Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya

Jabalpur 482004 (Madhya Pradesh) India

Number 1Volume 46 January - April 2012

JNKVVRESEARCH JOURNAL

Contents

Review Paper

Research Paper

vermicomposting

Microbial technology for sustainable organic agriculture

Estimation of seed, feed and wastage ratios for wheat production in Rewa districtof Madhya Pradesh

Seed enhancement studies in tomato for germination and seedling emergence

Ethnobotanical aspects of plants from east zone of Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh

Influence of soil moisture stress on dry matter production, partitioning, biochemicalconstituents and productivity in chickpea

Identification of selection components for linseed breeding

Evaluation and identification of suitable horse gram cultivars for higher productivity andseed quality traits

Relative performance of new single cut oat genotypes to different nitrogen levels underagro-climatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh

Influence of staggered date of sowing on eco-physiological studies of soybean varietiescombating climate change under Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh, India

Nutrient management for improving productivity and economics of rabi niger

Composting of obnoxious weeds through microbial treatment and subsequent

Response of promising varieties of single cut forage oat to different nitrogen levels underagroclimatic conditions of Kymore plateau zone, Madhya Pradesh

Assessment of soil test based fertilizer recommendation under rice-wheat cropping sequenceand its impact on soil quality under agroclimatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of MP

1M.N. Khare and S.P. Tiwari

11

S.K. Gupta and P.K. Mishra

18Sathrupa Rao and Subrata Sharma

22Karuna S. Verma, Sandhya Swarnkar, Aparna Awasthi and Tabassum Ansari

28

Ganesh Mishra, A.S. Gontia, Anubha Upadhyay and Sathrupa Rao

33S.K. Tiwari, Rajmohan Sharma and Ramakant

37

K. Kanaka Durga and M. Ganesh

44

A.K. Jha, Arti Shrivastava, N.S. Raghuvanshi and J.K. Sharma

47

Karuna Meshram, S.D. Upadhyaya, K.K. Agrawal, Anubha Upadhyay and Noor Afsan Khan

52M.R. Deshmukh, Alok Jyotishi and A.R.G. Ranganatha

56

Deepak Chourasiya, Anay Rawat, S.B. Agrawal and Gyanendra Mathankar

59

P.K. Roshan, K.R. Naik and Siddarth Nayak

K.S. Keram, G. Puri and S. D. Sawarkar

62

JNKVVRESEARCH JOURNALISSN : 0021-3721 Registration No.: 13-37-67

Published byPrinted at

: Dr. S.K. Rao, Dean, Faculty ofAgriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), India: M/s Fortune Graphics & Scanning Centre, Golebazar, Jabalpur 482 002 (M.P.)

Production of sp. pigments from farm byproducts using solid state fermentation

Efficacy of phytoextracts against root rot of mungbean caused by Kuhn

Effect of fungicides and polymer coating on storability of soybean seeds

Management of damping-off of fennel under nursery condition in Gujarat

Insect pest fauna of rice in Nagarjuna Sagar Project Command Area of Nalgonda districtof Andhra Pradesh during Kharif season

Varietal influence on physical characteristics of brown rice

Aprobability distribution for describing the pattern of mango hoppers population at Jabalpur

Accuracy assessment for land use/land cover map of Rewa district using Remote Sensingtechnique

Impact of vocational training programme on knowledge, skill development and incomegeneration among farm women in Satpura plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh

Agricultural Information and Technology dissemination through Blog:Aspeedy approach

Role of Information and Communication Technology for agriculture:Acase study of KisanCall Center of Indian Society ofAgribusiness Professionals Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

Economics of hybrid rice seed production in Madhya Pradesh

Assessment of microbial quality of enrobed chicken meat product using plant binders

Hepatocellular carcinoma in dogs : A case report

Colibacillosis in free-ranging pigeons

Effect of castration on performance of crossbred pigs

Epidemiological studies on hypogalactia and common reproductive problems in buffaloesof Jabalpur region

Monascus

Rhizoctonia solani

69M.M. Khan, L.P.S. Rajput, S.S. Yadav, S. Kumar and Kirti Tantwai

75Nilay Kumar Saxena and U.K. Khare

78Imran Baig, N.K. Biraderpatil , B.T. Ninganur and R.H. Patil

84R.N. Pandey, R.B. Patel, G.B. Valand, Ashok Mishra and S.J. Patel

88

R. Muralidhar Naik and P. Rajanikanth

90V.K. Tiwari and Nitya Sharma

94Ashok Kumar Tailor, H.L. Sharma, S.B. Das and Siddarth Nayak

101

Seema Suraiya, Subhash Thakur, S.K. Sharma, R.K. Nema and Renu Upadhyay

106

Ekta Belwanshi and N.K. Khare

112Chandrajiit Singh and Kinjulck C. Singh

115

R.S. Chouhan, Dushyant Kumar and H.O. Sharma

120R.R. Kashikar, P.K. Mishra, S.B. Nahatkar and H.O. Sharma

125Surbhi Yadav, V.Appa Rao, R Narendra Babu and Jitendra Kumar Sharma

129Ankush Maini, Debosri Bhowmick, Shobha Jawre and M.K. Bhargava

132Nidhi Rajput, M.P.S. Tomar, A.B. Shrivastav, Sanjay Shukla and Varsha Sharma

134V.N. Gautam, Shraddha Shrivastava, G.P. Lakhani and R.P.S. Baghel

137

A.K. Soni, P.C. Shukla and R.P.S. Baghel

ISSN : 0021-3721Volume 46Number (1) 2012

JNKVVResearch Journal

(January - April 2012)

Contents

Review Paper

Microbial technology for sustainable organic agriculture 1M.N. Khare and S.P. Tiwari

Estimation of seed, feed and wastage ratios for wheat production in Rewa district 11of Madhya PradeshS.K. Gupta and P.K. Mishra

Research Paper

Seed enhancement studies in tomato for germination and seedling emergence 18Sathrupa Rao and Subrata Sharma

Ethnobotanical aspects of plants from east zone of Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 22Karuna S. Verma, Sandhya Swarnkar, Aparna Awasthi and Tabassum Ansari

Influence of soil moisture stress on dry matter production, partitioning, biochemical 28constituents and productivity in chickpeaGanesh Mishra, A.S. Gontia, Anubha Upadhyay and Sathrupa Rao

Identification of selection components for linseed breeding 33S.K. Tiwari, Rajmohan Sharma and Ramakant

Evaluation and identification of suitable horse gram cultivars for higher productivity and 37seed quality traitsK. Kanaka Durga and M. Ganesh

Relative performance of new single cut oat genotypes to different nitrogen levels under 44agro-climatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of Madhya PradeshA.K. Jha, Arti Shrivastava, N.S. Raghuvanshi and J.K. Sharma

Influence of staggered date of sowing on eco-physiological studies of soybean varieties 47combating climate change under Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh, IndiaKaruna Meshram, S.D. Upadhyaya, K.K. Agrawal, Anubha Upadhyay and Noor Afsan Khan

Nutrient management for improving productivity and economics of rabi niger 52M.R. Deshmukh, Alok Jyotishi and A.R.G. Ranganatha

Composting of obnoxious weeds through microbial treatment and subsequent vermicomposting 56Deepak Chourasiya, Anay Rawat, S.B. Agrawal and Gyanendra Mathankar

Response of promising varieties of single cut forage oat to different nitrogen levels under 59agroclimatic conditions of Kymore plateau zone, Madhya PradeshP.K.Roshan, K.R. Naik and Siddarth Nayak

Assessment of soil test based fertilizer recommendation under rice-wheat cropping sequence 62and its impact on soil quality under agroclimatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of MPK.S. Keram, G. Puri and S.D. Sawarkar

Production of Monascus sp. pigments from farm byproducts using solid state fermentation 69M.M. Khan, L.P.S. Rajput, S.S. Yadav, S. Kumar and Kirti Tantwai

Efficacy of phytoextracts against root rot of mungbean caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn 75Nilay Kumar Saxena and U. K. Khare

Effect of fungicides and polymer coating on storability of soybean seeds 78Imran Baig, N.K. Biraderpatil , B.T. Ninganur and R.H. Patil

Management of damping-off of fennel under nursery condition in Gujarat 84R.N. Pandey, R.B. Patel, G.B. Valand, Ashok Mishra and S.J. Patel

Insect pest fauna of rice in Nagarjuna Sagar Project Command Area of Nalgonda district 88of Andhra Pradesh during Kharif seasonR. Muralidhar Naik and P. Rajanikanth

Varietal influence on physical characteristics of brown rice 90V.K. Tiwari and Nitya Sharma

A probability distribution for describing the pattern of mango hoppers population at Jabalpur 94Ashok Kumar Tailor, H.L. Sharma, S.B. Das and Siddarth Nayak

Accuracy assessment for land use/land cover map of Rewa district using Remote Sensing 101techniqueSeema Suraiya, Subhash Thakur, S.K. Sharma, R.K. Nema and Renu Upadhyay

Impact of vocational training programme on knowledge, skill development and income 106generation among farm women in Satpura plateau zone of Madhya PradeshEkta Belwanshi and N.K. Khare

Agricultural Information and Technology dissemination through Blog: A speedy approach 112Chandrajiit Singh and Kinjulck C. Singh

Role of Information and Communication Technology for agriculture: A case study of Kisan 115Call Center of Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals Bhopal, Madhya PradeshR.S. Chouhan, Dushyant Kumar and H.O. Sharma

Economics of hybrid rice seed production in Madhya Pradesh 120R.R. Kashikar, P.K. Mishra, S.B. Nahatkar and H.O. Sharma

Assessment of microbial quality of enrobed chicken meat product using plant binders 125Surbhi Yadav, V. Appa Rao, R. Narendra Babu and Jitendra Kumar Sharma

Hepatocellular carcinoma in dogs : A case report 129Ankush Maini, Debosri Bhowmick, Shobha Jawre and M.K. Bhargava

Colibacillosis in free-ranging pigeons 132Nidhi Rajput, M.P.S. Tomar, A.B. Shrivastav, Sanjay Shukla and Varsha Sharma

Effect of castration on performance of crossbred pigs 134V.N. Gautam, Shraddha Shrivastava, G.P. Lakhani and R.P.S. Baghel

Epidemiological studies on hypogalactia and common reproductive problems in buffaloes 137of Jabalpur regionA.K. Soni, P.C. Shukla and R.P.S. Baghel

Issued 31st December, 2012

STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP

FORM IV(See Rule 8)

Place of Publication : Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh), India

Periodicity of Publication : 3 issues per year (from 2012)

Publisher's Name : Dr. S.K. RaoIndianDean, Faculty of AgricultureJNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), India

Printer's Name : M/s Fortune Graphics and Scanning CentreGolebazar, Jabalpur 482 002 (M.P.)

Editor's Name : Dr. Mohan S. BhaleIndianSenior ScientistDepartment of Plant PathologyJNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), India

Name and address of individuals : Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, JabalpurWho own the news papers andpartners of share holders holdingmore than one per cent of total capital

I, S.K. Rao, hereby declare that the particulars given above are true to the best of my knowledgeand belief.

Dated the 31st December, 2012 Sd/- S.K. RaoPublisher

A Publication ofJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482 004 (Madhya Pradesh) India

Phone: (+91) (0761) 2681200; Fax: (+91) (0761) 2681200Website: www.jnkvv.nic.in

JNKVV Research JournalEditorial Board

Patron Prof. Vijay Singh TomarVice Chancellor, JNKVV, Jabalpur

Chairman Dr. S.K. RaoDean, Faculty of Agriculture, Jabalpur

Members Dr. P.K. MishraDirector Instruction, JabalpurDr. K.K. SaxenaDirector Extension Services, JabalpurDr. R.S. KhampariaDean, College of Agriculture, JabalpurDr. T.K. BhattacharyaDean, College of Agricultural Engineering, Jabalpur

Editor Mohan S. Bhale

Co-Editor Abhishek Shukla

General Information: JNKVV Research Journal is the publication of J.N. Agricultural University(JNKVV), Jabalpur for records of original research in basic and applied fields of Agriculture, AgriculturalEngineering, Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry. It is published thrice a year (from 2012). Thejournal is abstracted in CAB International abstracting system, Biological Abstracts, Indian Science Abstracts.Membership is open to all individuals and organizations coping with the mission of the University and interestedin enhancing productivity, profitability and sustainability of agricultural production systems and quality ofrural life through education, research and extension activities in the field of agriculture and allied sciences.

Submission of manuscript for publication: Manuscripts should be submitted in duplicate to theEditor, JNKVV Research Journal, J.N. Agricultural University, Adhartal, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.) India.

Membership and subscription: The annual fee for individuals is Rs. 200/- for residents in Indiaand US$50 for residents outside India. The annual fee for Libraries and Institutions is Rs. 500/- for residentsin India and US$100 for outside. All authors must be subscribers. Payment should be made by DemandDraft in favour of Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, JNKVV payable at Jabalpur 482 004 MP to the Editor, JNKVVResearch Journal, JNKVV, Jabalpur (M.P.).

Exchange of the journal: For exchange of the journal, please contact the Librarian, UniversityLibrary, JNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), India.

ISSN : 0021-3721 Registration No. : 13-37-67

Published by : Dr. S.K. Rao, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur 482 004 (M.P.), IndiaPrinted at : M/s Fortune Graphics & Scanning Centre, Sahu Mohalla, Golebazar, Jabalpur (M.P.)

1

Present day agriculture is chemical intensive based onsynthetic fertilizers, hazardous pesticides, weedicides,growth promoting chemicals which pollute the soil,water, air and the whole environment causing harmfulaffect on human and animal life. The agriculturalpractices in vogue have made soils vulnerable toerosion, saline, contaminated with agrochemicalresidues, reduced soil fertility, lesser water absorptionand retention capacity and destruction of beneficialsoil microorganisms. The use of renewable energy isgetting replaced by non-renewable energy sources. Inorganic farming sustainable crop productivity ismaintained through natural resource conservationtechnologies and the natural processes throughmicrobial technology to reduce external inputs in thefarming operations like soil conservation, watermanagement, integrated nutrient and pest management.High quality pathogen free seed is a must in any cropproduction programme.

There are several components on which organiccultivation is based like seed, compost, planting system,bio-fertilizers, biocontrol agents and botanicals in cropprotection from insect pests and diseases.

International Federation of Organic AgricultureManagement (IFOAM) was established in 1972 to coverall aspects of organic farming to maintain long soilfertility; to avoid pollution; to produce highly nutritionalfood; to maintain genetic diversity of plants; to use waterwith care; to encourage and enhance biological cycleswith farming system; to use renewable resources in thesystem; to use material and substances which can bereused or recycled; to produce fully biodegradable nonfood product out of renewable resources and to build asafe working environment. At Biofach 2007 IFOAM hadclaimed 31 million ha managed organically in around633891 farmers at global level. The maximum area 11.8m ha was in Australia followed by 3.1 in Argentina, 2.3in China, 1.6 in US and 0.17 in India.

In India the Department of Agriculture and

Microbial technology for sustainable organic agriculture

M.N. Khare and S.P. TiwariDepartment of Plant PathologyJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482 004 (MP)

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 1-10 (2012)

Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture started NationalProject on Organic Farming (NPFO) from October 1st,2004 with six Regional Centres of Organic Farminglocated at Jabalpur (MP), Nagpur (MS), Bangalore(Karnataka), Bhubaneswar (Orissa), Hissar (Haryana) andImphal (Manipur). It is essential to develop package ofpractices for organic agriculture. Maharashtra OrganicFarming Federation (MOFF) has developed organicpackages of practices for cotton, wheat and gram. Organicfarming products are certified by Govt. of India approvedCertifying and Regulating agencies. At present elevenagencies are doing this work located at Mumbai,Aurangabad, Cochin, Bangalore, Thiruvella, Pune, Jaipur,Gurgaon and Dehradun.

Thus the organic farming is a system ofsustainable agriculture production management oflocally available natural resources for nutrition to crop.It helps in conservation of natural resources and soilfertility, environmental pollution and allows clean waterand safe food.

Seed

Looking to new regulation of National Pragramme onOrganic Agriculture (NPOA), organic seeds are usedas planting material. Efforts are being made for theproduction of certified organic seed. Mahajan et al.(2011) produced cluster bean seed organically withfoliar application of leaf extract of neem (Azadiractaindica) which increased seed yield, biological yield andyield attributes, dry matter of plant, number of pods perplant, pod weight, seed weight and 100 seed weight.Besides seed germination, shoot, root, seedling lengths,seedling dry weight and vigour indices increasedconsiderably. Selveraj (2006) observed higher plantgrowth and yield of crop plant due to hormonal effectand enhanced immunity of the plants against bioticstresses with foliar application of panchgavya along withplant leaf extracts in many crops. It is essential to use

2

high quality healthy seed for planting purpose in organiccultivation. More than 300 different crop varieties oforganic are commercially available to farmers, of which90 per cent are vegetables and cereal varieties(Vishwanath et al. 2008).

Compost

Soil rich in fertility is prerequisite for planting any cropfor which proper compost is a must. Organic wastesare decomposed through thermophilic microorganismswhich generate heat to make the product free frompathogens and plant seeds. This compost has fertilizervalue, improves humus content, soil texture,permeability, water holding capacity and is used asmulch in nursery. Compost is generally prepared fromorganic waste materials like crop residues, leaves,weeds, house refuge, animal excreta etc. The microbialinoculants for compost production are compostactivators. Cellulolytic organisms like Trichurus spiralis,Trichoderma viride, Paecilomyces fusisporus, lignolyticorganisms like Polyporus versicolor, Ganodermalucidum, Phanerochaete chryosporium; compostenrichers- P solubilizers like Aspergillus awamorii,Bacillus polymyxa and N- fixer Azotobacterchroococcum. Besides some bacteria Bacillussteriothermophilus, Theromomonospora sp.,Thermoactinomyces sp., Closteridium thermocellumand fungi Aspergillus fumigants, Geotrichum candidum,Mucor pucillus, Chaetomium thermophile, Thermoascusauranticus, Torula thermophila are also involved incomposting. The criteria considered in composting areC: N ratio should be 23-25; particle size 10 mm to 50mm; moisture content 50-60%; temperature 55-600C forthree days; agitation at 7-15 days gap; heap size anylength, 1.5 m high, 2.5 m wide. The methods used forcomposting are Indore method, Bangalore method,Coimbatore method, Anstead's method, ADCO method,NRL method, NADEP method, phosphocompostmethod, vermicompost method, EM-method etc.(Kabi,2006). Composting is a microbiological,nonpolluting and safe method for bioconversion of farmresidues and wastes to organic fertilizers.

NADEP Method

The method is named after Narayan Deorao PandhariPandey who invented it. It requires organic waste (greenfoliage, straw, cattle shed waste, house refuge etc.)1500 kg, cow dung 100 kg, FYM/soil 1500 kg , water1300 litre. It is made in a structure 10 x 5 x 3.5 ft ofbricks. The compost is ready in 90-120 days (Kabi2006).

Phosphocompost method

The method was developed by Gaur and modified byHazra and coscientists at BCKV Kalyani, W.B. therequired materials are organic waste 600 kg, cow dung150 kg, FYM 30 kg, soil 20 kg, Rock phosphate 150 kg,Pyrite 50 kg, urea in trace, microbial culture in traceand water as per need. Compost gets ready in 8-10weeks (Kabi 2006).

EM-Method

It has been developed by Teuro Higa of Japan. EMstands for effective microorganisms i.e. 80 differentstrains of beneficial and effective microbes both aerobicand anaerobic. They are Lactobacillus, photosyntheticbacteria, yeast and filamentous fungi. The raw materialrequired is weeds/ green foliage 7 q, crop residue 1 q,cow dung 1.5 q, Poultry litter 1.0 q, oilcake 0.5 q, EM650 ml, Jaggery 650 g. The compost is ready in 35-45days (Kabi 2006).

Preparation of liquid manures

Several types of liquid manure preparations are usedby farmers in various states which are good to enrichthe soil fertility for organic agriculture (Yadav 2007).

Sanjivak

Cow dung 100 kg, cow urine 100 l and jaggary 500gare mixed in 300 l water in a closed drum of 500 lcapacity. The mixture is fermented for ten days. It isdiluted 20 times with water and applied in one acre asspray or along with irrigation water.

Jivasurut

Cow dung 10 kg, cow urine 10 l, jaggary 2 kg , ant pulsegrain flour 2 kg and live soil one kg are mixed in 200 lwater and fermented for 5-7 days with stirring three timesa day. This is used in one acre with irrigation water.

Panchgavya

Cow dung slurry 4 kg, fresh cow dung one kg, cow urine3 l, cow milk 2 l, curd 2 l, cow deshi ghee 1 kg aremixed and fermented for seven days with stirring twicea day. Three l of Panchgavya is mixed with 100 l water

3

and sprayed over soil. In each acre 20 l Panchgavya isrequired for soil application along with irrigation water.

Enriched Panchgavya

Fresh cow dung one kg, cow urine 3 l, cow milk 2 l, cowdeshi ghee one kg, sugarcane juice 3 l, coconut water3 l, banana paste of 12 fruits are mixed and fermentedfor seven days. This also applied in soil likePanchagvya.

Biodynamic formulations

The biodynamic formulations are prepared from soil,cow excreta and plant refuge. The cow horn manure ismade by filling intact, cleaned cow horn with fresh cowdung and buried at 30 cm depth in root free zone in soilin October-November. It is incubated for six months ortill proper decomposition of manure. The applicationdose is 62.5 g/ha. Cow horn silica is prepared by fillingsilica powder instead of cow dung. It is made in March-April. The application rate is 2.5 g/ha at 2-4 leaf stageand at fruit set. Cow Pat Pit (CPP) or 'soil shampoo' isprepared in a pit 60 X 90 X 45 cm in shade and rootfree zone. The inner walls are pasted with fresh cowdung. Cow dung 60 kg is thoroughly mixed with 250 geach of bentonite and egg shell powder. Biodynamicpreparations of yarrow, chamomile, Nettle, oak bark,Dandelion and Valerian are added in the pit and coveredwith gunny bag. The compost gets ready in 75-90 daysdepending on temperature. It is used as seed treatmentor foliar application by dissolving 1 kg CPP in 40-45litres water and kept for 12 hours overnight. It contains0.7-2.24% N, 0.21-0.43% P and 0.72-0.93% K (Dey2006).

Vermicompost

Earthworm acts as biocatalytic regulator bydecomposing organic wastes and increase soil fertility.About 3600 species of earthworms are known to existin the world of which 402 species and subspeciesbelonging to 66 genera and 10 families are in India.They recycle the organic waste as vermicompost andimprove structure, aeration, nutrient status of soil byingestion of soil, partial breakdown of organic matter,intimate mixing of these fraction and ejection of thismaterial as surface or subsurface cast and by bringingsub soil to the surface by burrowing through the soil.They breakdown coarse particles to fine powder by thegizzard. Some native and exotic earthworms commonly

used for vermicomposting are Lampito mauritti, Perionykexcavates, Dichogaster faints, Eisenia foetida,Pheretima elongate, Metaphire posthuma, Eudriluseugeniae. The selection of worms is based on theircapability of inhabiting in specific organic matter, highadaptability and high fecundity rate with low incubationperiod, least interval from hatching to maturity, highgrowth, consumption, digestion, assimilation rate andleast time of inactivity after initial inoculation.

Various microorganisms are harboured in theintestine of earthworm in high concentration like fungi,bacteria and protozoans which intensify the microbialactivity with the help of several enzymes like proteolytic,amylase, hydrolyzing, lipase, invertase, cellulase,chitinase etc. and hormones, antibiotics etc. Theconsumed food materials by the earthworms arereleased as excreta which is further decomposed andthis nutrient rich organic manure is termedvermicompost. Besides N, P, K micronutrients like Fe,Cu, Mn and Zn are also available in higher quantity.Very high concentration of phosphate solubilisingbacteria (PSB) has been observed in vermicast makingvermicompost a potential phosphatic biofertilizer also.It also increases the concentration of nitrogen fixingbacteria. The vermicomposting technology is being usedin small as well as at large scale. The vermicompost ismade in small pits or above ground avoiding waterstagnation in 2 x 1 x 1 m beds (Chattopadhyay 2006).The compost is applied in the field directly and mixedin soil. In situ application is better in case of fruit treesand plantation crops.

Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers are auto or hetrotrophic microorgamismswhich enhance soil fertility and supply or mobilize plantnutrients for crop nutrition. They are grouped into fourcategories-N fixers; P-solubilizing microorganisms; P-mobilizers and organic matter decomposers. They arecyanobacteria, symbiotic and free living bacteria andArbuscular Mycorhizal fungi.

Blue - green algae (BGA)

These are important components of organic farming inrice. Neutral or alkaline soils ( pH 7.5 to 10.0) rich inavailable P, turbidity free shallow water, moderately hightemperature (30-350C), bright sunlight and less frequentrains favour growth and N fixation by BGA. The freshbiomass of BGA ranged from 4 to 28 t/ha with Ncontribution of 4-32 kg/ha. The main genera of N fixing

4

blue green algae are Anabaena, Anabaenopsis,Aphanizomenon, Aulosira, Cylindrospermum, Nodularia,Nostoc, Scytonema, Tolypothrix, Microchaete, Calothrix,Dichothrix, Fisherella, Hapalosiphon, Stigonema,Mastigocladus, Chloroaloea, Raphidiopsis, Gleotrichia,Rivularia, Oscillatoria, Lyngbya, Trichodesmium,Plectonema, Nostoc. Besides fixing nitrogen BGAelaborate vitamins, growth factor, enhance plant growth,oxygenate water, excrete organic acids which solubilizephosphates and check loss of water from paddy fields.In MP rice grain yield increased upto 19% over controlwith BGA. The residual effect was on the succeedingchickpea (Panda 2006). BGA biofertilizer 5-10 kg isrequired for one ha. The BGA inoculum is mixed with10-20 kg soil or saw dust and sprinkled in the field after7-10 days of transplanting.

Azolla

Azolla is a small floating pteridophyte growing in ponds.The biomass of Azolla increases 2-6 fold every week. Ithas symbiotic association with Anabaena azollae whichgrows in leaf cavity. Azolla is grown in shallow pondsor pits or plots for 2-3 weeks. When a thick mat is formedit is harvested and spread in paddy fields. It contributes25-30 kg N/ha. Azolla suppresses weed growth also.Standing water 5-10 cm deep, pH 6-7, high available Pand low organic C, 25-300C temperature and high lightintensity favour growth of Azolla and nitrogen fixation(Panda 2006). Azolla pinnata is a commonly availablespecies, A. caroliniana is better species and Azollahybrids are also available. These can be obtained fromCentral Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Orissa.

Nitrogen fixing bacteria

Several bacteria, photosynthetic like Rhodospirillumrubrum, Rhodopsuedomonas capsulata, species ofRhodomicrobium, Chromatium, Chlorobium and non-photosynthetic like species of Rhizobium, Azotobacter,Azotococcus, Azomonas, Beijerinckia, Bacillus,Azospirillum, Clostridium, Klebsiella, Erwinia, Spirillum,BradyRhizobium etc. fix nitrogen for the benefit of plants.Most commonly used genera are Rhizobium andBradyRhizobium for legumes and Azotobacter andAzospirillum for nonleguminous crops.

The genus Rhizobium was established by Fredet al. in 1932. The important species are R. phaseoli(Phaseolus spp.), R.meliloti (Medicago spp.), R.trifolli(Trifolium), R.viciae (Vicia spp, pea), R.fredii (Glycine),

etc. In case of BradyRhizobium, B. japonicum (Glycine),B.ciceri (Cicer), B. vignae (Vigna), B. cajani (Cajanus)are important species. The culture is available with in-ert matter for seed treatment. They fix nitrogensymbiotically. To maintain the quality, standards havebeen fixed. The formulation must contain a minimum of108 viable Rhizobium cells/g on dry mass basis. Cropsinoculated with Rhizobium leave 20-60 kg N in the soilafter harvest. They give 10-30% extra yield. High soiltemperature above 350C reduces survival of Rhizobiumin soil; the optimum soil pH is between 5.8 and 8.0,below and above this limit nodulation is reduced; soilspoor in phosphorus do not form required nodules; someseed treating fungicides inhibit the Rhizobium growth.Rhizobium fertilizer is usually applied as seed treatment.

Species of Azotobacter and Azospirillum whenused in cereals increased grain yield, plant biomassnutrient uptake , tissue nitrogen contents, nitrogenaseactivity, early flowering, tiller numbers, more plantheight, leaf size, increased number of spikes, grainsper spike, thousand grain weight, better root length andvolume, less insect pests and diseases. Commonly usedspecies of Azotobacter are A. croocorum and ofAzospirillum are A. lipoferum, A. brasilense. Neutral toslightly alkaline soils rich in organic matter and availableP favour multiplication of these two bacteria and Nfixation. Azotobacter can fix 10-30 kg N/ha in aerobicsoils and Azospirillum upto 15-20 kg/ha. The grain yieldis increased 8-30% over uninoculated control.Azotobacter has its utility in cereals (wheat and paddy)vegetables (potato, tomato), oilseeds (mustard,rapeseed), fiber crops (cotton, jute) etc. It increasedyield of potato (3-11%), onion (18-22%), cotton (15-38%), tomato (19%), cabbage (40%) and cauliflower(28%). Azospirillum gives overall increase in nitrogenuptake, plant biomass and grain yield due to increasedbranching of roots, production of plant growthpromoters, antimicrobial substances, enhanced Nfixation, better water status and increased nitratereductase activity (Dey 2006).Besides fixing nitrogenAzotobacter secretes certain hormones like IAA,gibberellic acid and cytokinin which enhance vegetativegrowth and root development. The metabolites checkcertain soil borne pathogens. They perform better inwell aerated light to medium soils. Azospirillum ismicroaerophillic hence perform better in medium heavyto heavy textured soils with high moisture levels. Theycan withstand water logging for some times. Theydepend on root exudates for their nutrition. They alsoenter into the root system and multiply in intercellularspaces usually in cortex and at nodes in stem. Thebacterium benefits the crop by 20-35 kg N/ha and increasethe grain and vegetative growth 20-30%. Both Azotobacter

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and Azospirillum are used as seed treatment, seedlingroot dip and as soil treatment. They are used for uplandcereals millets, vegetables, cotton, fruit and plantationcrops.

Endophytic diazotrophs

The endophytic diazotrophic bacteria are present notonly in roots of sugarcane plant but also in stem andleaves in large numbers fixing nitrogen. Besidessugarcane their association has been reported on othercrop plants as well.

Acetobacter

Acetobacter was identified first in Brazil for sugarcane.It is rod shaped aerobic diazotrophic bacterium. A.diazotrophicus is a selected strain fixing as high as 300kg N/ha providing a hope for complete elimination ofthe requirement of chemical nitrogen. Acetobacter isan endophyte living inside the plant tissue. A quantityof 5 kg carrier based inoculants is suspended insufficient quantity of water and sugarcane setts aredipped in suspension for 30-60 minutes. The bacteriumenters through the damaged tissue of setts. Once thebacteria are properly established in plants, furtherplanting can be done by using such infected cane setts.A.diazotrophicus also produces indole acetic acid (IAA)growth hormone influencing the development of canes.

Glucoacetobacter

Glucoacetobacter diazophoricus is also a nitrogen fixingbacterium inhabiting roots, stem and leaves ofsugarcane plants having endophytic colonization. Thenitrogen is fixed efficiently as the plant directly providesphotosynthates for them and low oxygen environmentcreated which favours nitrogenase enzyme. The canegrowth is also enhanced due to IAA production.

Burkholderia sp.

Burkholderia sp. is a promising endophytic diazotrophfor sugarcane as it not only contributes nitrogen butalso produces IAA which enhances growth. Revathi etal. (2005) conducted basic and applied research onBurkholderia sp. in Tamilnadu.

Sulphur oxidizing microbes

Main sulphur oxidizing bacteria are species ofThiobacillus, Beggiatoa, Thiothrix. Biosulphur is aproduct from Thiobacillus thiooxidans. Among fungispecies of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Microsporiumalso oxidize sulphur.

Phosphate solubilising microbes

Important phosphate solubilising bacteria are Bacillusmegaterium, Psuedomonas sp., Arthrobacter sp. etc.Phosphobactin is a product based on B. megaterium.Several species of Aspergillus, Cephalosporium,Cldosporium, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Thielevia, etc.also solubilize phosphates. The most efficientmesophilic species are Psuedomonas striata, Bacilluspolymyxa, B. circulans, B. subtitis, Aspergillus awamori,A. niger, A. fumigatus, A. terreus solubilize insolubleinorganic phosphates. The organic phosphates aresolublized by P.striata, B. pulvifaciens, A. awamori, P.digitatum and Sewanniomyces occidantalis. Thephosphate solubilzing microorganisms synthesizegrowth promoting substances which augment plantgrowth like auxins, gibberline, vitamins, indole aceticacid, cytokinin etc. According to the requirement of thecrop and soil conditions a suitable combination of theseorganisms is used. They are applied as seed, seedlingroot and as soil treatment. They secrete various organicacids like citric, fumaric, glutamic, glyoxalic, lactic, malic,succinic and ketogluteric. They help in dissolvingmineral phosphates and phosphorylated minerals. Theyalso secrete fungistatic and growth promotingsubstances. The uptake of P2O5 is increased by 30-60% and yield 10-20%. The temperature requirementfor all PS microorganisms ranges from 28-320C. Fungican tolerate upto 370C . The pH should be 6-7.5but foracidic soils pH 6 is better for A.niger and A.awamori.Soil should be rich in organic matter.

AM fungi

An Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM) fungus is an excellentbiofertilizer. They accelerate the plant growth, nutrientuptake specially P and Zn, reduce soil borne diseasesand increase productivity. They establish hyphalassociation with cortex of root and increase surface areafor nutrient absorption and exchange. Its associationincreases nodulation due to nitrogen fixing bacteria inleguminous plants. The important genera are Glomus,Gigaspora, Aculospora, Endogone etc. The commonly

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found species of Glomus with crops in India are G.monosporum, G. fasciculatum, G. epigacum, G. mossae,G. constrictum. AM fungi are obligate parasites hencethey are maintained on living hosts. Species of Glomushave been reported in association with maize, soybean,chickpea, sorghum, mungbean, wheat, groundnut, cottonetc. The hyphae of AM fungi possess surface acidphosphatases which help in solubilizing organic andinorganic phosphate, the phosphate so released isefficiently absorbed at the root-soil interface. These fungialso produce hydroxamate, siderophores that chelatemicronutrients Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn resulting in more availabilityto plants (Dey 2006).

Though the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungiare obligate parasites, they are symbiotic as host plantprovides nutrients to the fungus and the fungus providesphosphorus to the plant roots. On infection they formcharacteristic arbuscules and vesicles in plant roots.Vesicles serve as storage organ and arbuscules asinterface between host root and fungus for exchange ofcarbohydrates and phosphates. Hence, mycorrhizal fungialso contribute in increasing drought tolerance, uptake ofsome micronutrients, nodulation due to Rhizobium inlegumes as disease resistance. They also protect plantroots from toxicity of heavy metals. The mycorrhizal fungihave been found useful in legumes, cereals, potato,Lucerne, vegetable crops, fruit crops, plantation crops,ornamentals and orchids. Mycorrhizal fungi biofertilizersare available as soil root mix or as carrier based sporeformulations and are used as seed treatment in agriculturalcrops and as soil treatment in nursery beds in horticulturecrops, fruit trees and forestry plants.

Actinorrhizae

About 200 plant species belonging to 19 genera and 8families are actinorrhizal plants which nodulate with anitrogen fixing actinomycetes, Frankia can fix upto 150kg/ha N depending on the host plant, symbioticactinorrhiza and the environmental conditions. N fixationoccurs in terminal swellings of the hyphae called vesicle(Dey 2006).

Liquid biofertizers

The liquid formulations of biofertilizers have long shelflife or more than two years, zero contamination, qualitycontrolled and easy to apply. These are available asNitrogen fixing microbes (NFM); Phosphorus solubilizing

microbes (PSM) and Phosphate mobilizing microbes(VAM); Potash mobilizing microbes, Frateuria aurentia;Zinc and Sulphur solubilising bacteria (Thiobacillus spp.)and Manganese solublizers (Penicillium citrinus).Dormant Aqueous suspensions are also formulated inwhich growth suppressants, contaminant suppressantsare used. Dormant oil suspensions are also available.The details are given in the booklet (Krishan Chandraet al. 2005).

Biointensive disease and insect pest management

It is essential to control diseases and insect pests bynonchemical means to avoid the use of hazardouschemical fungicides and pesticides. Cultural, physicaland biological methods including cropping systemapproach to avoid diseases and pests are preferred.Besides the use of microorganisms, parasites,predators, pheromone traps etc. botanicals are of greatuse in controlling pathogens and insect pests. Khare(2005) has dealt with production, use and quality controlof biopesticides for organic agriculture.

Microorganisms in crop disease control

A number of microorganisms reduce the survival andactivity of plant pathogens through their interactions.Many are used against soil-borne pathogens as theymake the soil inhospitable for such pathogens throughantagonism, fungistasis, competition, hyperparasitism,toxic exudates, lytic enzymes, antibiotic production etc.They make the rhizosphere zone inconducive forpathogens. Important soil borne pathogens are speciesof Fusarium, Sclerotium, Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia

bataticola, R. solani, Pythium, Phytophthora causing wilt,collar rot, stem rot, charcoal rot, root rot, damping off,seedling rot respectively in various crops. Theantagonistic fungi to these pathogens are Trichoderma

viride, T. harzianum,T. virens, T. lignorum, T. hamatum,T. longibrachiatum, Gliocladium virens, G. roseum.These are applied into the soil directly or through seeds(Khare and Jharia 2002). Seeds are also treated withthese antagonists to control seed borne pathogens.Some species of trichoderma are used as spray to checkfoliar diseases. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria(PGPR) which include fluorescent psuedomonads likePsuedomonas fluorescens and Bacillus spp. are highlyantagonistic to fungal, bacterial, viral pathogens (Singhet al. 2006; Mall 2004).

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Use of AM fungi

The Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi grow in associationof roots of various crops. The term mycorrhiza wasintroduced by A.B.Frank in 1885 which is a Greek wordmeaning 'fungus root'. They live as symbionts. AM fungiprovide greater tolerance to toxic heavy metals, rootpathogens, drought, high soil temperature, soil salinity,and adverse soil pH and transplantation shock. Theirassociation results in better growth of plants. They actas biocontrol agent against root pathogens-fungi,bacteria and nematodes like species of Phytophthora ,Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Pythium,Pseudomonas syringae, P. solanacearum,Meloidogyne, Tylenchulus semipenetrans,Pratylenchus, Radopholus similis etc. (Bagyraj 2006).

Among bacteria the plant growth promotingRhizobacteria (PGPR) like fluorescent psuedomonads-Psuedomonas fluorescens and species of Bacillus like,B. subtilis, B. putida, B .cereus, B. circulans etc. arealso used as antagonistic to plant pathogens.

Biocontrol of insect pests

Insects damaging crops are controlled by biopesticideslike fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and predatorsand parasitoids. More than 750 fungal speciesbelonging to about 100 genera are entomopathogenic.Metarhizium anisopliae has a wide range of insect pestsbelonging to Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera,Homoptera, mosquito and brown plant hopper of rice.Beauvaria brassiana against white grubs, corn borer,pine beetle, Helicoverpa, Spotoptera spp; Verticilliumlecanii to control Homopher like Aphids, white flies,Scale insects etc.; Verticillium chlamadosporium againstsubterranean pests, cysts of nematodes etc.;Entemopthora spp. to control Aphids. Several bacteriaare used as pesticides. Pseudomonas aeruginosa isused against green hoppers; P. septica againstscarabacid beetles, striped ambrosia beetle; Vibrioleonardii to check wax moth, European corn borer;Bacillus thirungiensis controls insect pests of four ordersLepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera and Acarina; B. cereusagainst butterflies and moths, B. popillae, B. lentimorbusto control scarabacid beetles; Clostridium novyi, C.perfringgens to check wax moth.

Bt is a crystalliferous, spore former, produces parasporalcrystal which contain delta-endotoxin. After entry into theinsect it changes to active toxins which kill the insects.The bacteria also invade the haemocoel from the gut and

produce lethal septicemia (Dhaliwal and Arora 2000).Several formulations are available under different tradenames, like Delfin, Spicturin,Biolep HALT etc.

Predators and Parasitoides

The eggs and larvae of predators are released in thefield for the control of insect pests. Chrysoperla carneais released as egg or larva @ 1000/acre in cottonecosystem to control cotton insect pests. Cryptolaemusmontrouzieri adults or grubs are released @ 600/acreto control pests of grapevine and coffee. Adoniavariegata, Brumoides suturalis, Monochilussexmaculatus, Micraspis discolour, Nephus regularis,Saynus coccivora, Propylea dissecta etc, are also usedas predators against insect pests.

Trichogramma chilonis an egg parasitoid isreleased @ 2,40,000/acre in pupal or adult stage tocontrol cotton boll worm. T. chhilonis and T. japonicumare used against sugarcane top shoot borer and riceyellow stem borer @ 1,00,000/acre. Goniozusnephantidis and Bracon brevicornis are released @1200/acre for controlling coconut caterpillar (Opisiniaarenosella) as larval parasitoid. Epiricana melanoleucaintroduction has given good control of Pyrilla perpusellaby releasing 4 to 5 thousand Cocoons and 4-5 lakhseggs/ha. Other parasitoids used are Apanteles angaleti,Brachymeria nephantidis, Copidosoma koehleri,Leptomastic dactylopii, Telenomus remus etc. (Gautam1992).

Baculoviruses

These are Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV) withspecies specific, narrow spectrum insecticidalapplication. They have no negative effect on plants,mammals, birds, fish and non-target insects.Baculoviruses are generally unaffected by pesticides,although some chlorine compounds damage them ifapplied at the same time. More than 50 Baculovirusproducts are in use to control different insect pestsworldwide. The use of Anticarsia gemmetalis NPV(AgMNPV) to control A. gemmetalis in soybean in Brazilhas been most successful (Moscardi 2007). In chinaHelicoverpa armigera SNPV(HaSNPV) was producedand used in cotton, soybean, pigeonpea, maize, tomatocrops, was first authorized as commercial microbialinsecticide in 1993 (Sun and Peng 2007). In IndiaNuclearpolyhedrosis viruses (NPV) and Granulovirus(GV) are used against Helicoverpa armigera,Spodoptera litura as they are highly virulent, non

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polluting and ecofriendly. Liquid and wettable powderformulations are mostly used. The cultivators know thetechnique to make the liquid formulation in the field(Narayanan 2005; Easwaramoorthy 2005).

Codling moth granulosis virus (cyd-Xa) is usedagainst codling moth in apple, pear, walnut, plum,cabbage army worm nuclear polyhedrosis virus(memestrin) against cabbage moth, potato tuber moth,grape berry moth in cabbage, tomato, cotton;Spodoptera littoralis nuclear plyhedrosis (Sodopterin)against Spodoptera littoralis in cotton, corn, tomato;S.exigua nuclear polyhedrosis virus (Spod-x) againstbeet armyworm (S.exigua) in vegetables, green houseflowers; Helicoverpa zea nuclear polyhedrosis virus(Gemstar Lc, Biotrol, Elcar) against tobacco budwormH.zea, cotton bollworm, H. virescens in cotton andvegetables; Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosisvirus (Gusano Biological Pesticide) against Alfalfalooper (Autographa californica) in Alfalfa etc.

In China 13 viral insecticides were registered andreleased into market as pesticides, including nine NPV,three GV, one densonucleosis virus (DNV) and oneCytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (CPV) (Yang et al.2012).

Nematodes

Entomopathogenic nematodes parasitize insects andare characterized by certain properties like, they arespecialized to carry and introduce symbiotic bacteriainto the insect hemocoel; have broad host range; canbe cultured artificially for fast multiplication; limitedimpact on nontarget organisms and are not disruptiveto the environment. These are mostly soil-inhabitingnematodes most effective to control soil borne insectpests. Steinernema carpocapsae is effective againstlepidopterous larvae including webworms, cutworms,armyworms, girdlers, weevils, wood borers. Thepreferred temperature range is 22-280C (Hussaini2005). Steinernema foltiae is effective against dipteronsinsects like mushroom flies, fungus gnats, tipulids andlepidopterous larvae. It is effective even at 100C. Itcontrols Spodoptera litura and H. armigera (Dhaliwaland Arora 2000). Steinernema kushidai parasitizesscarab larvae. Steinernema scapterisci is effectivelycontrols mole crickets. Steinernema riobrave is usedagainst citrus root weevils. Steinernema glaseri isharmful to Coleopterous larvae particularly scarabs.Heterorhabditis indica was first reported from India. It isheat tolerant, infects insects at 300C and above and isuseful against Helicoverpa armigera. Heterorhabditisbacteriophora attacks lepidopterous and coleopterous

insect larvae besides other insects. It is useful againstroot weevils like black vine weevil. Heterorhabditismagidis is cold tolerant attacking insects even below150C. It controls black vine weevil and soil insects.Tetradonema pelicans checks sciarid flies and insectpests of mushrooms. Neoaplectana carpocapsae infectsinsect pests of ten different orders. One strain DD-136is used to control insect pests of orchards, vegetablesand field crops.

