifically based interventions with Specification of goals Frequent progress monitoring Formative evaluation Exit criteria
Reschly RTI 150
Critical Skills/Competencies
Problem solving-interviewing skills Behavior assessment including CBM Powerful instructional interventions Powerful behavior change interventions Relationship skills Tailoring assessment to referral concerns
Reschly RTI 151
Continuing Education: Problem solving and system design
Reschly, D. J., Tilly, W. D. III, & Grimes, J. P. (Eds.). (1999). Special education in transition: Functional assessment and noncategorical programming. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
Bergan, J. R., & Kratochwill, T. R. (1990). Behavioral consultation and therapy. New York: Plenum.
Shinn, M. R. (Ed.). (1989). Curriculum-based measurement: Assessing special children. New York: Guilford Press.
Reschly RTI 152
Continuing Education: CBM, CBE, Behavioral Assessment
Shinn, M. R. (Ed.) (1998). Advanced applications of curriculum-based measurement: New York: Guilford Press.
Shapiro, E. S. (Ed.) (1996). Academic skills problems: Direct assessment and intervention (2nd Ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Shapiro, E. S., & Kratochwill, T. R. (Eds.). (2000). Behavioral assessment in schools: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd Ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Reschly RTI 153
Continuing Education: Academic and Behavioral Interventions
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Mayer, G. R. (1991). Behavior analysis for lasting change. Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart, Winston.
Howell, K. & Nolet, V. (2000). Curriculum-based evaluation: Teaching and decision making (3rd Ed.). Atlanta, GA: Wadsworth.
Shinn, M.R., Walker, H.M., & Stoner, G. (2002). Interventions for academic and behaviors problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches. Bethesda, MD: NASP
Reschly RTI 154
Summary
Moving from where we are to where we need to be is a huge challenge for the new century
BUT I Believe
The Best Is Yet To Be