Protozoa

Many protozoa are pathogenic attacking the insects andmaking them weak affecting their vigour, longevity andfertility. Farinocystis triboli is pathogenic on Triboliumcastaneum, Nosema lacustae on grasshoppers,Vairimorpha nectaris infects 36 lepidopteran pests(Dhariwal and Arora 2006).

Botanicals in insect pest and disease control

According to Dev and Koul (1997) about 2400 plantsfrom 189 families possess insecticidal properties.Pyrethrins, rotenone, nicotine, syanodin, sabadilla,neem based products with azadirachtin like Ozoneem,Trishul, Margocide OK, Godrej Achook, Nimbicidin,Bioneem, Neemark, Neem gold, Neemam, Rakshak,Econeema, Limnool, RD-9 repelin, Neemezal are allplant products used as insecticides. Neem seed kernelextract (NSKE) , neem leaf extract, neem cake powderare also used as pesticides. Essential oils with monoand sesquiterpenoides are insect toxins, repellent anddeterrents like cinnamate, Valero, Eco PCO, Rosemaryoil which are used against aphids, whiteflies, thrips andmites on a number of crops (Koul, 2003; Pawar andSingh 1993).

The plants contain chemicals antipathogenic toplant pathogens with reference in Vrakshayurvedawritten by Surpala (Sadhale, 1996). For the last manyyears the plants have been used to control plantpathogens and diseases caused by them. The activeprinciple involved in mode of action has been isolatedand identified. Khare and Shukla (1998) and Khare etal. (2012) have reviewed the work on plants used tocontrol crop diseases. Mawar and Lodha (2008) havealso listed some plants used to control plant pathogens.Various parts of plants like bark, stem, root, kernel,flowers, pollen grains, bulbs, rhizomes, corms, seed etc.are used in this endeavor. Plant products used are oils,oilcakes, resins, latex etc. The commonly usedformulations are cold water extracts, hot water extracts,

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and organic solvent extracts of plant parts fresh or dry.Leaf powder, resins, plant latex are collected and usedas such or after dilution.

Seed treatment of wheat by stem, leaf flowerextracts of Chrysanthemum roseum and C. caronariumat 100 percent concentration for 30 and 60 minuteschecked 12 seed borne fungi completely. Leaf extractof Mentha piperita reduced seed borne Drechsleraoryzae in rice. Seed treatment with oil of Cymbopogoncitratus controlled Colletotrichum garminicola insorghum. Seed treatment of lentil with neem bitterextract controlled Fusarium moniliforme, F. oxysporumand F. semitectum associated with seed. Besides seedtreatment diseases on standing crops have beencontrolled by the application of plant formulations (Khareet al. 2012). Chilli fruit rot due to Aspergillus niger waseffectively controlled by three successive sprays ofpartially purified metabolic extract of bitter temru fruit(Diospyros cordifolia Roxb.) and Datura leaves (Bagriet al. 2011). They have described the method of makingfruit extract of bitter temru in detail. Prasad and Simlot(1983) also found bitter temru extract quite effectiveagainst Fusarium udum causing wilt of pigeonpea.

Besides fungal pathogens, bacteria, nematodesand viruses can also be controlled by botanicals (Khareet al. 2012).

Sustainability in organic agriculture

Agricultural produce from organic farming is beingpreferred for human consumption. To meet the everincreasing demand sustainability in organic agricultureis a must. It is based on locally available natural sources.The seed and planting material should be grownorganically and should be certified. Synthetic inputsshould not be used. Properly processed manures areused. To build up soil fertility green manurring is a must.Crop rotation, intercropping, mixed cropping; mulchingshould be followed as per need. For plant protectionsynthetic materials should not be used, biological controlwith antagonists, botanicals, cultural, physical practicesshould be adopted. Care is needed during harvesting,transport and storage. Prescribed Certificationprocedure must be followed.

The usual crop production programme involvesa lot of synthetic inputs which affect the produceendangering the human life. The use of chemicalfertilizers, pesticides, weedicides hormones deterioratesthe environment. The residual and nontarget affects ofchemicals used spoil the produce and kill the beneficialmicroflora. Organic farming is a system in which

synthetic inputs are avoided and promotes and enhancesagro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biologicalcycles and soil biological activity and is accomplishedby using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanicalmethods. In India organic agriculture was promoted fromJanuary 1994 when "Sewagram Declaration" was made.Several states have formulated policies for developmentof organic agriculture. Sikkim and Nagaland states aretotal organic and defined organic pathway and policies.Various methods have been evolved for production of highquality manures, biodegrading microorganisms,biofertilzers, biocontrol agents which are useful insustainable crop production under organic farming.Advances have been made in microbial technology tosupport organic farming. Investigations are underway toexplore better and beneficial strains of microorganismsfor sustainable organic agriculture besides other methods.

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(Manuscript Receivd : 16.02.2012; Accepted 20.06.2012)

11

Abstract

Wheat crop was selected as this crop occupied highest areain cereal groups in Rewa district for estimation of seed, feedand wastage ratios. From Rewa district, four tehsils / blockswere selected on the basis of highest area under wheat crop.From each block, five villages were selected and from eachvillage a sample of 15 farmers (5 each from small, mediumand large size) was randomly selected. In this way, a total of300 farmers (100 farmers from each size group) from 20villages of 04 tehsils / blocks were selected. Simple averagesand percentages were used for estimation of seed, feed andwastage ratios for wheat production. For the production ofwheat crops, the quantity of seed used by the farmers was4.93 per cent of the current year's production and kept 5.63per cent grains as seed for the next year. Considering all sizegroups, the quantity of seed kept for next year's productionwas more than the quantity of seed used for current year'sproduction. The overall production and disposal of wheatshowed that 16.11 per cent grains was used for domesticconsumption and 5.80 per cent grains kept as seed for nextyear's production. The grain used as animal feed was 3.43per cent and poultry feed was 0.28 per cent of the totalproduction. The marketed surplus of wheat was 57.64 percent. Marketed surplus was lowest in case of small groupand highest in case of large group of farm. The total wastageof wheat grain in small, medium and large size groups cameto 8.17, 6.84 and 5.88 per cent respectively. The losses washighest in small group and lowest in large group. The overallquantity retained for seed, feed and wastage decreases asthe size of farm increases.

Keywords: Wheat grain, seed, feed, wastage andmarketed surplus

More than 70 per cent of population of India lives inrural areas where the main occupation is agriculture. InIndia, agriculture continues to be the engine of economicgrowth. Over the last century, productivity has been amajor focus of agricultural research as feeding thepopulation was the major concern. Around 66 per cent

Estimation of seed, feed and wastage ratios for wheat production inRewa district of Madhya Pradesh

S.K. Gupta and P.K. MishraOffice of the Dean Faculty of Agriculture and Directorate of InstructionJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482 004 (MP)

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 11-17 (2012)

of the total cultivated area is under foodgrains (cerealsand pulses). Foodgrains production has increasedfourfold since independence, from 51 million tonnesduring 1950-51 to 212.85 million tonnes during 2001-02. Of all the food articles, foodgrains constitute themost significant part of the Indian diet. Nearly 60 percent of an average Indian's income gets spent onfoodgrains. Due to increased foodgrains production, thenet per capita availability of foodgrains increased fromabout 395 grams per day in 1951 to 455 gms/day in2000.

India is the third largest producer of wheat in theworld. The production of wheat has increased from 6.18million tonnes in 1951-52 to 71.81 million tonnes (about1062 per cent) in 2001-02, Net per capita availability ofwheat increased from 65.7 gms. per capita per day in1951 to 164.4 gms. per capita per day in 2002. In india,the trend regression of the per capita availability ofcereals and foodgrains indicates that in the recent years,the growth rate has showed down in foodgrains andnegative in pulses. This has resulted in stagnancy inper capita availability of foodgrains. This was due torelatively stagnant of only marginal increase in theproduction and steady increase in population. Therecent slow down in the grain output raises concernsabout the growth of agricultural sector. It has beenestimated that India's demand for foodgrains in 2020will be 351 million tonnes assuming 5.5 per cent growthin per capita income. If economic growth is alsoaccompanied by significant reduction in the proportionof poor people, demand could further increase to 370million tonnes by 2020. Therefore, the surging growthof demand for food must be met with largely throughtechnological change in agriculture because of thelimited option to expand the land area.

Safe storage of foodgrains is as important asproduction of foodgrains. However, storage losses stillcontinue to be quite high in India. The state of Madhya

12

Pradesh is no exception. Recognizing the fact, theDepartment of Food of the Government of India incooperation with the State Government launched the"Save Grain Compaign" (SGC) in Madhya Pradesh in1973. This programme (SGC) needs more attention ofthe Government so that every grain which is producedwith a hard labour and high cost could be preservedand made available for consumption without affectingits quality and quantity.

In a country like India, where about 26 per centof the population live below poverty line, thesefoodgrains losses are a criminal wastage. There is nodoubt that these losses can not be brought at the zerolevel but can be significantly reduced through bettermanagement and infrastructure. The specific objectivesof the study are : to estimate the total quantity of wheatconsumed for seed, feed and wastage, and; to estimatethe net availability of wheat for human consumption.

Methodology

For the study, Madhya Pradesh State was selectedpurposively. Out of 48 districts of the state, Rewa districtwas selected for cereals as the area under cereals washighest in the district. Wheat crop was selected for thisstudy as this crop occupied highest area in cerealgroups in Rewa district. A three stage stratified randomsampling design was used to select the blocks, villagesand farmers of Rewa district. From Rewa district, fourtehsils / blocks were selected on the basis of highestarea under wheat crops. From each selected blocks, alist of all the villages was prepared and 5 villages wereselected from each block in consultation with the DeputyDirector of Agriculture and SDO of Agriculture of theRewa district. Further, from each of the selected village,a list of farmers was prepared. The farmers weregrouped in to three size groups viz. small (0.0 to 2.00ha), medium (2.01 to 4.00 ha) and large (above 4.00ha). Then, a sample of 15 farmers (5 small, 5 mediumand 5 large) from each village was randomly selected.In this way, a sample of 75 farmers from 5 villages wereselected and a total of 300 farmers (100 farmers fromeach size group) from 20 villages of 4 tehsils / blockswere selected.

Data on household members, land inventory, cropinventory, animal inventory, area and production ofwheat were collected from each selected farmers.Information of seed, feed for bovines (cattle + buffaloes+ poultry) and wastage (by various ways) of wheatproduction were collected from all the selected farmersby using a well designed pre-tested questionnaire bypersonal interview method.

The reference year for the study was agriculturalyear 2007-08.Both primary and secondary data werecollected. Primary data was collected from the samplefarmers and secondary data was collected fromAgricultural Statistics, at a glance, Economic Survey,Annual Reports of various Ministries / Departments ofthe Government of Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal andGovernment of India. The data published in reputedenglish newspapers / magazines and reports have alsobeen used in the study. Simple averages andpercentages were used for the estimation of seed (usedand kept for next year), feed (feed fed to bovines andpoultry) and wastage ratios for wheat production atdifferent stages.

Results and discussion

The total number of farmers in the selected villages ofRewa district was 4,230. Of this the highest number(3,066) of farmers belonged to small size group followedby medium size group (747 farmers) and large sizegroup (417 farmers). The average size of holding ofthe district was 3.20 ha In small group, the averagesize of holding was 0.76 ha, followed by medium group(2.61 ha) and large group (6.24 ha). None of the farmersadopted the practice of leased in / leased out of land.The overall net cropped area (per household) of thedistrict was 3.37 ha and gross cropped area (perhousehold) was 6.24 ha The overall cropping intensityof the district was 185.16 per cent. The croppingintensity of small group was 191 per cent followed bymedium group (182.45 per cent) and large group(185.71 per cent). Of the total number of farmers in theselected villages (4230), 300 farmers (100 from eachgroup i.e. small, medium and large) were selected. Theoverall average size of holding of the selected farmswas 3.45 ha In the case of small group, the averagesize of holding was 1.01 ha followed by medium farms(3.06 ha) and large farms (6.28 ha) Table-1.

Cropping Pattern

The main crops grown by the sample farmers of RewaDistrict were paddy, soybean, urd and arhar in kharifand wheat, gram, masoor, barley and linseed in rabiseason. The area under wheat was highest in all thesize groups. The overall gross cropped area of thesample farms was 1867.89 ha Of this, 32.10 per centarea (599.99 ha) was under wheat followed by paddy(26.49 per cent), gram (11.24 per cent), soybean (10.60per cent), masoor (7.54 per cent), urad (6.58 per cent),arhar (2.25 per cent), barley (1.28 per cent) and linseed

13

Table 1. Selection of farmers from four tehsils/blocks and 20 villages of Rewa district for wheat

Stratum Tehsils Name of Name of the Total number of Total No. of farmersTaluka/blocks selected villages farmers in the selected

village Small Medium Large

Raipur Karchuliyan Raipur Karchuliyan Etaura 139 5 5 5Mahsua 139 5 5 5Navagaon 126 5 5 5Sonaura 198 5 5 5Varrehi 462 5 5 5

Hanumana Hanumana Alva Khurd 120 5 5 5Majhigawa 182 5 5 5Masuriha 114 5 5 5Noun kala 536 5 5 5Salaiya 265 5 5 5

Sirmour Sirmour Delahi 458 5 5 5Gaura 194 5 5 5Kanji 139 5 5 5Karaudaha 114 5 5 5Nakta 85 5 5 5

Rewa Hazoor Azgarha 202 5 5 5Khadda 107 5 5 5Khaur 108 5 5 5Kothi 217 5 5 5Vasi 325 5 5 5

Total 4230 100 100 100

Table 2. Size class wise distribution of number of farmers and average size of holding for wheat crop, Rewa district

Size of holding No. of Av. size Leased in/ Net Gross No. of Av. size offarmers in of holding out area as cropped cropped sample holdingthe village % of total area (av.) area (av.) farmers selected

area per HH selected samplefarmers

(Nos) (Ha) (%) Per HH (Ha) (Nos) (Ha)

Small 3,066 0.76 0 0.99 1.89 100 1.01Medium 747 2.61 0 3.02 5.51 100 3.06Large 417 6.24 0 6.09 11.31 100 6.28Total 4,230 3.20 0 3.37 6.24 300 3.45

(0.96 per cent). In small group, kharif crops occupied46.23 per cent area and rabi crops occupied 53.77 percent area of the gross cropped area. Similarly, inmedium group, the area occupied by kharif crops was45.02 per cent and rabi crops was 54.98 per cent. Inlarge group, 46.08 per cent area was under kharif cropand remaining 53.92 per cent area was under rabi crops.The cropping pattern of Rewa district was rabi cropsdominated and wheat was the major crop of this district

which occupied highest area in cropping pattern(Table 3).

Seed requirement

In small size group the total area under wheat for theselected farmers was 78.56 hectares and totalproduction was 1,86,650 kg. For the production of

14

wheat, small farmers used 9,589 kg. of seed from previousyear's production and kept 10,050 kg. of seed from currentyear's production. The percentage quantity of seed usedwith current year's total production was 5.14 and kept5.38 per cent seed from current year's production for thenext year. In medium group, the area under wheat was175.46 hectares and production was 4,39,300 kg. Thefarmers of this group used 21,704 kg. of seed which was4.94 per cent of the current year's production of wheat.They kept 6.30 per cent seed for next year's production.The large size farmers covered 345.97 hectare of landunder wheat crop and produced 8,93,600 kg. of wheat.For the production of wheat crop, the quantity of seedused by farmers was 44,075kg., i.e. 4.93 per cent of thecurrent year's production and kept 5.63 per cent grainsas seed for the next year. In all size groups, the quantityof seed kept for next year's production was more thanthe quantity of seed used for the current year's production(Table 4).

Production and disposal of wheat

In small size group, the total production of wheat was

1866.50 qtls. Of this 39.60 per cent quantity of wheatwas used for home consumption purpose and 5.39 percent grains was kept for seed purpose for the next year'sproduction. The produce used as animal and poultryfeed was 5.18 per cent and 0.46 per cent respectively.The marketed surplus of wheat in small group was 35.69per cent and marketable surplus was 46.46 per cent ofthe total quantity of wheat produced. In medium sizegroup, the selected farmers produced 4,393 qtl. wheat.The farmers of this group kept 19.09 per cent grains forhome consumption and kept 6.27 per cent grains as aseed for the next year's production. Nearly 4.59 per centand 0.56 per cent of wheat production was kept foranimal and poultry feed respectively. About 4.23 percent of the produce was given to labour as kind wages.The marketed surplus of wheat was estimated to be51.88 per cent. The total production of wheat in largesize group was 8936.00 qtls. The farmers of this groupkept 5.61 per cent grains as seed for next year'sproduction and 9.72 per cent produce for homeconsumption. Of the total production of wheat, 2.52 per

Table 3. Cropping pattern of the sample farmers of Rewa district

Sizeof Area share and the crop (proportion to GCA) per centholding Crops

Paddy Soybean Urd Arhar Wheat Gram Masoor Vege-tables Barley Linseed GCA (In ha.)

Small 65.51 4.12 15.49 1.30 78.56 9.35 6.26 3.00 1.13 1.18 185.90(35.48) (2.15) (8.06) (0.54) (42.48) (4.84) (3.23) (1.61) (0.54) (1.07) (100.00)

Medium 139.90 62.69 35.06 11.15 175.46 63.03 36.10 6.61 10.73 10.33 551.06(25.42) (11.25) (6.35) (2.00) (31.94) (11.43) (6.53) (1.27) (1.81) (2.00) (100.00)

Large 291.53 131.23 70.26 28.33 345.97 135.09 99.27 9.65 12.92 6.68 1130.93(25.74) (11.67) (6.19) (2.48) (30.59) (12.02) (8.75) (0.88) (1.15) (0.53) (100.00)

All 496.94 198.04 120.81 40.78 599.99 207.47 141.63 19.26 24.78 18.19 1867.89(26.49) (10.60) (6.58) (2.25) (32.10) (11.24) (7.54) (0.96) (1.28) (0.96) (100.00)

Note:- Figures in brackets denotes percentage to gross cropped area

Table 4. Seed requirement for wheat, Rewa district

Size of holding Area (ha.) Production (Kg.) Quantity of Seed (Kg.) Percentage quantity ofseed with production (%)

Used Kept Used Kept

Small 78.56 1,86,650 9,589 10,050 5.14 5.38Medium 175.46 4,39,300 21,704 27,700 4.94 6.30Large 345.97 8,93,600 44,075 50,300 4.93 5.63All 599.99 15,19,550 75,368 88,050 4.96 5.79Note: Seed used means seed from previous year's production, seed kept means seed kept from current year'sproduction

15

cent grains was used by animal as feed and 0.12 percent grains was used by poultry as a feed. The marketedsurplus of wheat in this group was 64.96 per cent of thetotal produce. The overall picture of production anddisposal of wheat showed that 16.11 per cent grainswas used as home consumption and 5.80 per centgrains kept for next year's production. The grains usedas animal feed was 3.43 per cent and poultry feed was0.28 per cent of the total production. The marketedsurplus of wheat was 57.64 per cent.

It was observed that the quantity of marketedsurplus increases as the size of farms increased. It waslowest in small group and highest in large group. Similartrend was observed in the case of wages given to labour.In the case of home consumption, the picture wasopposite. The quantity of produce kept for homeconsumption was maximum in small group and lowest inlarge size group (Table 5).

Wastage of wheat at harvest and post harvest stages

The total production of wheat in small size group was1,86,650 kg. Nearly 2.29 per cent loss of grain wasobserved during harvesting of crop. Wastage of grainsdue to rats, dampness and insect pest was 3.12 percent of the total produce. During home consumption,the loss was 0.85 per cent. Nearly 0.36 per cent feedleft as unconsumed by animals and poultry duringfeeding. The total loss was observed in small groupwas 8.17 per cent. Mostly the ratio of losses duringharvesting, threshing, grain left in straw andtransportation are similar in all the size groups. Thelosses during storage was highest in small groups (3.12per cent) and lowest in large size group (1.60 per cent).In medium group the losses during storage was 2.28 percent. Similar trend in losses of grains was observed duringhome consumption and animal and poultry feed. The totalwastage of wheat grains in small, medium and largegroups came to 8.17 per cent, 6.84 per cent and 5.88 per

Table 5. Production and disposal of wheat in different size of holdings, Rewa district (Quantity in quintals)

Size of Total Previous Kept seed Ex- Sold for Home Kind Used as Used as Marketable Marketedholding production year's for next change seed consump- wages to animal poultry surplus surplus

(qtl) seed used year as seed tion labour feed feed

Small 1,866.50 95.89 100.50 0 0 739.00 54.50 96.50 9.00 867.00 666.00(100.00) (5.13) (5.39) 0 0 (39.60) (2.90) (5.18) (0.46) (46.46) (35.69)

Medium 4,393.00 217.04 277.00 0 0 841.00 187.00 202.00 24.00 2,862.00 2,285.50(100.00) (4.91) (6.27) 0 0 (19.09) (4.23) (4.59) (0.56) (64.94) (51.88)

Large 8,936.00 440.75 503.00 0 0 869.00 390.00 225.00 11.00 6,938.00 5,806.00(100.00) (4.92) (5.61) 0 0 (9.72) (4.37) (2.52) (0.12) (77.62) (64.96)

All 15,195.50 753.68 880.50 0 0 2,449.00 631.50 523.50 44.00 10,667.00 8,757.50(100.00) (4.93) (5.80) 0 0 (16.11) (4.14) (3.43) (0.28) (70.19) (57.64)

Note: Figures in brackets denote percentage to total production

Table 6. Wastage of wheat at different harvest and post harvest stages

Size of Total Wastage (kg.)holding production Harvesting Threshing Straw Transportation Storage Home Left for Total

(kg) and shattered consumption animal/ wastage %poultryfeed

Small 1,86,650 4,285.00 1,878.00 381.70 631.50 5,817.00 1,585.00 668.00 8.17(2.29) (1.01) (0.20) (0.34) (3.12) (0.85) (0.36)

Medium 4,39,300 9,940.00 4,455.00 909.00 1,539.00 10,033.00 1,947.00 1,239.00 6.84(2.26) (1.01) (0.21) (0.35) (2.28) (0.44) (0.29)

Large 8,93,600 20,342.00 9,061.00 1,857.00 3,223.00 14,305.00 2,302.00 1,423.00 5.88(2.28) (1.01) (0.21) (0.36) (1.60) (0.26) (0.16)

All 15,19,550 34,567.00 15,394.00 3,147.70 5,393.50 30,155.00 5,834.00 3,384.00 6.41(2.27) (1.01) (0.20) (0.35) (1.98) (0.38) (0.22)

Note: Figures in brackets denote percentage to total production

16

cent respectively. The losses was highest in small groupand lowest in large group (Table 6).

Seed, feed and wastage in production of wheat

The total area under wheat in small size group was 78.56hectares with a total production of 1,86,650 kg for theproduction of so much quantity of wheat, 9,589 kg of seed(5.14 per cent) was used. A total of 10,550 kg. of produce(5.65 per cent) was used as animal and poultry feed andthe wastage during harvest and post harvest stages was15,245kg (8.17 per cent) of the total production of wheat.The consumption of total production of wheat as seed,feed and wastages was 35,384 kg (18.96 per cent). Inmedium size group, the percentage of seed, feed andwastage in total production of wheat was 4.94, 5.14 and6.86 respectively. In large size group, the percentage ofseed, feed and wastage in total production was 4.93, 2.64and 5.88 respectively. The consumption of seed, feedand wastage came to 18.96 per cent in small group, 16.94per cent in medium group and 13.45 per cent in largegroup. The overall consumption of seed, feed and wastagewas 15.13 per cent. The figures for consumption of wheatgrains as seed, feed and wastage decreases as the sizeof holding increases (Table 7).

Availability of wheat for human consumption

Availability of wheat for human consumption is derived bydeducting the "consumption of production as seed, feedand wastage" from total production of wheat. In smallsize group, of the total production, the availability of wheatfor human consumption was about 81 per cent. In mediumand large size group, the availability of wheat for humanconsumption was 83.06 per cent and 86.55 per centrespectively. The overall net availability of wheat for humanconsumption was 84.87 per cent of the total production(Table 8).

Recommendation and Policy implication

Safe storage of foodgrains is as important as productionof foodgrains. However, storage losses still continue tobe quite high in India. The state of Madhya Pradesh isno exception. In fact, storage losses in Madhya Pradeshare considered to be higher than the All-India average.This is so because storage facilities available in thisstate are far from satisfactory. Recognizing this factthere is a need to create awareness among rural massesabout the extent of losses and a need for adoptingscientific storage practices. There is no doubt that theselosses can not be brought at the zero level but can be

Table 7. Percentage of seed, feed and wastage in production of wheat, Rewa district

Size of Area (ha) Total Seed used Seed kept Used as feed Wastage Consumptionholding production as seed, feed

(kg) and wastageQty. kg % Qty. kg % Qty. kg % Qty. kg % Qty. kg %

Small 78.56 1,86,650 9,589 5.14 10,050 5.38 10,550 5.65 15,245 8.17 35,384 18.96Medium 175.46 4,39,300 21,704 4.94 27,700 6.30 22,600 5.14 30,116 6.86 74,420 16.94Large 345.97 8,93,600 44,075 4.93 50,300 5.63 23,600 2.64 52,513 5.88 1,20,188 13.451All 599.99 15,19,550 75,368 4.96 88,050 5.79 56,750 3.73 97,875 6.44 2,29,993 15.13

Table 8. Net availability of wheat for human consumption

Size of holding Area (ha.) Total production (kg.) Consumption of Availability of wheatproduction as seed, for human

feed and wastage (kg.) consumption (kg.)

Small 78.56 1,86,650 (100.00) 35,384 (18.96) 1,51,266 (81.04)Medium 175.46 4,39,300 (100.00) 74,420 (16.94) 3,64,880 (83.06)Large 345.97 8,93,600 (100.00) 1,20,188 (13.45) 7,73,412 (86.55)All 599.99 15,19,550 (100.00) 2,29,993 (15.13) 12,89,557 (84.87)Note: Figures in brackets denotes percentage to total production

17

significantly reduced through better management andinfrastructure.

References

Ahuja DL, Tyagi KK (2000) Estimation of seed, Feed andWastages ratios for Food grains, Indian Agril. Stat54th Annual conference of ISAS NDUAT Kumarganj,Faizabad- Uttar Pradesh 28th - 30th November 2000

Krishnamurhy K (1975) Post-Harvest Losses in Foodgrains,Bulletin Grain Tech 13: 33-49

Ramzan M, Judge BK (1994) Assessment of storage lossesin wheat at farm and public sector levels in Punjab.J Insect-Science 7(2): 187-190

Saran Rohit (1999) Harvest of Waste, India Today 24 (35): 62-64

(Manuscript Receivd : 16.02.2012; Accepted 20.11.2012)

18

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 18-21 (2012)

Abstract

Tomato seeds of variety Pusa Ruby were coated with syntheticdyes, botanicals and polykotes in varying concentrations withan objective to evaluate their quality enhancement in termsof germination and vigour. The treated seeds were tested inthe laboratory for germination and vigour parameters viz.germination %, speed of emergence and vigour index. Seedcoating with 0.5% Congo red and Jade green, 0.75% Diechemand Bromocresol green and 1% Sky blue and Diechem werefound to be effective in enhancing seed quality, Among naturalplant extracts seeds treated with 160ml / l beetroot extractfollowed by seed treatment with Hibiscus and Heena extractgave maximum germination. The seedling emergence andtheir speed was maximum when coated with blue polykote @5g / kg seed and was at par with one and two g / kg seed inclear type of polymer. While, the vigour index was higher 3g/kg in clear and 1g blue polymer coated seeds.

Keywords: Speed of emergence, vigour index(mass),synthetic dyes, polykotes, botanicals

Early and uniform establishment of vigorous seedlingis of utmost importance and a pre-requisite for higheryield. In general, low productivity of the crops is mainlydue to inadequate soil moisture and poor fertility statusof the soil during development. The water balance of acrop is upset by drought and as a consequence thephysiological functions are affected resulting in poorgrowth and yield (Srimathi et al. 2003 ). To overcomethe adverse effect of low rainfall and soil moisturecondition, pre-sowing seed enhancement treatment ishighly effective in dry land agriculture. Heydecker (1972)advocated seed invigoration to promote vigour, viabilityand field performance of crop seeds.

Horticultural crops are more nutritious and

Seed enhancement studies in tomato for germination and seedlingemergence

Sathrupa Rao* and Subrata Sharma*Department of Plant PhysiologySeed Technology Research UnitDepartment of Plant Breeding and GeneticsCollege of AgricultureJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482 004 (MP)

valuable in terms of health and industrial developmentas are mainly cash crops. Being recalcitrant in habit,most horticultural seeds require enhancement treatmentfor their viability maintenance. Seed enhancementaccelerates rapid germination and growth of seedlingand is an important morphological adaptation in plantsthat helps in drought resistance without any adverseeffect on productivity (Natarajan and Jeeva 2003). Anumber of enhancement treatment with botanicals,chemicals and polykotes have been developed and arefeasible in large scale adoption and are cost effective.The present investigation has been conducted with anobjective to evaluate the quality enhancement in termsof germination and vigour of tomato genotype.

Material and methods

Tomato seeds of variety Pusa Ruby were tested for itsinitial germination, and vigour. Later, these weresubjected to coating treatments with various syntheticdyes, extracts of botanicals and different types ofpolykotes as mentioned. The seeds were treated withseven synthetic dyes viz. Sky blue, Pink, Diechem,Bromocresol green, Congo red, Tusk blue and Jadegreen @0.5%, 0.75% and 1.0% / kg seeds. Among thebotanicals, the seeds were treated with extracts of flowerof Hibiscus rosasinensis, leaves of Lawsonia inermis,flower extract of Marigold, tuber extract of Beta vulgaris,seeds of Bixa and rhizomes of turmeric @ 120, 160and 200 ml / kg seed and with four types of polymersviz. Black, Clear, Blue and Red @ 1,2,3,4 and 5 ml / kgseeds. The treated seeds were then shade dried, keptin petri plates and kept in the germinator at 200C. Theobservations were recorded for germination, speed ofemergence and vigour index (by mass).

19

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015

.05

1.03

1.54

1.04

Hee

na78

.092

.067

.015

.15

17.5

015

.67

0.81

1.16

0..9

7M

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old

76.5

76.5

67.5

16.2

015

.17

13.5

21.

060.

911.

21B

eetro

ot84

.099

.081

.015

.40

17.7

215

.52

1.12

1.11

1.24

Bix

a84

.079

.077

.016

.15

15.4

014

.85

1.06

0.91

1.07

Turm

eric

78.0

80.0

79.0

15.0

216

.52

14.5

01.

251.

121.

25co

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l69

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.069

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212

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1.06

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ye (D

)2.

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SN

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460.

800.

12D

XL

NS

NS

0.30

20

Tab

le 3

. E

ffect

of p

olyk

ote

on g

erm

inat

ion

and

vigo

ur o

f tom

ato

Pol

ykot

e/ tr

eatm

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Spe

ed o

f em

erge

nce

Vigo

ur in

dex

seed

1g2g

3g4g

5g1g

2g3g

4g5g

1g2g

3g4g

5g

Bla

ck63

5971

6273

11.8

711

.47

13.2

012

.10

12.8

20.

40.

0.52

0.58

0.46

Cle

ar84

8666

6864

16.2

216

.12

12.5

213

.65

12.0

50.

530.

55`.0

71.

000.

49B

lue

6078

6659

87.5

11.3

514

.85

11.4

511

.15

16.3

01.

060.

320.

690.

620.

48R

ed80

65.5

63.5

6168

15.3

711

.97

12.7

011

.40

13.6

50.

450.

640.

640.

570.

70C

ontro

l69

6960

6969

12.5

212

.52

12.5

212

.52

12.5

20.

660.

660.

660,

660.

66C

.D.

Pol

ykot

e (P

)2.

540.

680.

07Le

vel (

L)4.

521.

120.

07PX

L9.

042.

230.

13

Results and discussion

Seed treatment with synthetic dyes in varyingconcentration exhibited a significant effect ongermination %, speed of emergence and vigour indexand were superior over control. 0.5% Congo red andJade green dye, 0.75% Bromocresol green, 0.75% and1% Diechem and 1% Sky blue were effective inenhancing seed germination (Table 1). 1% concentrationof different dyes performed superior over otherconcentrations for all the parameters recorded.Interaction DXL was significant only for vigour index.Dajode and Raturi (1987) also reported that germinationand yield potential of tomato increases due to hardeningtreatment. The requirement of chemical by seedtreatment is very low and serve in enhancingestablishment in problem soil.

Significant differences existed due to coating withdifferent levels of plant extracts for germination % andvigour index (Table 2). As observed, the germination%was maximum in seeds coated with 160ml / kg of theextract of the tubers of Beta vulgaris followed byHibiscus rosasinensis flower extract and leaf extract ofHenna. An increase in germination % was observed ontreatment with all the plant extracts @ 160 ml / kg seedexcept Bixa. Thereafter, the seedling emergence ratedecreased on increase in exudate concentration. Speedof emergence was observed to be maximum in seedstreated @ 160ml / kg seed with Beta vulgaris. The vigourindex recorded values at par with 160ml and 200ml / kgseed and was maximum in seeds treated with flowerextract of Hibiscus rosasinensis. Heydecker (1972)advocated seed invigoration treatment to promotevigour, viability and field performance of crop seeds.Use of botanicals makes it eco-friendly, low cost andeasily adaptable to small as well as big entrepreneurs.Geetarani (2002) reported an increase in germinationand vigour of tomato seeds due to hardening treatment.Umarani and Jerlin (2003) have reported thatphysiologically active substances may be present inbotanical extract which might have activated the embryoand other associated structures resulting in increasedwater absorption due to elasticity of the cell wall leadingto development of stronger and efficient root systemand higher vigour index.

Significant difference were noted due to varyingdoses of different polykotes on germination and vigourrelated parameters (Table 3). Germination and speed ofemergence was maximum in seed coated with bluepolykote @ 5g/kg seed and was at par with 1.0 and 2.0g clear polykote, while vigour index was maximum inseed treatment with 3g/kg Clear and 1.0g/kg blue

21

polykote treatment.

The effect of different polykotes, botanicals anddyes on crop plants is based primarily on the changesoccurring in the physico-chemical properties of thecytoplasm like, greater hydration of colloids, the higherviscosity and elasticity of the protoplasm, intensemetabolism variations in xerophyll structure, moreintense transportation and ability to retain more quantityof water associated with a more efficient root systemwhich occur as a result of these changes.(Natarajanand Jeeva 2003 ). These enhancement treatments areeffective in accelerating rapid germination and growthrate of seedling.

References

Dajode S D, Raturi G (1987) Seed Res 15 (2) : 156-169Geetharani (2002) Studies on mid storage seed treatment

and productivity in tomato (Lycopersicum esculentumMill.) and Solanum melangona L MSc. (Ag) thesisTNAU Coimbatore

Heydacker W (1972) Interrelated effects of imbibition,temperature and Oxygen on seed germination inSeed Ecology ed. Heydecker, W ButterworthsLondon : 157-169

Natarajan N, Jeeva B (2003) Role of chemicals, growthstimulants and botanicals in seed hardening in Seedhardening and pelleting technologies for rainfed /gardenland ecosystems ed. K. Vanangamudi et al.Department of Seed Sci & Tech Centre of PlantBreeding & Genetics TNAU Coimbatore : 62-69

Srimathi P, Shele D M, Natarajan K (2003) Seed hardeningresearch around the world in rainfed and gardenlandecosystems in Seed hardening and pelletingtechnologies for rainfed / gardenland ecosystems'ed. K. Vanangamudi et al. Department of Seed Sci& Tech Centre of Plant Breeding & Genetics TNAU:48-61

Umarani R, Jerlin R (2003) Genesis and improvement ofconcept of seed hardening in Seed hardening andpelleting technologies for rainfed / gardenlandecosystems ed. K. Vanangamudi et al. . Departmentof Seed Sci & Tech Centre of Plant Breeding &Genetics TNAU Coimbatore 36-41

(Manuscript Receivd : 05.01.2012; Accepted 09.08.2012)

22

Abstract

India is the treasure of several herbal medicines; it is a sourceof several folk medicines. During the ethanomedicinal surveyperiod of 4 wards of Jabalpur city plants, belonging to 33families were recorded in selected sites that included 52 genusand 55 species. The most dominant families of plants werefrom Euphorbiaceous and Apocynaceae. Out of 55 plantsstudied, 14 plants were of herbs, 9 plants were of shrubs, 4plants were identified as climbers and 28 belonged to thetrees. The ethanomedicinal aspects of plants claimed to beuseful to cure several drastic diseases.

Keywords: Ethnomedicinal, Jabalpur, drastic diseases

India is rich in ethnobotanical information. The 500 tribalcommunities, belonging to 227 ethnic groups presentperhaps the richest heritage of India. Diversity of florain India richly contributes to plant medicine.Ethnomedicine deals with direct relationship of plantswith man. Large numbers of wild plants are used bythem for treatment of various ailments and diseases.The abstract relationship of man with plants includesfaith in the good or bad powers of plants, taboos,avoidances, sacred plants, worship and folklore (Jain1987). In India, the main traditional systems of medicineinclude Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha use over 7,500plant species have been reported. Traditional healersprovide considerable information about the use of manyplants or plant parts as medicine.

Among the Angiosperm plants 4,20,000 floweringplants were reported from the world (Govaerts 2001)and many tropical species are not yet named. More than50,000 plants have been used for medicinal purposes(Schippmann et al. 2002).

Ethnobotanical aspects of plants from east zone of Jabalpur, MadhyaPradesh

Karuna S. Verma, Sandhya Swarnkar, Aparna Awasthi and Tabassum AnsariAeroallergens Immunology & Angiosperms Diversity LaboratoryDepartment of Post Graduate Studies and Research in Biological ScienceRani Durgawati University, Jabalpur 482001 (MP)

Plant has been used as ailment to cure severaldiseases with the dawn of civilization. The primitive manused raw material and raw extracts of plants to relievethem from sickness and other ailments, without thescientific knowledge of their active ingredients. With thegrowth of civilization, the multifarious uses of plantproducts began to unfold indifferent field which has beendeveloped extensively. Plants play a dynamic role inhuman life. There is not even a single aspect of humanlife, where plants do not play direct role, for every basicneed like food, fuel, shelter, clothing, medicine etc.

Material and methods

Ethno medicinal data were collected throughconsultation with traditional healers, and elder peoplein the field investigation of east zone of Jabalpur city(Seetla mai ward, Dwarika Prasad ward, AcharyaVinobha Bhave and Sarwapalli Radha Krishnanward).During the interviews from January 2011 to Dec.2011 which included winter, summer and rainy season.Local names, useful plant parts, method of preparationand dosage were recorded. The methods of plantcollection and preparations of herbarium have beenfollowed by Jain and Rao (1997). After collection anattempt will be made to identify the plants from freshmaterial those could not be identified on the spot or inlaboratory will preserved and identified with the help ofFlora of Jabalpur (Oommachan and Shrivastava 1996).

Preservation of plants and preparation of herbarium

Colleted plant material was pressed and dried bychanging the blotters every day for 6-10 days or more

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 22-27 (2012)

23

Table 1. Species diversity of plants at selected sites

Family Botanical name Genus Species Herb Shrub Climber TreesAcanthaceae Adhatoda vasica Nees. + + +Apocyanaceae Tabernaermontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. + + +

Nerium indicum Miller. + + +Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. + + +

Amaranthaceae Achyranthus aspera L. + + +Amaranthus spinosus L. + + +

Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. + + +Mangifera indica L. + + +

Annonaceae Annona squamosa L. + + +Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. + + +Asteraceae Helianthus annus L. + + +Brassicaceae Brassica campestris L.Var. + + +Caesalpiniaceae Dolinix regia (Boj.)Rafin. + + +Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna (DC.)Weight & Arn. + + +

Terminalia chebula Retz. + +Cucurbitaceae Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. + + +Convolvulaceae Convolvulus pluricaulis + + +Cannaceae Canna indica L. + + +Caricaceae Carica papaya L. + + +Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. + + +

Jatropha curcas L. + + +Euphorbia hirta L. + + +

Fabaceae Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. + + +Clitoria ternatea L. + + +Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. + + +Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd + + +Albizzia lebbak (L.) Benth. + + +Bauhinia variegata L. + + +

Lamiaceae Ocimum sanctum L. + + +Mentha arvensis + + +

Liliaceae Allium cepa L. + + +Allium sativum L. + +Asparagus recemosus Willd. + + +

Lythraceae Lawsonia inermis L. + + +Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. + + +

Ficus racemosa L. + +Artocurpus integrifolia non.L.f. + + +Morus indica L. + + +

Mimosaceae Acacia Arabica (Lamk.)Willd. + + +Mimosa pudica L. + + +

Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lamk. + + +Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L. + + +

Bombex ceiba L. + + +Meliaceae Azadirechta indica A.Juss. + + +Myrtaceae Eugenia jambolana Lamk. + + +Paplionaceae Abrus precatorius L. + + +

Dolichos lablab L. + + +Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.)Correa. + + +Rubiaceae Anthocephalus chinensis + + +Sapotaceae Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel. + + +Solanaceae Datura metel L. + + +Umbelliferae Coriandrum sativum L. + + +Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. + + +

Clerodendron serratum (L.) Moon. + + +Zingiberaceae Ziziphus jujuba Mill. + + +

24

Table 2. Plant part used to cure different diseases

Family Botanical name Leaf Bark Roots flowers fruits Seeds StemAcanthaceae Adhatoda vasica Nees. + + +Apocyanaceae Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. + + +

Nerium indicum Miller. + + + +Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don.

Amaranthaceae Achyranthus aspera L. + + +Amaranthus spinosus L. + +

Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. + + +Mangifera indica L. + + + +

Annonaceae Annona squamosa L. + + + +Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. + + +Asteraceae Helianthus annus L. + + +Brassicaceae Brassica campestris L.Var. +Caesalpiniaceae Dolinix regia (Boj.)Rafin. + +Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna (DC.)Weight &Arn. + + +

Terminalia chebula Retz. +Cucurbitaceae Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. + + +Convolvulaceae Convolvulus pluricaulis + + +Cannaceae Canna indica L.Caricaceae Carica papaya L. + + +Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. + +

Jatropha curcas L. + + +Euphorbia hirta L. + +

Fabaceae Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. + + +Clitoria ternatea L. + + +Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. + + +Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd + +Albizzia lebbak (L.) Benth. + + + + +Bauhinia variegata L. + + +

Lamiaceae Ocimum sanctum L. + + +Mentha arvensis + + +

Liliaceae Allium cepa L. + + +Allium sativum L. + + +Asparagus recemosus Willd. + + + +

Lythraceae Lawsonia inermis L. + +Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. + + +

Ficus racemosa L. + +Artocurpus integrifolia non.L.f. + + + +Morus indica L. + + +

Mimosaceae Acacia Arabica (Lamk.)Willd. + + +Mimosa pudica L.

Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lamk. + + + + +Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. + +

Bombex ceiba L.Meliaceae Azadirecta indica J.Juss. + + +Myrtaceae Eugenia jambolana Lamk.Papilionaceae Abrus precatorius L. + + + +

Dolichos lablab L.Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.)Correa. + + +Rubiaceae Anthocephalus chinensis + +Sapotaceae Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel. + + + +Solanaceae Datura metel L.Umbellifera Coriandrum sativum L. + + + +Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. + + +

Clerodendron serratum (L.) Moon. + +Zingiberaceae Ziziphus jujuba Mill. + + +

25

Table 3. Ethnomedicinal plants used in different human disease

Family Botanical name Respiratory Heart Urinary Skin Stomach EyeAcanthaceae Adhatoda vasica Nees. + +Apocyanaceae Tabeaermontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. + + +

Nerium indicum Miller. + + +Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. + +

Amaranthaceae Achyranthus aspera L. + +Amaranthus spinosus L. + +

Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. + + + +Mangifera indica L. + + +

Annonaceae Annona squamosa L. + + +Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. + + +Asteralaceae Helianthus annus L. + + +Brassicaceae Brassica campestris L.Var. + +Caesalpinaceae Dolinix regia (Boj.)Rafin. + +Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna (DC.)Weight &Arn. + +

Terminalia chebula Retz. + + +Cucuritaceae Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt.Convolvulaceae Convolvulus pluricaulis + +Cannaceae Canna indica L. + +Caricaceae Carica papaya L. + + + +Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. + +

Jatropha curcas L. + + +Euphorbia hirta L. + +

Fabaceae Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. + +Clitoria ternatea L. + +Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. + + +Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd + + +Albizzia lebbak (L.) Benth. + + +Bauhinia variegata L. + +

Lamiaceae Ocimum sanctum L. + +Mentha arvensis +

Liliaceae Allium cepa L. +Allium sativum L. +Asparagus recemosus Willd. +

Lythraceae Lawsonia inermis L. + + +Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L.

Ficus racemosa L. +Artocurpus integrifolia non.L.f. + + + +Morus indica L. +

Mimosaceae Acacia Arabica (Lamk.)Willd. + + +Mimosa pudica L.

Moringa Moringa oleifera Lamk. + + + + + +Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.. + +

Bombex ceiba L.Meliaceae Azadirecta indica J.Juss. + + + + +Myrtaceae Eugenia jambolana Lamk.Pupilionaceae Abrus precatorius L. + + +

Dolichos lablab L.Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.)Correa. + + + + +Rubiaceae Anthocephalus chinensis + + + + +Sapotaceae Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel. + + + + + +Solanaceae Datura metel L.Umbellifera Coriandrum sativum L. +Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. + +

Clerodendron serratum (L.) Moon. + +Zingiberaceae Ziziphus jujuba Mill. + +

26

for unit loss of total moisture. Specimen will be mountedon herbarium sheets after drying. Herbarium techniquewill be mostly adopted from Santapau (1961), Jain &Rao (1976).

Identification

The collected fresh specimens were identified on thespot or in the laboratory with the help of flora of BritishIndia (Hooker 1872, 1897), Flora of Bhopal and Jabalpur(Oommachan and Shrivastava 1996), flora of BilaspurDistrict (CG) Volume G Panigrahi SK Murti (1989). Thespecies were confirmed by compare and consulting thespecimen at the herbaria of Bioscience Department RaniDurgawati University Jabalpur and preserved (Vermaand Dahake 2005), Verma and Baksh (2006, 2009),Verma et al. (2010, 2011) and other literatures.

Result and discussion

The ethno medicinally important plant collected fromthe Jabalpur used to treat various diseases like coldfever, cough , diarrhea , dysentery, skin diseases,laxative, diabetes and jaundice. This is constant withthe other general observation which reported earlier.In relation to medicinal plant studies by the Indiantraditional systems of medicine like sidha andAyurvedha (Kirtikar & Basu 2001, Anonymous 1992:Asolkar et al.1992).

During the investigation, plants belonging to 33families were found which included 52 genus and 55species. The most dominant families wereEuphorbiaceous and Apocynaceae. During the surveyperiod of various plants belonging to different familieswere studied. Out of the total 55 plants studied, 14 plantswere found to be herbs 9 plants were shrubs, 4 plantswere climbers and 28 were trees. The ethanomedicinalimportance of the various plants was also studied thatbelonged to different families. In 40 plants, leaves wereused as medicine. In 23 plants, bark was used asmedicine. In 20 plants, roots were used as, medicine.In 16 plants, flowers were used as medicine. In 24, fruitsare used as medicine. In 22 plants the seed were usedas medicine and in 14, seeds were used as medicine.

Conclusion

The review of local medicinal plant knowledge systemsreveals that though medicinal plants and associatedknowledge system are gaining wide recognition at the

global level, the efforts to recognize and promote theun-codified folk system of medicinal knowledge is stillinadequate. Traditional healers were found to playtremendous role in the primary healthcare system ofthe local people. Poor peoples who had little accessand couldn't afford the cost of modern medications. Canmake use of traditional medicine used by traditionalhealers.

There is always a hunt for ethno botanical studiesof medicinal plant. The traditional healers are the mainsource of knowledge for medicinal plants. But suchknowledge is restricted to a few people in rural area.There it is necessary those suitable requirements arewith reference to medicinal plant utilization.

Acknowledge

The authors are thankful to the Dean and Head,Department of Biological Science, R.D. University,Jabalpur for their encouragement and support during thetenure of work.

References

Anonymous (1992). Wealth of India: Raw materials, Councilof Scientific and Industrial Research Publication, NewDelhi, (Revised). 3: 591-593

Asolkar LV, Kakkar KK, Chakra OJ (1992). Second supplementto glossary of Indian medicinal plants with activeprinciples. Part I (A-K). Publication and InformationDivision, CSIR, New Delhi, India, pp. 205-206.

Govaerts R (2001) How many species of seed plants arethere? Taxon 50:1085-1090

Jain SK (1987) A manual of Ethnobotany. Scientific PublishersJodhpur India

Jain SK, Rao R R (1976). A handbook of field and herbariummethods. Today and Tomorrow Pub., New Delhi, pp.1-182.

Jain SK, Rao RR (1997). Hand book of Field and HerbariumMethods.(Today and Tomorrow Printers andPublishers), Calcutta

Kirtikar KR, Basu BD (2001). Indian Medicinal Plants, Vol. 1.Lalit Mohan Basu, Allahabad, India, pp. 35-45

Oommachan M, Srivastava JL (1996) Flora of Jabalpur, Sci.Pub. Jodhpur 1 - 354.

Sahu PK, Shrivastava Atul , Verma Karuna (2011)Ethnomedicinal Study on Tribal Area of AchankamarAmarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India.Biozone. Int J Life Science 3 (1&2) :498-503

Santpau (1961). Critical notes on the identify andnomenclature of some Indian plants .Bull.Bot.Survey.Indian.3:11-21.

27

Schippmann U, Leaman DJ, Cunninghan AB (2002) Impactof cultivation and gathering of medicinal plants onbiodiversity: Global Trends and Issues. In (FAO).Biodiversity and Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture,Forestry and Fisheries. Satellite event on theoccasion of the Ninth regular session of theCommission on Genetic Resources for Food andAgriculture Rome :12-13

Verma K S, Baksh Zareen (2009) Traditional ethanomedicinalplants knowledge and use by local healers inJabalpur District (MP). Biozone Int J Life Sci 1(2):150-156.

Verma K S, Baksh Zareen (2010) Phytochemical screening&medicinal importance of Ricinus communis Linn.Int J Bioscience Reptr 8 (1): 15-17

Verma K S, Dahake Deepa (2010) An introduction of tribalroot medicines of Jabalpur District (MP). Int J BiosciReptr 8 (1): 51-55

Verma K S, Dahake Deepa (2011) Diversity of exotic weedsin the flora of Jabalpur. Biozone Int J Life Sci 3(1&2): 478-785

Verma K S, Deepa Dahake (2005) Taxonomic study of theunisexual of Jabalpur (MP). J Bot Soc Univ. Sagar40:51-62

Verma K S, Sahu Prem Shankar, Porte Pradeep Singh,YadavSavita (2010) Enumeration of angiosperms ofcantonment area in Jabalpur District. Indian J TropBiodiversity 18 (1):73-79

Verma K S, Sinha Rajshree, Dahake Deepa (2010) Survey ofEthnomedicinal plants of selected sites of Jabalpurand Mandla districts. Indian J Trop Biodiversity18(1):119-122

Verma K S, Trivedi Deepika, Awasthi Aparna ,Sangeeta DollyJuda (2011) Indigenous Knowledge andConservation of Endangered Angiosperm flora ofJabalpur with special emphasis of Herbs, Shrubs andClimbers. Anusandhan 5:60-63

Verma K S, Vishwakarma Raju (2009) Angiosperm flora ofDumna Nature Reserve in Jabalpur (MP).Anusandhan 3: 37-43

Verma KS, Zareen Baksh (2006) Antidote ailments- throughmedicinal plants- as observed in tribals of Jabalpurdistrict. Visleshana 10(1): 15-17

Verma K S, Deepika Trivedi, Aparna Awasthi, Sangeeta DollyJuda Indigenous Knowledge and Conservation ofEndangered Angiospermic flora of Jabalpur withspecial emphasis of Herbs, Shrubs and ClimbersAnusandhan 5 :60-63

(Manuscript Receivd : 05.02.2012; Accepted 06.09.2012)

28

Abstract

The Present investigations were conducted in the polyhousehaving controlled conditions during the Rabi season of 2009-2010. The results revealed reduction of (52.5%) in leaf dryweight, (48.10%) in stem / branches dry wt, (78.44%) in podsdry wt and (59.1%) in total dry matter, 65.34% in number offlowers/plant, 68.75 % in number of pods/plant, 73.68 % innumber of seeds/plant, 71.44 % in seed index, 52.94 % inseed yield and 57.38% in biological yield, 51.42% in protein,50.14% in Fat, 42.10 % in Fibre, 16.10% in carbohydrate,55.88% in phosphorus, 48.38 % in iron, and 33.33% in calciumwas noted when the moisture content of soil was reduced to10% from 30% i.e. control.

Key words: Dry matter, leaf area index, moisture stress

The major constraints for low productivity are abioticstresses like; water, temperature, nutrient and salts.Among them water and temperature stresses are theimportant abiotic stresses for growth and productivity,because drought is the major constraint that reducesthe productivity of crop. It is known that chickpea thriveswell under drought prone conditions. However, there isa greater variability for yield performance in differentchickpea genotypes under drought conditions. Guptaet al. (1995) opined that there is a positive correlationbetween drought period with plant height, leaf area, andleaf dry weight reduction. Stress is measured in relationto plant survival, crop yield, growth (Biomassaccumulation) or the primary assimilation processes(CO2, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)interception and mineral uptake) which are related tooverall growth. Water deficiencies if severe can injurecrops and induce them to adapt with certainphysiological and morphological processes. Yieldplateau of chickpea under water stress is an importantissue.

Influence of soil moisture stress on dry matter production,partitioning, biochemical constituents and productivityin chickpea

Ganesh Mishra, A.S. Gontia, Anubha Upadhyay and Sathrupa RaoDepartment of Plant PhysiologyJawaharlal Nehru Krishi VishwaVidyalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 28-32 (2012)

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an ancientlegume crop believed to have originated in southeastern Turkey and the adjoining part of Syria. It covers15% of the cultivated area and contributes 14% (7.9million tonnes) of the world's pulse production out oftotal production of 58 million tonnes (Singh et al. 1997).In India, chickpea ranks in the first position among allthe pulses occupying about 30% of total cultivated areaand 40% of the total pulse production (Reddy et al.2007). Nearly more than 85% of chickpea is grown asrainfed, mostly on the residual soil moisture after theharvest of kharif crops. Besides being an importantsource of human and animal food, chickpea also playsan important role in the maintenance of soil fertility,particularly in the dry rainfed areas (Katerji et al. 2001)In India.

The most important effect of water deficits isobserved on the transport of nutrients and water tothe roots and on the root growth and extension. Frequentdrought besides lowering the crop yield also decreasesseed quality by reducing seed size. The componenttraits & drought resistance in pulse crops includedrought avoidance, root trait and transpiration efficiency(Serraj et al. 2004). Partitioning of dry matter to theseeds is considered to be a major determinant foragricultural yield. This is dependent on the efficiencyof photosynthate translocation in crops during grainfilling period when developing grains are storing sinkSharma et al. (2008). The development of moisturestress leads to a wide range of changes in partitioningof plant dry matter like diversion of biomass toundesirable plant parts. Therefore, the improvedchickpea genotypes with better partitioning efficiencyin to economic parts, water use efficiency and high yieldwill be suitable for cultivation in drought prone areasand can prove a boon to improve the economy of poorfarmers of dry land areas. The investigations were

29

Table 1. Leaf dry matter (g/plant)

Treatments 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS 120 DAS Av

T1 0.50 0.73 1.03 0.95 0.80T2 0.43 0.60 0.80 0.73 0.65T3 0.40 0.51 0.72 0.71 0.59T4 0.30 0.49 0.69 0.57 0.51T5 0.24 0.28 0.57 0.42 0.38SEm± 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02CD5% 0.03 0.03 0.08 0.05 0.05

Table 2. Branches dry matter including stem (g)/plant

Treatments 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS 120 DAS Av

T1 0.55 0.70 0.90 1.00 0.79T2 0.45 0.60 0.80 0.91 0.67T3 0.37 0.52 0.69 0.82 0.60T4 0.31 0.45 0.62 0.71 0.52T5 0.26 0.30 0.45 0.62 0.41SEm± 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.02CD5% 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.09 0.05

Table 3. Pod dry weight (g/plant)

Treatments 90 DAS 120 DAS Average

T1 1.90 2.45 2.18T2 1.50 2.17 1.84T3 0.93 1.87 1.40T4 0.84 0.96 0.90T5 0.40 0.53 0.47SEm± 0.08 0.10 0.09CD5% 0.25 0.30 0.28

Table 4. Total plant dry matter (g/plant)

Treatments 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS 120 DAS Av

T1 1.05 1.43 3.75 4.49 2.69T2 0.91 1.21 2.60 4.30 2.26T3 0.87 1.03 2.33 3.41 1.91T4 0.61 0.89 2.19 2.37 1.52T5 0.50 0.59 1.59 1.72 1.10SEm± 0.02 0.02 0.17 0.13 0.09CD5% 0.05 0.06 0.51 0.39 0.25

undertaken to assess the influence of moisture stresson dry matter production, partitioning and productivityin chickpea.

Materials and methods

The Present investigations were carried out in thepolyhouse having controlled conditions underDepartment of Plant Physiology, JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP)during the Rabi season of 2009-2010 in a completerandomized design with four replications. Thetreatments consisted of five moisture levels viz; 30%,25%, 20%, 15% and 10%, respectively, while 30%moisture level was considered as control. The moisturelevel was maintained by allowing the soil to dry close tothe selected moisture regimes by withholding watersupply as described by Goyal et al. (1998) which wasdetermined gravimetrically on a parallel set of identicalpots maintained for this purpose in the polyhouse andthen maintained by adding requisite amount of water ifrequired. These pots were maintained for variousmoisture stress treatments. The pots of 491.07 cm2 filledwith garden soil were used in the investigations. Theseed sowing of chickpea collected from their naturalpopulations was carried out in each pot so as to maintain10 seedlings/pot. The average temperature in thepolyhouse was kept 250C ± 30C.

The leaf area index (LAI) and leaf area duration(LAD) were quantified as per specifications of Gardeneret al. (1985) and Watson (1952), respectively. Fordetermining the dry matter production and its partitioningthe plants were uprooted from the pots and partitionedin to leaves, branches / stem and pods etc. and kept inan electric oven at 800C for two or more days till constantweight. Dry weight of individual plant part as well aswhole plant was recorded accordingly during eachinterval.

Results and discussion

Dry matter accumulation (DMA) in leaves

The leaf area influenced the biomass productionin any crop (Welbank et al. 1985) and dry matter pro-duction in leaves was related to yield (Flood et al. 1995).The leaf dry matter showed a continuous increase withthe advancement of growth till 90 days after sowing(DAS) (Table 1) due to increase in LAI (Table 5) and LAD(Table 6) thereafter it exhibited a reduction which maybe attributed to the movement of assimilates from theleaves and senescence and drying of leaves. The

30

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ield

com

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Bio

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Har

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/pla

ntse

eds\

Pla

nt(g

\pla

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(g)

(g/p

lant

)(%

)

T 125

.25

20.0

014

.25

8.31

20.1

419

.83

34.2

9

T 224

.75

17.0

015

.00

7.40

19.0

518

.43

35.7

2

T 318

.00

16.0

014

.23

5.79

17.9

715

.94

45.5

7

T 415

.75

12.5

08.

005.

7116

.47

13.6

142

.06

T 58.

756.

253.

753.

915.

758.

4539

.01

SE

m +

0.83

0.73

1.29

0.59

0.56

0.78

3.54

CD

5%2.

492.

193.

901.

761.

702.

3410

.67

leaves act as source to supply photosynthates to otherparts of the plants particularly to the seeds as indicatedby corresponding increase in dry matter in sink. Themoisture stress treatments influenced the leaf areadevelopment which declined as the moisture stressbecomes severe due to reduction in water content ofleaf tissues resulting in reduced leaf water potential.Both cell division and enlargement are necessary forthe leaf growth which appears to be hampered due towater deficits in leaf cells. There has been a decline of52.5% in leaf dry matter when the moisture content wasreduced to 10% from 30%.

DMA in branches/stem

It has been observed that the branches/stem drymatter increased continuously as the age of the cropadvanced till maturity suggesting (Table 2) almost nocontribution of stem/branches in transporting foodmaterials to the seeds. Investigations have shown thatbesides leaves other parts also contribute to transferfood material to the sink. (Haley and Quick 1998). How-ever, the moisture stress treatments were found to re-duce the dry matter production in branches. This hasbeen attributed to the reduction in rate of most physi-

Table 5. Leaf area index

Treatments 30-60 60-90 90-120 AvDAS DAS DAS

T1 1.20 2.46 2.00 5.66T2 1.08 1.79 1.64 4.51T3 0.75 1.67 1.38 3.8T4 0.37 1.24 0.73 2.34T5 0.25 0.91 0.60 1.76SEm± 0.09 0.12 0.17 0.38CD5% 0.28 0.36 0.50 1.14

Table 6. Leaf area duration (cm2.days)

Treatments 30-60 60-90 90-120 AvDAS DAS DAS

T1 64.62 90.22 50.28 205.12T2 60.36 99.58 45.67 205.61T3 51.92 92.77 39.99 184.68T4 36.60 80.86 26.33 143.79T5 33.19 74.05 24.66 131.9SEm± 6.42 4.61 3.89 14.92CD5% 20.26 13.89 11.72 45.87

31

ological processes required for dry matter productionand growth. 48.10% reduction in stem / branches drymatter was noted with reduced soil moisture content to10%.

DM accumulation in pods/plant

The proper balance between source and sink is the keyfor yielding ability of a genotype as well as crop. Thehigher sink demand accelerates the movement ofassimilates to the sink through the vascular system. Ifthe source efficiency is greater than the sink the yieldis limited by sink and if the source efficiency is lessthan the sink efficiency the yield is limited by inefficientsource. For obtaining higher yield source efficiency hasto be improved under these conditions.

The dry matter production in pods has beenlinear which may be attributed to the transport of foodmaterial from various sources particularly leaves to thesink and also contribution of pods itself to thephotosynthesis as they possess the photosyntheticpigments themselves (Table 3). Reduced moisture levelto 10% from 30% has been found to reduce the pod drymatter to 78.44% attributed to the reduced translocationof photosynthates from the source to the sink. Thegradient of decreasing phloem turgor pressure drivesthe assimilates flow from the source to the sink whichgets reduced due to water scarcity in the veins of leafand leaf mesophyll cells. For higher phloem turgarpressure in veins of leaf mesophyll cells the wateravailability should be in abundance Gardner et al.(1985).

Total dry matter accumulation

The biomass or dry matter production under givenenvironment is a balance between photosynthesis andrespiration which are the functions of LAI,photosynthetic capacity/ unit area and LAR . However,the increase was associated with increase in LAI to astage where the mutual shading of leaves does nottakes place after that with increase in LAI the rate ofdry matter production decreased (Watson 1958). Duringearly stage of growth, dry matter production mainlydepends on development of leaf area, while the laterperiod was strongly influenced by respiratoryconsumption. The total DMP was found to be relatedwith the yield (Flood et al. 1995).

The TDM had a continuous increase as thegrowth of the crop progressed till maturity (Table 4). Thishas been attributed to the contribution of different plant

Ta

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T 121

.03.

355.

7064

.00

0.03

40.

0062

0.18

T 219

.74.

555.

2061

.00

0.03

30.

0072

0.17

T 317

.53.

854.

6560

.00

0.02

80.

0057

0.15

T 414

.53.

004.

1054

.75

0.02

00.

0052

0.13

T 510

.21.

673.

3053

.75

0.01

50.

0032

0.12

SE

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0.77

0.16

0.14

0.94

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137

0.00

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CD

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320.

470.

422.

850.

0041

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144

0.02

32

parts in DM production. On the other hand the moisturestress treatments study revealed that decreasing soilmoisture levels from 30% to 10% were associated with59.1% reduced dry matter production as also reportedby Essa (2003). The reduced soil moisture levels hadsignificantly reduced leaf area and other growthparameters which appears to be affecting adversely netphotosynthesis rate, PAR absorption and other morpho-physiological characteristics required for growth andincrement in dry matter.

The study of biochemical constituents indicated(Table 8) a reduction in all the constituents withdecreased soil moisture levels. A reduction of 51.42%in protein, 50.14% in Fat, 42.10 % in Fibre, 16.10% incarbohydrate, 55.88% in phosphorus, 48.38 % in iron,and 33.33% in calcium was noted when the moisturecontent of soil was reduced to 10% from 30% i.e.control.

Conclusions

Thus results revealed that there was a reduction of(52.5%) in leaf dry weight, (48.10%) in stem / branchesdry wt, (78.44%) in pods dry wt and (59.1%) in total drymatter, 65.34% in number of flowers/plant, 68.75% innumber of pods/plant, 73.68% in number of seeds/plant,71.44% in seed index, 52.94% in seed yield and 57.38%in biological yield, 51.42% in protein, 50.14% in Fat,42.10 % in Fibre, 16.10% in carbohydrate, 55.88% inphosphorus, 48.38 % in iron, and 33.33% in calciumwas noted when the moisture content of soil wasreduced to 10% from 30% i.e. control.

izLrqr vUos"k.k tokgjyky usg: d`f"k fo'ofo|ky; ds ikni dkf;ZdhfoHkkx esa fu;af=r okrkuqdwfyr ikWyh gkml esa jch l= 2009&10 esafd;s x;sA iz;ksxksa esa ;g ik;k x;k fd e`nkvknzrk 30 izfr'kr ls degksdj 10 izfr'kr rd vkus esa ifr;ksa] rus vkSj 'kk[kkvksa] ?ksafV;ksa ,oaikS/k ds 'kq"d Hkkj esa dze'k% 52-2%] 48-10%] 78-44% ,oa59-0% izfr ikS/k iq"iksa] ?ksafV;ksa] chtksa] cht lwpd] tSfod iSnkokj ,oacht iSnkokj esa dze'k% 65-34%, 68-75%, 73-68%, 71-44%,57-38% ,oa 52-94%, izksVhu] olk] js'ks] dkcksZgkbMªsV] QkLQksjl]yksgk ,oa dSfY'k;e esa dze'k% 51-42%] 50-14%, 42-10%, 16-10%, 55-88%, 48-38% ,oa 33-33% rd deh ik;h x;hA

References

Essa T A (2003) Evaluation of growth and dry matterproduction of cereal crops under severe droughtstress. Ann Agril Sci Cario 48 (1) : 173-184

Flood R G, Martin P I, Gardner W K (1995) Dry matteraccumulation and partitioning and its relationship tograin yield in wheat. Aust J Expt Agril 35(4) : 495-502

Gardner F P, Pearce R B, Mitchell R L (1985) Growth anddevelopment In Physiology and crop plants. The IowaState Uni Press 187-208

Goyal V, Jain Sudha, Bishnoi N R (1998) Effect of terminalwater stress on stomatal resistance, transpiration,canopy temperature and yield of pearl millet(Pennisetum americanum L. Leek) under fieldcondition. Ann Agri & Bio Res 3 :119-122

Gupta S N, Dahiya B S, Malik B P S, Bishnoi N R (1995)Response of chickpea to water deficits and droughtstress. Haryana Agri Uni Res J 25:11-19

Haley S P, Quick J S 1998 Methodology for evaluation ofchemical desiccation tolerance in winter wheat.Cereal Res Comm 26 (1) : 73-79

Keterji N, Van Hoorn J W, Harndy A, Mastrorilli M, Owies T,Malhotra R S (2001) Response to soil salinity ofchickpea varieties differing in drought tolerance. AgriWater Manag 50 : 83-96

Reddy A A, Mathur V C, Yadav M, Yadav S S (2007)Commercial cultivation and protiability, In S S RRedden, W Chen and B Sharma (eds), ChickpeaBreeding and Management, pp. 291-230. CABIPublishing, Walling Ford

Serraj R, Bahuriwalla H K, Sharma K K, Gaur P M, Crouch JH (2004) Crop improvement for drought resistancein pulses. A holistic approach. Ind J Pulse Res 17 :1-13

Sharma K M, Sharma D D, Shukla K B, Upadhyay B (2008)Growth partitioning and productivity of wheat asinfluenced by fertilization and foliar application of bio- regulators. Indian J Plant Physiol 13(4) : 387-393

Singh S P, Ram R S, Lal K B, Singh G S (1997) Physiologicalvariability and inter relationship in chickpea. Agri SciDig 17 : 97-100

Watson D J (1952) The physiological basis for variation inyield. Adv Agron 4 : 101-145

Watson D J (1958) The dependence of net assimilation rateon leaf area index. Ann Bot (NS) 22: 37-54

Welbank P J, Witts K J, Thorne G N (1965) Effect of radiationand temperature on efficiency of cereal leaves duringgrain growth. Ann Bot 32 : 79-95

(Manuscript Receivd : 24.12.2011; Accepted 07.07.2012)

33

Identification of selection components for linseed breeding

S.K. Tiwari, Rajmohan Sharma* and RamakantDepartment of Genetics and Plant BreedingChandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and TechnologyKanpur 208002 (UP), India*College of Agriculture, JNKVV, Ganjbasoda

Abstract

The present study was carried out on populations of fourgenerations (F1s, F2s, B1s, B2s) constructed through diallelcross including six diverse parents in two consecutive rabiseason 2000-01 and 2001-02 for ten quantitative traits.Moderate to high genotype and phenotypic coefficientvariability, heritability and genetic advance in per cent of meanwas observed for branches per plant, capsules per plant, 1000-seed weight and seed yield per plant. Seed yield had significantpositive association with tillers per plant, branches per plant,and capsules per plant and 1000-seed weight. Path analysisrevealed that capsules per plant, seeds per capsules, 1000-seed weight and oil content had considerable positive directeffect indicating direct selection for these characters couldbe effective for enhancement in seed yield of linseed (Linumusitatissimum L.).

Linseed or flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) belong to thefamily Linaceae is a cool temperature annual herb witherect slender stem. The seed of linseed contain 30-40% per cent oil, which comprises mainly linolenic acid,is mainly used for industrial purpose for manufacturingof paints surface coating oils varnish, printing ink andsimilar others, on global scenario India ranks first inArea ( 572.2 thousand ha) and third in production 22.93thousand tones (Anonymous 2003). Because of selfpollinated nature of crop selection is most importantbreeding procedure for developing high yielding andbiotic and abiotic resistance varieties for differentgeographical region. Thus, the seed yield is complexlyinherited traits governed by many physiologicalprocesses with in the plants and influenced by manyenvironmental factors in which plant is grown. Therefore,the selection parameters variability, heritability andgenetic advance, correlation and path coefficientanalysis for yield and its attributes could be provide aneffective basis to identify selection components for

effective selection to achieve the goal of high seed yieldvarieties of linseed.

Material and method

The materials consisted 15 F1s, 15 F2s, 15 B1s and 15B2s derived from six diverse parents / strains viz., RLC29, LCK 9313 (Shekhar), LCK-88062, Kangra Local,EC-1465 and Omega -1, develop in two consecutiverabi season 2000 and 2001. Those populations weregrown in randomized block design with three replicationsduring rabi 2002-03 at Students Instructional Farm ofC.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,Kanpur. Each replication comprised 66 plots, 21 singlerow plot for each parent and F1s, 30 three row plot forB1s and B2s and 15 six rows plot for F2 population withrow length three meter and spaced 50 cm apart. Theplant to plant distance was 15 cm. Ten plants from nonsegregating generation (Parents and F1s) and 20 plantsfrom segregating population were randomly taken fromeach replication for recording the observation on tenattributes. Data recorded were subjected to analysis ofvariance (Steel and Torrie 1980). Statistical measuresof variability such as genotypic and phenotypiccoefficient of variability (GCV, and PCV), heritability(h2bs), genetic advance (GA) in per cent of mean,genotypic and phenotypic correlations (rg and rp) werecomputed (Know and Torrie 1964) and path coefficientanalysis was made (Deway and Lu 1959) Interpretationson path analysis was done as per Lenka and Mishra(1973).

Results and discussion

There were highly significant differences among meanvalues of populations (parents, F1s, F2s, B1s and B2s)for all the traits studied except number of seeds per

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 33-36 (2012)

34

Table 1. Mean squares for analysis of various for seed yield and its components in linseedCharacters Replications Treatments Parents F1s F2s B1s B2sd.f. 2 65 5 14 14 14 14Days to flower 4.37 71.07** 75.8** 55** 58.74** 118.2** 37.2**Plant height 35.84 261.5** 252.5** 252** 241.9** 123.14** 408.9**Tillers per plant 0.822 3.67** 1.96** 3.85** 2.04** 3.89** 4.63**Days to maturity 20.125 26.42** 47.43** 29.68** 18.3** 17.2** 29.13**Branches per plant 7.718 727.4** 206.2** 407.2** 661.7** 628.2** 826.9**Capsules per plant 1481 11614.6** 8585.8** 4039.2** 9092.8** 8024** 13673.9**Seeds per capsule 0.063 2.68** 1.39** 3.41** 1.13** 0.92NS 4.87**1000-seed weight 0.023 3.94** 6.8** 3.62** 3.1** 2.9** 2.6**Oil content 0.984 10.97** 5.1** 10.0** 7.00** 8.2** 21.7**Seed yield per plant 0.677 11.38** 20.8** 8.1** 10.5** 6.4** 10.9***, ** significant at 5 and 1 per cent level, respectively; NS = Non-significant

Table 2. The estimates of genetic parameters of different quantitative traits in linseedCharacters Mean Range PCV GCV h2(b) GA GA as %

Min. Max. of meanDays to flower 85.5 75.9 93.8 5.9 5.5 88.6 9.24 10.8Plant height 59.2 43.8 83.0 16.3 15.4 89.8 17.8 30.2Tillers per plant 9.4 7.2 12.0 12.7 11.1 76.2 1.8 20.1Days to maturity 140.4 133.3 147.6 2.5 1.8 52.2 3.8 2.7Branches per plant 63.0 39.0 108.0 25.5 24.2 90.4 29.9 47.5Capsules per plant 301.9 179.0 451.3 21.4 20.1 88.0 117.8 39.0Seeds per capsule 8.1 5.4 9.5 11.9 11.4 92.3 1.8 22.51000-seed weight 7.3 5.2 10.5 15.8 15.3 94.5 2.2 30.8Oil content 39.8 35.6 43.4 6.5 3.6 30.1 1.6 4.0Seed yield per plant 13.6 7.9 18.7 14.9 13.8 85.8 3.6 26.5PCV – Phenotypic coefficient of variation, GCV – Genotypic coefficient variationh2(bs) – Broad sense heritability, GA – Genetic advance

Table 3. Genotypic (rg) and phenotypic (rp) correlation of various traits with seed yield in linseedCharacters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Seed yield/

plantDays to flower rg 0.076 NS 0.217 NS 0.483 ** 0.42 ** 0.23 NS -0.22 NS -0.21 NS -0.31 ** -0.02 NS

rp 0.070 0.204 0.35 0.37 0.20 -0.19 -0.18 -0.19 -0.004Plant height rg -0.22 NS -0.006 NS 0.29 * -0.12 NS 0.09 NS -0.42 ** 0.02 NS -0.21 NS

rp -0.16 -0.007 0.26 -0.10 -0.09 -0.39 0.007 -0.18Tillers per plant rg 0.29 * 0.35 ** 0.39 ** 0.13 NS 0.17 NS -0.28 * 0.34 **

rp 0.26 0.30 0.34 -0.10 0.15 -0.13 0.30Days to maturity rg 0.15 NS 0.11 NS -0.50 ** 0.009 NS -0.13 NS -0.02 NS

rp 0.13 0.11 -0.37 0.008 -0.12 -0.02Branches per plant rg 0.53 ** -0.07 NS -0.11 NS -0.27 * 0.32 **

rp 0.52 -0.07 -0.10 -0.14 0.29Capsule per plant rg -0.19 NS 0.10 NS 0.18 NS 0.66 **

rp -0.18 0.09 -0.09 0.60Seed per capsule rg 0.04 NS 0.18 NS 0.22 NS

rp 0.04 0.11 0.221000-seed weight rg 0.17 NS 0.55 **

rp 0.09 0.52Oil content rg 0.18 NS

rp 0.07rg – genotypic correlation coefficient, rp- phenotypic correlation coefficient; NS = Non-Significant*, ** - Significant at 5 and 1 % respectively

35

capsule in B1s (Table 1). Measurement of variations,heritability and expected genetic advance in percentageof mean are given in table-2. The range of genotypicand phenotypic coefficient of variation (GCV and PCV)was 1.85 to 24.24 and 2.56 to 25.53, respectively. Themaximum value of genotypic and phenotypic coefficientof variation was observed for branches per plantfollowed by capsules per plant, plant height, 1000-seedweight and seed yield per plant. Moderate to highheritability (broad sense) with high expected geneticadvance was observed for branches per plant, capsulesper plant, 1000-seed weight, plant height, seed yieldper plant, seeds per capsule, tillers per plant and daysto flower indicating amenable scope for simple selection.These results are in conformity with the reports of Yadavet al.(1998); Pradhan et al.(1999); Ramakant et al.(2005).

The study of inter-character association (Table 3)depicted that genotypic correlation coefficient weregreater that phenotypic correlation indicating themasking effect of environment. Seed yield wassignificantly and positively correlated with tillers perplant, branches per plant, capsule per plant and 1000-seed weight. This indicated that simultaneous selectionfor these traits might brings an improvement in seedyield. Khan et al. (1998), Akbar et al. (2001) and Akbaret al. (2003), concluded same results. Days to flowerhad significant positive correlation with days to maturityand branches per plant while plant height showedpositive significant association with branches per plant.Tillers per plant had highly significant positive correlationwith days to maturity, branches per plant and capsuleper plant. Similarly capsule per plant was stronglycorrelated with branches per plant Oil content had non-significant correlation with seed yield per plant whichwas minimized via negative correlation of days to flower,

tillers per plant and branches per plant.

To find out the clear picture of the association ofvarious traits with seed yield, direct and indirect effectswere worked out using path analysis at genotypic level.Considering the direct effect of each character on seedyield capsules per plant had highest positive direct effectfollowed by 1000-seed weight, seeds per capsule andoil content. The direct effect of tillers per plant on seedyield was negative but it exerted maximum indirect effectvia capsules per plant suggesting that these traits maybe considered for selection. Branches per plant hadhighly significant positive correlation with seed yield perplant but negligible direct effect. This development traitshad high positive indirect effect via capsules per plantand very low positive indirect effect via tillers per plant.Number of seeds per capsules and oil content had weakassociation with grain yield but exhibited considerablepositive direct effect. The weak association was due tonegative or low positive indirect effect via 1000-seedweight and number of capsules per plant. The lowpositive residual effect (0.18) indicated that most of theyield contributing traits have been included in thepresent study.

So for the evolving of high yielding varieties oflinseed the developmental traits viz. capsules per plant,1000-seed weight, tillers per plant, seeds per capsuleand oil content should be given more considerationwhile making selection of genotypes from thepopulations of segregating generations.

References

Akbar M, Khan NI, Sabir KM (2001) Correlation and pathcoefficient studies in linseed. On line J Biol Sci 1 :446-447

Table 4. Direct and indirect effects of various traits on seed yield per plant in linseed

Characters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 rg with yieldDays to flower (-0.032) 0.001 0.014 0.047 0.030 0.15 -0.08 -0.09 -0.06 -0.02Plant height -0.002 (0.011) -0.014 -0.001 0.021 -0.077 0.031 -0.18 -0.004 -0.21Tillers per plant -0.007 -0.002 (-0.006) 0.028 0.025 0.259 -0.044 0.072 -0.057 0.34**Days to maturity -0.015 0.000 0.02 (0.095) 0.010 0.070 -0.178 -0.004 -0.026 -0.02Branches per plant -0.13 0.003 0.023 0.014 (0.072) 0.35 -0.026 -0.049 -0.054 0.32**Capsules per plant -0.007 -0.001 0.026 0.010 0.038 (0.65) -0.068 0.045 -0.035 0.66**Seeds per capsule 0.007 0.001 -0.008 -0.048 -0.005 -0.126 (0.35) 0.015 0.036 0.221000-seed weight 0.007 -0.005 0.011 0.001 -0.008 -0.066 0.012 (0.44) 0.033 0.55**Oil content 0.010 0.000 -0.019 -0.012 -0.019 -0.115 0.063 0.073 (0.200) 0.18

*,** Significant at P = 0.05 and 0.01 level, respectively;Blood diagonal values indicated direct effect.

36

Akbar M, Mahmood T, Anwar T, Ali M, Shafio M, Salim J(2003) Linseed improvement through geneticvariability, correlation and path coefficient analysis.Internatl J Agric & Biol 5 (3) : 303-305

Anonymous (2003) Annual Progress Report. All India co-ordinated research project on linseed. Project Co-coordinating unit (Linseed) CSAUA&T Kanpur

Deway DR, Lu KH (1959) A correlation and path coefficientanalysis of components of crested wheat grass seedproduction. Agron J 51 : 515-518

Khan MI, Din F, Naseerrullah M, Shahid MTH (1998) Geneticvariability and association of traits of linseed (Linumusitatissimum L.) J Agric Res 36 : 83-87

Kwon SH, Torrie JH (1964) Heritability and interrelationship oftraits in soybean population. Crop Sci 4 : 196-198

Lenka D, Mishra B (1973) Path coefficient analysis of yield inrice varieties. Indian J Agric Sci 43 : 376-379

Pradhan B, Mishra A, Mishra RK, Mishra A (1999) Evaluationof linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) varieties in thewest central land zone of Orrissa. Environ and Ecol17 (1) : 91-93

Ramakant, Singh P, Tiwari SK, Sharma Rajmohan (2005)Study of heritability and genetic advance of yieldcomponents and oil content in diallel cross of linseed(Linum usitatissimum L.) Agric Sci Diges 25 (4) :287-290.

Steel R G D, Torrie JS (1980) Principles and Procedures ofSstatistics. Mc Graw Hill Books Company Inc NewYork

Yadav RK, Gupta RR, Singh L (1998) Genetic variability andheritability for quality traits under differentenvironments in linseed. Indian J Agric Biochem 11(2) : 63-64

(Manuscript Receivd : 10.07.2010; Accepted 05.02.2012)

37

Evaluation and identification of suitable horse gram cultivars forhigher productivity and seed quality traits

K. Kanaka Durga and M. GaneshSeed Research and Technology CentreANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 37-43 (2012)

Abstract

Twenty three cultivars of horse gram were evaluated fordifferent productivity and quality traits. Among the 13productive traits, it was found that, HG 11 and AK 38 recordedsuperior performance for 9 and 7 important and desirableproductivity and quality traits, respectively. Keeping in viewwith the important productive traits viz., leaf length, plantheight, primary branches plant-1, secondary branches plant-1,seeds pod-1, pod hulm plant-1, seed yield plant-1 and 100seed weight possessed by the genotypes, it can be utilized infuture breeding programmes. Since the number of varietiesdeveloped is meager and the variability present at optimumlevel among the genotypes for various characters. Thusbreeder can use the potential genotypes which are havingcertain productive and desirable traits it will act as a fuel forcreation of variability and allows the selection of genotypesfor different agro-climatic situations.

Key words: Horse gram, evaluation, productivity andseed quality

Horse gram is one of the important lesser known beans.It is also known as Gohat, Kulath or Kulthi (Hurali) inIndia and is grown here to be used as feed and fodder.The whole seeds of horse gram are generally utilizedas cattle feed and silage for livestock production.However, it is mainly utilized as a whole seed, sproutsor whole meal by a large population in rural areas ofSouthern India. Being a pulse crop fixes atmosphericnitrogen and enriches soil fertility. It is a droughtresistant annual crop. Seeds are rich in proteins (23%).In India it occupies an area of 1.84 m ha. It covers anarea of 0.022 m ha in A.P with a production of 9 t.Productivity of horse gram is 400 kg ha-1 which is lessthan the national average (500 kg ha-1). Very littleresearch progress has been made in this crop and littleefforts have been made to evaluate the germplasm,identify superior lines and develop suitable horse gramcultivars with higher productivity coupled with superior

quality. Hence the present study was taken up toevaluate 23 horse gram cultivars for productivity andquality traits to identify superior lines for future use inthe breeding programme.

Material and methods

The material for the present study consisted of 23cultivars of horse gram comprising of released varieties,germplasm collections and land races. The experimentwas laid out in a randomized block design with threereplications at Seed Research and Technology Centre,Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The plot size for eachgenotype was 4 x 0.6 m with 2 rows of 4 m length atspacing of 60 cm between rows and 30 cm betweenplants. Recommended agronomic practices and plantprotection measures were adopted to raise a healthycrop.

Five competitive plants of each genotype in eachreplication were randomly taken to record observationson qualitative characters (plant, stem, leaf, pod and seedmorphological characters), quantitative characters(plant height, primary branches plant-1, secondarybranches plant-1, pods axil-1, pods plant-1, seeds pod-1,pod length, pod hulm plant-1, seed yield plant-1 and 100seed weight) and seed quality parameters (germination,seedling length, seedling dry weight, seedling vigorindex I and seedling vigor index II). The seeds of all thecultivars were tested for laboratory germination (papertowel) as per the ISTA rules (ISTA 1985). The finalcount was recorded and expressed in percentage. Afterfinal germination count, ten normal seedlings wereselected at random in each replication for recordingseedling length in centimeters (cm) and the sameseedlings were oven dried at 80oC for 17 h and weighed(g) for seedling dry weight. Seedling vigor index I andII were calculated by multiplying germination per centwith seedling length and dry matter production,

38

Table 1. Top five superior genotypes of horse gram identified for different characters

Characters I II III IV VLeaf length (cm) AK 38 HG 49 HG 58 HG 72 HG 15

6.7 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.1Leaf width (cm) HG 49 HG 72 HG 15 HG 11 andHG 58 HG 14

4.8 4.3 4.2 4.1 4.0Plant height (cm) AK 38 HG 11 HG 46 Palem 2 HG 72

66.0 65.4 60.9 60.8 60.1Primary branches plant-1 (no.) HG 18 HG 32 HG 11 HG 14 HG 41

12.4 12.0 12.0 11.7 11.5Secondary branches plant -1 (no.) HG 35 Palem 1 HG 11 AK 38 HG 41

11.70 11.6 11.1 10.7 10.6Pods axil-1 (no.) Palem 1 HG 35 HG 14 HG 49 HG 32 and HG 75

4.4 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.8Pods plant-1 (no.) AK 38 HG 35 HG 18 HG 41 Palem 2

156.0 128.4 122.0 103.8 103.0Seeds pod-1 (no.) HG 49 HG 59 HG 32 HG 24 HG 35

6.6 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2Pod length (cm) HG 35 HG 18 HG 46 HG 72 HG 41 and HG 52

6.4 6.0 6.0 5.9 5.9Pod hulm plant-1 (g) AK 38 HG 11 HG 32 Palem 2 HG 38

13.88 12.30 8.09 7.92 7.75Seed yield plant-1 (g) HG 11 AK 38 Palem 2 HG 38 HG 32

21.98 20.96 20.08 16.90 16.88Test weight (g) HG 24 HG 15 HG 11 HG 32 Palem 2

3.745 3.695 3.560 3.486 3.430Germination (%) HG 59 HG 54 HG 18 AK 38 HG 17, HG 41 and Palem 2

99.8 99.8 99.8 99.6 99.5Seedling length (cm) Palem 1 HG 63 HG 11 HG 17 HG 14

28.40 27.53 27.38 27.32 27.16Seedling dry weight (g) HG 49 HG 24 HG 50 HG 72 HG 52

0.0296 0.0256 0.0252 0.0245 0.0236

Seedling vigour index I Palem 1 HG 75 HG 63 HG 17 HG 11

2808.4 2775.3 2732.0 2717.4 2716.0Seedling vigour index II HG 49 HG 50 HG 24 HG 72 HG 52

2.936 2.459 2.332 2.327 2.299

respectively (Abdul- Baki and Anderson 1973). Theanalysis of variance was carried out according to themethod suggested by Panse and Sukhatme (1985).

Results and discussion

Analysis of variance indicated significant differencesamong the genotypes for all the characters under study.The data presented in Tables 1a and 1b revealedpresence of genetic diversity in the material chosen forthe present study. The range for different charactersalong with plot averages for different characters arepresented in Tables 1a and 1b, respectively.

For identifying suitable horse gram cultivars,comparative assessment was made on the basis of

overall mean performance of all the 17 characteristics.Of these, 5 traits were used for assessing seed qualityand the remaining 12 characteristics could be used fordetermining specific attributes. Of the 12 characters, 2characters are related to source and the remaining 10characters are related to yield. The important yieldattributing traits contributing to horse gram yieldcomprised of primary branches plant-1, secondarybranches plant-1, pods axil-1, pods plant-1, seeds pod-1,pod length and 100 seed weight. The cluster means fordifferent characters along with the relative contributionof different characters towards the expression of geneticdivergence showed that seed yield plant-1 (33.20%)contributed maximum to the genetic divergence followedby seedling vigor index I (27.27%), test weight (10.28%),seedling vigour index II (9.49%) and pod hulm plant-1

39

(7.11%). Bovak and Khan (2002) reported that plantheight and seed yield plant-1 were considered to be themost important characters contributing towards geneticdivergence in cowpea.

Horse gram is an indeterminate crop owing to itstwining habit. Of all the genotypes studied, AK 38, avariety, recorded more number of pods plant-1 (156.0)implying that production of additional sink was thecharacteristic of this genotype due to its tall plantbehavior of 66.0 cm. On the other hand, HG 54 wasfound to be dwarf (36.9 cm). Besides dwarfness, thisparticular line also recorded less number of pods plant-

1 (31.6) with minimum pod length (4.7 cm) and it is alsoa low yielder (6.76 g plant-1). Hence, it is pertinent tonote that dwarfness is not considered as a productivitytrait in horse gram and tallness should be taken as aselective criterion for an adoptable genotype to enhancehigh productivity.

Top 5 superior genotypes for seed yield plant-1were HG 11 (21.98 g) which was on par with AK 38(20.96 g) but significantly different from Palem 2 (20.08g). The other genotypes which recorded above averageplot yield were HG 38 (16.90 g), HG 32 (16.88 g), HG35 (16.06 g), HG 14 (15.37 g), HG 72 (14.38 g), HG 24(13.96 g) and HG 18 (13.35 g).

The genotype, HG 11 besides its advantage foryield, was also found superior for leaf length (6.0 cm),plant height (65.4 cm), primary branches plant-1 (12.0),secondary branches plant-1 (11.1), seeds pod-1 (5.5),pod hulm plant-1 (12.30 g), seed yield plant-1 (21.98 g)and 100 seed weight (3.56 g). Similarly, AK 38 was tall(66.0 cm) with above average plot values for primarybranches plant-1 (10.4), secondary branches plant-1

(10.7), pod axil-1 (3.6), pods plant-1 (156.0), pod length(5.6), pod hulm plant-1 (13.88 g) and seed yield plant-1

(20.96 g) (Fig1-7.).

Comparison among different superior cultivarsacross the traits indicated that HG 11 gave superiorperformance for seven important productive traits viz.,leaf width, plant height, primary branches plant-1,secondary branches plant-1, pod hulm plant-1, seed yieldplant-1 and 100 seed weight. Therefore this germplasmline can be used as one of the parent in future breedingprogrammes to obtain higher productivity in horse gram.This is further confirmed by the observations of highgenetic distance between HG 11 and HG 50. Surenderet al. (2009) identified two elite hybrids, HM 4 and HQPM1 in maize for baby corn purpose and these were foundsuperior for most of the important productivity traits forcultivation viz., husked cob yield plant-1, de husked cobyield plant-1, number of cobs picked plant-1 and fodderyield plant-1. Thus in the present study, HG 11

possessed majority of the desirable traits for attaininghigher productivity in horse gram.

The next best lines are AK 38 (6 productive traits),Palem 2 (5 productive traits), HG 32 (6 productive traits)and HG 35 (5 productive traits). Of the four lines AK38, Palem 2 and HG 32 were found to possess goodperformance for majority of the desirable charactersdirectly contributing to seed yield, while HG 35 wasfound superior for those characters whose contributionto yield was indirect. Of the former three lines, AK 38and Palem 2 are the varieties while HG 32 is agermplasm line which can be used as an economicgermplasm line in future breeding programmes.

AK 38 exhibited superiority for six importantproductivity traits viz., leaf length, plant height,secondary branches plant-1, pods plant-1, pod hulm plant-

1 and seed yield plant-1. Similarly Palem 2, HG 32 andHG 35 exhibited superiority for 5, 6 and 5 importantproductive and desirable characteristics, respectively.

Pod hulm plant-1 is also considered as an importanteconomic trait as the pod hulm is fed to the buffalo’s forrealizing higher milk production. Hence this trait is alsotaken as important and economic productive traits alongwith other yield contributing characters.

Comparison of different horse gram cultivarsacross the seed quality traits indicated that germinationand seedling vigor are the important quality parametersto judge the seed quality. HG 11 cultivar with superiortraits for productivity also exhibited superior/ improvedvigor index I, besides recording higher germination %.While AK 38 (99.6) and Palem 2 (99.5) were foundsuperior for germination.

Among the different horse gram cultivarsidentified on the basis of important productivity andquality traits, germplasm line HG 11 was predominantlyidentified in the elite category for each trait implying itssuperiority, desirability and further utilization in thebreeding programmes compared to the other cultivars.It is also superior for pod hulm which is obtained as animportant and economic by - product after threshing ofhorse gram seed and could be used as cattle feed.

It is pertinent to note that critical assessment ofvarious characteristics would be fruitful in selecting mostdesirable genotypes as indicated by studies in variouscountries (Almeida et al. 2005 and Itala Paula de et al.2005)

In India, a very little progress has been made toevaluate and identify the available lines for theirsuitability in the breeding programmes/cultivation. Inaddition to productivity, there is a need for emphasis

40

Tab

le 1

a:

Yie

ld a

nd y

ield

com

pone

nt c

hara

cter

s fo

r diff

eren

t acc

essi

ons

of h

orse

gra

m d

urin

g R

abi,

2008

-09

Leaf

Leaf

Pla

ntPr

imar

ySe

cond

ary

Pod

sP

ods

See

dsP

odP

odSe

ed10

0 se

edS.

No.

Trea

tmen

tsle

ngth

wid

thhe

ight

bran

ches

bran

ches

axil-1

plan

t-1po

d-1le

ngth

hulm

yiel

dw

eigh

t(c

m)

(cm

)(c

m)

plan

t-1pl

ant-1

(no.

)(n

o.)

(no.

)(c

m)

plan

t-1 (g

)pl

ant-1

(g)

(g)

(no.

)(n

o.)

1H

G 7

53.

72.

553

.39.

98.

53.

887

.85.

75.

84.

9811

.74

2.79

62

HG

54

4.7

2.7

36.9

8.6

7.5

3.3

31.6

5.3

4.7

3.08

6.76

3.16

73

HG

59

4.3

2.6

50.9

10.1

10.0

3.1

61.4

6.2

5.6

3.88

8.14

3.33

94

HG

63

4.9

3.1

46.6

7.7

4.8

3.0

43.8

5.8

5.5

4.52

8.44

3.19

65

HG

14

5.5

4.0

48.9

11.7

5.1

4.1

77.3

5.7

5.1

6.89

15.3

73.

227

6H

G 1

84.

62.

747

.512

.48.

53.

612

2.0

6.1

6.0

6.03

13.3

53.

239

7H

G 3

25.

22.

958

.512

.06.

03.

880

.16.

25.

78.

0916

.88

3.48

68

HG

24

4.8

3.3

58.6

9.5

7.4

2.6

92.7

6.2

5.7

6.24

13.9

63.

745

9H

G 1

74.

72.

245

.911

.16.

72.

945

.05.

85.

43.

347.

133.

406

10H

G 5

86.

34.

151

.810

.18.

63.

590

.95.

55.

86.

3012

.80

3.23

111

HG

72

6.3

4.3

60.1

9.9

10.1

3.2

75.7

5.8

5.9

7.72

14.3

83.

246

12H

G 1

16.

04.

165

.412

.011

.13.

373

.35.

55.

212

.30

21.9

83.

560

13H

G 3

54.

72.

855

.48.

711

.74.

212

8.4

6.2

6.4

6.88

16.0

63.

036

14H

G 3

84.

62.

558

.911

.17.

03.

079

.05.

55.

47.

7516

.90

3.33

115

HG

41

5.1

3.3

47.7

11.5

10.6

3.4

103.

85.

95.

95.

5212

.46

3.11

516

HG

15

6.1

4.2

48.6

9.7

5.4

2.1

47.1

5.1

5.5

4.09

9.22

3.69

517

HG

49

6.4

4.8

59.0

10.1

5.8

3.9

70.1

6.6

5.7

6.25

11.7

92.

910

18H

G 5

05.

13.

448

.57.

74.

83.

142

.05.

25.

32.

556.

032.

372

19H

G 5

25.

33.

254

.78.

75.

43.

260

.05.

25.

94.

779.

963.

259

20H

G 4

65.

83.

160

.98.

58.

63.

470

.86.

06.

05.

8012

.42

2.67

521

PA

LEM

15.

33.

445

.610

.011

.64.

483

.55.

45.

25.

6412

.32

3.37

722

PA

LEM

24.

63.

260

.811

.410

.23.

410

3.0

5.4

5.4

7.92

20.0

83.

430

23A

K 3

86.

73.

466

.010

.410

.73.

615

6.0

3.9

5.6

13.8

820

.96

3.13

3G

. Mea

n53

.51

10.1

18.

083.

3879

.34

5.65

5.59

6.28

13.0

03.

216

S.E

m.

5.99

1.22

1.21

0.28

12.2

60.

190.

170.

290.

430.

089

S.E

d.8.

471.

721.

710.

4017

.33

0.26

0.24

0.41

0.60

0.12

6C

.D. (

5%)

17.5

33.

573.

550.

8235

.88

0.55

0.49

0.84

1.25

0.26

0C

.V. (

%)

15.8

317

.05

21.2

311

.78

21.8

54.

664.

246.

454.

633.

905

Ran

ge36

.9 -6

6.07

.7 –

12.4

4.8

–11.

72.

1 –4

.431

.6 –

156.

03.

9 –6

.64.

7 –6

.42.

55 –

13.8

86.0

3 –2

1.98

2.37

2 –3

.745

41

Table 1b: Seed quality parameters for different accessions of horse gram during Rabi, 2008 - 09

S. No. Treatments Germination % Total seedling Seedling Seedling Seedlinglength (cm) dry weight (g) vigor index I vigor index II

1 HG 75 98.9 28.09 0.0194 2775.3 1.921

2 HG 54 99.8 25.10 0.0170 2503.6 1.692

3 HG 59 99.8 26.58 0.0213 2651.1 2.122

4 HG 63 99.3 27.53 0.0206 2732.0 2.038

5 HG 14 99.0 27.16 0.0192 2688.8 1.903

6 HG 18 99.8 26.04 0.0202 2597.5 2.012

7 HG 32 99.4 23.92 0.0211 2377.0 2.095

8 HG 24 92.0 26.12 0.0256 2391.9 2.332

9 HG 17 99.5 27.32 0.0189 2717.4 1.879

10 HG 58 96.6 25.64 0.0200 2475.9 1.929

11 HG 72 95.0 26.46 0.0245 2513.2 2.327

12 HG 11 99.1 27.38 0.0215 2716.0 2.132

13 HG 35 96.6 24.45 0.0219 2362.1 2.112

14 HG 38 98.0 26.92 0.0229 2632.9 2.239

15 HG 41 99.5 26.41 0.0223 2626.3 2.216

16 HG 15 99.0 21.89 0.0231 2167.3 2.284

17 HG 49 99.1 26.47 0.0296 2625.5 2.936

18 HG 50 97.5 21.07 0.0252 2055.6 2.459

19 HG 52 97.6 24.60 0.0236 2401.0 2.299

20 HG 46 98.9 26.03 0.0221 2571.9 2.180

21 PALEM 1 98.9 28.40 0.0220 2808.4 2.171

22 PALEM 2 99.5 25.06 0.0217 2491.8 2.162

23 AK 38 99.6 26.15 0.0220 2604.2 2.189

G. Mean 98.36 25.86 0.0220 2542.89 2.158

S.Em. 1.42 1.46 0.001 150.46 0.110

S.Ed. 2.01 2.06 0.002 212.75 0.155

C.D. (5%) 4.16 4.26 0.004 440.40 0.322

C.V. (%) 2.04 7.97 0.776 8.37 0.720

Range 92.0 – 99.8 21.07 -28.40 0.0170- 0.0296 2055.6 -2808.4 1.692 – 2.936

42

43

on seed quality and also on economic returns.

In the present study, HG 11 was found superiorfor majority of the productivity and quality traits of horsegram and can be used as one of the parent in thehybridization programme. Further AK 38 and Palem 2can be recommended for cultivation in the horse gramgrowing areas of AP and can also be used in the futurebreeding programmes for incorporation of economic anddesirable productivity traits.

Further in view of wide genetic diversity noticedfor various productivity as well as quality traits exhibitedin these cultivars, they could serve as useful geneticresources and be effectively utilized as base materialin deriving better and useful genotypes by hybridizationand directional selection for specific characters indeveloping new varieties (Surender et al. 2009).

mRiknu lacf/kr rsjg xq.kks ds v/;;u ea ;g ik;k x;k fd dqYFkh dhHG11 rFkk AK38 tkfr us lokZf/kd iz’kluh; mRiknu fn[kk;k AmRiknu lacf/kr xq.kksa tSls iŸkh dh yEckbZ] ikS/ks dh Å¡pkbZ] 'kk[kk,sa]izfr Qyh cht dh la[;k] cht dk otu bu tkfr;ksa esa Fkk ftUgsa fdHkfo"; esa ikni iztuu dk;Z esa iz;ksx esa yk;k tk ldrk gS A

References

Abdul-Baki AA , Anderson JD( 1973) Vigour determination insoybean seed by multiple criteria. Crop Sci 13: 630-633

International Seed Testing Association (1985) Internationalrules for seed testing. Seed Sci & Technol27(Supplement):30-35

Panse VG , Sukhatame PV( 1985) Statistical Methods forResearch Workers. ICAR Publication New Delhi

Surender K Chauhan, Jitender Mohan, Sain Dass , GadagRN( 2009) Evaluation and identification of suitablemaize cultivars for baby corn productivity traits. IndianJ Pl Gen Resources 22(3): 229-238

Almeida IP, De C, Le Silva, PS, Negreiros, MZ de , BarbosaZ( 2005) Baby corn, green ear and grain yield of corncultivars. Botucatu, Brazil: Sociedade de Olericulturado Brasil, UNESP – FCA. Horticultura – Brasiliera23(4): 960-964

Itala Paula de C Almeida, Paulo Sergio Le Silva, Z Maria deNegreiros , Zenaide Barbosa. (2005) Baby corn,green ear and grain yield of corn cultivars.Horticultura Brasiliera. Brasilia 23(4): 960-964

(Manuscript Receivd : 16.02.2012; Accepted 20.06.2012)

44

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 44-46 (2012)

Abstract

A field investigation was conducted at Department ofAgronomy, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya,Jabalpur (M.P.) during Rabi season of 2007-08 with theobjective of to determine the relative performance of newsingle cut oat genotypes in combination of nitrogen levels.The treatments consists of five new oat genotypes (JO-03-91,OS-396, UPO-06-1, UPO-06-2 and Kent ) and four nitrogenlevels (0, 40 ,80 and 120 ) under split plot design replicatedthrice. The variety JO 03-91with 120 kg N/ ha provedsignificantly superior in producing maximum green fodder yield(503.9 q/ha), dry matter yield (121.1 q/ha) and crude proteinyield (9.6 q/ha) and maximum monetary advantage ( Rs53729) and proved most remunerative with benefit: cost ratioof 2.87.

Keywords: Oat, forage, N levels, varieties, green fodderyield

Oat (Avena sativa L.) is one of the important cerealfodder crop in the temperate climate of the world. Oatis grown in India mainly for its nutritive grain and foddervalues especially suited for horses, dairy cows, andbuffaloes. Under the situation water supply is limitedand farmer can not grow legumes like berseem andlucerne, oat promises as a better choice as analternative fodder crop. Being a gramineceous fodder,oat responds well to nitrogen application, whichproduces more tonnage in per unit area per unit timeunder favorable environmental conditions (Agrawal etal. 1993). However, excess application of nitrogen tooat under certain environmental conditions causes largequantities of nitrate accumulation in plant leaves, whichmay be toxic to ruminants. These facts necessitate to

Relative performance of new single cut oat genotypes to differentnitrogen levels under agro-climatic condition of Kymore plateau zoneof Madhya Pradesh

A.K. Jha, Arti Shrivastava, N.S. Raghuvanshi and J.K. SharmaDepartment of AgronomyJawahrlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482 004 (MP)

determinate the adequate supply of nitrogen to the oatbased on field experimentation for realizing the geneticyield potential of newly evolved varieties. A vast varietalsdiversity of oat enables its cultivation over wide rangeof oat have been evolved which have high yield potentialare grown for producing green fodder as well as seed.These varieties are highly responsive to high doses offertilizers. Hence, the necessity for selection of suitablevarieties and their nitrogen requirements for differentAgro-climatic regions through well planned varietal cummanorial experiments is self evident.

Material and methods

Investigation was conducted under AICRP on ForageCrops, Department of Agronomy, Jawaharlal NehruKrishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (MP) during Rabiseason of 2007-08. The soil of experimental field wasclay loam in texture, neutral (7.2) in reaction with loworganic carbon (0.44%) and normal electricalconductivity (0.34 dS/m) and analyzing low in availableN (228 kg/ha), medium in available P (16.2 kg/ha) andavailable K (297 kg/ha) contents. Treatments were laidout in split plot design with three replications, keepingfour levels of each of N (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg/ha) andvarieties (JO 03-91, OS 396, UPO 06- UPO 06-21 andKent). Sowing was done on November 20, 2007 by using100 kg/ha of each variety in rows 25 cm apart withuniform dose 40 kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O /ha .Nitrogen wasapplied as per treatments. At the harvest, green fodderyield and growth parameters, viz. plant height, tillernumber, leaf area index and leaf- stem ratio wererecorded. The crude - protein yield was calculated by afactor of 6.25 formula suggested by Mehrez and Zraslox

45

Tab

le1. C

hara

cter

istic

s of

oat

var

ietie

s in

fluen

ced

by d

iffer

ent n

itrog

en le

vels

Trea

tmen

tsP

lant

Num

ber o

f till

ers/

m2

Leaf

Are

a In

dex

Cru

deLe

af:

Dry

Gre

enN

MR

sB:

Che

ight

(cm

)pr

otei

nst

emm

atte

rfo

dder

(Rs/

ha)

ratio

yiel

dra

tioyi

eld

yiel

dA

t har

vest

30 D

AS

60 D

AS

At h

arve

st30

DA

S60

DA

S(q

/ha)

(q/h

a)(q

/ha)

Var

ietie

sJO

-03-

9113

8.6

182.

8036

5.90

380.

403.

564.

959.

61.

1112

1.1

503.

953

729

5.03

OS

-396

133.

115

8.00

332.

1034

6.20

3.24

4.44

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468.

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980

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Ken

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m±

0.3

1.04

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0.11

0.12

0.2

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8.8

--

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at 5

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604.

760.

280.

380.

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(kg/

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297

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7.5

189.

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6.54

432.

503.

484.

839.

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9111

5.9

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763

4.84

120

142.

219

9.80

434.

1044

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10.0

0.88

124.

851

8.8

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05.

18SE

m±

0.5

1.1

1.56

1.56

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0.13

0.1

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--

CD

at 5

%1.

63.

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604.

580.

240.

340.

30.

276.

912

.6-

-

(1977). The dry matter yield was recorded.

Results and discussion

Effect on growth pattern and yield attributes

Different growth parameters like plant height, numberof tillers per plant, leaf area index, and dry matteraccumulation by plant have directly correlated with thegreen fodder yield. The growth parameters like plantheight, number of tillers and leaf area index graduallyincreased under all treatments with the advancementin growing periods till the harvesting of crop. Similarly,the LAI showed rapid rate of increment during the periodbetween 30 DAS to 60 DAS. Increasing level of nitrogendose from 0 to 120 kg/ha resulted correspondingincrease in plant height, LAI and number of tillers,because of nitrogen attributed synthesis of foodmaterials, resulting in greater cell division and cellelongation (Kumar et al. 2000). Therefore, elongationin plant increased with increasing nitrogen application.Application of 120 kg/ha was also recorded highest LAI,number of tillers/m2. As regardless the varieties, thevarieties JO 03-91 attained maximum plant height,number of tillers and LAI than other genotypes. Thequality of fodder is determined by leaf -stem ratio and itwas almost comparable among all the varieties, howevervariety JO 03-91 was numerically superior to others withregard to leaf-stem ratio. The similar finding supportedby on growth parameters enhanced greatly byapplication of nitrogen (Sharma and Verma 2004).

Effect on yield

The crud protein, dry matter and green fodder yieldsignificantly influenced by different varieties andnitrogen levels (Table 1). The production of green fodderwas directly correlated ith various growth parametersand yield attributes of crop. The JO-03-91 producedthe highest green fodder yield as well as dry matteryield of 503.9 and 121.1 q/ha respectively followed byUPO-06-2 (467.7q/ha green fodder and 110.3 q/ha drymatter yield). Varieties and UPO-06-1 and OS-396 werenext to these two in descending order for green fodderyield along with green fodder and dry matter yields ofthese varieties ranged between 467 to 398; and 110. 3to 110.9 q/ha, respectively. The minimum green anddry fodder yield was found with varieties Kent. Thesevarieties mainly attributed to their genetic ability andinfluence of macro and micro environmental conditions.These results are in close conformity with the findingsof Pradhan et al. (2005). Among the different nitrogen

46

References

Agrawal SB, Dubey SK, Tomar GS (1993) Response of oatvarieties to nitrogen. JNKVV Res J 27 (2):133

Mahale BB, Nevase VB, Throt, ST (2004) Effect of cuttingmanagement and nitrogen on forage yield of oat. JSoils and Crops 14 (2):469-472

Mehrez AZ, Zraskov ER (1977) A study on the artificial fibrebag technique for determining the digestibility ofseeds in the rumen. J Agric Sci Cambridge 88:645-650

Pradhan L, Mishra SN (1994) Effect of cutting management,row spacing and level of nitrogen on fodder yieldand quality of oat. Ind J Argon 39(2):233-236

Rohitashav Singh, Sood, BR, Sharma VK, Rana NS(1998).Effect of cutting management and nitrogenon forage seed yield of oat. Ind J Argon 43(2):362-366

Sharma KC, Verma RS (2004) Effect of chemical andbiofertilizers and growth behavior of multicut fodder.Range-Management and Agro-Foresty 25(1):57-60

Kumar Arvind, Jaisawal RS, Verma ML, Joshi YP, Kumar A(2001) Effect of nitrogen level and cutting manamenton yield and quality of different variety of oat fodder.Indian J Animal -Nutrition. 18: 262-266

levels green and dry matter and crud protein yieldscorrespondingly increased with increase in N levels upto 120 kg/ha. Thus, it is obvious that oat is highlyresponsive to this nutrient and oat responded to a verylevel of N application even up to 160 kg/ha dependingon the varieties (Rohitashav et al. 1998.). Dry matterproduction also influenced with increasing levels ofnitrogen up to 120 kg/ha mainly due to theircorresponding increase in plant height, number of tillers/m2 and leaf area thereby more photosynthetic areawhich ultimately increased the sink size and producedmore dry matter in plants. These findings are closerwith results of Mahale et al. (2004).

Effect on Economics

Variety JO 03-91 (5.03) with respect of B-C ratio beingclose to UPO 06-2 (4.68) and UPO 06-1 (4.67) and Kent(3.96) resulted into lesser B-C ratio. Application ofnitrogen i.e.120 kg N /ha markedly gave maximum B-Cratio 5.18 than other levels.

tokgjyky usg: Ñf"k fo'ofo|ky; ds vf[ky Hkkjrh; pkjkvuqla/kku ifj;kstuk ds vUrxZr nkseV feVVh okys iz{ks= ij tbZ dh ubZtkfr;ksa ij fofHkUu Lrjks ds u=tu dk izHkko ns[kus ds fy;s o"kZ2007&08 ds jch ekSle es iz;ksx fd;k x;kA iz;ksx esa tbZ dh pkjtkfr;kW ts-vks- 03&91] vks-,l- 396] vks-ih-vks- 06&1] vks-ih-vks- 06&2 ,oa dsUV yh xbZ tcfd fofHkUu u=tu Lrj 0] 40] 80 ,oa120 fd-xzk@gs- dks fLfIyV IykV fMtkbu ds vUrxZr rhu ckj nksgjk;kx;kA izkIr ifj.kkeksa ds vk/kkj ij tkfr ts-vks-&03&91 dk u=tu Lrj120 fd-xzk-@gs- ds lkFk vPNk gjk pkjk ¼503-9 q/ha) lw[kk vo'ks"k(121.1 q/ha), ØqM izksVhu (9.6 q/ha) ,oa vf/kd ykHk( Rs. 53729/-) izkIr gqvkA

(Manuscript Receivd : 15.02.2012; Accepted 17.05.2012)

47

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 47-51 (2012)

Abstract

Differential response of staggered date of sowing amongdifferent varieties of soybean was observed in relation toclimate change. The experiment with 3 sowing dates viz., 1July, 15 July and 30 July and 3 soybean varieties viz., JS 93-05, JS 97-52 and JS-335 was conducted in split-plot designwith three replications. Highest number of pods plant-1 (59.8),pod dry weight plant-1 (g) (17.03), No. of hard seed 100 seed-

1 (7.22), seed weight g plant-1 (11.38) and seed index 100seed-1 (9.48) weight were observed with 15 July sowing while30 July sown crop showed the lowest (57.37) number of podsplant-1. However, number of hard seeds 100 seed-1 (3.56) wasfound with 15 July sowing and highest seed weight g-1 (11.38)and pod dry weight g plant-1 (17.03), number of hard seed100 seed-1 were found in the variety JS 97-52. The interactioneffect of sowing dates and varieties were also found significantand hence 15 July sowing coupled with JS-97-52 variety gavethe best performance regarding pod development and seedproduction.

Keywords: Hard seed, seed weight

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] contains all the threemacro-nutrients required for good nutrition, as well asfibre, vitamins and minerals. It provides the highestprotein (approximately 40%) among the pulses,reasonably good amount of vegetable oil (approximately20%) in seeds. It is used in the food industry for flour,oil margarine, cookies, biscuits, candy, milk, vegetablecheese and many other products. Being a leguminouscrops it also improves soil fertility by fixing atmosphericnitrogen at the rate of 65-115 kg/ha (Hermann 1962).

In Madhya Pradesh soybean is grown in an area

Influence of staggered date of sowing on eco-physiological studiesof soybean varieties combating climate change under Kymoreplateau zone of Madhya Pradesh, India

Karuna Meshram, S.D. Upadhyaya, K.K. Agrawal, Anubha Upadhyay and Noor Afsan Khan

Department of Plant PhysiologyJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

of 5.2 million ha and the production is 5.5 tonnes withan average productivity of 1040 kg/ha. The state hadsubstantial contribution around 605 of total area andproduction of India therefore, it is also known as "SoyaState". About 60% (85 million ha) of cultivated land,supporting 40% of population, 60% livestock,contributing 40% of agricultural production is raindependent. After having developed all water resources,50% sown area shall still continue to be un-irrigated,complex, diverse, fragile, risky and distress prone.Extreme weather events and climatic anomalies havemajor impacts on crop productivity and food security.Losses in production happen due to drought, flashfloods, untimely rains, frost, hails and high temperaturesand heat waves etc. during crop season. In recent yearsextreme weather and climatic anomalies have increasedmanifold. This requires continuous efforts to developand optimize agricultural technologies to cope up withemerging trend of climatic changes and vulnerability. Ithas been projected by the recent report of IPCC andother global studies that unless we adapt, there isprobability of 10-40% loss in crop production in Indiaby 2080-2100 due to global warming. Indian studiesconfirm a similar trend of agriculture decline with climatechange. The droughts of 2002 and 2009 have broughtdown the total food grain production to alarming levels.An increase in these events could result in greaterinstability in food production and threaten dream of foodsecurity. Scientific evidence about the seriousness ofthe climate threat to agriculture is now unambiguous,but the exact magnitude is uncertain because of thecomplex interaction and feed back processes in theecosystem and economy. In India, agriculture sectorcontributes ~22% of the total greenhouse gases (GHG)emission (Samra et al. 2005).

48

Material and methods

The investigation was conducted during July toNovember 2010 to find out the effect of sowing dateand variety on the soybean seed yield and quality.During the period the maximum temperature rangedfrom 29.3 to 37.4 0C and the minimum temperatureranged from 15.3 to 25.4 to and the average temperatureranged from 22.3 to 31.4, The maximum and minimumatmospheric humidity was from 59 to 82% (Table 1).

Three sowing dates viz., 1 July (S1), 15 July (S2)and 30 July (S3) and three soybean varieties viz. JS93-05 (V1), JS 97-52 (V2), JS 335 (V3) were includedin the investigation.

The experiment was laid out in a split-plot designwith three replication. The sowing dates were allocatedin the main plot and varieties in the sub plots. The unitplot size was 5.20 x 4.20 m2. The spaces between themain plots and that between two sub-plots were 1 mand 0.50 m, respectively.

The experiment land was opened with a powertiller and then ploughed twice with a country ploughfollowed by laddering to achieve a medium tilth. The

land was fertilized with N2 P2O5 and K2O @ 20, 60, 20/ha respectively were applied in the form of urea,superphospohate and murate of potash during final landpreparation at each sowing date. The seeds of soybeanvarieties were sown at 40 cm apart rows using 100 kgseeds of crop varieties. High seed rate was used toensure adequate plant population in each plot.Intercultural operations such as weeding thinning,spraying of insecticide and fungicide were doneuniformly, in all plots. Weeding were done two times at15 and 25 days after sowing (DAS) and thinning at kept5 cm. No irrigation was required in the field. Soybeanplant infested by girdle-beetle was controlled byapplication of Endosuflan 35 EC @ 1.25 l/ha in firstweek of August. After this spraying of Qunilophos 25EC @ 1.0 l/ha was done in 4th week of August to controlthe damage of green semilooper.

The crop was harvested from the central 5.20 m2

area with traditional sickle at full maturity (i.e. when 95%pods become brown). The plants of JS 93-05 shownearly maturity than JS 97-52 and JS 335. Withine 100-110 DAS all plants matured. Randomly selected fiveplants were choosen from each sample plant andaverage number of pods plant-1 was determined.

Table 1. Weekly meteorological parameters during crop season (end of June to end of October, 2010-11)

Meteo. Temperature (0C) Av. Temp Sunshine Rainfall RH (%) Av. RH Wind Vapour pressure Evapo. Rainyweek (hrs.) (mm) speed (mm) (mm) days

(km/hr)Max. Min. Morn. Even. Morn. Even.

26 37.4 25.4 31.4 6.5 44.0 76 42 59 7.3 21.6 19.1 6.5 127 33.1 24.8 28.95 3.0 82.4 86 71 78.5 5.3 23.0 22.9 4.1 328 31.7 24.2 27.95 2.5 148.2 89 75 82 7.8 22.6 24.1 3.6 329 33.5 25.2 29.35 5.1 41.0 88 63 75.5 4.5 24.3 23.8 3.6 130 30.7 24.5 27.6 2.7 170.3 89 75 82 6.1 23.3 23.6 4.0 231 31.5 23.5 27.5 1.6 122.0 88 75 81.5 5.0 22.4 22.1 6.8 532 31.9 23.1 27.5 4.2 102.5 88 63 75.5 7.2 22.7 21.4 7.9 233 33.3 23.3 28.3 4.2 128. 85 64 74.5 4.6 23.0 22.5 8.0 434 32.9 23.7 28.3 4.6 24.0 86 73 79.5 5.5 22.8 26.8 7.6 235 33.5 23.6 28.55 5.1 95.0 84 70 77 4.5 22.4 24.8 8.1 536 33.0 23.3 28.15 2.7 312.7 93 70 81.5 5.3 23.6 22.9 6.5 637 31.9 23.6 27.7 5.0 80.0 90 69 79.5 4.7 22.3 22.2 3.1 238 30.4 22.5 26.4 4.3 118.5 93 69 81 4.0 21.7 20.7 3.0 539 32.0 20.6 26.3 8.7 0.0 88 47 67.5 2.8 19.7 16.0 3.8 040 32.3 20.8 26.5 8.4 0.0 89 51 70 2.8 19.3 17.8 3.5 0.041 32.7 19.7 26.2 7.4 0.0 86 45 65.5 3.3 18.4 15.8 3.5 0.042 31.8 19.8 25.8 4.3 79.4 94 60 77 4.3 20.1 19.2 3.3 4.043 30.9 18.1 24.5 8.2 0.0 92 42 67 2.5 16.1 13.7 3.0 0.044 29.3 15.3 22.3 7.6 0.4 91 42 66.5 2.7 13.9 12.4 2.6 0.045 30.3 16.3 23.3 7.3 0.0 91 48 69.5 3.0 14.9 15.2 2.7 0

49

Data were analysed using analysis of variance(ANOVA) technique and the mean differences wereadjudged by Miller et al. (1958).

Result and discussion

Number of pods

Due to the effect of sowing date the number of podsplant-1 was significantly affected (Table 2). The highestnumber of pods plant-1 (59.58) was found 15 July sowingwhich was statistically identical with 1 July. The lowestnumber of pods plant-1 (57.37) with 30 July sowing(Table 2). The result shows that the number of podsplant-1 was increased with each successive delay insowing after 1 July upto 15 July and further delay in

sowing after 15 July the number of pods plant-1 againstarted to decreased (Ehsanullah et al. 1989) observedthat number of pods plant-1 was significantly affectedby sowing time.

Due to the effect of variety the number of podsplant-1 was affected significantly (Table 2). The highestnumber of pods plant-1 (74.88) was found in variety JS97-52 and the lowest number of pods plant-1 (46.67)was found in variety JS 93-05 which was statisticallyidentical with JS 335 (Table 2). The result shows that JS97-52 produced higher pods plant-1 than JS 93-05 andJS 335 respectively.

Due to the interaction effect of sowing date andvariety the number of pods plant-1 was significantlyaffected (Table 2). The highest number of pods plant-1

(76.46) was found in variety JS 97-52 sown 15 July and

Table 2. Impact of staggered sowing dates and varieties on number of pods plant-1, pod dry weight (g) plant-1,number of hard seeds 100 seed-1, seed weight (g) plant-1 and seed index 100 seed weight-1

No. of pods Pod dry weight No. of hard seed Seed weight Seed index 100plant-1 (g) plant-1 100 seed-1 (g) plant-1 seed weight-1

Main treatment sowing date (D)D1 58.46 16.52 4.44 11.16 9.44D2 59.58 17.03 7.22 11.38 9.48D3 57.37 16.16 3.56 11.22 9.42SEm± 0.51 0.18 0.57 0.08 0.01CD 5% 2.00 0.71 1.71 0.33 0.03Sub treatment variety (V)V1 46.67 12.97 9.44 8.31 8.87V2 74.88 21.73 2.11 15.49 10.27V3 53.86 15.02 3.67 9.96 9.21SEm± 0.35 0.17 0.40 0.08 0.01CD 5% 1.07 0.53 1.23 0.26 0.04InteractionD1V1 46.67 12.97 7.33 8.31 8.87D1V2 74.47 21.61 2.33 15.26 10.27D1V3 54.24 14.97 3.67 9.92 9.19D2V1 47.68 13.25 14.33 8.49 8.89D2V2 76.46 22.18 1.67 15.67 10.29D2V3 54.61 15.65 5.67 9.99 9.25D3V1 45.65 12.69 6.67 8.13 8.84D3V2 75.72 21.39 2.33 15.94 10.26D3V3 52.75 14.43 1.67 9.99 9.18SEm± 0.60 0.30 0.69 0.15 0.02CD 5% 1.85 0.91 2.14 0.46 0.08

50

the lowest number (45.65) was found in JS 93-05 on 30July sowing. Which was statistically identical with JS335 at same date.

Dry weight of pods

The significant variation was found due to the effect ofsowing date in pod dry weight (g) plant-1 (Table 2). Thehighest pods dry weight g plant-1 (17.03) was found with15 July sowing and the lowest pod dry weight (16.16)was found with 30 July sowing (Table 2). The resultshows that the pod dry weight (g plant-1) was increasedwith each successive delay in sowing after 1 July upto15 July further delay in sowing after 15 July the pod dryweight (g plant-1) again started to decreased.

The effect of variety on pod dry weight (gplant-1) was significant (Table 2). The highest pod dryweight (g) plant-1 (21.73) was found in variety JS 97-52and the lowest pod dry weight (g) plant-1 (12.97) wasfound in variety JS 93-05 was statistically identical withJS-335 (Table 2). The result shows that JS 97-52produced higher pod dry weight (g plant-1) than JS 93-05 and JS-335 respectively.

Due to the interaction effect of sowing date andvariety the pod dry weight (g) plant-1 was significantlyaffected (Table 2). The highest pod dry weight (g) plant-1

(22.18) was in variety JS 97-52 with 15 July sowing andthe lowest pod dry weight (g plant-1) (12.69) was found inJS 93-05 with 30 July sowing which was statistical identicalwith JS 335 in same sowing date.

Number of hard seed

The significant results were recorded in relation tonumber of hard seed/100 seed by the sowing date (Table2). The highest number of hard seed/100 seed (7.22)and found in 15 July sowing crop and the least numberof hard seed/100 seed (3.56) in 30 July sowing (Table2). The result indicate that the number of hard seed/100 seed was increased with each successive delay.

Variety had significant influence on number ofhard seed/100 seed (Table 2). The highest number ofhard seed 100/seed (9.44) was found in JS 93-05 andthe lowest number (2.11) was found JS 97-52 also it isstatistically identical with JS-335 (Table 2). The resultrevealed that the production of number of hard seed/100 seed was more JS 93-05 compared with JS 97-52and JS 335.

Significant variation was found due to theinteraction effect of sowing date and variety on numberof hard seed/100 seed (Table 2). The highest number ofhard seed/100 seed (14.33) was found in variety JS93-05 with 15 July sowing on the lowest number (1.67in JS 97-52 with 30 July which is also statisticallyidentical with JS 93-05 and JS 335 on same sowing(Table 2).

Seed weight

There was significant influence on seed (g) plant-1 bysowing date (Table 2). The highest seed weight (g) plant-1

(11.38) was found in 15 July sowing and lowest (11.16)in 1 July sowing (Table 2).

The significant result found on seed weight (g)plant-1 due to the effect of variety (Table 2). The highestseed weight (g) plant-1 (15.49) was found in JS 97-52and the lowest (8.31) in JS-335 which was statisticallyidentical with JS 93-05 (Table 2).

The interaction effect of sowing date variety on seedweight (g) plant-1 was found significant (Table 2). Thehighest seed weight (15.94) was found in the varietyJS 97-52 with 15 July sowing. The lowest seed weight(g) plant-1 (8.13) was found in the variety JS 93-05 with1 July sowing.

References

Bhatia VS, Tiwari SP, Joshi AP (1999) Yield and its attributesas affected by planting dates in soybean (Glycinemax) varieties. Indian J Agril Sci 69(10): 696-699

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

No. of pods/plant Pod dry weight (g)/plant No. of hard seed 100/seed Seed weight (g)/plant Seed index 100 seed/weight

Fig.1: Impact of staggered sowing dates and varieties onnumber of pods/plant, pod dry weight (g)/plant, number ofhard seeds 100/seed, weed weight (g)/plant and seed index100seed/weight

51

Billore SD, Joshi AP, Ramesh A (2000) Performance ofsoybean (Glycine max) genotype on different sowingdates and row spacing in vertisols. Indian J AgricSci 70(9): 477-580

Ehsanullah JB, Mir H, Khalie SK, Zahir S (1989) Effect ofdifferent sowing dates on yield and yield componentsof 20 soybean cultivars. Sarhad J Agric 5(1) : 15-19

Kumar MS, Singh D, Rao VUM (2005) Effect of planting dateson yield and yield components of soybean genotypes.Haryana J Agron 21(2): 202

Miller, P.A., Willians, H.F., Ribinson, H.K. and Constock, R.K.(1958) Estimates of genotypic and phenotypicvariances and covariances in upland cotton andtheir implications in selection. Agron J 50 : 126-131

Navarro Jr, HM, Costa JA (2002) Yield potential expressionof soybean genotypes. Pesquisa AgropecuariaBrasileira 37(3): 275-279

Parmar A (2002) Effect of plant densities on growth, yieldattributing parameters and productivity of soybean[Glycine max (L.) Merrill] genotype. M Sc (Ag) ThesisJNKVV Jabalpur

Singh H, Hundal SS (2004) Effect of sowing dates anddifferential water application on microclimate andyield of soybean (Glycine max L.). J Agrometeorology6 : 47-51

(Manuscript Receivd : 15.02.2012; Accepted 20.08.2012)

52

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 52-55 (2012)

Abstract

Field experiments were conducted on niger cv JNC1 in clayloam soils of Jabalpur during rabi seasons of 2007 and 2008to determine the appropriate nutrient management forimproving the productivity and monetary returns. Resultsrevealed that application of 40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 throughSSP + 5 kg PSB/ha proved to be highly efficient with seedyield of 557 kg/ha, the net monetary returns and benefit-costratio of Rs 9320/ha and 2.26 respectively for niger.

Keywords: Nutrient management, Nitrogen,Phosphorus sources

Cultivation of niger is feasible under varying agro-ecosystems. It is grown successfully with low inputs ondegraded soils, with wide range of sowing time fromJune to September under rainfed conditions and in rabiseason with limited irrigations. It has tolerance to ex-strems of weather fluctuations with less susceptibilityto damage by the animals, birds, insects and diseases.(Sharma and Kewat 1998). Inspite of these advantages,the cultivation of this crop is confined to marginal andsub marginal lands with the negligible use of agro-inputsin the state resulting in low productivity of 224 kg/ha(Damodaram and Hegde 2010). Further, this crop haspotential to produce yield upto 1000 kg/ha with theadoption of improved crop varieties and productiontechnologies especially the appropriate nutrientmanagement. The crop is responsive to application ofN and P fertilizers depending on the agro-climaticconditions. The efficiency of applied P fertilizers variesaccording to various sources which can be furtherimproved with the use of phosphorus solubilizingbacteria (PSB). However, such information is notavailable for agro-climatic conditions of Jabalpur.Hence, present investigation has been undertaken toascertain proper nutrient management for improving theproductivity and profitability of niger cultivation.

Nutrient management for improving productivity and economics ofRabi niger

M.R. Deshmukh, Alok Jyotishi and A.R.G. RanganathaProject Coordinating Unit (Sesame & Niger)Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482 004 (MP)

Materials and methods

Field experiments were conducted for consecutive twoyears during rabi season of 2007 and 2008 at ResearchFarm, Project Co-ordinating Unit (Sesame and Niger),JNKVV, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh. The soil of theexperimental field was clay loam in texture, neutral inreaction (pH 7.2) and low in organic carbon (0.39%),available N (220 kg/ha), available P (7.85 kg/ha) andhigh in available K (345 kg/ha) content. Twelvetreatments (Table 1) consisting of 20 and 40 kg N/hawith 20 and 40 kg P2O5/ha along with phosphorussolubilizing bacteria (PSB) and sources of P as singlesuper phosphate (SSP), Rock phosphate enriched inFYM (1:3) for 15 days (R,pen) and diammoniumphosphate (DAP) were tested in randomized blockdesign with four replications. Seed of JNC1 variety wastreated with Thiram 3 g/kg seed. Sowing was done on16 October, 2007 and 6 October 2008 in the twoconsecutive years by drilling 5 kg seed/ha in the rows30 cm apart at about 3 cm depth. Seeds were coveredby the soil immediately after sowing and then a lightirrigation was given for germination of seeds. Nitrogenwas applied through urea, while P was applied throughsingle super phosphate, DAP and R,pen. All N and Pfertilizers as per treatments were given as basal alongwith phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB). Data onyield component characters and seed yield (kg/ha) wererecorded. The economic analysis of the treatments wasmade on the basis of seed yield. The data were analyzedstatistically for interpretation of the data.

Results and discussion

Productivity

Seed yield of niger significantly varied with differentnutrient management during both years of investigation

53

Ta

ble

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ffect

of d

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nt m

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)20

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333

630

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0 kg

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390

453

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403

466

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5290

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1.77

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a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha +

P2O

5 20

kg/h

a th

roug

h D

AP

423

486

454

5530

7420

6460

1.77

2.03

1.90

T 5-N

20

kg/h

a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha +

P2O

5 20

kg/h

a th

roug

h S

SP

442

505

473

6060

7950

6990

1.84

2.10

1.97

T 6-N

20

kg/h

a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha +

P2O

5 20

kg/h

a th

roug

h R

,pen

421

494

457

5580

7770

6660

1.79

2.10

1.94

T 7-N

40

kg/h

a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha47

253

550

371

7090

6081

002.

022.

292.

15T 8-

N 4

0 kg

/ha

+ P

SB

5 k

g/ha

+ P

2O5 2

0 kg

/ha

thro

ugh

DA

P51

355

653

480

4093

3086

702.

092.

262.

17T 9-

N 4

0 kg

/ha

+ P

SB

5 k

g/ha

+ P

2O5 2

0 kg

/ha

thro

ugh

SS

P52

658

955

783

9010

280

9320

2.13

2.39

2.26

T 10-

N 4

0 kg

/ha

+ P

SB

5 k

g/ha

+ P

2O5 2

0 kg

/ha

thro

ugh

R,p

en50

257

553

878

2010

010

8900

2.08

2.38

2.22

T 11-

N 4

0 kg

/ha

+ P

SB

5 k

g/ha

+ P

2O5 4

0 kg

/ha

[20

kg/h

a th

roug

h51

758

054

879

1098

0088

402.

042.

282.

16D

AP

+ 2

0 kg

/ha

thro

ugh

R,p

en]

T 12-

N 4

0 kg

/ha

+ P

SB

5 k

g/ha

+ P

2O5 4

0 kg

/ha

[20

kg/h

a th

roug

h53

259

556

384

7010

210

9250

2.10

2.33

2.21

SS

P +

20

kg/h

a th

roug

h R

,pen

]S

Em

±13

.618

.312

.734

135

834

90.

080.

070.

05C

D (P

=0.0

5)40

.254

.138

.310

3410

9811

010.

240.

230.

16

(Table 1). Control treatment (T1) recorded significantlythe lowest seed yield among all treatments during bothyears of investigation. Hence, application of N and Pfertilizers proved efficient for improving the seed yieldof niger. All treatments followed almost the same trendfor seed yield during both years of investigation. Basedon two years average data, seed yield was maximum(563 kg/ha) with T12-application of 40 kg N + 40 kg P2O5(half each through SSP and R,pen) + 5 kg PSB/haclosely followed by T9-40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 (SSP) + 5kg PSB/ha (557 kg/ha), T11-40 kg N + 40 kg P2O5 (halfeach through DAP and R,pen) + 5 kg PSB/ha (548 kg/ha), T10-40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 (R,pen) + 5 kg PSB/ha(538 kg/ha) and T8-40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 (DAP) + 5 kgPSB/ha (534 kg/ha). Application of 40 kg N + 5 kg PSB/ha-T7 produced lower seed yield (503 kg/ha) than formertreatments showing non-significant variation with T10.Application of 20 kg N/ha alongwith P and PSB (T3, T4,T5 and T6) also gave consistently higher seed yield thanT2 however, variation was significant only with T5. Theseresults confirmed Singh et al. (1990), Upadhyay andParadkar (1992), Thakuria and Gogoi (1992) the needof 20 kg earlier reports of P2O5/ha, to niger crop.

Thus it is evident that application of P particularlythrough SSP was found promising to improve the seedyield of niger. Application of 20 kg N/ha (421 kg/ha)-T2different sources of P as 20 kg/ha along with PSB (T3,T4, T5 and T6) recorded significantly lower seed yieldthan higher level of N with 20 kg P2O5 (SSP)-T9. Hence,application of 40 kg N/ha proved efficient for increasingseed yield of niger. Application of PSB alongwith 20 kgN/ha-T3 reported numerically higher seed yield (434 kg/ha) than application of 20 kg N/ha alone-T2 (421 kg/ha).

It is concluded from the above results thatapplication of 40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 (SSP) + 5 kg PSB/ha-T9 was highly effective for increasing the productivityof niger. The increased seed yield of niger was mainlyattributed to the superiority in branches/plant, capitula/plant and seeds/capitulum under varying nutrientmanagement practices. However, test weight of seedhad no substantial influence due to different nutrientmanagement practices (Table 2).

Profitability

The net monetary returns (NMR) values and B:C ratiosignificantly varied due to various treatments during bothyears of investigation and treatments followed almostsimilar trend in both years (Table 1). Based on a two-year mean data, control-T1 recorded significantly thelowest NMR. (Rs 2890/ha) and B:C ratio (1.46) among

54

Ta

ble

2. E

ffect

of d

iffer

ent n

utrie

nt m

anag

emen

t tre

atm

ents

on

yiel

d co

mpo

nent

cha

ract

ers

of n

iger

dur

ing

2007

and

200

8, J

abal

pur

Trea

tmen

tB

ranc

hes/

plan

t (#)

Cap

itula

/pla

nt (#

)S

eeds

/cap

itulu

m (

#)Te

st w

eigh

t (g)

2007

2008

Mea

n20

0720

08M

ean

2007

2008

Mea

n20

0720

08M

ean

T 1-C

ontro

l3.

404.

553.

9725

.50

27.6

526

.58

19.9

020

.05

19.4

83.

83.

93.

85

T 2-N

20

kg/h

a5.

105.

505.

3028

.80

30.6

529

.72

21.0

022

.15

21.5

83.

93.

83.

85

T 3-N

20

/ha

+ P

SB

5 k

g/ha

5.03

5.63

5.33

29.3

031

.05

30.1

721

.60

22.7

522

.18

3.9

4.1

4.00

T 4-N

20

kg/h

a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha +

P2O

5 20

kg/

ha th

roug

h D

AP

5.26

5.86

5.56

30.3

031

.20

30.7

521

.40

22.5

521

.98

3.4

4.4

3.90

T 5-N

20

kg/h

a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha +

P2O

5 20

kg/

ha th

roug

h S

SP

5.33

5.90

5.61

29.6

031

.35

30.4

721

.20

22.3

521

.78

3.9

4.2

4.05

T 6-N

20

kg/h

a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha +

P2O

5 20

kg/

ha th

roug

h R

,pen

5.18

5.63

5.40

29.1

630

.85

30.0

020

.60

22.1

520

.83

3.8

4.6

4.20

T 7-N

40

kg/h

a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha5.

165.

565.

3630

.10

31.4

530

.77

21.0

022

.15

21.5

83.

84.

74.

25

T 8-N

40

kg/h

a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha +

P2O

5 20

kg/

ha th

roug

h D

AP

5.46

6.26

5.86

30.7

031

.85

31.2

720

.90

22.4

521

.48

3.3

4.3

3.80

T 9-N

40

kg/h

a +

PS

B 5

kg/

ha +

P2O

5 20

kg/

ha th

roug

h S

SP

5.73

6.43

6.08

32.7

531

.90

32.3

222

.00

22.7

522

.58

3.2

4.1

3.65

T 10-

N 4

0 kg

/ha

+ P

SB

5 k

g/ha

+ P

2O5

20 k

g/ha

thro

ugh

R,p

en5.

406.

205.

8030

.66

31.1

030

.88

20.8

022

.15

21.4

73.

84.

03.

90

T 11-

N 4

0 kg

/ha

+ P

SB

5 k

g/ha

+ P

2O5

40 k

g/ha

[20

kg/h

a th

roug

h5.

606.

406.

0030

.60

31.7

531

.17

20.7

022

.35

21.5

23.

84.

24.

00

DA

P +

20

kg/h

a th

roug

h R

,pen

]

T 12-

N 4

0 kg

/ha

+ P

SB

5 k

g/ha

+ P

2O5

40 k

g/ha

[20

kg/h

a th

roug

h5.

766.

566.

1630

.90

32.0

831

.49

21.8

022

.65

22.2

23.

94.

34.

10

SS

P +

20

kg/h

a th

roug

h R

,pen

]

SE

m±

0.37

0.47

-0.

350.

39-

0.34

0.36

-0.

160.

19-

CD

(P=0

.05)

1.08

1.41

-1.

101.

17-

1.02

1.08

-N

SN

S-

#=N

umbe

r, P

SB

=Pho

spho

rus

solu

biliz

ing

bact

eria

, DA

P=D

iam

mon

ium

pho

spha

te,

SS

P=s

ingl

e su

per p

hosp

hate

, R,p

en=R

ock

phos

phat

e en

riche

d in

FY

M (1

:3) f

or 1

5 da

ys

55

all the treatments. Application of 40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 +5 kg PSB/ha-T9 recorded the highest NMR (Rs 9320/ha)and B:C ratio (2.26) among all the treatments, however,these values did not differ significantly over T12, T10, T11and T8 treatments. The NMR and B:C ratio ranged fromRs 8670 to Rs 9250/ha and 2.17 to 2.22 respectively withthe later treatments. The other treatments with lower doseof N and P along with PSB recorded significantly lowerNMR (Rs 6040 to 8100/ha) and B:C ratio (1.90 to 2.15)than above treatments with higher dose of N and P alongwith PSB. Thus, it is evident that application of 40 kg Nalong with 20 kg P2O5 and 5 kg PSB/ha was quiteremunerative.

ifj;kstuk leUo;u bZdkbZ] fry ,oa jkefry] t-us-d`-fo-fo- tcyiqjds vuqlU/kku iz{ks= dh efV;kjh nkseV Hkwfe;ksa esa o"kZ 2007 ,oa2008 ds jch ekSleksa esa jkefry dh fdLe ts-,u-lh & 1 ij mfpriks"k.k izcU/ku dk jkefry dh mRikndrk ,oa vkfFkZd ykHk esa lq/kkjykus ds mn~ns"; ls ijh{k.k iz;ksx fd;s x;s A ijh{k.kksa ds ifj.kkeksa ls40 fd-xzk- u=tu + 20 fd-xzk LQqj ¼flaxy lqij QkWLQsV½ + 5 fd-xzk- LQqj ?kksyd ftok.kq@gSDVs;j ds eku ls iz;qDr djus ij vf/kdmit ¼557 fd-xzk-@gSDVs;j½] 'kq) ykHk rFkk ykHk O;; vuqikrØe'k% 9320 :Ik;s@gSDVs;j ,oa 2-26 izkIr gqvk gS A rFkk ;g iks"k.kizcU/ku jkefry esa ;ksX; ik;k x;k A

References

Damodaram T, Hegde, DM (2010) Oilseeds Situation : AStatistical Compendium. Directorate of OilseedsResearch Hyderabad, pp 128-136

Sharma RS, Kewat ML (1998) Niger does well under farmingsituation constraints. Indian Farming, 47(11):15-24

Singh PP, Singh RV, Singh S, Singh MP, Jain A, Khandait SL(1990) Effect of sowing date, fertility levels anddensities on the growth and seed yield of winter niger[Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass]. Indian J Appl PureBiology 5(2):89-92

Upadhyaya PC, Paradkar VK (1992) Influence of sowing datesand fertility levels on performance of niger cultivars.Symposium on Resource Management for SustainedCrop Production, Bikaner Rajasthan India 25-28February 1992 Abstract p 38

Thakuria K, Gogoi PK (1992) Nutrient requirement of niger[Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass] under rainfedcondition. Indian J Agron 37(3):608-610

(Manuscript Receivd : 17.03.2012; Accepted 30.08.2012)

56

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 56-58 (2012)

Abstract

Among the substrata, water hyacinth amended and inoculationwith cowdung and Trichoderma recorded the maximumreduction in TOC from 32.7 to 18.8% and further 14.8% in thematter decomposed for 30 days and subsequentvermnicomposting, respectively. The same treatmentproduced higher grade of vermicompost with respect of N(1.15%), P (0.88%) and K (1.30%). Simultaneously, theinoculation of substrata with Trichoderma and PSB separatelyenriched the vermicompost and possessed the count of 26.4and 7.8 x 105 cfu/g.

Key words : Water hyacinth, Parthenium,Vermicompost, Trichoderma, PSB

Parthenium and water hyacinth are the as noxiousweeds. They are popularly known as congress grassand jalkumbhi and consider as dreads of fallow andaquatic conditions. It abundantly prevails in respectivesites in Madhya Pradesh and almost all the parts of thecountry. Available information's on the possibilities toutilize these weed as manures after composting forsupply of nutrient to crop plants. The efficiency of epigeicearthworms has been successfully utilized for recyclingof bio degradable wastes in crop fields as vermicompost(Ghose et al.1999).The species Eisenia fetida ofearthworms had been widely preferred forvermnicomposting as it has an ability to colonies in awide spectrum of organic substrata (Kale1993). Thequality and properties of vermicompost depends uponthe sources of organic waste (Mahto and Yadav 2003).Number of studies have shown that epigeic earthwormsrequired pre decompost waste prior to release them.The processes of partial pre decompose waste prior torelease them. The process partial decomposition maybe enhanced by treating the wastes with certain lignin

Composting of obnoxious weeds through microbial treatment andsubsequent vermicomposting

Deepak Chourasiya, Anay Rawat, S.B. Agrawal and Gyanendra MathankarDepartment of AgronomyCollege of AgricultureJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482 004 (MP)

degrader micro organisms like Trichoderma. More over,the phosphorus solublizers (pseudomonas) may alsobe used after aerobic decomposition for improving thequality of vermicompost with respect to phosphorusenrichment. Keeping the above facts in view the presentstudy was carried out to explore the possibilities forconverting of parthenium and water hyacinth intovaluable manure through vermicomposting process.

Method and materials

A pot experiment was conducted at VermicompostProduction Unit, Deptt. Of Agronomy, JNKVV, Jabalpurduring 2009-10. A total of six treatment combinationsof two obnoxious weeds (Parthenium and waterhyacinth) and three additives (control, Trichoderma andPSB) were arranged in a complete randomized designwith four replications.

The treatments consisted of fresh weed and cowdung in a proportion of 1:1 and inoculated withTrichoderma @10 g/kg dry substrata before partialdecomposition and them, allowed for partialdecomposition for 30 days. Partially decomposedsubstrata were inoculated as per treatment with PSB@ 10 g/kg dry weight of substrata. Earthworms speciesEisenia fetida were released for further process in eachtreatment @ 100 g/pot . Moisture was maintained 50-60 per cent through the process. Observations wererecorded during process of vermicompostiong TOC,N,P,K content and counts of Trichoderma and PSB cellsat different stage of Vermicompost. Vermicompost waschemically analyzed by total nitrogen (Kjeldahl digestionand distillation method), total phosphorus andpotassium were determined spectro photometericallyand flame photometer, respectively.

57

Result and Discussion

A significant decrease in TOC in all the treatment after30 days decomposition and vermicomposting both. TOCdecrease in vermicomposting process indicatingmineralization of organic matter. The markable resultswere obtained when the water hyacinth was amendedwith cow dung and inoculated with Trichoderma and PSB(Table 1 & 2).

The TOC decreased from 31.94 - 42.50 per centduring aerobic decomposition and 43.58 - 54.74 percent during vermicomposting over initial status ofsubstrata. The losses in organic carbon from 20-43 %was observed during vermicomposting Elvira etal.(1998) in the paper mill and dairy slugs.

In general, water hyacinth proved superior overparthenium with respect to content of N, P and K invermicompost produced. On the other hand amendmentof cow dung in the equal proportion along with inocula-tion of Trichoderma enhanced the content of nitrogenand potassium over without inoculation. Where as in-oculation of PSB in the substrata increase the phos-

phorus content over without inoculation and inocula-tion with Trichoderma. Data pertaining to change in N,P and K during aerobic decomposition and subsequentlyvermicomposting are given table 1 and 2 respectively.Nitrogen content increased significantly in all the treat-ment combinations, during partial decomposition ofparthenium and water hyacinth. The increment wasmaximum where the Trichodema and cow dung wereadded in either of the substrata. The presence ofTrichoderma cells and the micro organisms in the dungaccelerated the degradation process and supply thefood for the other micro organisms that's why the dungmight have contributing to that increment (Singh andSharma,2002). The concentration of nitrogen in decom-posing matter after 30 days aerobic decomposition isless as compared to final vermicompost might be dueto the slow decomposition process and nitrogen utilizedby microbes for their activities in the begning.Thereresult are in accordance with the earlier worker ofVinceslas-Apka and Loquet (1997).Chemical analysisof the decomposing substrata and vermicompost un-der different treatment showed a significant increase inphosphorus and potassium concentration (Table2) overfresh substrata and partially decomposed matter. The

Table 2. Composition of vermicompost after digestion by earthworm

Treatment TOC(%) N (%) C/N Ratio P (%) K (%)

Parthenium+cd (1:1) 18.9 0.66 28.63 0.65 1.07Parthenium +cd (1:1) + Trichoderma 17.6 0.87 20.22 0.80 1.18Parthenium +cd (1:1)+ PSB 18.0 0.80 22.5 0.84 1.09Water hyacinth + cd (1:1) 16.3 0.92 17.71 0.79 1.11Water hyacinth + cd (1:1)+ Trichoderma 14.8 1.15 12.86 0.88 1.30Water hyacinth +cd (1:1)+PSB 15.1 0.91 16.59 1.05 1.26cd : cowdung, PSB : Phosphorus solublizing bacteria

Table 1. Composition of different substrata after decomposition with and without inoculation for 30 days

Treatment TOC (%) N (%) C/N Ratio P (%) K (%)Parthenium + cd (1:1) 22.5 0.28 80.25 0.18 0.43

(33.5) (0.18) (186.11) (0.11) (0.26)Parthenium + cd (1:1)+ Trichoderma 21 0.29 72.41 0.19 0.51

(33.5) (0.19) (176.31) (0.13) (0.30)Parthenium + cd(1:1)+ PSB 22.8 0.28 81.42 0.22 0.44

(33.5) (0.18) (186.11) (0.10) (0.27)Water hyacinth + cd (1:1) 19.9 0.35 56.85 0.29 0.46

(32.7) (0.21) (155.71) (0.13) (0.24)Water hyacinth + cd (1:1)+ Trichoderma 18.8 0.35 53.71 0.31 0.48

(32.7) (0.22) (148.63) (0.12) (0.32)Water hyacinth +cd (1:1)+PSB 19.6 0.33 59.39 0.34 0.52

(32.7) (0.19) (172.10) (0.14) (0.27)Figures in the parenthesis are composition of fresh substratacd : cowdung, PSB : Phosphorus solublizing bacteria

58

maximum increased content of phosphorus 0.34 % and1.05 % was recorded under water hyacinth inoculatedwith PSB after aerobic decomposition for 30 days andvermicompost obtained, respectively. Higher concen-tration of potassium (0.52 and 1.26 %) was also notedin the same treatment combination in aerobically de-composed matter and vermicompost, respectively.

Table 3. Counts of Trichoderma and PSB cells invarious type of vermicompost

Treatment Trichoderma PSB(105 cfu/g) (105 cfu/g)

Parthenium+ cd (1:1) 2.4 0.6Parthenium +cd (1:1)+Trichoderma 22.0 0.8Parthenium +cd(1:1)+ PSB 0.2 8.4Water hyacinth + cd (1:1) 1.4 0.4Water hyacinth + cd (1:1)+Trichoderma 26.4 1.2Water hyacinth +cd (1:1)+PSB 0.4 7.8cd : cowdung, PSB : Phosphorus solublizing bacteria

hyacinth amended with cowdung and Trichodermasimultaneously recorded maximum counts (26.4 x 105

cuf/g). While the vermicompost of parthenium under thesame condition noted 22.0 x 105 cfu/g. The cells of PSBwere maximum (8.4 x 105 cfu/g) with the vermicompostof parthenium inoculated with PSB culture followed bywater hyacinth (7.8 x 105 cfu/g). More over the leastcounts of both the inoculants were observed undercontrol treatment. Above finding showed the inoculationof Trichoderma and PSB culture before and after 30days of pre-decomposition enriched the vermicompostwith these microbes with are beneficial for crop andsoil both.

vkifRr tud [kjirokj tSls xktj ?kkl] ty dqEHkh dks xk; ds xkscjls ysfir dj ¼1%1½ VªkbdksMekZ fofjMh o ih-,l-ch- dYpj lsmipkfjr dj dsapqvksa }kjk [kkn rS;kj dh xbZ ftlesa ik;k x;k fddqy dkcZu rRo dh ek=k 32-7 ls ?kVdj 18-8% 30 fnuksa rdvkaf"kd fo[k.Mu ds ckn ns[kh xbZ rFkk dsapqvksa }kjk rS;kj [kqn esa dqydkcZfud cpk ek= 14-8 gh dqy dkcZfud dkcZu cpk dsapqvksa }kjk[kkn ds fofHkUu iks'kd rRoksa ds vkadyu ls Kkr gqvk fd rS;kj [kknesa u=tu ¼1-15%½ QkLQksjl ¼0-88%½ ,oa iksVsf"k;e dk izfr"kr¼1-30%½ fo|eku ik;k A blds lkFk gh rS;kj [kkn VªkbdksMekZ o ih-,l-ch- thok.kqvksa ls ifjiw.kZ jgk A

References

Eivira C, Sampedro L, Benitez E, Nogales R (1998)Vermicomposting of sludges from paper mill anddairy industries with Eisenia andrei. A pilot - scalestudy Bioresource Technol. 63: 205-211

Ghose M, Chattopadhyay G N, Baral K, Munshi P S (1999)Possibility of using vermicompost in agriculture forreconciling sustainability with productivity. Proc.Seminar on Agro technology and Environment p 64-68

Kale R D (1993) Earthworm resources and vermiculture. (ed.Director) Zoological Survey of India Calcutta p 46-50

Mahto T P and Yadav R P (2003) Effect of vermicompost ofdifferent organic sources on stem fly (Ophiomyiaphaseoli Tryon) incidence and productivity invegetable peas. RAU J Res. 13 : 26-29

Ramaswami P P (1997) Potential uses of Parthenium, 1st IntConf on Parthenium Management. University of Agril.Sciences Dharwad Karnataka India 77-80

Singh Anshu, Sharma Satyawati (2002) Composting of a cropresidue through treatment with microorganisms andsubsequent vermicomposting. Bio resourceTechnology 85 : 107-111

Vineslas Apka M, Loquet M (1997) Organic mattertransformations in lignocellutosic waste compostedor vermicomposted (Eisenia foetida anderei)Chemical Analysis and 13 C CPMAS NMRSpectroscopy Soil Biol Biochem 29 (3/4): 751-758

Plate : View the colony of Trichoderma and PSB cells

Data pertaining to counts of Trichoderma and PSB cellsexist with the vermicompost prepared from different typeof substrata treated differently with Trichoderma andPSB are given table 3 and plate 1 & 2. The counts ofTrichoderma viridae and PSB cells revealed significantvariations with respect to treatments. In general, thecounts Trichoderma were higher in vermicompostprepared from water hyacinth as compare toparthenium. Where, as PSB cells were more in numberunder parthenium as compare to water hyacinth. Thevermicompost get from the treatment in which the water

(Manuscript Receivd : 16.02.2012; Accepted 30.09.2012)

59

Response of promising varieties of single cut forage oat to differentnitrogen levels under agroclimatic conditions of Kymore plateauzone, Madhya Pradesh

P.K. Roshan, K.R. Naik and Siddarth Nayak

Department of AgronomyJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 59-61 (2012)

Abstract

The present investigation was carried out under AICRP onforage crops at Research Farm, Department of Agronomy,College of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP) during rabiseason of 2009-10. The objective was to evaluate theperformance of promising varieties of single cut forage oat todifferent N-levels under irrigated conditions. Nitrogenapplication @ 120 kg/ha resulted in significantly taller plants(145.00cm), more tillers/m2 (440) and higher green fodder(524.99 q/ha), dry matter (109.79 q/ha) and crude protein yield(9.9 q/ha) as well as N-uptake (158.8 kg/ha) by the crop incomparison to rest of the nitrogen levels. Among the differentvarieties, kent followed OS-6 was found superior in respectof growth yield attributes, yield and N-uptake. In general thenet monetary return and benefit cost ratio were maximumunder 120 kgN/ha and with oat variety Kent.

Keywords: Varieties, nitrogen, forage yield, monetaryreturns

Among the various factors of production, varieties andnitrogen requirement greatly affect the productivity offorage oats. Thus, the identification of suitable singlecut varieties of oats and their nutritional requirementsespecially concerned with nitrogen is important forgetting higher forage yields under varying environments.Nitrogen plays a vital role in forage production besidesincreasing the quantity of forage; it improves the qualityof herbage also. Oat responds well to nitrogenapplication, among the various nutrients which producesmore tonnage in per unit area per unit time underfavourable environmental conditions (Purushotham etal. 1995). Keeping the above facts in view, the presentinvestigation was undertaken with the object to find out

appropriate nitrogen level and suitable variety of singlecut oat for higher tonnage and monetary returns.

Investigation was conducted under AICRP onforage crops in winter season of 2009-10 at ResearchFarm, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP). The soil was sandy clay loamin texture, neutral in reaction (pH 7.2), normal inelectrical conductivity (60.44 ds/m), low in organiccarbon (0.42%) and available nitrogen (232 kg/ha),medium in available P (17.2 kg/ha) and K (302 kg/ha)contents. The winter rains received during the cropseason was 20.2 mm. The experiment was laid down insplit plot design with three replications. Four nitrogenlevels (0, 40, 80, and 120 N kg/ha) were kept as mainplot and seven varieties (SKO-105, SKO-109, NDO-7,Kent, SKO-90, OS-6 and JO-03-93) were assigned assub plot treatments. The sowing was done in row 25cm apart with 100 kg seed/ha on November 26, 2009.An uniform dose of 40 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O was givento all plots. Nitrogen was applied as per treatment intwo splits half as basal and remaining half as topdressing at 20 days after sowing. The crop washarvested as per varieties at 50% flowering.

Increasing nitrogen levels (0, 40, 80, and 120 Nkg/ha) significantly increased the plant height, tillers/m2, LAI and nitrogen uptake of crop up to 120 N kg/ha.The highest level of nitrogen i.e. 120 N kg/ha resultedin taller plants (145.0 cm) more tillers (440 /m2) andenhanced uptake of nitrogen by the crop (158.8 kg/ha).Variations in nitrogen level did not influenced LAI anddry matter content appreciably (Table 1). Green fodder(524.9 q/ha) and dry matter (109.7 q/ha) yields weresignificantly higher with the application of 120kgN/ha.

60

Table 1. Growth, yield attributes and N-uptake of forage oats as influenced by different nitrogen levels and varieties

Treatments Plant Tillers at LAI at 50% Leaf stem Dry matter N-uptakeheight 50% flowering ratio Content (kg/ha)(cm) flowering (%)

(m2)Nitrogen levels (kg/ha)0 118.5 328.3 4.54 1.25 22.35 87.9340 127.2 381.3 5.43 1.13 21.62 119.2680 139.9 409.4 5.68 1.01 21.51 141.26120 145.0 440.0 5.89 0.91 20.89 158.78SEm ± 1.14 5.79 0.16 0.11 0.41 1.75CD (P=0.05) 3.94 20.05 0.57 NS NS 6.07VarietiesSKO-105 119.0 352.7 4.48 1.23 21.62 96.08SKO-109 120.8 382.1 5.03 1.18 21.69 104.27NDO-7 141.7 400.8 5.46 1.02 21.41 140.34Kent 144.3 410.3 6.38 0.99 21.60 149.95SKO-90 124.9 386.4 5.11 1.12 21.81 114.60OS-6 144.2 404.4 5.54 1.00 21.46 142.35JO-03-93 133.5 391.7 5.34 0.98 21.56 140.06SEm ± 4.42 11.16 0.16 0.24 1.54 4.34CD (P=0.05) 12.58 31.72 0.47 NS NS 12.36

Table 2. Yield and economics of forage oats as influenced by different nitrogen levels and varieties

Treatments Green Dry Crude Net Benefitfodder matter protein monetary costyield yield Yield returns ratio

(q/ha) (q/ha) (q/ha) (Rs/ha)Nitrogen levels (kg/ha)0 323.6 72.7 5.5 5367.2 1.3840 418.6 90.9 7.4 10625.8 1.7380 471.3 101.8 8.8 13355.7 1.89120 N kg/ha 524.9 109.7 9.9 16128.8 2.05SEm ± 6.06 2.25 0.17 - -CD (P=0.05) 20.98 7.78 0.57 - -VarietiesSKO-105 340.0 73.5 6.0 5695.0 1.37SKO-109 341.5 74.1 6.5 5786.0 1.38NDO-7 494.8 105.9 8.7 14980.7 2.01Kent 501.9 108.4 9.4 15409.4 2.04SKO-90 381.4 83.2 7.2 8181.7 1.55OS-6 498.6 107.0 8.9 14959.3 2.02JO-03-93 483.9 104.3 8.7 14323.4 1.96SEm ± 15.27 5.48 0.56 - -CD (P=0.05) 43.41 15.60 1.58 - -Comparison between two N-levels at the same varietySEm ± 30.53 10.97 1.11 - -CD (P=0.05) NS NS NS - -Comparison between two varieties at same N-levelsSEm ± 28.91 10.41 1.04 - -CD (P=0.05) NS NS NS - -Market price of green fodder = Rs.60/ quintal

61

The difference in crude protein yield between 80 and 120kg N/ha and was not significant. The increase in greenfodder yield and dry matter yield with 120 kg N/ha wasowing to increased availability of nitrogen and othernutrients which helped in production of more vegetativegrowth particularly plant height, tillers/m2 and LAI. Similarresults were also reported by Jagdev et al. (2000) andMahale et al. (2004). In general the net monetary returnand benefit cost ratio were maximum (Rs16129/ha and2.05) with 120 kgN/ha.

Among the different varieties tested in the experiment,Kent followed by OS-6 were at par to each other andexhibited their superiority by producing taller plants,more tillers/m2 and LAI, enhanced N-uptake by crop andhigher green fodder, dry matter as well as crude proteinyields (Table 2). The variations in growth parameter andyield, among the varieties may be due to their geneticconstitution and their adaptability to the existingenvironmental conditions. Similar pattern of crop growthin forage oats have also been reported by Waseem etal. (2000) and Kumar et al. (2001). On an average, thenet monetary return and benefit per rupee invested weremaximum (Rs.15409/ha and 2.04) with the popularvariety Kent. On the basis of above findings it could beconcluded that an application of 120 kgN/ha and withKent or OS-6 variety proved superior to obtained higherforage yield and monetary returns from single cut forageoats.

izLrqr iz;ksx pkjk Qlyksa ij vf[ky Hkkjrh; leufor vuqla/kkuifj;kstuk] lL; foKku foHkkx] —f"k egkfo|ky;] t-us-—-fo-fo-]tcyiqj ¼e iz½ ds vuqla/kku iz{ks= ij o"kZ 2009&10 ds jch ekSleesa fd;k x;k A ftldk mn~ns’; tbZ pkjs dh ,d dVkbZ okyh ubZfodflr fdLeksa dk u=tu dh fofHkUu ek=kvksa ds lkFk flafprvoLFkk esa mRiknu {kerk dk voyksdu djuk Fkk A u=tu dhfofHkUu ek=kvksa ¼0] 40] 80 ,oa 120 fdyks u=tu izfr gsDVs;j½dh rqyuk esa 120 fdyks u=tu@gsDVs;j½ nsus ls ikS/kksa dh ÅapkbZ¼145 lsa-eh-½] dYyksa dh la[;k ¼440 izfr oxZ ehVj½] gjk pkjk

¼524-99 fDoaVy@gsDVs;j½] 'kq"d inkFkZ ¼109-7 fdoaVy@gsDVs;j½,oa dq:M izksVhu mit ¼ 9-9 fDoaVy@gsDVs;j rFkk Qly }kjku=tu dk mi;ksx ¼158-8 fdyks@gsDVs;j½ esa mYys[kuh; o`f) ikbZxbZ A

iz;ksx esa ijh{k.k dh xbZ vU; fdleksa dh rqyuk esa fdLe dsUV,oa vks-,l- 6 gjs pkjs dh o`f) ds ?kVd ¼tSls ikS/ks dh ÅapkbZ] dYyksdh la[;kWa vkfn ½] gjs pkjs dh mit ,oa u=tu ds mi;ksx esa Js"BikbZ xbZ A lekU;r;% tbZ fdLe dsUV esa 120 fdyks u=tu@gsDVs;jnsus ls 'kq) vkfFkZd vk; ,oa izfr :Ik;s [kpZ ij ykHk vf/kdre izkIrgqvk A

References

Jagdev Singh, Yadav JS, Kumar, Virendra Yadav, BD (2000)Response of oat to Azatobacter at different nitrogenlevels. Indian J Agron 45 (2) : 433 – 436

Kumar Arvind, Jaiswal RS, Verma ML, Jahid YP, Kumar A(2001) Effect of nitrogen levels and cuttingmanagement on yield and quality of different varietiesof fodder oat. Indian J. Animal Nutri. 183 : 262-266

Mohale BB, Nevase VB, Throt ST (2004) Effect of cuttingmanagement and nitrogen levels on forage yield ofoats. J Soil and Crops 14 (2) : 469 – 472

Purushotham S, Manjumatha M, Umesha K (1995) Grain yieldof oat as influence by cutting and nitrogenmanagement. Indian J Agron 39 (2) : 233 – 236

Waseem-ul-Hassan S, Anees SM, Bajio AH (2000) Evaluationof oat cultivar for high yielding green fodder underenvironmental conditions of Balochisthan (Pakistan).Balochisthan J Agri Sci 1 (1) : 15 - 21

(Manuscript Receivd : 08.11.2011; Accepted 13.04.2012)

62

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 62-68 (2012)

Abstract

A field experiment was carried out during 2007-08 with riceand wheat on a Typic Haplustert at the Research Farm ofDepartment of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, J.N.Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.) for the assessmentof fertilizer recommendation and its impact on soil quality.The results indicated that inorganic fertilizer application basedon targeted yield along with organic manure (FYM) i.e. IPNSapproach, resulted in higher grain yield 4.04 and 6.94 t ha-1 ofboth rice and wheat, respectively thereby showing superiorityto GRD in terms of total uptake in biomass while STCRapproach was more superior in soil fertility build-up in riceand wheat. The soil respiration was found to be more in plotsreceiving no fertilizer, GRD and STCR approaches, with highlevel of microbial activity. The ideal state of biological activitywas recorded in IPNS approaches, which was due to higherCO2 sequestration rate (54.60 Mg ha-1) as compared to othertreatments like GRD and STCR approach.

Key words: Rice-wheat cropping sequence, yieldtarget, fertilizer calibration equations, soil fertility status,nutrient mining, soil quality index

Rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) formthe staple food for more than one billion people and alivelihood for millions of workers or farmers all over theworld. Intensive cultivation, growing of exhaustive crops,use of imbalance and inadequate fertilizersaccompanied by restricted use of organic manures andbiofertilizers have not only made the soils deficient inthe nutrients, but also deteriorated the soil heathresulting in decline in crop response to therecommended dose of fertilizer. Non-judiciousenhancement of the fertilization further worsened the

Assessment of soil test based fertilizer recommendation underrice-wheat cropping sequence and its impact on soil quality underagroclimatic condition of Kymore plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh,India

K.S. Keram, G. Puri and S. D. SawarkarDepartment of Soil Science and Agricultural ChemistryJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

situation. Under such a situation, integrated plantnutrient system (IPNS) has assumed a great importanceand has vital significance for the maintenance of soilproductivity. Organic manures, particularly FYM, notonly supply macronutrients but also meet therequirement of micronutrients, besides boosting yieldand improving soil health.

The soil quality, soil health and soil condition areinterchangeable as all describe the soil's ability tosupport crop growth. Soil quality indicators are neededto facilitate the measurement of soil quality. Theindicators of soil physical, chemical and biologicalproperties, reflects soil functions, are easy to measurefor a variety of users and under various field conditionsand respond to changes in climate and management.Key soil quality indicators are soil texture, bulk density,aggregation, available water capacity, pH, EC, NPKreserve, soil organic carbon (SOC) and microbialbiomass. Restoration of soil health through SOCmanagement is a major concern for Indian soils. Soilproductivity can certainly be lost through erosion,nutrient mining or other processes such as salinization,sodification, compaction and waterlogging. The linkagebetween soil productivity and soil quality is apparentwhen change in soil is attributed to assess soil qualityare linked to causes of productivity loss.

The present studies were undertaken to evolvesoil test based fertilizer recommendations to quantifythe net changes in soil fertility (N, P and K) and thereofnutrient mining under different approaches of nutrientrecommendations and to study the soil quality indexvis-à-vis different fertilizer recommendations practicesunder rice-wheat cropping sequence.

63

Materials and methods

The field experiment was conducted on rice and wheatcrops during 2007-08 at the Research Farm of theDepartment of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry,Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur(23o10" N latitude and 79o57" E longitude). Theexperimental soil was medium black belonging to Kheriseries of fine montmorillonitic hyperthermic family ofTypic Haplustert and had pH of 7.0, electricalconductivity 0.23 dS m-1 (1 : 2.5 soil : water ratio) andorganic carbon 7.0 g kg-1. Treatments schedule for rice-wheat cropping sequence comprising of T1-control, T2-general recommended dose (GRD), T3-soil test cropresponse (STCR) recommendation for target yield-I (IY-I), T4-STCR for TY-II, T5- integrated plant nutrient system(IPNS) approach-I : STCR for TY-I + 5 t FYM ha-1, T6-IPNS approach-II : STCR for TY-II + 5 t FYM ha-1. Therewere six treatments replicated four times in arandomized block design for both the crops. Treatedseeds of rice (JR 201) and wheat (GW 273) were dibbledin rows at proper spacing in the first week of July andNovember 2007, respectively after basal application offertilizers as per treatments. The soil samples werecollected before sowing and after the harvest of bothrice and wheat crops during 2007-08 with the help of atube auger (stainless steel) from each plot at 0-15 cmsoil depth. Basic soil parameters were estimated byusing standard laboratory procedures.

To compute fertilizer doses for any yield targetbased on soil test value fertilizer adjustment equationswere used {Table 1(a), (b) and (c)} as per procedure ofRamamoorty et al. (1967). The targeted yields for rice

were 3 and 4 tonnes ha-1 and for wheat 4.5 and 6 tonnesha-1 were fixed. 100 % NPK dose for rice and wheatcrop was given. The fertilizer materials used were urea,single super phosphate and muriate of potash. Full doseof P and K and half dose of N were applied and mixedthoroughly with soil at the time of sowing. The remaininghalf dose of N was top-dressed in two splits at tilleringstage and boot stage. The crops rice and wheat werecultivated adopting proper package of practices. Allclimatic conditions were favourable for growth anddevelopment of both crops. The rice crop was grownas rainfed while wheat was grown under irrigatedcondition. The grain yields of rice and wheat wererecorded at the harvest of each crops on maturity foreach treatment. The soil and plant samples wereanalysed by standard laboratory procedure. Thus, datagenerated were analysed statistically.

Table 1(a). Basic data for targeted yield equation of rice and wheat

Parameter Nutrient requirement Nutrient contribution Nutrient contribution(kg q-1) from soil (%) from fertilizer (%)

N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2ORice(JR 201) 2.3 0.9 1.9 6.8 39.7 6.2 41.5 18.5 73.8Wheat (GW 273) 2.6 0.6 1.8 6.3 42.3 11.5 46.4 12.5 70.2Note: Composition of FYM: N-0.92%, P2O5-0.72% and K2O-0.90%

Table 1(b). Soil test value for rice-wheat cropping se-quence

Crops Available soil nutrient (kg ha-1)N P K

Rice 160 10 321Wheat 254 12 311

Table 1(c). Fertilizer adjustment equations used for rice-wheat cropping sequence

Rice WheatF N = 4.25 T - 0.45 SN F N = 4.40 T - 0.40 SNF P2O5 = 3.55 T - 4.09 SP F P2O5 = 4.00 T - 5.73 SPF K2O = 2.10 T - 0.18 SK F K2O = 2.55 T - 0.16 SK

Where,F N - Fertilizer nitrogen (kg ha-1)F P2O5 - Fertilizer phosphorus (kg ha-1)F K2O - Fertilizer potassium (kg ha-1)T - Desired yield target (q ha-1)SN - Available soil nitrogen (kg ha-1)SP - Available soil phosphorus (kg ha-1)SK - Available soil potassium (kg ha-1)

Results and Discussion

Effect of different nutrient management practices onnutrient uptake (N, P and K)

The aim of rational fertilizer application is to providethe plant with an adequate supply of nutrients at the

64

time it needs and utilizes them most towards grainproduction. It is obvious that the total uptake is thefunction of nutrient concentration and yield and dealtdata is the testimony of this fact. These characteristicsrelations go hand to hand in same glove. The testtechnology of fertilizer recommendation i.e. STCRtechnology for TY 4 t ha-1 in paddy and TY 6 t ha-1 inwheat, combined with 5 t FYM ha-1, each has showncutting edge over convectional technology of fertilizerrecommendation in terms of yield, removal and residualeffect of nutrients (N, P and K).

The relative distribution of these nutrient uptakevalues in rice and wheat indicates that addition of FYMto inorganic fertilizer enhances the nutrient uptake whichis apparent on comparison of treatments pairs T3-T5 andT4-T6 (Table 2). Sharma and Bali (2001) confirmed thatnutrient uptake (N, P and K) values were of higher orderin FYM treated plots and these further improved withgraded levels of nutrient application. Yadav et al. (2002)and Sharma et al. (2003) corroborate the similarfindings, under rice-wheat cropping sequence.

Relationship between observed post harvest soil testvalues and predicted soil test values

An attempt was made to evolve relationship betweenpost-harvest soil test value and predicted soil test value,under rice-wheat cropping sequence. The characteristicfunctional relation is represented by linear equations.These are: Y = 0.9294 X - 67.62 (R2 = 0.1332) for N, Y= 1.064X (R2 = 0.8432*) for P and Y = -0.2121 X + 379.47(R2 = 0.0115) for K, where "Y" is predicted, post-harvestsoil test values and "X" is observed post-harvest soiltest values.

In case of soil P, there was significant associationbetween predicted and observed post-harvest soil testvalues (Table 3). Further, a wayward behaviour of thisnutrient could be due to variable nutrient releaseefficiencies from different sources i.e. soil, inorganicfertilizer and organic manure and their utilization byplants. Suri and Verma (1999) reported that, in TypicHalpludalfs, though recommendation based fertilizerdoses are somewhat higher initially, but if this approachis adopted continuously, there is build-up of nutrients(NPK) in the soil which results in reduction in fertilizerdoses with time for attaining targeted yield, under maize-wheat cropping sequence.

Effect of different nutrient management practices on netchange in soil fertility variable (N, P and K) under rice-wheat cropping sequenceT

ab

le 2

. Effe

ct o

f diff

eren

t nut

rient

man

agem

ent p

ract

ices

on

tota

l nut

rient

upt

ake

in b

iom

ass

of ri

ce a

nd w

heat

Ric

eW

heat

Trea

tmen

tsTo

tal u

ptak

e (k

g ha

-1)

Trea

tmen

tsTo

tal u

ptak

e (k

g ha

-1)

NP

KN

PK

T 1: C

ontro

l16

.91

2.16

18.8

8T 1 :

Con

trol

41.3

75.

4441

.44

T 2 : G

RD

28.3

84.

7628

.62

T 2 :G

RD

72.5

815

.21

67.5

7T 3 :

T.Y

.3 t

ha-1

41.4

48.

7346

.47

T 3 :T.

Y.4

.5 t

ha-1

95.6

325

.17

89.3

5T 4 :

T.Y

.4 t

ha-1

62.1

414

.47

62.9

7T 4 :

T.Y

.6 t

ha-1

134.

6138

.65

125.

54T 5 :

T.Y.

3 t h

a-1+

5 t F

YM h

a-159

.29

13.3

959

.16

T 5 :T.

Y.4

.5 t

ha-1+

5 t F

YM h

a-115

8.26

41.8

914

3.81

T 6 :T.

Y.4

t ha

-1 +

5 t

FYM

ha-1

86.4

921

.44

86.4

9T 6 :

T.Y

.6 t

ha-1 +

5 t

FYM

ha-1

219.

4663

.57

193.

41M

ean

49.1

010

.82

49.1

012

0.31

31.6

511

0.18

SE

m±

2.80

0.99

2.80

9.37

1.65

8.54

CD

(5%

)5.

972.

155.

9719

.87

3.51

18.2

0

65

(GRD) were noted in wheat.

It indicates that, the nitrogen and potassium efficienciesare accelerated due to addition of FYM in rice andwheat. These findings are further confirmed by Kumarand Prasad (2003) on clay loam soil, who recorded simi-lar observations.

Effect of different nutrient management practices on soilquality index under rice-wheat cropping sequence

Table 3. Relationship between post harvest soil testvalues observed and predicted soil test values underrice-wheat cropping sequence

Parameters Regression Co-efficient ofequations predictability (R2)

Nitrogen Y=0.929X-67.629 0.1332

Phosphorus Y=1.046X 0.8432*

Potassium Y=-0.2121X+379.47 0.0115

Table 4. Effect of different nutrient management practices on net change in soil fertility variables (N, P and K) inrice-wheat cropping sequence

Initial soil test Post harvest soil test Buildup(+)/Depletion(-)Treatments values of rice values after wheat (kg ha-1)

(ISTV) (kg ha-1) (PHSTV) (kg ha-1)N P K N P K N P K

T1 185 10 344 221 9 352 36 (-1) 8T2 172 9 322 226 9 389 54 - 67T3 164 10 339 227 10 380 63 - 41T4 147 11 311 245 10 368 98 (-1) 57T5 152 12 291 223 11 264 71 (-1) 3T6 139 16 319 214 14 332 75 (-2) 13Mean 160 11 321 226 11 348 66 -1 32

N = Available soil nitrogen, P = Available soil phosphorus and K= Available soil potassium

Under rice-wheat cropping sequence, there werepositive changes (build-up) in post harvest soil testvalues (PHSTV) - N and PHSTV- K in treatment T4, ascompared to the other treatments (Table 4). While incase of PHSTV- P status, depletion was observed in alltreatments from its initial soil test values (ISTV) - P.Singh et al. (1998) reported similar findings whoobserved that application of only 100% N resulted in adecrease in the available P contents. Similar resultswere reported by Yaduwanshi (2003) and Singh et al.(2004).

Effect of different nutrient management practices onnutrient mining of rice and wheat

The highest N mining was recorded in treatment-T6(IPNS approach), K mining in treatment-T3 (STCRapproach) and P mining in treatment-T1 (control) in rice(Table 5). The data further revealed that the highest Nmining in treatment-T3 (STCR approach), P mining intreatment-T1 (Control) and K mining in treatment-T2

As per guideline of Soil Quality Test Kit, proposed byUSDA (1999) the data given in table-6 revealed thatthe soil belongs to non-saline and neutral category andit has more than 45% clay with ideal bulk density. Similarobservations were recorded by Khan et al. (2004) inVertisols.

The soil respiration was more in plots receivingno fertilizer, followed by GRD and STCR approaches,with high level of microbial activity, whereas ideal stateof biological activity was recorded by IPNS approaches.This variation in soil respiration could be due totemperature, moisture and edaphic factors. It is alsoaffected by the nutrient status of soil and culturalpractices such as inorganic fertilizer or FYM applicationand various biological, microbial and soil activities whichregulates the CO2 evolution rates. Similar findings werereported by Kang et al. (2005) and Chaudhury et al.(2005).

Effect of different nutrient management practices on soilorganic carbon (SOC) density and stock (0-10cm) under

66

Ta

ble

5. E

ffect

of d

iffer

ent n

utrie

nt m

anag

emen

t pra

ctic

es o

n nu

trien

t min

ing

in ri

ce a

nd w

heat

Trea

tmen

tsTo

tal n

utrie

nt a

dded

(kg

ha-1)

Tota

l nut

rient

rem

oval

(kg

ha-1)

Nut

rient

min

ing

(%)

Ric

eW

heat

Ric

eW

heat

Ric

eW

heat

NP

KN

PK

NP

KN

PK

NP

KN

PK

Con

trol

322

7652

560

172

1941

541

5410

025

8010

069

GR

D80

7040

100

6030

285

2973

1568

356

7373

2522

6S

TCR

app

roac

h: I

5567

664

9665

419

4696

2589

1613

766

150

2613

6S

TCR

app

roac

h: II

9810

327

150

174

104

6214

6313

439

126

6314

235

8922

121

IPN

S a

ppro

ach

: I10

110

352

110

132

110

5913

5915

842

144

5813

111

143

3213

1IP

NS

app

roac

h : I

I14

413

972

196

210

149

8621

9322

064

193

9315

8311

230

129

Mea

n85

8146

112

113

7642

1152

120

2780

5327

216

143

3913

5

Not

e:S

TCR

app

roac

h: I

= Lo

wer

yie

ld ta

rget

(t h

a-1):

Ric

e-3

and

Whe

at-4

STC

R a

ppro

ach:

II =

Hig

her y

ield

targ

et (t

ha-1

): R

ice-

4.5

and

Whe

at-6

I

PN

S a

ppro

ach:

I =

STC

R a

ppro

ach:

I +

5 t F

YM

ha-1

IPN

S a

ppro

ach:

II =

STC

R a

ppro

ach:

II +

5 t

FYM

ha-1

Tab

le 6

. Soi

l qua

lity

inde

x ca

rd o

f Ver

tisol

s un

der r

ice-

whe

at c

ropp

ing

sequ

ence

Nut

rient

man

agem

ent

Soi

l qua

lity

para

met

ers

prac

tices

pHE

C(d

S m

-1)

Bul

k de

nsity

(g c

m-3)

Soi

l res

pira

tion

(g k

g-1w

eek-1

)C

ontro

l6.

95 -

Neu

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67

rice-wheat cropping sequence

The aim of comprehensive studies is to quantify SOCdensity, SOC stock and SOC changes, under rice-wheatcropping sequence under different nutrient managementpractices over a period of time for sustainableproductivity.

The highest initial SOC density (9710 g m-2) andstock (97.10 Mg ha-1), at 0-10cm depth was observedin IPNS approach (T6), as compared to other nutrientmanagement practices (Table 7). Consequently, thesame treatment (T6) recorded maximum SOC change1500 g m-2 year-1, due to higher CO2 sequestration rate(54.60 Mg ha-1) as compared to other treatments likeGRD and STCR approach. This could be due to thecapacity of the soil for storing organic carbon, dependingon silt+clay, moisture, nutrient supply, pH, mineralogyand landscape. Incomplete and slower rate ofdecomposition of organic matter also affect the SOCdensity and stock. Singh et al.(2008) reported that,under rice-based cropping system with RDF+FYM wasmore efficient for enhancing SOC density (43.2%) andstock (40.6%) and in sequestrating CO2 (30.32 t ha-1).Similar findings were reported by Aulakh et al. (2001)in Typic Ustochrepts.

vuqla/kku iz{ks=] e`nk foKku ,oa —f"k gsIywLVVZ jlk;u"kkL= foHkkx]t-us-d`-fo-fo- tcyiqj ¼e-iz-½ ds fVfid gsiyLVVZ e`nk esa /kku&xsgwWQlypdz ds LkkFk 2007&08 fd;s x;s iz;ksx esa ik;k x;k gS fdyf{kr mit ds vk/kkj ij jlk;fud moZjd dk dkcZfud [kkn dslkFk la;ksftr mi;ksx] tks ewyr% ,dhd`r ikS/k iks"k.k iz.kkyh izLrkodgykrk gSa] Qlyksa dh mPpre mit ¼/kku&4-04 rFkk xsgwW&6-94Vu izfr gsDVj½ izkIr gqbZ] ;g n"kkZrk gS fd rRoksa dk dqy mn~xzg.klkekU; vuqeksfnr moZjd ek=k ls vf/kd gksrk gS] e`nk moZjrk o`f)e`nk ijh{k.k Qly izfrfØ;k izLrko esa vf/kd ik;k x;k tcfd e`nk

Table 7. Effect of different nutrient management practices on soil organic carbon (SOC) density and stock (0-10cm) under rice-wheat cropping sequence

Treatments SOC density SOC stock CO2 sequestration SOC change(g m-2) (Mg ha-1) (Mg ha-1) (g m-2year-1)

Initial Final Initial Final

T1 8840 8300 88.40 83.00 19.81 540T2 9650 8330 96.50 83.30 48.44 1320T3 8370 7550 83.70 75.50 30.09 820T4 7970 7640 79.70 76.40 12.11 330T5 8670 8010 86.70 80.10 24.22 660T6 9710 8210 97.10 82.10 54.60 1500Mean 8868.33 8006.66 88.68 80.06 23.37 728.33

'olu fu;af=r] lkekU; vuqeksfnr moZjd ek=k vkSj e`nk ijh{k.kQly izfrfdz;k izLrko esa vf/kd ik;k x;k A lw{ethoh fØ;kvksa dhvkn'kZiw.kZ n'kk ,dhd`r ikS/k iks"k.k iz.kkyh es T;knk fjdkMZ fd;kftldh vf/kd dkcZu MkbZvkWDlkbM vuqØe.k xfr ¼54-60 esxk xzkeizfr gsDVj½ ds dkj.k lkekU; vuqeksfnr moZjd ek=k vkSj e`nkijh{k.k Qly izfrfdz;k izLrko ls vf/kd Fkk A

References

Arshad MA, Lowery B, Grossmen B (1996) Physical tests formonitoring soil quality 123-142. In: Doran JW, JonesAJ (eds) method of assessing soil quality. Soil SciAme Spec Publ. 49 Madison WI

Aulakh MS, Khera TS, Doran JW (2001) Managing cropresidue with green manure, urea and tillage in a rice-wheat rotation. Soil Sci Soc Ame J 65: 820-827

Chaudhury J, Mandal UK, Sharma KL (2005) Assessing soilquality under long-term rice-based cropping system.Comm in Soil Sci and Plant Ana 36: 1141-1161

Gupta RK, Rajput RP (2002) Soil related constraints toproductivity of soybean based cropping systems inCentral India. 67th Annual Convention of IndianSociety of Soil Science. National Seminar onDevelopment in Soil Science. JNKVV, Jabalpur 11-15 Nov 33-44

Kang GS, Beri V, Rupela OP (2005) A new index to assesssoil quality and sustainability of wheat-basedcropping systems. Bio and Fert Soils 41: 389-398

Khan JA, Kurchania SP, Agrawal SB (2004) Yieldmaximization in rice-wheat sequence throughagronomic manipulation. National Seminar-cum-Workshop on Challenges for enhancing rice-production in fragile environments. 19-21 Oct 64-65

Kumar, V, Prasad B (2003) Integrated nutrient managementfor rice-wheat system. J Res Birsa Agril Uni 15: 25-33

68

Ramamoorthy B, Narsimham RL, Dinesh RS (1967) Fertilizerapplication for specific yield targets of Sonara-64.Indian Farm 17: 43-45

Sharma, MP, Bali SV (2001) Effect of row spacing andfarmyard manure with increasing levels of nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium on yield and nutrientsuptake in rice -wheat cropping sequence. Indian JAgric Sci 71: 661-663

Sharma MP, Wali P, Gupta JP (2003) Long term effect ofchemical fertilizers on rice-wheat productivity andfertility of an Inceptisol. Annals Agric Res 24: 91-94

Singh D, Rana DS, Kumar K (1998) Phosphorus removal andavailable P balance in Typic Ustocrept under rice-wheat cropping and long term fertilizer use. J IndianSoc Soil Sci 46: 398-401

Singh G, Jalota SK, Sidhu BS (2005) Soil physical andhydraulic properties in a rice-wheat cropping systemin India: effects of rice-straw management. Soil Useand Manag 21: 17-21

Singh M, Singh R, Dixit ML (2004) Soil test based fertilizerand FYM application for specific yield in paddy-wheatsequence. 69th Annual Convention: 27-30 Oct 110-112

Singh RK, Singh SK, Tarafdar JC (2008) Influence of croppingsequence and nutrient management on soil organiccarbon and nutrient status of Typic Rhodustalfs. JIndian Soc Soil Sci 56:174-181

Soil Quality Test Kit (1999) Background & Interpretive Guidefor Individual Test. United State Department ofAgriculture. Sec- II: 52-63. U S Govt Printing OfficeWashigton SW

Suri VK, Verma TS (1999) Targeted yield concept for efficientand economic fertilizer use in a maize-wheatcropping system and build-up of fertility in a TypicHapludalf. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 47: 67-72

Yadav RL, Tomar SS , Sharma C (2002) Output:input ratiosand apparent balances of N P and K inputs in a rice-wheat system in North-west India. Exp Agric 38: 457-468

Yaduvanshi NPS (2003) Substitution of inorganic fertilizersby organic manures and the effect on soil fertility ina rice-wheat rotation on reclaimed sodic soil in India.Indian J Agric Sci 140: 161-168

(Manuscript Receivd : 22.12.2011; Accepted 05.06.2012)

69

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 69-74 (2012)

Production of Monascus sp. pigments from farm byproducts usingsolid state fermentation

M.M. Khan, L.P.S. Rajput, S.S. Yadav, S. Kumar* and Kirti TantwaiFermentation Technology laboratoryBiotechnology Centre*Department of Food Science and TechnologyJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

Abstract

Pigments obtained from fungus, Monascus purpureus aretraditionally used as colouring agent and also as healthprotecting agent. Because of high production cost of pigmentbiosynthesis, studies are required to make use of cheaplyavailable agro industrial byproducts. The present study wascarried out with the objectives of optimization of blendingcarbon (rice bran, wheat bran) and nitrogen (mustard oilcakeand cotton seed oilcake) sources in 1.5 : 1 and 2.5 : 1 ratiosalongwith, optimization of different fermentable variables viz.moisture content, temperature, incubation period and inoculumsize in solid state fermentation (SSF) for better recovery ofmicrobial pigments. The findings indicated that among all thecarbon and nitrogen sources, the combination of RB : MOCin 2.5 : 1 ratios resulted in the highest total yield of microbialpigments (122.4 OD units/gm dry biomass) which wasobtained at initial moisture level of 55%, incubationtemperature of 30o C, inoculum size of 1.5 x 106 (spores/ml)and incubation period of 12 days.

Key word: Pigments, Solid state fermentation, Farmbyproduct, Optimization

The pigments produced by Monascus sp. have beenused in processed food product as a colouring agent.Some synthetic colorants have been banned for use infood as they are identified as carcinogenic andallergenic agent. The existing authorized natural foodcolorants are of either plants or animal origin and havenumerous drawbacks such as instability against light,heat or adverse pH, low water solubility and nonavailability throughout the year (Wong and Koehler1983). The pharmaceutical application of azaphilonesproduced by Monascus are known by theirantiinflammatory properties and ability to reduce body

cholesterol (Babitha et al. 2009 and Endo andMonacolin 1980). A hyperpigment producing mutant ofthe fungus isolated after UV irradiation was found toproduce a monacolin with antibacterial properties(Akishisa et al. 2005). The treatment of different nitrogensources to the rice bran with monosodium glutamate inthe higher pigments yield so rice bran is good sourcesof carbon (Rajput and Yadav 2009). Monascus growsin a wide variety of natural substrates. In order tominimize the production cost of pigments in theindustries, efforts are required for utilization ofabundantly available farm byproducts rich in carbon andnitrogen sources. The present investigation wasplanned keeping in view the cost, availability of carbonand nitrogen rich quality of agri byproducts used forbioconversion into microbial pigments.

Materials and methods

Rice bran (RB) was procured from rice milling industrysituated in Ranjhi, Jabalpur (M.P.) Wheat bran (WB),mustard oilcake (MOC) and cotton seed, oilcake(CSOC), were procured from local market of JabalpurCity. Mustard oilcake and cotton seed oilcake wereground to fine powder using an electrical grinder to passthrough 40-mash size sieve. The microbial pigmentproducing microorganism (strain) Monascus purpureusMTCC 410 was obtained from Institute of MicrobialTechnology (IMTECH), Chandigarh, Punjab. Differentcombinations of carbon sources viz. RB, WB andnitrogen sources viz. MOC and CSOC were used assubstrates for the growth of Monascus purpureus MTCC410 employed for the production of microbial pigments.Five grams of each combination of carbon and nitrogensources were taken into a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and

70

to this; a salt solution (2 ml) containing (g/lit.) viz. KH2PO42g, NH4NO3 5g, NaCl 1g and MgSO47H2O 1g wasadded. Initial moisture was set at 55% by adding therequisite amount of distilled water. The contents of theflask were mixed and autoclaved at 121oC at 15 psi for20 min. cooled and inoculated with 1.5 ml sporesuspension (1.5x106) of Monascus purpureus MTCC410. The process of fermentation was carried out onNBS shaker incubator at 30o C for 12 days. A particularcombination of carbon and nitrogen source that resultedinto the best pigment yield was selected for furtherexperiments. The method of solid state fermentation wasused for carrying out different experiments foroptimization of process parameters for attaining themaximum yield of microbial pigments. In the initial stage,first experiment at different moisture level (50, 55, 60,65 and 70) for incubation periods of 12 days. Thesecond with four ranges of temperature viz. 25, 30, 35and 40o C at. Other was also conducted optimum withfor different period of incubation (4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14days). In order to asses the optimum inoculum sizeanother experiment was conducted at moisture level of55% incubation temperature of 300C and incubationperiod of 12 days with varied inoculum size (0.5x106,1x106, 1.5x106, 2x106 and 2.5x106 spors/ml).

Extraction of pigments

5 gram of the fermented biomass was suspended in 25ml of acetone, incubated on rotary shaker at 30o C with200 rpm for an hour. After this, the pigment extracted inacetone was decanted. This step was repeated till allthe pigment was extracted completely from thefermented biomass. The total crude pigment extract inacetone was pooled together and flash evaporated in arotary vacuum evaporator at 40oC with 100-120 rpmunder 556 mbar vaccum to dryness to remove theacetone traces with the pigment. The dried extract wastaken in 10 ml of distilled ethanol for spectrophotometricanalysis.

Estimation of dry weight from fermented biomass

After extraction of total pigment, the fermented biomasswas taken in a preweighed aluminium dish to whichabout 5 ml of ethanol was added. The dish was kept inan oven maintained at 105o C. After about 3-4 hour. thedish was transferred to a desiccator with the help offorceps. When the temperature of the dish reachedambient temperature, the dish with the dry fermentedbiomass was weighed. Drying was continued till theconstant weight was obtained. The difference in weight

gave the moisture content of fermented mass.

Estimation of pigments

After suitable dilution of dry biomass with respectiveorganic solvent, 2ml of each pigment extract wasscanned in UV spectrophotometer with same solventas blank. Optical density (O.D.) was measured at 500,475, and 375 nm wavelength corresponding to red,orange and yellow pigment respectively. The pigmentyield (OD units/g. dry biomass) of individual pigmentswas calculated using the following formula:

Pigment yield (O.D.units/gm dry biomass

substrate)

O.D. (Abs) x Dilution factor xTotal vol. of pigment

=Dry weight of fermented mass

Results and discussion

Pigment production

Observations recorded in Table 1. showed that amongthe various combination of carbon and nitrogen sourcescombination of RB : MOC in 2.5 : 1 ratio was found tobe the best resulting in the higher total yield (122.4 ODunits/g dry biomass) of monascus pigment whichcomprised of 41.2 for yellow, 41.1 for orange and 40.1(OD units/g dry biomass for red pigments using SSFtechnique for fermentation. These findings indicated thatthe combination of RB : MOC might have fulfiled theneeded requirements of nutrients for the better growthof strain used for bioconversion of carbon and nitrogensources into the value added end product pigment. Itwas also observed that with the relative increase incarbon level in two different combination of RB withMOC and CSOC there was a gradual increase in yieldof microbial pigment. These findings revealed that thesupplementation of rice bran as additional carbonsource to the fermentation medium supported the growthof microorganism and hence resulted in increase ofpigment yield. It was also interesting to note that whenwheat bran was used as a carbon source and blendedin the increasing ratio, the pigment yield got reduced tosome extent. Low poor pigment yield with wheat branas substrate may be due to poor digestion of substrateby the organisms. On the other hand, rice bran wasfound to be the best substrate producing highest yieldwith MOC in 2.5 : 1 ratio. This may be due to availabilityof 12-14% protein, 19-22% lipids, 50% carbohydrates(21% fibre) and high levels of vitamins and essential

71

Table 1. Optimization of blending different carbon and nitrogen sources for the maximum yield* of microbial pigmentsin Solid-State Fermentation (SSF)

Initial moisture level : 60%Incubation temperature : 30o CIncubation period : 12 days

Combination of Ratio of Yield of Pigment (O.D. Unit/g of dry biomass) Total Yield of PigmentsSubstrates Combination (O.D. Unit/g dry biomass)

375 nm 475 nm 500 nm (Yellow) (Orange) (Red)

RB : MOC 1.5:1 38.9 13.9 10.0 62.82.5:1 41.2 41.1 40.1 122.4**

RB : CSOC 1.5:1 34.4 13.2 12.5 60.12.5:1 40.2 32.8 30.4 103.4

WB:MOC 1.5:1 40.2 28.9 21.1 89.22.5:1 37.1 8.5 7.0 52.6

WB :CSOC 1.5:1 38.1 18.5 16.3 72.92.5:1 33.0 13.8 13.0 59.8

* Values are average of triplicates** Highest value

Table 2. Effect of different initial moisture level on yield* of microbial pigments in Solid-State Fermentation (SSF)

Substrate combination : RB : MOC (2.5 : 1)Incubation temperature : 300 CIncubation period : 12 days

Initial moisture Yield of pigments (O.D. units/g dry biomass) Total yield of pigmentslevel(%) 375 nm (Yellow) 475 nm (Orange) 500 nm (Red) (O.D. units/g/dry biomass)

50 35.5 28.8 28.1 92.455** 41.2 41.1 40.1 122.460 37.5 28.1 27.5 93.165 36.9 27.0 26.3 90.270 33.0 25.0 22.1 80.1

* Values are average of triplicates** Optimum initial moisture level

Table 3. Effect of different incubation temperature on yield* of microbial pigments in Solid-State Fermentation(SSF)

Substrate combination : RB : MOC (2.5 : 1)Initial moisture : 55%Incubation period : 12 days

Initial moisture Yield of pigments (O.D. units/g dry biomass) Total yield of pigmentslevel(%) 375 nm (Yellow) 475 nm (Orange) 500 nm (Red) (O.D. units/g/dry biomass)

25 36.9 24.3 20.0 81.2

30** 41.2 41.1 40.1 122.4

35 25.9 19.8 17.9 63.6

40 22.2 12.4 9.9 44.5* Values are average of triplicates** Optimum incubation period

72

trace elements in rice bran. Rice bran contains the mainnutrients for microbial growth which could beadvantageous for the microbial production of secondarymetabilites like polyketide pigments. Some reports havealso been published in the literature showing that thesupplementation of additional carbon sources increasedthe pigment production (Wong et. al. 1981). In studyconducted by Wong et al. (1981) it was reported thatmixed substrate fermentation using different ratios ofglucose and ammonium nitrate in synthetic mediumeffected pigment production. It was further reported thatwith the increase of glucose concentration, total pigmentproduction increased. In the present investigation,similar trends of observation have been recorded byusing the mixed substrate combination with rice branas a carbon source whereas wheat bran is a carbon

source when blended with MOC and CSOC inincreasing ratio did not increase the pigment yield.

Effect of different initial moisture levels on yield ofmicrobial pigments

At initial moisture level of 55%, the total pigment yieldwas found to be highest (122.4 OD units/gm drybiomass) and recorded as 41.2 for yellow, 41.1 fororange and 40.1 OD units/gm dry biomass for redpigment (Table 2). Likewise at initial moisture level of50% there was slight, reduction in pigment yield (92.4OD units/gm dry biomass) viz. 35.5 for yellow, 28.8 fororange and 28.1 OD units/gm dry biomass for redpigment.

Table 4. Effect of different incubation period on yield* of microbial pigments in Solid-State Fermentation (SSF)

Substrate combination : R.B: MOC (2.5 : 1)Incubation temperature : 300 CInitial moisture level : 60%

Incubation period Yield of pigments (O.D. units/g dry biomass) Total yield of pigments(days) 375 nm (Yellow) 475 nm (Orange) 500 nm (Red) (O.D. units/g/dry biomass)

4 25.0 2.4 1.6 29.06 30 7.7 6.8 44.58 32.1 9.0 8.8 49.910 38.5 15.8 14.0 68.3

12** 41.2 41.1 40.1 122.414 40.3 32.5 30.0 102.8

*Values are average of triplicates**Optimum incubation period

Table 5. Effect of different inoculum size (spores/ml) on yield* of microbial pigments in Solid-State Fermentation(SSF)

Substrate combination : RB : MOC (2.5 : 1)Incubation temperature : 30o CInitial moisture level : 55%Incubation period : 12 days

Inculum size Yield of pigments (O.D. units/g dry biomass) Total yield of pigments(spore/ml) 375 nm (Yellow) 475 nm (Orange) 500 nm (Red) (O.D. units/g/dry biomass)

0.5 x 106 35.7 27.9 25.8 89.4

1.0 x 106 40.0 32.8 30.2 103.0

1.5 x 106** 41.2 41.1 40.1 122.4

2.0 x 106 38.5 33.5 32.4 104.4

2.5 x 106 38.0 32.5 30.9 101.4* Values are average of triplicates** Optimum inoculum size

73

Similarly, there was reduction in total pigmentyield (93.1OD units/gm dry biomass) at 60% moisturelevel which consisted of 37.5 for yellow, 28.1 for orangeand 27.5 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigmentwhereas it was 36.9 for yellow, 27.0 for orange and26.3 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment, showingtotal pigment yield of 90.2 OD units/gm dry biomass ata initial moisture level of 65%. The values of pigmentyield at 70% initial moisture level were recorded as 33.0for yellow, 25.0 for orange and 22.1 OD units/gm drybiomass for red pigment showing total pigment yield of80.1 OD units/gm dry biomass.

Effect of different incubation temperature on yield ofmicrobial pigments

Incubation temperature of 30o C, the total pigment yield(122.4 OD units/gm dry biomass) was found to behighest and recorded as 41.2 for yellow, 40.1 for orangeand 110.1 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment(Table 3). Similarly, there was much more reduction intotal pigment (81.2 OD units/g dry biomass) whichconsisted of 36.9 for yellow, 24.3 for orange and 20.0for red pigment at a incubation temperature of 25o C.The values of pigment yield were recorded as 25.9 foryellow, 19.8 for orange and 17.9 OD units/gm drybiomass for red pigment indicating total pigment yieldof 63.6 OD units/gm dry biomass. Likewise, there wasmuch more reduction in the total pigment yield to a level.

Effect of different incubation periods on yield of microbialpigments

At incubation period of 12 days, total pigment yield wasfound to be highest (122.4 OD units/gm dry biomass)consisting of different fractions, 41.2 for yellow, 41.1for orange and 40.1 O.D. units/gm dry biomass for redpigment (Table 4). The minimum total pigment yield of29.0 O.D. units/gm dry biomass was recorded atincubation period of 4 days which consisted of threefractions, 25.0 for yellow, 2.4 for orange and 1.6 ODunits/gm dry biomass for red pigment.

Effect of different inoculum size (spore/ml) on yield ofmicrobial pigments

Inoculum size of 1.5 x 106 (spore/ml) resulted in thehighest total pigment yield of 122.4 OD units/gm drybiomass which consisted of 41.2 for yellow, 41.1 fororange and 40.1 OD units/gm dry biomass for redpigment (Table 5). Likewise, with the inoculum size of

0.5 x 106 (spores/ml) there was reduction in the totalpigment of yield of 89.4 OD units/gm dry biomass whichconsisted of 35.7 for yellow, 27.9 for orange and 25.8OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment. It was alsoobserved that with the increase in inoculum size of 1 x106 (spores/ml), there was a gradual increase in totalpigment yield of 103.0 OD units/gm dry biomassconsisting of 40.0 for yellow, 32.8 for orange and 30.2OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment. The totalpigment yield of 104.4 OD units/gm dry biomass wasobserved with the inoculum size of 2 x 106 (spores/ml)which comprised of 38.5 for yellow, 33.5 for orange and32.4 OD units/gm dry biomass for red pigment. Similarlywith the maximum inoculum size of 2.5 x 106 (spores/ml), the total pigment yield was found to be 101.4 ODunits/g dry biomass consisting of different pigmentfraction 38.0 for yellow, 32.5 for orange and 30.9 ODunits/gm dry biomass for red pigment.

eksukLdl ijiqfj;l QQqaqn ls izkIr jaxnzO; ¼jaxks½ dks ikjaifjd <+ax lsjaxnzO;ks ds #i esa ,oa LokLFk; j{kd dkjd ds #i esa mi;ksx fd;ktkrk gSA orZeku ess]jaxnzO;ks ds la’kys".k dh vf/kd ykxr ds dkj.kde ykxr okys —f"k vk/kkfjr vkS|ksfxd vo’ks"kks dks ysdj 'kks/k dk;Zdjus dh vko’;drk gSA ;g 'kks/k dk;Z dk mn~ns’; dkcZu ;qDr inkZFkkstSls fd /kku dh Hkwlh] xsgWw dh pksdj vkSj u=tu ;qDr inkZFkks tSlsfd ljlks dh [kyh vkSj dikl dh [kyh dks 1:5:1 vkSj 2.5 :1 dsfofHkUu vuqikrks esa feykdj mfpr vuqikr dk v/;;u fd;k x;kAblds lkFk] Bksl voLFkk dh fd.ou fof/k ds fofHkUu izdYiksa tSls fdueh dh ek=k] rkieku voLFkk] le; vkSj buksdqye dh ek=k dkv/;;u lw{e thoh jaxnzO; dh vf/kdre mRikndrk ds fy;s fd;kx;kA bu v/;;uks ds fu"dZ"k n’kkZrs gS fd fofHkUu dkcZu ,oa u=tuL=ksrks esa /kku dh Hkwlh ,oa ljlks dh [kyh dk 2.5 :1 ds vuqikr esfeJ.k] lw{e thoks ls izkIr jaxnzO; dh vf/kdre ek=k ¼122.4 vks-Mh- bdkbZ @xzke ueh jfgr tSfod ek=k½ mRiUu djrk gS tks fd 55izfr’kr ueh rFkk 30 lsaVhxzsM rkieku bUD;wcs’ku le; 12 fnu vksjbuksdwye ek=k 1.5 x 106 ¼LikslZ@fe- yhVj½ ij izkIr gksrh gSA

Referenced

Akishisa T, Tokuda H, Yasukawa K, Ukiya M, Kiyala A,Sakamoto N, Suzuki T, Tanab N (2005) Azaphilones,Furanoisophthalides and amino acid from theextracts of Monascus pilosus fermented rice and theirchemo preventive effects. J Agric Food Chem 53:562-565

Aniya Y, Yokomakura T, Yonamine M, Shimada K, NagamineT, Shimabukuro M, Gibo H (1999) Screening ofantioxidant action of various molds and protectionof Monascus anka against experimentally induced

74

liver injuries of rats. Gen Pharmacol 32: 225-230Babitha, S, Nee P S Nigan, Pandey A (2009) Biotechnology

for Agro-Industrial residues utilization. SpringerNetherlands 10 1007/978-1-4020-9942-7

Dhale MA, Divakar S, Kumar SU, Vijayalakshmi G (2007)Isolation and characterization of dihydromonacolinfrom Monascus purpureus for antioxidant properties.Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 77 : 965-973

Endo A, Monacolin K, (1980) A new hypocholesterolemicagent that specifically inhibits 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme a reductase. J Antibiot 33:334-336

Rajput, LPS, Yadav SS, Tantwai K (2009) Production ofMonascus pigments from rice bran supplementedwith nitrogen sources using solid state fermentation.J Basic Appl Mycol 8 (I & II): 76-79

Wong HC, Koehler PE (1983) Production of Monascus watersoluble red pigments. J Food Sci 48: 1200-1203

Wong HC, Lin YC, Koehler PE (1981). Regulation of growthand pigmentation of Monascus purpureus by carbonand nitrogen concentrations. Mycologia 73: 649-654

(Manuscript Receivd : 15.08.2011; Accepted 15.07.2012)

75

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 75-77 (2012)

Abstract

Leaf extract of Neem (Azadirachata indica), was most effectiveagainst Rhizoctonia solani, causal agent of root rot ofmungbean followed by Neelgiri (Eucalyptus tereticornis) andMehdi (Lawsonia alba) at 30 per cent concentration under invitro condition.

Keywords: Neem leaf extract, Rhizoctonia solani

The mungbean crop is attacked by a number ofpathogens causing various diseases. Amongst themseed rot, pre and post emergence mortality, seedlingrot and web or leaf blight due to Rhizoctonia solani Kuhnis the most important thereat. Seed and seedling blightof legumes caused by Rhizoctonia solani has assumedeconomic importance in many states of India (Shuklaet al. 1977; Amin 1981; Tiwari and Khare 1996). Thedisease becomes serious during kharif season undercontinuous rains. (Tiwari and Khare 1996). Rhizoctoniasolani is a soil borne pathogen that also infects seeds,seedlings and collar region of the young plants at earlystages of seedling and causes considerable losses inyield (Tiwari and Khare 1997). Considering the harmfuleffect of fungicides in disturbing the ecological balance,residual in fruits and environmental pollution, thepresent investigation was carried out to find out saferand eco-friendly method to manage Rhizoctonia solani.

Material and method

Fresh plant leaves collected, were thoroughly washedin running tap water so as to remove undesirablecontents. Hot water extract was prepared by dryingthese at 600C in hot air oven till complete dryness.Leaves were ground with the help of pestle and mortarin to a fine powder. Ten gram powder of each plant leaf

Efficacy of phytoextracts against root rot of mungbean caused byRhizoctonia solani Kuhn

Nilay Kumar Saxena and U.K. KhareDepartment of Plant PathologyJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

was suspended in 100 ml distilled water and heated at700C for 30 minutes. The decoction was filtered throughcotton wool to obtain clear extract (Saramangala et al.1993). A total nine plant leaves viz. Neem (Azadirachataindica), Karanj (Pongamia pinnata), Babul (Acacianilotica), Neelgiri (Eucalyptus tereticornis), Ashok(Polyanthia longiifolia), Tulsi (Ocimum sancatum),Bougainvillea (Bouganivillea sp.), Jatropha (Jatrophacurcas) and Mehdi (Lawsonia alba) were evaluatedusing poisoned food technique (Nane et al.1979). Waterdeficit potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium wasprepared and 50 ml medium was poured in 150 mlcapacity Earlenmayer flask. Required quantities (10,20 and 30 per cent) of extracts were mixed with thiswater deficit medium and autoclaved. The medium alongwith leaves extract was then poured in to sterile Petriplates. After solidification, the plates were inoculatedwith five mm disc of R. solani. The plates were thenincubated at 25 ± 10C. Observations on colony diameterwere recorded at 144 hours after inoculation.

Results and discussion

Minimum (37.35 mm) radial growth of R. solani wasnoted in Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract followedby Neelgiri (Eucalyptus globulus) (40.61 mm), Mehdi(Lawsonia inermeris) (41.74 mm), Jatropha (Jatrophacurcas) (42.75 mm) and Karanj (Pongamia pinnata)(43.74 mm) against maximum (60.37 mm) in control after144 hours at 30 per cent concentration (Table1 & Fig 1).

At ten per cent concentration Neem (Azadirachtaindica) leaf extract amended medium showed 39.11 mmredial growth of the test fungus against to the control(60.37 mm). Ashok (Polyanthia longiifolia) leaf extractand Tulsi (Ocimum sancatum) leaf extracts recorded42.08 mm and 43.02 mm radial growth of the test fungus

76

respectively. Neelgiri (Eucalyptus globulus) stood secondin order of efficacy where 41.44 mm radial growth wasrecorded. Rest of the treatments however less effectivein mycelial growth inhibition but superior over to control.

Twenty per cent concentration of Neem(Azadirachta indica) leaf extract inhibited the mycelialgrowth of R. solani significantly followed by Neelgiri(Eucalyptus globulus). Radial growth of mycelium of thetest fungus was 40.59 and 40.79 mm respectivelyagainst maximum (60.37 mm) in control. This wasfollowed by Karanj (Pongamia pinnata) (41.63 mm),Tulsi (Ocimum sancatum) (43.41 mm), and Mehdi(Lawsonia inermeris) (43.61 mm). Rest of the treatments

remained at par with each other but superior over control.Superiority of the Neem (Azadiractha indica) leaf extractwas also recorded by Shivpuri et al. (1997), Sindhan etal. (1999), and Sharma et al. (2005) against R.solani.

According to De Groot (1972), the Neem(Azadiractha indica) leaf extract contains azadiractionand monoterpenes which show toxic effect against thefungus. The results are in accord with the findings ofSindhan et al.(1999).

ewWx ds tM+ lM+u jksx ds jksxtud ds fu;a=.k gsrq uhe ds iRrksa dk¼30 izfr'kr lkanzrk½ vdZ uhyfxjh] esagnh o vU; okuLifr;ksa ds vdZdh rqyuk esa T;knk izHkkodkjh ik;k x;kA

References

Amin KS (1981) Source of resistance to Rhizoctonia stem rotof pea. Indian Phytopath. 34: 77-79

De Groot RC (1972) Growth of wood inhibiting fungi insaturated atmosphere of monoterpenoids. Mycologia64: 863-870

Kaiser WJ (1970) Rhizoctonia stem canker disease ofmungbean (Phaseolus aureus) in Iran. Plant DisReptar 54:246-250

Nane YL, Thapliyal PL (1979) Fungicides in plant diseasecontrol. Oxford & IBH Publ Co. New Delhi 406-425

Saraamangala Govindaia, Datta RK (1993) Evaluation ofplant extracts for the control of fungal diseases of

Table 1. Mycelial growth of Rhizoctonia solani at 144 hr on PDA incorporated with extracts of plants

Plant Mean redial growth (mm)*Common name Scientific name Concentration (per cent)

10 20 30

Karanj Pongamia pinnata 46.63 41.63 43.74Tulsi Ocimum sancatum 43.02 43.41 42.70Neem Azadirachta indica 39.11 40.59 37.35Jatropha Jatropha curcas 45.24 46.18 42.75Babul Acacia nilotica 44.48 45.93 44.74Ashok Polyanthia longiifolia 42.08 44.38 43.90Bougainvillea Bouganivillea sp 45.80 45.75 45.09Neelgiri Eucalyptus globulus 41.44 40.79 40.61Mehdi Lawsonia inermeris 46.80 43.61 41.74

Control 60.37 60.37 60.37S.Em± 1.37 1.18 0.90P=0.05 2.87 2.46 1.88

Each value is mean of three replication

Fig.1: Evaluation of leaf extracts on mycelial growth ofRhizoctonia solani at 144 hr.

77

murberry. Indian Phytopatho 46(4): 398-401Sharma RR, Goar HN, Sharma P (2005) Effect of plant extract

on growth of Rhizoctonia solani and development ofmaize. Indian J Mycol Pl Pathol 35(2): 377-379

Shivpuri A, Sharma OP, Jhamaria SL (1997) Fungitoxicproperties of plant extract against pathogenic fungi.Indian J Mycol Pl Pathol 27: 29-31

Shukla P, Dwivedi RP, Singh RP (1977) Collar rot disease ofpea caused by Rhizoctonia solani. Indian J Mycol PlPathol 2: 15

Sindhan G.S, Hooda I, Parashar RD (1999) Effect of someplant extracts on the vegetable growth of root rotcausing fungi. Indian J Mycol Pl Pathol 29(1): 110-111

Tiwari Anamika, Khare MN (1996) Reaction of mungbeanlines to nine binucleate and multinucleate isolatesof Rhizoctonia solani khun. Indian J Pulse Res 9:215-216

Tiwari Anamika, Khare MN (1997)Source of resistance inlegume to different isolet of Rhizoctonia solani kuhn.J N K V V Res J 31 (1&2): 24:26

(Manuscript Receivd : 30.09.2011; Accepted 17.06.2012)

78

Effect of fungicides and polymer coating on storability of soybeanseeds

Imran Baig, N.K. Biraderpatil , B.T. Ninganur and R.H. Patil

National Seed ProjectUniversity of Agricultural SciencesDharwad 580 005 (Karnataka)

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 78-83 (2012)

Abstract

Soybean is a poor storer as it is susceptible to mechanicalinjury because of physiological fragility and thin seed coat.Hence a study was undertaken to enhance the storability ofsoybean seeds through polymer and fungicide treatment. Thepolymer and fungicide coated seeds recorded significantlyhigher seed quality parameter through out storage overuntreated control. The seed treated with vitavax coupledpolymer (5 g/kg) recorded higher germination, vigour index,dry weight of seedling and lower electrical conductivity andseed infection throughout the storage. Seed treatment withBavistin + polymer was the next best treatment for maintaininghigher seed quality parameters.

Keywords: Germination (%), vigour index, dry weightof seedling, electrical conductivity, rate of germination

The poor storability of the soybean seeds is accountedfor high oil content, physiological fragility and thin seedcoat, which leads to rapid loss of viability and vigour instorage. This in turn results in poor establishment ofthe crop in the field and low productivity. Seeddeterioration is an irreversible, inexorable and inevitableprocess. But the rate of seed deterioration could beslowed down either by storing the seeds undercontrolled conditions or by imposing seed treatment withpolymer coating along with seed treatment chemicals(Duan and Burris 1997). As the controlled conditioninvolves the huge cost, seed treatment remains the bestalternative approach to maintain the seed quality.

The polymer coat provides protection from thestress imposed by accelerated ageing, which includesfungal invasion. The coat is thin (8 m m), simple to apply,diffuses rapidly and non-toxic to the seedling duringgermination. It improves plant stand and emergence ofseeds, accurate application of the chemical reducing

chemical wastage, helps to make room for including allrequired ingredients, protectants, nutrients, plant growthpromoters, hydrophobic/ hydrophilic substance, oxygensuppliers etc. By encasing the seed within a thin film ofbiodegradable polymer, the adherence of seedtreatment to the seed is improved, ensures dust freehandling, making treated seed both useful andenvironment friendly. The polymer film may act asphysical barrier, which has been reported to reduce theleaching of inhibitors from the seed coverings and mayrestrict oxygen diffusion to the embryo (Vanagamudi etal. 2003). Suitability of these polymers with variedconcentrations for enhanced storage of seeds needsto be studied.

Among the several factors affecting seedstorability, seed microflora is mainly responsible for thedegradation of protein and other food reserves resultingin reduction of vigour and germination. As seed is anefficient media for survival and dissemination ofpathogens, to reduce the losses due to these pathogensand preserve viability, it is advisable to treat the seedswith fungicides and store them in suitable containers.Identification of a compatible fungicide with polymersneeds to be attended. Hence the study was under takento enhance the storability of soybean seeds throughfungicide and polymer coating.

Materials and methods

The storage study was undertaken at National SeedProject, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.The soybean seeds ( JS 335) were treated with polymer@ 3,4 and 5 g per kg of seed along with Bavistin @ 2 gper kg and Vitavax (Carboxin 37.5% + Thirum 37.5%)@ 2 g per kg, at various combination and individually.Polymer (polycot-clear) coating was done by takingseeds of soybean (either treated with fungicide or

79

untreated) in the polythene bag and the adding polymeras per treatment. The polythene bag was closed tightlyand shaken till the seeds are uniformly coated. Theseeds after treatment were dried back to originalmoisture content and stored in cloth bag under ambientconditions for 10 months. The untreated seeds werealso stored as control. The seeds were drawn at randomfrom each treatment at monthly intervals and analyzedfor various seed quality parameters. Germination testwas carried out with four replications of 100 seeds eachby adopting between paper methods as described byISTA (Anon 1999). Ten normal seedlings selected formeasuring shoot and root length were put in butter paperbag and kept in an oven maintaining a temperature of85 + 1° C for 24 hours. After drying, the seedlings werekept in desiccators for cooling. The mean dry weight ofseedling was recorded and expressed in milligrams (mg)per 10 seedlings. The vigour index (VI) was worked outby multiplying germination (%) with shoot + root lengthin cm ( Abdul Baki and Anderson 1973). The observationon seed infection (%) and electrical conductivity werealso recorded.

Results and discussion

In the present investigation, irrespective of thetreatments, the seed quality parameters declinedprogressively with the increase in storage period. Theaverage germination, shoot length, root length, vigourindex, rate of germination and dry weight of seedling atthe beginning of the storage period were 96.08 per cent,21.81 cm, 23.15 cm, 4321, 63.28 and 109.77 mg, whichdeclined to 82.44 per cent, 16.65 cm, 20.88 cm, 3131,53.52 and 102.9 mg, respectively at the end of 10thmonth of storage. This decrease in seed quality duringstorage may be attributed to ageing effects, leading todepletion of food reserves and decline in syntheticactivity of the embryo apart from death of seeds becauseof fungal invasion (Gupta et al.1993). However, theaverage germination was above the minimum seedcertification standard even after 10 months of storage.

Among the treatments, the seeds treated withfungicides coupled with polymer coating exhibitedsuperiority in maintaining seed quality throughout thestorage period. The seeds treated with Vitavax @ 2 gper kg of seeds along with polymer coating @ 5 g perkg of seed (T9) recorded significantly higher seed qualityparameters followed by seeds treated with Bavistin @2 g per kg of seed + polymer coating @ 5 g per kg ofseeds (T5) which were on par with each other in most ofthe quality parameters compared to untreated control(T0) and to the treatments with lower doses of polymer

coating. The polymer treatment @ 5 g per kg seed (T1)recorded significantly higher values for root length,vigour index, rate of germination and lower values forelectrical conductivity and seed infection indicating thesuperiority over control in maintaining the seed qualityin storage.

The seed germination percentage at the end of10th month of storage was 87.58 and 85.75 per centwith T9 and T5 whereas the untreated control (T0)recorded 76.78 per cent germination at the same periodof storage (Table-1). The decreased germinationpercentage in control when compared to T9 and T5 wasto the tune of 14.09 and 11.68 per cent, respectively.The fungicides treatment alone also recordedsignificantly higher germination percentage over control.However, the germination percentage was lowercompared to the treatments receiving fungicidaltreatment with polymer coating at higher doses. Thisindicates that, along with the fungicides, polymer coatingis also helpful in maintaining the seed quality. The rateof reduction in germination percentage from thebeginning of the storage period till the end of 10th monthof storage was slower in seeds treated with fungicidesand polymer coated seeds compared to untreatedseeds. The rate of reduction in germination percentageduring storage in T9 and T0 was 9.6 and 20.3 per cent,respectively. The beneficial effect of polymer coatinghas been documented earlier by Taylor et al. (2001),Vanangamudi et al. (2003) and Larissa et al. (2004) inonion, maize and bean, respectively.

The other quality parameters viz., vigour index,rate of germination (Table-2)and dry weight of seedling(Table-3) at the end of 10th month of storage was 3573,58.77 and 104.5 mg with T9 and 3411, 58.29 and 104.4mg with T5 whereas, untreated control (T0) recorded2551, 49.74 and 100.8 mg, respectively at the end ofstorage. The fungicide treatments without polymerrecorded significantly higher values with theseparameters over control, but were lower than thetreatments receiving fungicide along with polymercoating. It might have acted as a physical barrier whichmight have reduced leaching of inhibitors from seedcoverings and restricted oxygen movement and thusreducing the respiration of embryo there by reducingthe ageing effect on seeds (Vanagamadi et al. 2003).In storage conditions especially at night, relativehumidity fluctuates and the seed also fluctuates itsmoisture content in equilibrium with atmosphericcontent. Ideal polymer prevents moisture contentfluctuations during storage (West et al. 1985). Thefungicide covered by polymer enhances the efficiency

80

Table 1. Effect of polymer and fungicide treatments on germination (%) in soybean during storageTreatments Period of storage (Months)

Initial 2 4 6 8 10T0 96.31 89.80 86.26 82.42 79.39 76.78

(78.96)* (71.41) (68.28) (65.24) (63.03) (61.22)T1 94.56 90.29 87.83 83.83 81.77 78.03

(76.55) (71.88) (69.62) (66.32) (64.76) (62.08)T2 95.57 90.39 88.27 87.05 82.7 81.79

(77.89) (71.98) (70.01) (68.94) (65.51) (64.77)T3 95.26 89.18 89.58 86.08 85.79 81.41

(77.79) (70.83) (71.20) (68.29) (67.89) (64.49)T4 96.95 89.97 89.89 87.19 86.57 82.06

(79.99) (71.57) (71.50) (69.06) (68.54) (64.97)T5 95.79 91.70 91.21 88.74 87.14 85.75

(78.20) (93.29) (72.79) (70.43) (69.02) (67.86)T6 96.59 90.29 89.93 88.60 82.77 8.52

(79.40) (71.88) (71.53) (70.30) (65.51) (71.41)T7 95.96 89.29 90.34 89.88 86.53 83.81

(78.45) (70.93) (71.93) (71.49) (68.50) (64.57)T8 96.59 91.53 90.87 89.94 87.53 84.60

(79.40) (73.12) (72.45) (71.54) (69.20) (66.31)T9 96.89 91.84 91.66 90.86 88.37 87.50

(79.88) (73.44) (73.25) (72.44) (70.10) (69.40)Mean 96.08 90.44 89.64 87.58 87.95 82.44

(78.62) (72.03) (71.26) (69.40) (64.21) (65.26)S.E m+ 0.90 0.69 0.60 0.72 0.86 0.82

CD (0.05) NS NS 1.73 2.09 2.48 2.38* Figures in parenthesis are arcsine transformed valuesT0 : Control (without treatment)T1 : Polymer coating @ 5 g/kg of seedT2 : Bavistin seed treatment @ 2g/kg of seeds

T3 : T2 + polymer coating @ 3 g/kg of seedsT4 : T3 + polymer coating @ 4 g/kg of seedsT5 : T2 + polymer coating @ g g/kg of seedsT6 : Vitavax seed treatment @ 2 g/kg of seedsT7 : T6 + polymer coating @ 3 g/kg of seedsT8 : T6 + polymer coating @ 4 g/kg of seedsT9 : T6 + polymer coating @ 5 g/kg of seedsNS- Non-Significant

of fungicide till the end of storage period. This, in thepresent study is reflected by reducing the seed infectionby pathogen (Table-4).

The enhanced germination and qualityparameters with treated seeds with fungicides andpolymer coating is because of the combined favorableeffects of these two chemicals. The fungicides protected

the seed deterioration by reducing the fungal invasion.The effectiveness of fungicides and polymer coatingmay be due to the compatibility and synergetic effect,which reduced the growth of the pathogen and favoredgermination and other parameters (Omvir Singh et al.1973; Sindhan and Bose, 1981; Sundaresh et al.1987).

The electrical conductivity of seed leachateindicates the membrane integrity and quality of seedand it is negatively correlated with seed quality. In thepresent study, evidently implicate a progressive butrapid increase in electrical conductivity of seed leachateduring storage period (Table-3). The average electricalconductivity at the initial period was 1.186 dSm-1 whichenhanced to 1.357 dSm-1 at the end of storage periodindicating increased permeability of membrane anddecline in the compactness of seeds. Due to fungicidesand polymer coating, the treatments T9 and T8 and T5recorded lower electrical conductivity of 1.257, 1.300and 1.378 dSm-1, respectively compared to control(1.418 dSm-1). This might be due to the higher incidenceof fungi which leads to loss of membrane integrity inthe seeds stored without chemical treatment. Thepolymer coating holds the seeds intact and covers the

81

Table 2: Effect of polymer and fungicide treatments on vigour index and rate of germination in soybean during storage

Treatments Period of Storage (Months)

Vigour index Rate of germination

Initial 2 4 6 8 10 Initial 2 4 6 8 10

T0 4100 3527 3298 2862 2704 2551 62.24 58.84 54.19 52.04 50.49 49.74

T1 4187 3624 3489 3045 2883 3067 62.25 59.17 55.27 53.62 52.08 50.82

T2 4118 3693 3593 3392 3039 2946 61.93 59.34 55.52 54.12 52.22 51.07

T3 4245 3760 3714 3581 3253 3064 62.36 60.63 59.66 57.69 56.72 55.85

T4 4433 3800 3886 3599 3337 3136 64.79 61.91 60.29 57.47 57.16 55.99

T5 4354 4255 4096 3889 3493 3411 63.54 64.19 62.39 61.32 60.26 58.29

T6 4283 3866 3770 3617 3090 3058 63.83 60.92 58.75 56.58 55.42 54.25

T7 4371 3929 3797 3720 3317 3176 63.28 63.35 60.17 58.97 56.32 55.17

T8 4534 4034 3976 3801 3466 3325 64.05 63.42 61.50 59.25 56.44 55.24

T9 4581 4335 4052 4012 3617 3573 64.52 64.17 63.89 61.72 60.94 58.77

Mean 4321 3872 3767 3552 3220 3131 63.28 61.59 59.16 57.28 55.80 53.52

S.E m+ 50.00 49.00 45.00 51.00 56.00 45.00 0.76 0.49 0.59 0.60 0.59 0.65

CD (0.05) NS 141.79 129.43 145.90 160.49 129.69 2.20 1.41 1.706 1.74 1.71 1.88

Table 3: Effect of polymer and fungicide treatments on dry weight of seedling and electrical conductivity in soybean duringstorage

Treatments Period of Storage (Months)

Dry weight of seedling (mg) Electrical conductivity (dSm-1)

Initial 2 4 6 8 10 Initial 2 4 6 8 10

T0 110.8 107.3 104.3 103.8 102.0 100.8 1.183 1.241 1.280 1.293 1.346 1.418

T1 108.6 108.9 105.9 104.7 103.3 101.7 1.185 1.235 1.237 1.262 1.329 1.398

T2 108.5 107.9 106.7 105.7 104.1 102.5 1.189 1.240 1.273 1.279 1.337 1.400

T3 110.4 109.7 107.8 106.5 104.6 102.8 1.200 1.249 1.263 1.287 1.329 1.393

T4 111.0 109.7 108.3 106.2 104.5 103.6 1.174 1.212 1.253 1.276 1.307 1.370

T5 109.3 110.8 110.0 108.3 106.0 104.4 1.192 1.190 1.255 1.279 1.310 1.378

T6 109.8 108.2 107.3 106.8 104.2 103.4 1.197 1.242 1.247 1.254 1.294 1.342

T7 108.4 108.0 107.0 107.0 105.3 103.0 1.193 1.209 1.207 1.234 1.274 1.312

T8 110.4 108.8 107.9 107.0 105.3 103.4 1.178 1.190 1.206 1.279 1.257 1.300

T9 110.5 110.8 108.1 108.3 106.2 104.5 1.174 1.75 1.187 1.205 1.220 1.257

Mean 109.8 108.9 107.3 106.4 104.5 102.9 1.186 1.217 1.140 1.259 1.300 1.357

S.E m+ 2.63 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.77 0.58 0.008 0.004 0.003 0.013 0.010 0.008

CD (0.05) NS 1.91 1.88 1.88 2.22 1067 NS 0.012 0.008 0.038 0.029 0.023

82

cracks and aberrations of the seed coat and thusreduces the leaching of electrolytes (Struve and Hopper1996).

Storage fungi have been reported to invade anddestroy seeds if the seeds are not protected and storageenvironment is favorable to them, which may leads toloss of viability, development of musty odors anddiscoloration of seeds. The incidence of storagepathogen increases with increase in storage period(Prasanna 1994). The per cent infection differed withseed treatments and storage period. The average seedinfection percentage at the initial period was 2.75 whichincreased gradually and rapidly to 14.84 per cent atthe end of storage period. The minimum infection wasobserved in seeds treated with Vitavax and polymer @5 g per kg of seed (T9) followed by Bavistin and polymer@ 5 g per kg of seed (T5) which recorded 11.45 and11.46 per cent infection, respectively at the end ofstorage period. Whereas, the untreated (T0) seedsrecorded significantly higher seed infection (21.44%)at the end of storage period. The polymer might haveacted as barrier for the absorption of moisture from the

Table 4. Effect of polymer and fungicide treatments on seed infection (%) in soybean during storage

Treatments Period of storage (Months)Initial 2 4 6 8 10

T0 3.97 7.89 10.99 14.98 18.68 21.44(11.50)* (16.32) (19.37) (22.78) (25.62) (27.60)

T1 3.87 6.70 9.95 14.48 16.49 19.72(11.35) (15.12) (18.40) (20.70) (23.97) (26.38)

T2 2.96 6.37 9.99 12.20 14.74 16.97(9.91) (14.62) (18.43) (20.45) (22.59) (24.34)

T3 2.84 6.30 7.99 11.69 15.63 13.42(9.70) (14.54) (16.43) (20.00) (23.30) (21.50)

T4 2.75 5.92 7.99 11.19 13.90 12.84(9.55) (14.09) (16.43) (19.55) (21.90) (21.02)

T5 1.46 4.88 5.95 9.95 11.86 11.46(6.95) (12.77) (14.12) (18.41) (20.16) (19.80)

T6 1.62 5.98 7.95 9.96 15.97 16.97(7.32) (14.17) (16.38) (18.41) (23.57) (24.34)

T7 1.59 5.60 6.97 8.93 16.74 15.19(7.25) (13.70) (15.32) (17.40) (24.16) (22.95)

T8 1.46 5.19 6.87 7.95 10.86 11.71(6.95) (13.17) (15.20) (16.39) (19.25) (20.02)

T9 0.47 3.87 4.98 6.95 9.99 11.45(3.93) (11.35) (12.90) (15.29) (18.43) (19.749)

Mean 2.75 5.83 7.84 10.52 14.37 14.84(8.44) (13.98) (16.30) (18.94) (22.29) (22.67)

S.E m+ 0.17 0.24 0.22 0.32 0.27 0.04CD (0.05) 0.05 0.69 0.63 0.91 0.79 1.16

* Figures in parenthesis are arcsined transformed values

environment and also prevented the loss of quality ofseeds by avoiding fungal infection which is not so inthe untreated seeds.

lks;chu chtksa dks ohVkWosDl QQ~Vuk’kd ¼5 xzke izfr fdyks nj ls½rFkk ikWyhej }kjk mipkfjr djus ls m™kr chtkdqj.k] cht vkst]ikSnksa dk vf/kd otu] bysfDVªdy daMfMVhfoVh rFkk jksx tud dhde la[;k ik;h x;h A okWfofLVu rFkk ikWyhej }kjk mipkfjr chtksadk izHkko nwljs uEcj ij nh A chtksipkj djus ls lks;chu Qly dscht dh xq.koŸkk mŸke ik;h x;h A

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Anonymous (1999) International Rules for Seed Testing. SeedSci & Technol 27: 25-30

83

Duan X , Burris JS (1997) Film coating impairs leaching ofgermination inhibitors in sugar beet seeds. Crop Sci37: 515-520

Gupta IJ, Schmitthenner AE , Mc Donald MB(1993) Effect ofstorage fungi on seed vigour of soybean. Seed Sci& Technol 21:581-591

Larissa LP, Cladio B , Jefferson LSC(2004) Storage of drybean seeds coated with polymer and treated withfungicides. Pesqagropee Brass 39 (7):2-10

Omvir Singh, Agarwal VK, Nene L(1973) Influence of fungicidalseed treatment on the mycoflora of stored soybean.Indian J Agric Sci 43(8):820-824

Prasanna KPR (1994) Storage conditions for seed health.Abstracts paper of IX All India Seed Seminar. SeedTech News 24 (4):71

Sindhan GS , Bose SA (1981) Evaluation of fungicides againstanthracnose of French bean caused byColletotrichum lindemuthianum. Indian Phytopath34(3):325-329

Struve TH, Hopper WT (1996) The effect of polymer filmcoating on cotton seed imbibitions, EC, germinationand emergence. Proceedings of Belt wide CottonConference Nashville TN USA January 9-12,2:1167-1170

Sundaresh HN, Ranganathan KJ, Janaradhan A, VishwanathaSR (1987) Chemical seed treatment against seedborne fungi in soybean. Curr Res 16:110-111

Taylor AG, Eckenrode CJ , Straub RW(2001) Seed coatingtechnologies and treatments for onion. Challengesand Progress in Horticultural Sciences 36(2):199-205

Vanagamudi K, Srimathi P, Natarajan N , Bhaskaran M(2003)Current scenario of seed coating polymer. ICAR –short course on seed hardening and pelletingtechnologies for rainfed garden land ecosystems :80-100

West SH, Loftin SK, Wahl M, Batich CD, Beatty CL(1985)Polymers as moisture barriers to maintain seedquality. Crop Sci 25:941-944

(Manuscript Receivd : 08.07.2010; Accepted 09.07.2010)

84

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 84-87 (2012)

Management of damping-off of fennel under nursery condition inGujarat

R.N. Pandey, R.B. Patel, G.B. Valand, Ashok Mishra and S.J. Patel

Department of Plant PathologyB.A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural UniversityAnand 388 110 (Gujarat)

Abstract

Damping-off caused by Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson)Fitz. is an important disease of fennel under nursery condition.Eleven treatments viz. T1: Seed treatment with metalaxyl MZ@ 6 g./ kg seeds (STM); T2: STM and soil drenching ofmetalaxyl MZ, 0.02% @ 1.0 l/ sq.m thrice at the seedgermination and at 10 days intervals (SDM); T3: STM and soilsolarization (SS) and SDM @ 2.0 l/ sq.m twice at the seedgermination and at 10 day interval; T4: Seed treatment withTrichoderma culture @ 10 g./ kg. seeds (STT); T5: STT andsoil application of Trichoderma culture@ 10 kg/ ha (SAT); T6:STT + SS + SAT; T7: STT + SAT + SDM @ 2.0 l/ sq.m twiceat the seed germination and at 10 day interval; T8: STT +SDM @ 2.0 l/ sq.m twice at seed germination and at 10 dayintervals; T9: STT + two drenching of copper oxychloride, 0.2%@ 2.0 l/ sq. m at seed germination and at 10 day intervals;T10: STM + soil application of castor cake @ 25 kg. /ha andT11: untreated control, were tried for the management of thedisease for three years i.e. 2001 to 2003. None of thetreatments showed the adverse effect on seed germination.Minimum damped – off (dead) seedlings (75.92/sq.m) andmaximum transplantable (healthy) seedlings (282.67/ Sq. m)were obtained with the treatment T3. This was closely followedby T2, wherein 86.42 damped – off seedlings and 254.75transplantable seedlings/sq. m were obtained. However,treatment T7 and T8 gave 98.42 and 97.83 damped – offseedlings /sq. m but yielded low transplantable seedlings of214.50 and 208.17/ sq. m respectively. Among all, thetreatment T2 with maximum ICBR of 1: 4.49 wasrecommended to farmers for the disease management undernursery condition.

Keyword:Damping-off, Fennel, Pythiumaphanidermatum

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill) belongs to Apiacaefamily, which is mainly cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthanand Uttar Pradesh. It is used as condiment and culinaryspice. Fennel is cultivated in about 25,000 ha with a

grain yield of 2000 to 2500 Kg/ha and a production ofabout 30,000 MT in our country. The crop suffers withmany diseases (Pandey and Dange, 1998). Damping-off caused by Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitz.is an important disease of fennel under nurserycondition, as it reduces the population of transplantableseedlings. The disease becomes severe particularly inintermittent rains during the month of July and Augustand often it becomes difficult to manage the diseasewith the conventional fungicides. Therefore, theexperiment was planned to find out effective andeconomical treatment to manage the disease.

Material and methods

Field trials were conducted during kharif 2001, 2002and 2003 at glass house complex, BACA Anand withfennel cv. Gujarat Fennel-2 in randomized block designwith eleven treatments (Table 1) of fungicides in fourreplications. The seeds were treated either withmetalaxyl MZ @ 6 g/ kg seeds or with the Trichodermaculture @ 10 g/ kg seeds at the time of sowing. Theseeds were sown by broadcasting in beds of 1.0 x 1.0m @ seed rate of 2.5 kg. /100 sq. m. To get goodgermination beds were covered with green leaves oftrees for 10 days on raised wooden sticks and sprinkledwater daily to moisten the soil and creating the congenialcondition for germination. The fungicides viz. metalaxylMZ, 0.02% and copper- oxy- chloride, 0.2% wereapplied by drenching the solution @ 2.0 l/ sq. m and1.0 l/ sq. m as per the treatments with the help of watercan sprinkler. Similarly, the castor cake @ 25 kg/ haand Trichoderma culture @ 10 kg/ ha were applied insoil by broadcasting at the time of sowing and mixedwith the soil. Soil solarization was under taken duringsummer (May month) for 20 days by covering the moistsoil with 20 μm LLDP film.

85

Tab

le1.

Ger

min

atio

n co

unt,

dam

ped–

off

seed

lings

and

tran

spla

ntab

le s

eedl

ings

of f

enne

l und

er n

urse

ry c

ondi

tions

Tre

atm

en

ts**

Ger

min

atio

n co

unt/1

00 s

q. c

m.

No.

of d

ampe

d –

off s

eedl

ing/

m2

No.

of t

rans

plan

tabl

e se

edlin

gs/m

2

2001

2002

2003

Pool

ed20

0120

0220

03po

oled

2001

2002

2003

Pool

edT1

:17

.60

18.0

516

.25

17.3

060

.50

ef19

8.25

ab17

1.50

cd

143.

42 b

c90

.25

ef19

0.00

b10

4.25

fg12

8.17

ef

(7.7

8)*

(14.

06)

(13.

09)

(11.

64)

(9.5

0)(1

3.74

)(1

0.21

)(1

1.15

)T2

:17

.95

18.7

516

.00

17.5

756

.50

f11

2.50

c90

.25

h86

.42

ef12

9.00

b38

4.50

a25

0.75

b25

4.75

ab

(7.5

1)(1

0.38

)(9

.50)

(9.1

3)(1

1.36

)(1

9.32

)(1

5.83

)(1

5.50

)T3

:18

.30

18.7

015

.50

17.5

041

.25

g10

6.00

c80

.50

i75

.92

f14

6.25

a41

3.75

a28

8.00

a28

2.67

a(6

.42)

(10.

18)

(8.9

7)(8

.52)

(12.

09)

(20.

17)

(16.

97)

(16.

41)

T4:

18.1

518

.60

16.0

017

.58

85.7

5 bc

204.

00 a

b18

4.75

b15

8.17

ab

81.7

5 f

180.

25 b

96.7

5 gh

119.

58 f

(9.2

6)(1

4.23

)(1

3.59

)(1

2.36

)(9

.04)

(13.

25)

(9.8

3)(1

0.70

)T5

:18

.55

18.6

016

.25

17.8

090

.50

b20

0.25

ab

178.

50 b

c15

6.42

ab

82.5

0 f

186.

25 b

106.

50 fg

125.

08 e

f(9

.51)

(14.

12)

(13.

36)

(12.

33)

(9.0

6)(1

3.50

)(1

0.32

)(1

0.96

)T6

:18

.65

18.2

016

.75

17.8

785

.25

bc14

3.50

bc

112.

25 e

113.

67 c

d99

.25

de32

5.25

a12

5.75

e18

3.42

cde

(9.2

3)(1

1.89

)(1

0.59

)(1

0.57

)(9

.96)

(18.

03)

(11.

21)

(13.

07)

T7:

18.1

018

.70

15.5

017

.43

63.7

5 e

134.

00 b

c97

.50

g98

.42

de12

0.75

bc

350.

75 a

172.

00 c

214.

50 a

bc(7

.98)

(11.

47)

(9.8

7)(9

.77)

(10.

99)

(18.

72)

(13.

11)

(14.

27)

T8:

17.9

518

.15

16.5

017

.53

65.5

0 e

127.

50 b

c10

0.50

fg97

.83

de11

7.25

bc

362.

25 a

145.

00 c

208.

17 b

c(8

.09)

(11.

10)

(10.

03)

(9.7

4)(1

0.83

)(1

8.96

)(1

2.04

)(1

3.94

)T9

:18

.05

18.1

516

.50

17.5

771

.75

d14

9.25

bc

105.

25 e

f10

8.75

de

111.

25 c

d33

9.25

a13

8.25

d19

6.25

bcd

(8.4

7)(1

2.03

)(1

0.26

)(1

0.25

)(1

0.54

)(1

8.41

)(1

1.76

)(1

3.57

)T1

0:17

.65

18.5

516

.75

17.6

582

.50

c18

5.25

abc

162.

75 d

144.

50 b

92.0

0 ef

195.

25 b

109.

50 f

132.

25 d

ef(9

.08)

(13.

34)

(12.

87)

(11.

77)

(9.5

9)(1

3.94

)(1

0.46

)(1

1.33

)T1

1:17

.65

18.6

516

.50

17.6

010

6.50

a26

1.75

a19

8.50

a18

8.92

a70

.00

g14

0.00

b90

.50

h10

0.17

f(1

0.32

)(1

6.11

)(1

4.09

)(1

3.50

)(8

.34)

(11.

83)

(9.5

1)(9

.90)

Trea

tmen

t Effe

ct:

S. E

m. ±

0.46

0.29

1.57

0.51

0.11

1.02

0.12

0.36

0.18

0.89

0.16

0.71

CD

at 5

%N

SN

SN

SN

S0.

322.

950.

361.

000.

522.

580.

452.

10C

V %

5.10

3.13

19.3

310

.90

2.57

16.1

72.

170.

993.

5510

.95

2.62

8.35

Yea

r x tr

eatm

ent E

ffect

: S. E

m. ±

0.9

60.

600.

54C

D a

t 5 %

NS

NS

1.48

C V

%10

.90

10.9

98.

35

*Fi

gure

s in

par

enth

esis

are

Squ

are

root

tran

sfor

med

val

ues;

Not

e: T

reat

men

ts w

ith th

e le

tter/

s in

com

mon

are

non

sig

nific

ant b

y th

e D

NM

RT

at 5

% le

vel.

**Tr

eatm

ent:T

1: Se

ed tr

eatm

ent w

ith m

etal

axyl

Mz

@ 6

gs.

/ kg

seed

s; (S

TM);

T 2: ST

M+

Soil d

renc

hing

of m

etal

axyl

Mz,

0.0

2% @

1.0

l/ s

q. m

thric

e at

the

seed

ger

min

atio

n an

d at

10

days

inte

rval

(SD

M) ;

T3:

STM

+ So

il sol

ariz

atio

n ( S

S) +

SD

M @

2.0

l/ s

q.m

twic

e at

the

seed

ger

min

atio

n an

d at

10

days

inte

rval

; T4:

S T

with

Trich

oderm

a c

ultu

re @

10

gms.

/ kg.

See

ds (S

TT);

T 5: S

TT +

Soi

l app

licat

ion

of T

rich

oderm

a c

ultu

re @

10

kg/ h

a (S

AT)

; T6:

STT

+ S

S +

SA

T; T

7: S

TT +

SA

T +

SD

M @

2.0

l/ s

q.m

twic

e at

the

seed

ger

min

atio

n an

d at

10

days

inte

rval

; T 8:

STT

+ S

DM

@ 2

.0 l/

sq.

m tw

ice

at th

e se

ed g

erm

inat

ion

and

at 1

0 da

ys in

terv

al ;

T 9: S

TT +

two

dren

chin

g of

cop

per o

xych

lorid

e, 0

.2%

@ 2

l/ s

q. m

at s

eed

germ

inat

ion

and

at 1

0 da

ysin

terv

als;

T10

: STM

+ s

oil a

pplic

atio

n of

cas

tor c

ake

@ 2

5 kg

. /ha

and

T11

: unt

reat

ed c

ontro

l

86

Table 2. Economics of treatments for the management of damping – off of Fennel under nursery conditionsCost of fungicides/ No. of Income Additional income ICBR

Treatment cake with transplantable (Rs/ha) over controllabour charges seedlings/ ha (Rs/ha)

(Rs/ ha) (in lakh)T1 3286 12.817 64085 14000 1 : 4.26T2 17207 25.475 127375 77290 1 : 4.49T3 30067 28.267 141335 91250 1 : 3.03T4 675 11.958 59790 9705 1 : 14.38T5 25775 12.508 62540 12455 1 : 0.48T6 43475 18.342 91710 41625 1 : 0.96T7 35056 21.450 107250 57165 1 : 1.63T8 9956 20.817 104085 54000 1 : 5.42T9 21175 19.625 98125 48040 1 : 2.27T10 3411 13.225 66125 16040 1 : 4.70T11 - 10.017 50085 - -

1. Price of 1000 seedlings: Rs. 50. 5. Price of 25 μ LLDPE plastic: Rs. 70/ kg2. Price of Ridomil MZ 72 WP:Rs. 1568 / kg 6. Price of Trichoderma culture: Rs. 250/ kg3. Price of Blitox 50 WP: Rs. 250/ kg 7. Labour charges Rs. 50/ day.4. Price of castor cake: Rs. 3/ kg

The seed germination counts were taken aftertwelve day of sowing by randomly selecting fivequadrates each of 10 x 10 cm/ bed. Similarly, damped-off (dead) seedlings were uprooted and counted atalternate days in each bed of the treatments at theinitiation of the disease. Finally from each bedtransplantable (healthy) seedlings were counted (table1). The remaining diseased and blemished seedlingswere considered as non transplantable seedlings.

The number of damped –off seedlings andtransplantable seedlings/ m2 were converted into squareroot transformation and analyzed statistically by theDNMRT test. The economics of the treatments wereworked out (Table 2) and conclusions were drawn.

Results and discussion

The pooled results of three years (Table 1) for seedgermination count were non-significant showing noadverse effect of the treatments on seed germination.Among the treatments, minimum damped – off (dead)seedlings (75.92/ sq m) and maximum transplantable(healthy) seedlings (282.67/ sq m) were obtained withthe treatment T3 (seed treatment with metalaxyl MZ @6 g/ kg seed (STM) + soil solarization (SS) + soildrenching of metalaxyl MZ, 0.02 % @ 2.0 l / sq.m twice

at the seed germination and at 10 days interval (SDM).Metalaxyl MZ and soil solarization have been foundquite effective in the management of the disease undernursery of vegetables and other crops (Raj et al. 1997;Sofi, et al.; 2007; Kumar and Hooda, 2007). Whereas,soil solarization was also found. This was followed bythe treatment T2 (STM + SDM @ 1.0 l/ sq.m thrice atthe seed germination and at 10 days intervals), whichresulted in 86.42/sq.m damped - off seedling and254.75/sq.m transplantable seedlings. However,treatment T7 (S.T. with Trichoderma culture @ 10 g/ kgseed (STT) + soil application of Trichoderma culture @10 kg/ ha (SAT) + SDM @ 2.0 l/ sq.m twice at the seedgermination and at 10 day interval and T8 (STT + SDM@ 2.0 l/ sq.m twice at seed germination and at 10 daysinterval), which gave 98.42 and 97.83/sq.m damped -off seedlings but yielded low transplantable seedlingsof 214 .50 and 208.17/ sq m respectively.

Considering the efficacy, additional income andICBR of the treatments, the treatment T2 i.e. seedtreatment with metalaxyl MZ @ 6 g./ kg seeds and soildrenching of metalaxyl MZ, 0.02% @ 1.0 l/ sq.m thriceat the seed germination and at 10 day interval withmaximum ICBR of 1: 4.49 was found superior and hasbeen recommended to farmers for adopting as packageof practice for the disease management.

87

References

Pandey R N, Dange S R S (1998) Diseases of coriander andfennel-A review. Agric Rev 19(2): 120-125

Raj H, Bharadwaj ML, Sharma N K (1997)Soil solarization forthe control of damping -off of different vegetablecrops in nursery. Indian Phytopath 50: 524-528

Rakesh Kumar, Hooda Indra (2007) Integrated managementof damping –off of tomato caused by Pythiumaphanidermatum. J Mycol Plant Pathol 37 (1): 259-262

Sofi TA, Tewari AK ,Razdan VK (2007) Soil solarizationreduces damping-off caused by soil borne fungalpathogens and improves vigour of cauliflowerseedling. J Mycol Pl Pathol 37 (1): 68- 71

(Manuscript Receivd : 10.07.2010; Accepted 10.08.2010)

88

Insect pest fauna of rice in Nagarjuna Sagar Project CommandArea of Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh during Kharif season

R. Muralidhar Naik and P. RajanikanthAgricultural Research Station, KampasagarAcharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural UniversityRajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030, India

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 88-89 (2012)

Abstract

An investigation was conducted on the seasonal incidence ofrice pests in the monoculture rice growing Nagarjuna sagarproject area of Nalgonda district during kharif-2006 to 2009.A total of 13 insect pests were found infesting rice duringkharif ,among them Brown plant hopper and White back planthopper were found causing major economical damage. Stemborer was found to cause moderate damage during kharif butthe level of damage was high during rabi. Moderate to highlevel of incidence of Gall midge was observed in latetransplanted conditions while peak level of Leaf folderpopulation was observed during the months of Septemberand October. The minor pest Panicle mite was found to attainthe status of major pests because of its regular incidenceand considerable economic damage.

Keywords : Insect pest, rice

Rice is grown in an area of 10 lakh hectares inNagarjuna Sagar project command area of Nalgondadistrict of Andhra Pradesh. In spite of the cultivation ofhigh yielding rice varieties the average yield of rice perhectare in the area is still very low. Among the variousconstraints in low land rice production, the damage dueto large number of insect pests right from sowing innursery till the harvest of the crop is substantial. Thoughit has been recorded that 27 insect pests are causingpotential economic damage to rice in India (Regupathyet al. 1996). Information available on insect pestsdynamics associated with field crop of paddy from thisregion is meager. An attempt has been made to studythe insect fauna associated with rice crop, along withtheir seasonal incidence and economic importance.Rowing survey and fixed plot survey indicated that totally

13 insect species were found attacking paddy duringKharif season and all of them have been identified (Table1).

During the survey, brown plant hopper(Nilaparvata lugens Stal), & white backed plant hopper(Sogatella furcifera Horv.) were found to be the key pestsof rice under irrigated conditions during kharif season.Brown Plant Hopper and white backed plant hopperwhose incidence is very common in coastal belts wheremoderate to high temperature coupled with highhumidity levels occur, Interestingly the plant hoppersare attaining the status of key pests in theNagarjunasagar command area where temperatures arehigh but humidity levels are low it may be due to themonocropping pattern of paddy in two seasons i.e.,kharif and rabi.

The paddy stem borer Scirpophaga incertulasWalker whose incidence is noticed both in kharif andrabi is causing moderate damage and its damage wasfound comparatively low during kharif. The other majorpests green leaf hopper (Nephotettix Sp) and paniclemite (Steneotarsonemus spinki Smiley) were also foundcausing moderate damage. The panicle mite which inrecent times gained importance has already achievedstatus of major pest in the region due to its heavyeconomic damage, it may be due to the favourableclimatic conditions i.e high temperatures existing in theregion. Gall midge, Orseolia oryzae, Wood masonincidence was found to be very negligible in the regionbut its incidence was observed under late transplantedconditions particularly when there is delay in release ofwater from the project. Paddy leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocismedinalis Guenee is observed both in Kharif and Rabibut its peak is observed during the months of Septemberand October, over all its damage was found to be low

89

Table 1. Insect pest fauna infesting paddy at its peak and the level of damageScientific name Period of infestation Economic statusOrseolia oryzae Wood mason September to October lowDicladispa armigera Olivier July lowHydrellia phillipina Ferino August to September lowCnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenee September to October lowScirpophaga incertulas Walker October lowMelanitis leda ismene Godfrey October Very lowNephotettix sp. August to December ModerateNilaparvata lugens Stal October to December SevereSogatetella furcifera Horvath October to December SevereSteneotarsonemus spinki Smiley November to December ModerateMythimna sp nr Albavena November to December Very lowOxya nitidula Walker September to November Very lowOligonychus oryzae Hirst September to October Very low

in the region. Rice hispa, Dicladispa armigera Olivier, andWhorl maggot, Hydrellia phillipina Ferino were noticedrarely and was found to cause low damage. The minorpests namely, Rice butterfly (Melanitis leda ismeneGodfrey), Rice grass hopper (Oxya nitidula Walker) andpaddy spider mite (Oligonychus oryzae Hirst) incidencewas also recorded in the crop but the pests caused notmuch economic loss. Among the three minor pestsmentioned above the paddy spider mite is expected toattain the status of a potential major pest in the region asits incidence is observed regularly.

Reference

Regupathy A., Palaniswamy S., Chandramohan N,Gunathilagaraj K ( 1996) A guide on Crop pests.Sooriya Desktop Publishers Coimbatore: 1-10

(Manuscript Receivd : 01.07.2010; Accepted 02.09.2010)

90

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 90-93 (2012)

Abstract

The Physical and Engineering properties of rice such asdimensions (mm), L/B ratio, geometric mean diameter (mm),sphericity (%), aspect ratio, volume (mm3), surface area (mm2),bulk density (Kg/m3), true density (Kg/m3), porosity (%) andtest weight (gm) were studied for raw paddy (var. Kranti,WGL32100, MR219), grown in Jabalpur under rainfedconditions. These properties are necessary for the design ofstorage, handling and processing equipments. Var. Kranti(m.c. 13.7% wb), var. WGL32100 (m.c. 14% wb) and var.MR219 (m.c. 13.6% wb) falls under common, fine andsuperfine category respectively with the L/B ratio of 2.13, 2.88and 3.38 respectively. The geometric mean diameter (GMD),surface area and volume were 3.03mm, 31.23mm2 and14.66mm3 for var. Kranti; 2.37mm, 17.16mm2 and 6.98mm3

for var. WGL32100 and 2.91mm, 26.61mm2 and 12.96mm3

for MR219 respectively. The sphericity and aspect ratio were52.43% and 0.467 for var. Kranti; 47.08% and 0.356 for var.WGL32100 and 40.81% and 0.286 for var. MR219respectively. Finally, the true density, bulk density and porositywere 1056.41 kg/m3, 565.61 kg/m3 and 46.45% for var. Kranti;1162.79 kg/m3, 592.41 kg/m3 and 49.05% for var. WGL32100and 1136.36 kg/m3, 530.48 kg/m3 and 53.29% for var. MR219respectively.

Keywords: Physical and Engineering properties; Rawpaddy; Rice milling

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food for more thanhalf of the world's population and is second only to wheatin terms of annual production for food use. About 90%of the world's rice is grown and consumed in Asia. Riceis an economically important food crop with nutritionaldiversification and helps in poverty alleviation. Rice isranked as the world's number one human food crop. InIndia, it is grown in an area of more than 43.9 million hawith a production of about 89.13 million tones andproductivity 2177 Kg/ha, respectively (Agriculturestatistics at a glance, 2009). Rice systems support awide variety of plants and animals, which also helps in

Varietal influence on physical characteristics of brown rice

V.K. Tiwari and Nitya SharmaPost Harvest Process and Food EngineeringJawaharlal Nehru Krishi VishwavidyalayaJabalpur 482 004 (MP)

the supplement of the rural diets and incomes.

In Madhya Pradesh rice is grown in the area ofabout 15.59 lakh ha with production of 14.62 lakh tonsand productivity 989 kg/ha which is far below than theaverage national productivity (2010 kg/ha). In M.P., totalarea under rice production is 1.7 million ha in whichonly 223 thousands ha comes under irrigated situation.Total rice production is 1710 thousand tones in which1313 thousands tones is from rain fed and 397 thousandtones is from irrigated area. The productivity of totalrice area in M.P. is 1103 kg/ha while irrigated area has1273 kg/ha (Rice Knowledge Management Portal 2010).

The Physical and Engineering properties ofpaddy influence the design and evaluation of riceprocessing including drying, husking, whitening andpolishing as well as grading machines, storage andgrain moving equipment. For example, huskingcharacteristics of paddy are dependent upon its shapeand size (Shitanda et al. 2001) Grain thickness has amajor effect on the volume expansion ratio of the cookedrice followed by degree of milling and then by apparentamylase content of the grain (Mohapatra and Bal 2007).The shape of the grain affects the conveyingcharacteristics by air or water. To obtain better qualitymilled rice, the knowledge of physical properties ofpaddy grain is necessary for modelling of dynamicabrasion in a rice milling operation as well as fordesigning of suitable polishing systems (Mohapatra andBal, 2007). Thousand grain weight of paddy is used forcalculating the Head rice yield (HRY).

Physical properties of paddy have beeninvestigated and reported by several researchers(Reddy and Chakraverty 2004; Correa et al. 2007;Varnamkhasti et al. 2007; Bhonsle, 2010). However,present study was conducted to determine some of thepaddy physical properties cultivated in Jabalpur (M.P.)under rainfed conditions.

91

Materials and methods

The paddy rice grain used in this study was obtainedfrom Agrometerology Department of College ofAgriculture Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru KrishiViswavidyalaya, Jabalpur (MP). The grains werecleaned manually and the foreign matter, as stones,straw and dirt was removed. The moisture content ofthe grains (13.6% wet basis) was determined using Airoven method. Rough rice grains (var. Kranti, WGL32100and MR219) were randomly selected and their threeprincipal dimensions (length, width and thickness) weremeasured using a dial gauge to an accuracy of 0.01mm.The equivalent diameter Dp in mm considering a prolatespheroid shape for rough rice grain, was calculatedthrough the following expression (Mohsenin 1986).

Dp = [4L {(W+T) / 4}2]1/3

The sphericity f expresses the characteristic shape ofa solid object relative to that of a sphere of the samevolume and is defined as the ratio or surface area ofthe sphere having the same volume as that of the grainto the surface area of the grain, was determined as(Mohsenin 1986).

φ = {(LWT)1/3} / L

Thousand grain seed weight was determined bycounting 1000 kernels and weighing them in anelectronic balance. Jain and Bal (1997) have stated thatgrain volume, V and grain surface area, S may be givenby:

V = 0.25 [(π/6) L (W + T)2]

The volume magnitude obtained from the aboveequation is reasonable with regard to true density andgrain mass magnitudes.

S = (πBL2) / (2L - B)

Where, B = WT

The aspect ratio (Ra) is used in classification of grainshape and it was calculated as:

Ra = W / L

The true density, defined as the ratio of the mass ofpaddy and the true volume of the grain, was determinedusing the Toluene (C7H8) displacement method. Toluenewas used in place of water, because it is less absorbedby the grains. The volume of toluene displaced wasfound by immersing a weighted quantity of paddy in

Table 1. Physical parameters for different varieties

Property No. of Variety S.D.* Variety S.D.* Variety S.D.*observations Kranti WGL-32100 MR-219

Length (mm) 100 5.65 0.23 5.02 0.23 7.10 0.26Width (mm) 100 2.56 0.19 1.80 0.14 2.04 0.12Thickness (mm) 100 1.60 0.20 1.46 0.13 1.69 0.10L/B ratio 100 2.21 0.19 2.79 0.26 3.49 0.26GMD (mm) 100 2.90 0.15 2.37 0.10 2.91 0.10Sphericity (%) 100 50.43 3.13 47.16 2.33 40.90 1.68Aspect Ratio 100 0.45 0.03 0.36 0.03 0.28 0.02Volume (mm3) 100 12.93 2.03 7.06 0.95 12.99 1.32Surface area (mm2) 100 21.93 2.34 15.29 1.34 23.85 1.53Bulk density (kg/m3) 5 565.68 7.27 592.50 7.97 530.81 4.72True density (kg/m3) 5 1064.40 27.17 1141.88 21.69 1131.55 21.55Porosity (%) 5 46.81 1.83 48.09 1.30 53.07 1.241000 grain weight (gm) 5 23.89 1.85 13.24 0.70 24.90 1.15(*S.D. - Standard Deviation)

92

toluene (Mohsenin 1986). The bulk density is the massof a group of individual particles divided by the spaceoccupied by the entire mass, including the air spaceand was determined by measuring the volume of aweighted quantity of paddy. The porosity ε is thepercentage of air between the particles compared to aunit volume of grains and it was computed(Varnamkhasti et al. 2007) as:

ε = {(ρ t - ρb) / ρ t} × 100

Results and discussion

The L/B ratio for var. Kranti, WGL32100 and MR219were found to be 2.13, 2.88 and 3.38, respectively.Kranti comes under common category (i.e. L/B<2.50),var. WGL32100 comes under fine category (i.e. L/B=2.50 to 3.00) and var MR219 comes under superfinecategory (i.e. L/B>3.00). The grain size and shape ofmost high yielding rice varieties is short to medium boldwith translucent appearance (Banu et al. 1992). To gainand maintain the optimum milling rice grain quality, ricemust be harvested at proper moisture content andshould be dried carefully up to 14% moisture level (Diptiet al. 2003). The importance of axial dimensions indetermining aperture sizes and other parameters inmachine design have been discussed by Mohsenin(1986).

The geometric mean diameter (GMD) was foundto be 3.03mm for var. Kranti, 2.37mm for var. WGL32100and 2.91mm for var. MR219, while the correspondingsurface area was found to be 31.23mm2 for var. Kranti,17.16mm2 for var. WGL32100 and 26.61mm2 for var.

MR219. The geometric mean of the axial dimensions isuseful in the estimation of the projected area of a particlemoving in the turbulent or near-turbulent region of anair stream. This projected area of the particle (grain) isgenerally indicative of its pattern of behavior in a flowingfluid such as air, as well as the ease of separatingextraneous materials from the particle during cleaningby pneumatic means (Varnamkhasti et al. 2007). Thesphericity was found to be 52.43% for var. Kranti,47.08% for var. WGL32100 and 40.81% for var. MR219,which showed that the shape of var. MR219 made itmost difficult to roll on surface followed by var.WGL32100 and than var. Kranti. The aspect ratio, anindicator of a tendency toward an oblong shape, wasfound to be 0.467, 0.356 and 0.286 for var. Kranti,WGL32100 and MR219 respectively.

Thousand-grain weight of paddy of var. Kranti,WGL32100 and MR219 was 23.51gm, 12.61gm and24.72gm respectively. This parameter is a useful indexto "milling out-turn" in measuring the relative amount ofdockage or foreign material in a given lot of paddy andthe amount of shriveled or immature kernels (Luh 1980).

The true density, bulk density and porosity werefound to be 1056.41 kg/m3, 565.61 kg/m3 and 46.45%respectively for var. Kranti; 1162.79 kg/m3, 592.41 kg/m3 and 49.05% respectively for var. WGL32100 andfinally 1136.36 kg/m3, 530.48 kg/m3 and 53.29% for var.MR219. This showed that grains were heavier thanwater. This characteristic could be used to designseparation or cleaning process for grains since lighterfractions would float.

In conclusion, the information on engineeringproperties of paddy varieties Kranti, WGL32100 and

Fig. 1. Varietal variation in Length, Width, Thickness,L/B ratio, Aspect ratio and Geometric mean diameterof rough rice

Fig. 2. Varietal variation in Test weight, Surface area,Volume, Sphericity and Porosity of rough rice

93

MR219, which may be useful for designing variousequipments used for paddy processing based on theirL/B ratio (i.e. common, fine and superfine variety), isprovided.

Acknowledgement

This research work was supported by Department ofPost Harvest Process and Food Engineering andDepartment of Agrometerology, College of AgricultureEngineering JNKVV Jabalpur.

tcyiqj esa cgqrk;r esa mxkbZ tkus okyh /kku ¼Økafr] MCyw-th-,y-32100] ,e-vkj- 219½ dh HkkSfrd rFkk vfHk;kaf=dh; xq.kksa tSlsyEckbZ o pkSM+kbZ vuqikr T;kferh; vkSlr O;kl ¼mm½] xksykbZvfHkeq[krk vuqikr vk;ru ¼mm3½] i`"B {ks=Qy ¼mm3½] /kuRo¼kg/m3½] okLrfod /kuRo ¼kg/m3½] ja/kz izfr'kr rFkk ifj{k.k nzO;eku¼g½ dk v/;;u fd;k x;k A bu lHkh xq.kksa dk v/;;u HkaMkj.kbdkb;ksa dh lajpuk] j[kj[kko rFkk ilaLdj.k midj.kksa ds fuekZ.k ,oafodkl ds fy, vko';d gS A /kku dh Økafr ¼ueh izfr'kr 13.7%½]MCyw-th- ,y- 32100 ¼ueh izfr'kr 15%½ rFkk ,e-vkj- 219¼ueh izfr'kr 13.6%½ iztkfr;k¡ Øe'k% lk/kkj.k] mR—"V rFkk loksZR—"B Js.kh esa vkrh gS ftuds yEckbZ o pkSM+kbZ vuqikr Øe'k% 2-13]2-88 vkSj 3-38 vk;s A T;kferh; vkSlr O;kl] i`"B {ks=Qy vkSjvk;ru Økafr iztkfr ds fy, Øe'k% 3.03, 341.23 rFkk 14.33,MCyw-th-,y- 32100 ds fy, Øe'k% 2.37, 17.16 rFkk 6.98 vkSj

Fig. 3. Varietal variation in Bulk density and True den-sity of rough rice

,e-vkj- 219 ds fy, Øe'k% 2.91, 26.61 vkSj 12.96 vk;s AxksykbZ vksj vfHkeq[krk vuqikr Økafr iztkfr ds fy, Øe'k% 52.43%vkSj 0.467] MCyw-th-,y- 32100 iztkfr ds fy, Øe'k% 47.08%vkSj 0.346 rFkk ,e-vkj- 219 iztkfr ds fy, Øe'k% 40.91% vkSj0.286 vk;s A okjrfod /kuRo] /kuRo rFkk ja/k izfr'kr Økafr iztkfrds fy, Øe'k% 1046.41, 464.61 vkSj 46.45%] MCyw-th-,y-32100 iztkfr ds fy, Øe'k% 1162.79, 492.41 vkSj 49.04%rFkk ,e-vkj- 219 iztkfr ds fy, Øe'k% 1136.36, 430.48 vkSj43.29% vk;s A

References

Banu B, Kabir KA, Begum F, Choudhary NH (1992)Physiochemical properties of modern and local ricevarieties of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Rice J 3: 128-131

Bhonsle S J and Sellappan K (2010) Grain quality evaluationof traditionally cultivated rice varieties in Goa India.Recent Research in Sci and Technol 2(6): 88-97

Correa P C, Schwanz F da Silva, Jaren C, Afonso Junior P C,Arana I (2007) Physical and Mechanical Propertiesin Rice Processing. J Food Engg 79: 137-142

Dipti S S, Bari M N, Kabir K A (2003) Grain qualitycharacteristics of some Beruin rice varieties ofBangladesh. Pak J Nutr 2: 242-245

Luh B S (1980) Rice Production and Utilization, AVI publishingcompany, Inc. West Port, C.T

Mohapatra D, Bal S (2007) Effect of degree of milling onspecific energy consumption, optical measurementsand cooking quality of rice. J Food Engg 80: 119-125

Mohsenin N N (1986) Physical Properties of Plant and AnimalMaterials, 2nd Edition, Gordon and Breach SciencePublishers, New York

Reddy B S, Chakraverty A (2004) Physical properties of rawand parboiled paddy Bio-system Engg 88: 461-6

Sidhu J S, Gill M S, Bains G S (1975) Milling of Paddy inRelation to Yield and Quality of Rice of DifferentIndian Varieties J Agric Food Chem 23(6): 1183-1186

Varnamkhasti M G, Mobli H, Jafari A, Rafiee S,Heidarysoltanabadi M and Kheiralipour K (2007)Some engineering properties of paddy (var.Sazandegi). International J Agric and Bio 09-5: 763-766

(Manuscript Receivd : 29.12.2011; Accepted 06.05.2012)

94

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 94-100 (2012)

Abstract

This paper studies the occurrence pattern of mango hoppers{(Amritodus atkinsoni (Leth), Idioscopus dypealis (Leth.) andIdioscopus niveosparasus (nitidulus) (Leth.)} populationthrough a truncated binomial distribution at Jabalpur (M.P.).India The distribution contains two parameters n (assumedto be known) and p and these are estimated by method ofproportion of oneth cell (MPOC) and method of moments(MM). The data recorded at Imlia farm on mango hopperspopulation have been fitted by truncated binomial distributionand it is found that the distribution describes the datasatisfactorily well.

Keywords: Method of Proportion of Oneth Cell, Methodof Moments, Truncated Binomial Distribution, MangoHopper population

The mango [Mangifera indica (Linn.)] belongs to thefamily Anacardiaceae, is one of the most important fruitof India, is grown in an area of 22.05 lakh ha with anannual production of 1137.92 lakh tones (Gupta andNaik 2008) and accounts for 57.18 percent of the totalworld production (Anonymous 2008). The origin ofmango is in India and it has thousand of varietiescultivated (Salvi and Gunjate, 1988). In India, mangois extensively grown in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, AndhraPradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. It has greatadaptability and thrives under wide range of climaticand adaphic conditions. In Madhya Pradesh it is grownin about 45.9 thousand ha area with annual productionof 1403.5 metric tones and productivity of only 22.7tones/ha (Anonymous 2008).

All the cultivated mangoes belong to a singlespecies Mangifera indica Linn. A few other edible

A probability distribution for describing the pattern of mangohoppers population at Jabalpur

Ashok Kumar Tailor, H.L. Sharma, *S.B. Das and **Siddarth NayakDepartment of Mathematics and Statistics*Department of Entomology, **Central LibraryJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

species of Mangifera grown in the Malaysia region areMangifera odorta, Mangifera foetida and Mangiferacaesia. However, fruits of these species are not as goodin quality as those of Mangifera indica Linn.

The tree is hardy in the nature and hascomparatively low cost of the culture and maintenance.The tree is perennial, evergreen spreading type andattains good height. Leaves are alternate, flowers smalland fruit is a drupe, having a skin or the epicarp, theflesh or the mesocarp and the hard covering of the seedor stone known as the endocarp. Flowering period isgenerally from January to March under subtropicalcondition and fruits are obtained from May to August.

Agriculturist, biologist, and other scientists whohave been working in the field, face the problemsconcerned with planning, designing, conduction andanalysis of the experiments related to this crop. But, inrecent years, the application of probability distributionshas attracted increasing attention of scientists who areassociated with the research of insect-pests fordescribing the inherent variability in the event to beobserved from the field. Mango hopper is a dangerouspest and with increase in humidity during the floweringtime, incidence of mango hopper is very much increasedand sometimes it may result in no fruit set (Banerjee2011). The mango hoppers are also the seriousmonophagous pests of mango causing heavy damageof inflorescences, flowers, young fruits and young tenderfoliage (Amur 1986; Talpur et al. 2002). Debnath et al.(2009) reported that primary branches, panicle and leafare the most preferred sites for mango hopper. Thenymphs and adults suck the sap from inflorescence,tender shoots, leaves and developing fruits (Singh etal. 2010). Severe infestation results in dropping ofmajority of flowers and tender fruits. Damage to mango

95

crop may be as high as 60% (Atwal and Dhaliwal 2002).

The aim of the present paper is to propose a truncatedbinomial distribution which can describe the inherentvariability in the mango hopper population. Theparameters in the distribution are estimated by MPOCand method of moments.

Material and methods

In order to perform research for the spatial pattern ofoccurrence of mango hopper through probabilitydistributions, their methods of estimation of theparameters and impact of different treatmentsconsidered under study on the number of mangohopper, data were recorded from an experiment whichwas conducted in the experimental field of Departmentof Horticulture, Imalia, Jawaharlal Nehru KrishiVishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.) during rabi, 2009-10.These experiments were conducted to meet out theroutine objective of the experiment on mango plant.

The nine varieties of mango were taken intoconsideration to ascertain the mango hoppers on themango plants. The data on occurrence of mango hopperwere gathered since the incidence of pest. Forpopulation dynamics, observations were recorded onmango hoppers twice in a standard week from four siteseach of trunk, primary, secondary, and tertiary branch,panicle or inflorescence and leaves (24 observationsper plant). There were nine varieties and eightinsecticidal treatments with three replication forscreening and evaluation respectively against themango hopper. The details of different insecticides usedin this experiment were given with their requisiteformulation, doses etc. Observations were taken oneday before and 1, 3, 7, 10, 15 days after spraying ofinsecticides.

In order to perform research for the occurrenceof mango hoppers on mango plant, the number ofindividual mango hoppers was counted twice in astandard on each plant. The original counts were thensummarized in the form of frequency distributionshowing the number of sites containing x=0, 1, 2,3……mango hopper of a given species. If each plantwas exposed equally to the chance of containing themango hopper during the study period, the probableprobability distributions would be Poisson, binomial,negative binomial distributions and other.

A major motivating force was the empiricalobservation that many distributions obtained in thecourse of experimental investigations usually had onexcess of zeros as compared with a Poisson distribution

with the same mean. This phenomenon is to beexpected when same kind of clustering is present andindeed many of distributions do passes the propertythat the proportion in the zero class is greater than exp.[(expected value)], which is true value which would bepredicted on the basis of a Poisson distribution withregards discrete distribution.

We had considered truncated binomialdistribution at the point zero for fitting of the variouscharacters of mango plants viz. trunk primary branch,secondary branch, tertiary branch, leaf and panicle inrelation to mango hoppers.

Infact, we wanted to seek out the average numberof hoppers/site of the characters under study. Hencewe had taken the truncated distribution for theirrepresentativeness of the mango hoppers.

The binomial distribution is a finite discretedistribution. It has been generated through 'Bernoullidistribution' and is associated with the name of a SwissMathematician James Bernoulli.

A Bernoulli trial is an experiment which hasexactly two possible outcomes: success and failure.Binomial distribution is a probability distribution ofexpressing the probability of one set of dichotomousalternatives, i.e. success or failure.

This distribution has been used to describe a widevariety of applications. A binomial distributed variablecounts the number of successes in a sequence ofN independent Bernoullian trials. The probability ofa success is denoted by p.

A random variable X is said to follow a binomialdistribution with parameter 'n' and 'p' if it assumes onlynon-negative values and its probability mass functionis given by:

0 = otherwise

Let x be a random variable with p.d.f. f(x). thedistribution of X is said to be truncated at the point X=aif all the values of X ≤ a are discarded. Hence the p.d.f.g (.) of the distribution, truncated at X=a is given by-

=

P(X x) p(x) ( nx )p x qn x ;x 0,1,2...n;q 1 p= = = − = = −

g(x)f(x)

P(x a), x a=

<>

f ( x )

f ( x ), x a

Σ>

96

The p.m.f. of truncated binomial distribution x>a at X=0is given by-

x = 1, 2, 3 ... n

Estimation

This distribution contains two parameters r and p. It isestimated by method of proportion of oneth cell andmethod of moments.

Method of proportion of oneth cell (MPOC)

In this method, the observed proportion of oneth (n1/N)are equated corresponding to their theoretical values.It is given below:

Method of moments

In this method, these two parameters were estimatedby equating the observed mean and observed variancewith their corresponding theoretical values. It is givenbelow:

where m1 and m2 are the observed sample mean andsample variance respectively.

Results and Discussion

The distribution of observed and expected number ofsites according to the number of mango hopper onmango tree were observed and recorded from 1st Oct.to 25th April, on the trunk (Table 1.1), primary branch(Table 1.2), secondary branch (Table 1.3.), tertiary branch(Table 1.4.), on leaf (Table 1.5), on panicle (Table 1.6).The truncated binomial distribution was fitted by two

methods i.e. method of proportion of Oneth cell andmethod of moments.

g(x) f(x)p(x a)

f(x)1 P(x 0)

11 qn x

npxqn x= > = − = = −

−FHIKLNM

OQP

npqn 1(1 qn )

n1N

−− =

m 1np

1 qn= −FH IK

m 2n p q

1 qnn 2 p 2 q n

( 1 q n ) 2=

−−

−FH IK

Table 1.1. Distribution of observed and expected numberof sites according to number of mango hopper in trunkrecorded from 1st Oct. to 25th April 2010

No of Observed Truncated binomialmango frequency distribution

hoppersMPOC MM

1 2 2.0 2.42 13 9.4 10.53 28 24.8 26.64 46 42.0 43.35 36 47.3 46.86 34 35.6 33.87 16 17.2 15.78 6 5.7 4.99 3

Total 184 184 184Estimates of n (assumed) 9 9parameters p 0.53 0.52

q 0.51 0.50

χ2 6.696 6.513

df 5 5

The estimates of p and q by two methods were found tobe 0.53, 0.52 and 0.51, 0.50 respectively. The estimatesof p and q by MPOC and MM were almost equal. Thevalues of χ2 by two methods were 6.696 and 6.513respectively. The values of χ2 at 5% level of significanceand respective degrees of freedom are found to be non-significant for MM and MPOC. The graphical

97

representation of truncated distribution using twomethods MPOC, method of moments is given in Figure(1.1). On comparison of fitting of the distribution by twomethods, method of moment and method of proportionof Oneth cell provided a good fitting of the distribution.

The estimates of p and q by two methods werefound to be 0.54, 0.49 and 0.47, 0.51 respectively (Table1.2 and Fig 1.2). The estimates of p and q by MPOCand MM were almost equal. For applying a χ2 test somelast three cells were grouped together. The values ofχ2 by two methods were 6.9096 and 2.5246 respectively.

The values of χ2 at 5% level of significance andrespective degrees of freedom are found to be non-significant for MM and MPOC. On comparison of fittingof the distribution by the two methods, method ofmoment and method of proportion of Oneth cell itprovided a good fitting of the distribution.

The estimates of p and q by two methods werefound to be 0.47, 0.48 and 0.53, 0.52 respectively. Theestimates of p and q by MPOC and MM were almostequal. For applying a χ2 test some last cells were

Table 1.2. Distribution of observed and expected numberof sites according to number of mango hopper in pri-mary branch recorded from 1st Oct. to 25th April 2010

No of Observed Truncated binomialmango frequency distribution

hoppersMPOC MM

1 5 5.0 3.72 11 18.0 14.23 33 36.5 31.94 45 47.6 46.15 45 41.4 44.56 33 24.0 28.67 10 11.5 15.08 29 0

Total 184 184 184Estimates of n (assumed) 9 9parameters

p

0.54 0.49

q 0.47 0.51

χ2 6.9096 2.5246

df 5 5

Table 1.3. Distribution of observed and expected numberof sites according to number of mango hopper in sec-ondary branch recorded from 1st Oct. to 25th April

No of Observed Truncated binomialmango frequency distribution

hoppersMPOC MM

1 45 5.0 4.32 10 17.2 15.73 35 35.7 33.94 50 47.5 46.95 43 42.1 43.36 31 24.9 26.77 10 11.6 13.28 09 0

Total 184 184 184Estimates of n (assumed) 9 9parameters

p 0.47 0.48

q 0.53 0.52

χ2 4.8936 3.8943

df 5 5

98

grouped together. The values of χ2 by two methodswere 4.8936 and 3.8943 respectively. The values of χ2

at 5% level of significance and respective degrees offreedom are found to be non-significant for MM andMPOC. The visual display of truncated distribution usingtwo methods MPOC and method of moments is givenin Figure (1.3).On comparison of fitting of the distributionby two methods, method of moment and method ofproportion of Oneth cell provided a good fitting of thedistribution.

The estimates of p and q by two methods were

found to be 0.61, 0.60 and 0.39, 0.40 respectively. Theestimates of p and q by MPOC and MM were almostequal. For applying a χ2 test some last cells weregrouped together. The values of χ2 by two methodswere 3.7070 and 4.4321 respectively. The values of χ2

at 5% level of significance and respective degrees offreedom are found to be non-significant for MM andMPOC. The graphical representation of truncateddistribution using two methods MPOC, method ofmoments is was given in Figure (1.4). On comparisonof fitting of the distribution by two methods, method of

Table 1.4. Distribution of observed and expected numberof sites according to number of mango hopper in terti-ary branch recorded from 1st Oct. to 25th April.

No of Observed Truncated binomialmango frequency distribution

hoppersMPOC MM

1 3 3.0 3.32 12 11.4 12.23 21 23.8 24.44 29 27.9 27.55 15 17.5 16.56 8 4.4 4.1

Total 88 88 88Estimates of n (assumed) 6 6parameters

p

0.61 0.60

q 0.39 0.40

χ2 3.7070 4.4321

df 4 4

Table 1.5. Distribution of observed and expectednumber of sites according to number of mango hopperon leaf recorded from 1st Oct. to 25th April.

No of Observed Truncated binomialmango frequency distribution

hoppersMPOC MM

1 41 41.0 38.72 26 25.7 26.73 7 8.1 9.14 2 1.2 1.75 0

Total 76 76 76Estimates of n (assumed) 5 5parameters

p 0.24 0.25

q 0.76 0.74

χ2 0 .7464 0.6836

df 2 2

99

moment and method of proportion of Oneth cell provideda good fitting of the distribution.

The estimates of p and q by two methods werefound to be 0.24, 0.25 and 0.76, 0.74 respectively. Theestimates of p and q by MPOC and MM were almostequal. For applying a c2 test some last cells weregrouped together. The values of c2 by two methodswere 0.7464 and 0.6836 respectively. The values of c2

at 5% level of significance and respective degrees offreedom are found to be non-significant for MM andMPOC. The fitting of truncated distribution under MMand MPOC is illustrated through Figure (1.5). Oncomparison of fitting of the distribution by two methods,

method of moment and method of proportion of Onethcell provided a good fitting of the distribution.

The estimates of p and q by two methods werefound to be 0.43, 0.40 and 0.58, 0.60 respectively. Theestimates of p and q by MPOC and MM were almostequal. For applying a χ2 test some last cells weregrouped together. The values of χ2 by two methodswere 0.0905 and 0.0645 respectively. The values of χ2

at 5% level of significance and respective degrees offreedom are found to be non-significant for MM andMPOC. The graphical illustration Figure (1.6) representsthe fitting of truncated distribution under MM and MPOCfor panicle of mango. On comparison of fitting of thedistribution by two methods, method of moment andmethod of proportion of Oneth cell provided a goodfitting of the distribution.

Conclusion

The experiment revealed that the inherent variability inthe mango hopper population can be portrayed throughtruncated binomial distribution which is found to beadequate to describe the occurrence pattern of mangohoppers in mango plant.

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References

Amur RM (1986) Occurrence and abundance of mango hopperIdioscopus spp. on mango trees at Tandojam. 79 pp.MS Thesis. Department of Entomology. SindhAgriculture University Tandojam, Pakistan

Anonymous (2008) Agricultural and processed food productsexport development authority. Ministry of Commerceand Industry, Govt. of India 31-32

Atwal AS, Dhaliwal GS (2002) Agricultural pests of SouthAsia and their management. Kalyani Publishers,Ludhiana, Punjab, 498

Banerjee GD (2011) Economics of mango cultivation.Occasional Paper 58. Department of Economic

Table 1.6. Distribution of observed and expected numberof sites according to number of mango hopper in pani-cle recorded from 1st Oct. to 25th April

No of Observed Truncated binomialmango frequency distribution

hoppersMPOC MM

1 38 38.0 41.72 53 42.2 41.73 11 24.8 21.64 3

Total 105 105 105Estimates of n (assumed) 4 4parameters

p

0.43 0.40

q 0.58 0.60

χ2 0 .0905 0.0645

df 2 1

100

Analysis and Research National Bank for Agricultureand Rural Development, Mumbai 1 - 186

Debnath Manoj Kanti, Sharma HL, Das SB, Veda OP (2009)Analysis of variance for preference of different mangovarieties by hopper, Amritodus atkinsoni Leth. AtJabalpur, Madhya Pradesh. National Symposium on,Climate Change, Plant Protection And Food SecurityInterface 17-19, December, 2009 Bidhan ChandraKrishi Viswavidyalaya Kalyani, W.Bengal, India pp51

Gupta SN and Naik KB (2008) Instant Horticulture, JainBrothers, New Delhi 3 : 1-324

Salvi MJ, Gunjate RT (1988). Mango breeding work in theKonkan region of Maharashtra state. ActaHorticulturae 231 : 100-102

Singh Mohinder, Gupta Divender, Gupta PR (2010) Evaluationof imidacloprid and some biopesticides againstmango hoppers, idioscopus clypealis (lethierry) andAmritodus atkinsoni (lethierry) Indian J Entomol72(3): 262-265

Talpur MA, Khuhro RD Nizamani IA (2002). Phenologicalrelationship between mango hoppers Idioscopusspp. and mango inflorescence/fruit. PakisthanJournal of Applied Sciences 2: 355-536

(Manuscript Receivd : 29.12.2011; Accepted 07.04.2012)

101

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 101-105 (2012)

Abstract

Land is the most important natural resource which embodiessoil, water and associated flora and fauna involving the totalecosystem. The growing pressures of population coupled withincreasing demands made on land resource have broughtextra pressure on available land. Hence, information on landuse/land cover and possibilities for their optimal use isessential for the selection, planning and implementation ofland use/land cover schemes to meet the increasing demandfor basic human needs and welfare. The study was carriedout to evaluate the present status of land use/land cover inRewa district of Madhya Pradesh, India by using digital satellitedata of IRS P6 LISS-III and PAN merged. Supervisedclassification technique using Maximum Likelihood algorithmwas applied to the digital satellite data to extract the spectralinformation from acquired scene. Accuracy assessment wasperformed in this study to determine the quality of the landuse/land cover map. The overall accuracy is 93.75%.

Key words: Land use/land cover, Accuracyassessment, Kappa coefficient

Land use/land cover (LU/LC) classification is a primaryrequirement for management and planning of variousresources. The land use/land cover pattern of a regionis an outcome of natural and socio - economic factorsand their utilization by man in time and space. Land isbecoming a scarce resource due to immenseagricultural and demographic pressure. Hence,knowledge and extent of land utilization is essential forany land use planning to avoid any adverseconsequences in future. This information also assistsin monitoring the dynamics of land use resulting out ofchanging demands of increasing population. Remotelysensed satellite images provide a synoptic overview ofthe whole area in a very short time span. This leads toquick and truthful representation of the real world in

Accuracy assessment for land use/land cover map of Rewa districtusing Remote Sensing technique

Seema Suraiya, Subhash Thakur, S.K. Sharma, R.K. Nema and Renu UpadhyayDepartment of Soil & Water EngineeringCollege of Agricultural EngineeringJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidayalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

the best possible manner. It provides an insight tocoordinate relationship among transportation,residential, industrial and recreational land uses,besides providing broad-scale inventories of naturalresources and monitoring environmental issues,including land reclamation, mangrove restoration,disaster relief, water quality and planning economicdevelopment.

The usefulness and success of land use and landcover mapping depends on the choice of appropriateclassification scheme for feature extraction. There arebasically two categories unsupervised and supervisedclassification for extracting features from satelliteimages. Unsupervised classification is the identificationof natural groups, or structures, within multispectraldata. Supervised classification is the process of usingtraining samples, samples of known identity to classifypixels of unknown identity.

Any supervised classification does not completeuntil an assessment of its accuracy has been performed(Gomez D and Monero J 2011). In supervised imageclassification models it is supposed that there exist apriori knowledge (almost for a subset of items) aboutthe belongingness to the different classes under study.In this paper, a priori information is referred as the expertinformation. The common way to measure the accuracyof an image classifier is selecting a sample of the data(reference data) and comparing the information (output)given by the classifier with that given by the expert.This information is compared generally using an errormatrix. In literature too many accuracy measures asoverall accuracy, kappa (Cohen 1960), weighted kappa(Cohen 1968) among others are available.

The objective of this study is to assess theaccuracy of classification technique to classify the landuse/land cover during the year 2007 using supervisedclassification technique.

102

Materials and methods

Study area

The study area is Rewa district, located in thenortheastern part of Madhya Pradesh. It lies between24o19'08.66" and 25o11'23.53" north latitudes and81o02'19.33" and 82o18'29.46" east longitudes. Thedistrict is bounded on the north and east by the state ofUttar Pradesh, in the south Sidhi district and in the westwith Amarpatan and Raghurajnagar tahsils of Satnadistrict (Fig 1). The geographical area of Rewa districtis 6317.20 km2. The temperature varies between 120Cand 440C and average annual rainfall is 1041mm ofstudy area.

Data acquisition

Linear Imaging Self Scanning (LISS III) and PANmerged geocoded satellite data on Survey of India (SOI)toposheet base for path 100 & 101 and row 54 wasacquired from National Remote Sensing Centre inHyderabad. LU/LC map were prepared andinterpretated using ERDAS Imagine 9.1 and Arc GIS9.3 software. The ancillary data Survey of Indiatoposheet 63G/4, 63G/8, 63G/12, 63G/16, 63H/1, 63H/2, 63H/3, 63H/5, 63H/6, 63H/7, 63H/9, 63H/10, 63H/11, 63H/13, 63H/14, 63L/1, 63L/2 and 63L/6 (1:50000scale) were used to perform the image classification.These maps were also used in conducting a groundobservation using GPS to verify the classification resultsfrom satellite imagery.

Development of classification schemes

Image classification is defined as the extraction ofdifferentiated classes or theme categories from rawremotely sensed digital data. The purpose of theclassification scheme used in this study is to provideprimary information about area like forest, agriculture,open, habitation, waste land and water body. Theclassification scheme and descriptions is presentedTable 1.

Digital Image classification

The satellite imagery was interpreted using both digitaland visual methods. The composite image was testedin order to choose the best band combination. The FalseColour Composite (FCC) image of 1-2-3 (RGB)combination was used (Fig 2).Fig 1. Location map of study area

Table 1. Characteristics of land cover classes

LU/LC class Description Characteristics on FCCForest Trees covers, shrubs with partial grassland Dark red with rough textureAgriculture/other Crop land and pasture, Orchards, groves, Dull red and smooth appearance withvegetation nurseries and other agriculture land step like arrangement of fieldsHabitation Commercial and residential areas, and with Bluish and Typical blocky appearance

manmade structure, mixed urban built up areas with light toneand other rural built up areas

Water body Lakes, rivers, dams and canals Blue to black according to the depth ofwater and sediment content

Waste land Refers to area of exposed soil with very little or Bluish/Whitish with smooth texturewithout vegetation coverage

Open/fellow/barren Agricultural fields without crops and exposed Bluish/greenish grey with smooth textureland rocks without vegetation

103

Image classification process is presented in Fig3. Supervised classification is the procedure most fre-quently used for qualitative analysis of remote sensingdata; it rests upon using suitable algorithms to labelthe pixel in an image as representing particular groundcover types or classes (Richards 1993).Selecting train-ing fields or samples is an important step in supervisedclassification. In this process, there will be selectionsfor the pixels, which represent the different patternsbased on the class requirements. After evaluation oftraining set, it makes exact training set for referenceclasses (like Forest, Agriculture/other vegetation, River/Stream, Canal, Pond, Wasteland, Open/Fellow/barrenand Habitation). Then we start the supervised classifi-cation of image, using parametric rule with maximumlikelihood classifier. Subsequently the thematic mapshowing the land use/land cover of Rewa district priorto final output is produced. Then, the classified imagewas filtered using median filter to produce a better,

smooth view by aggregate and avoiding the isolatedindividual pixels. Finally thematic map showing the landuse/land cover of Rewa district is produced (Fig 4).

Accuracy assessment

Accuracy assessed through comparing classifiedland use/land cover with FCC image with the help ofcontrol point. From the accuracy assessment tab whichis embedded in classifier, random point is assigned.The sample methods used for selecting the randompoints is stratified random and 400 points are specified.The stratified random method select the random pointfrom each class individually (the classes are weighteddifferently; hence the number of sample points differfrom one class and another). The random point isdisplayed on the FCC image (Fig 5). Then, each pointland cover type is identified by interpreting theunderlying image.

Fig 2. False colour composite map of Rewa district Fig 3. Image classification process

Fig 5. Random 400 point on FCC imageFig 4. Land use/land cover map of Rewa district

104

Result and discussion

Eight LU/LC categories were recognized in the studyarea namely Forest, Agriculture/other vegetation, River/Stream, Canal, Pond, Wasteland, Open/Fellow/barrenand Habitation. Table 2 presents different land use/landcover classes with percentage cover of study area. Thedominant feature from LU/LC class for Rewa is Open/fallow/barren which covers 2487.26 km2, followed byAgriculture/Other vegetation (2209.92 km2) and Forest(769.08 km2).

be classified as agricultural/other vegetation butclassified as wasteland and habitation. There are 10cells which should be classified as open /fallow/barrenbut classified as wasteland and agricultural/othervegetation. There are 7 cells which should be classifiedas forest but classified as agricultural/other vegetation,open /fallow/barren and wasteland. The total accuracyin this classification accuracy is 93.75%. This meansthat the training sites selected are 93.75% spectralseparable, and the training areas were classified verywell.

Classification efficiency under each class is given inTable 4. Producer's accuracy refers to that howaccurately the producer assigned the classes for thetraining sites. Producer's accuracy is computed bydividing the number of correctly classified pixels by thenumber of training sites pixels. The producer accuracyfor river/stream is 100%, pond 66.67%, wasteland88.37%, agricultural/other vegetation 98.54%, open /fallow/barren 93.33%, forest 87.93% and habitation100%. User's accuracy refers to the accuracy that thepixel categorized in a certain class is truly representingthat class on the ground. User's accuracy is calculatedby dividing the number of correctly classified pixels bythe total number of pixels that were classified in thatclass. For river/stream user accuracy is 100 percent,pond 100%, wasteland 84.44%, agricultural/othervegetation 93.10%, open /fallow/barren 95.24%, forest100% and habitation 88.89%. The overall kappastatistics is 0.9116.Values of Kappa greater than 0.75indicate strong agreement beyond chance, valuesbetween 0.40 and 0.79 indicate fair to good, and valuesbelow 0.40 indicate poor agreement (SPSS 1998).

Land use/land cover data is mostly derived from thesatellite imaginary. This classified data may be used inwide variety of area such as planning, resourcemanagement, economic development, change detectionetc. The update of this type of data is necessary. The

Table 2. Area under different LU/LC class of Rewa dis-trict

Class name Area (km2) Area (%)

River/Stream 28.64 0.45Canal 1.43 0.02Pond 15.98 0.25Wasteland 746.22 11.81Agriculture/other vegetation 2209.92 34.98Open/fallow/barren 2487.26 39.37Forest 769.08 12.17Habitation 5864.05 0.93Total 631720.81 100.00

Table 3. Confusion matrix

Classified data River/stream Pond Wasteland Agriculture/ Open/fallow/ Forest Habitation Row Totalother veg. barren

River/Stream 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Pond 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2Wasteland 0 0 38 1 5 1 0 45Agriculture/other veg. 0 0 2 135 5 3 0 145Open/fallow/barren 0 1 3 0 140 3 0 147Forest 0 0 0 0 0 51 0 51Habitation 0 0 0 1 0 0 8 9Column Total 1 3 43 137 150 58 8 400

Confusion matrix presented in Table 3 shows thatpixel classified for each training site as are river/stream-1, pond- 2, wasteland- 38, agricultural/other vegetation-135, open /fallow/barren- 140, forest- 51 and habitation-8. The matrix of error shows that there is 1 cell whichshould be classified as Pond but classified as open /fallow/barren. There are 5 cells should be classified aswasteland but classified as agricultural/other vegetationand open /fallow/barren. There are 2 cells which should

105

present status of land use/land cover in the Rewa districtas evaluated by digital analysis of satellite data indicatesthat majority of area is open/fallow/barren land i.e.39.37%, which is area is more than Agriculture/Othervegetation area. Therefore, it seems that the districtneed Agricultural development program. Forest area isless than agriculture land, which tells that due to humanactivities deforestation is occurring. Accuracyassessment shows that overall accuracy is 93.75percent which is good result and kappa statistics shows0.9116 shows good agreement between reference andclassified image. The study clearly indicates thatRemote Sensing and GIS is a novel tool to provideaccurate spatial information on land use/land cover ofa region in a time and cost effective manner.

Acknowledgement

Authors gratefully acknowledge to Dean College ofAgricultural Engineering and Principal InvestigatorMadhya Pradesh Water Sector Restructuring Project,Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College ofAgricultural Engineering, JNKVV, Jabalpur for providingnecessary facilities.

Hkwfe lcls egRoiw.kZ izkd`frd lalk/ku gS] ftlesa feVzVh] ikuh]ouLifr vkSj tho ds laiw.kZ ikfjfLFkfrd ra= lEefyr gSaA c<rh gqbZtula[;k vkSj Hkwfe lalk/ku dh c<rh gqbZ ekax ds dkj.k miyC/k Hkwfeij vfrfjDr ncko c<rk tk jgk gSA blfy, ekuo dh dY;k.kdkjhvkSj cqu;knh t:jrksa dh o<rh ekax dks iwjk djus esa] mlds p;u]fu;kstu vkSj ;kstukvksa ds fdz;kfUo;u ds fy, Hkwfe vkSj mldsmi;ksx ¼Landuse/land cover½ dh tkudkjh gksuk pkfg,A I R SP 6 LISS-III vkSj PAN fofyr (merged) MkVk dk mi;ksx djdse/;izns'k ds jhok ftys esa Hkwfe mi;ksx/Hkwfe doj ¼Land use/Landcover½ dh orZeku fLFkfr ¼o"kZ 2007½ dk ewY;kadu fd;k x;k gSAvftZr }'; ls o.kZØeh; tkudkjh (Spectral information) fudkyus

ds fy, i;Zos{k.k oxhZdj.k rduhd (Supervised Classificationtechnique) esa vf/kdre laHkkouk dyu fof/k (Maxumumlikelihood algorithms) dk mi;ksx fMftVy mixzg MsVk ds fy,fd;k x;k FkkA Hkwfe mi;ksx/Hkwfe doj dh xq.koRrk fu/kkZfjr djus dsfy, lVhdrk ewY;kadu (Accuracy assessment), bl v/;;uesa fd;k x;k FkkA laiw.kZ lVhdrk 93-75% gSA

References

Aronoff S (1982) Classification accuracy: a user approach,Photogrammetric engineering and Remote Sensing48:1299-1307

Cohen J (1960) A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales,Educational and Psychological Measurement 20:37-46

Cohen J (1968) Weighted Kappa: Nominal Scale agreementwith provision for scaled disagreement or partialcredit Psychological Bulletin 70-213p

Gómez D, J Montero (2011) Determining the accuracy inimage supervised classification problems. http://w w w . a t l a n t i s - p r e s s . c o m / p h p / p a p e r -details.php?from = session + results&id =2288&querystr = id%3D43

Richards J A (1993) Remote sensing digital image analysis:an introduction. http://www.itc.nl/library/Papers_2006/phd/vaiphasa_abstract.pdf

Saha A K, Arora M K, Csaplovics E, R P Gupta (2005) Landcover classification using IRS LISS III image andDEM in a rugged terrain: A case study in HimalayasGeocarto International J 20(2):33-401

SPSS Inc (1998) SYSTAT. Version 8.0, Chicago, Illinois:SPSS Inc. http://www.molar.unibe.ch/help/statistics/SYSTAT/Statistics.pdf

Thomas V, Treitz P, Jelinski D, Miller J, Lafleur P, J H McCaughey (2002) Image Classification of a northernpeatland complex using spectral and plantcommunity data. Remote Sensing and environment84:83-99

Table 4. LU/LC classification efficiency

Class Name Reference Classified Number Producers Userstotal total correct accuracy(%) accuracy(%)

River/Stream 1 1 1 100.00 100.00Pond 3 2 2 66.67 100.00Wasteland 43 45 38 88.37 84.44Agriculture/ other veg. 137 145 135 98.54 93.10Open/fallow/ barren 150 147 140 93.33 95.24Forest 58 51 51 87.93 100.00Habitation 8 9 8 100.00 88.89Totals 400 400 375

(Manuscript Receivd : 20.04.2012; Accepted 30.05.2012)

106

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 106-111 (2012)

Impact of vocational training programme on knowledge, skilldevelopment and income generation among farm women in Satpuraplateau zone of Madhya Pradesh

Ekta Belwanshi and N.K. KhareDepartment of Extension EducationJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

Abstract

Majority (52.44%) of the respondents had medium level ofknowledge as well as maximum respondents has (48.10%)medium skill level about all five activities which they havereceived training. Maximum average income generated bytailoring (i.e. Rs 6258/- )followed by backyard poultrymanagement (i.e. Rs 5530/-) minimum income generated bymushroom cultivation (i.e. Rs 1500/-.)

Keywords : income generation and skill development

Women comprise of 50% of the world population, 33%of official labour force perform nearly 66.60% of allworking hours. The Government is implementing manyprogramme for socio-economic upliftment of women.The process of empowerment is conceptualized in termsof personal assertions and confidence ability to protectthemselves as women, attaining economicindependence, ownership of productive assets abilityto handle capital and assets and provide leadership inboth women and community of all levels. The conceptof rural empowerment came into operation with the needof training with the aim of provision of opportunities tosuch women in forms of personal skill development andempowerment by the Government under variousschemes including TRYSEM.

The Krishi Vigyan Kendra of Chhindwara districtof Madhya Pradesh has successfully organizingdifferent types of training related to agriculture and alliedfield. Between the years 2002 to 2005 most of thevocational training organized for farm women is asfollows:

(a) Tailoring, (b) Mushroom cultivation, (c) Post harvesttechnology, (d) formation of vermicompost and (e) Backyard poultry management.

Methodology

The study was carried out in Chhindwara districtof Madhya Pradesh, which was selected purposivelybecause No. of vocational training has been conductedby this KVK. Multistage random sampling procedure wasfollowed to select two block viz., Chhindwara andMohkhed and eight villages names – Linga, Guraiya,Sarra, Simariya, Chandangaon, Chikhlikala, Jam,Shikarpur. To make a adequate sample of 102respondents, 15 per cent beneficiaries from eachselected village were selected randomly. A well structureinterview schedule was prepared for assessing thesocio-economic status, knowledge and skill level ofbeneficiaries. The data in the form of numerical valuewere categorized. Frequencies and percentage wereworked out using the following formula.

XP = ——— x 100

Nwhere,P = percentageX = Frequency of respondentsN = Total number of respondents.

Result and Discussion

Impact of vocational training programme on knowledgeacquisition

Majority (54.94%) of the trainees whose engaged intailoring has medium level of knowledge, 25% had lowlevel of knowledge and only 26.16% has high knowledgeregarding mushroom cultivation, 50% has medium,33.33% has low and 16.67% had high level ofknowledge regarding mushroom cultivation, 50%

107

Table 1. Distribution of respondent according to theirknowledge levelActivities Knowledge No. of Percentage

level respondentTailoring Low 13 25.00

Medium 28 53.84High 11 21.16

Mushroom cultivation Low 4 33.33Medium 6 50.00

High 2 16.67Post harvest Low 3 30.00technology Medium 5 50.00

High 2 20.00Vermicompost Low 3 25.00

Medium 7 58.33High 2 16.67

Backyard poultry Low 6 31.50management Medium 8 50.00

High 2 12.60

Table 2. Distribution of respondent according to theirskill levelActivities Skill level No. of Percentage

respondentTailoring Low 18 34.61

Medium 20 38.46High 14 26.97

Mushroom cultivation Low 3 25.00Medium 6 50.00High 3 25.00

Post harvest Low 3 30.00technology Medium 5 50.00

High 2 20.00Vermicompost Low 3 25.00

Medium 7 58.33High 2 16.67

Backyard poultry Low 6 37.50management Medium 7 43.75

High 3 18.75

Table 3. Income level in all five activitiesActivities Income level No. of Percentage

respondentTailoring Low 12 23.07

Medium 15 28.84High 23 44.23

Mushroom cultivation Low 6 50.00Medium 4 33.33High 2 13.67

Post harvest Low 3 30.00technology Medium 5 50.00

High 2 20.0Vermicompost Low 4 33.33

Medium 5 50.00High 2 20.00

Backyard poultry Low 5 31.25management Medium 7 43.75

High 4 25.00

Table 4. According to their average income generationby all five activities

Activities Average income Rankgenerated (Rs.)

Tailoring 6258 IBackyard poultry management 5530 IIVermicompost 3500 IIIPost harvest technology 2500 IVMushroom cultivation 1500 V

respondent had medium level, 30% had low and only20% had high level of knowledge regarding post harvesttechnology.

58.33% had medium level, 25% had low and16.67% had high level of knowledge regardingvermicompost. 50% had medium, 31% had low and12.60% had high level of knowledge regarding poultrymanagement.

Impact of vocational training programme on skilldevelopment

Among participants 38.46% had medium level, 34.61%had low and 26.97% had high skill level regardingtailoring. 50% had medium skill level, 25% had low and

high skill level regarding mushroom cultivation. 50%trainees had medium level, 30% had low and 20% hadhigh skill level regarding post harvest technology.58.33% had medium level, 25% had low and 16.67%had high skill level regarding vermicompost. 43.75%respondent had medium, 37.5% had low and 18.75%had high skill level regarding back yard poultrymanagement.

Impact of vocational training programme on incomegeneration

Out of 52 respondents, 44.23% had generated highincome, 28.84% had generated medium income and23.07% had generated low income from tailoring. Fromout of 12 respondents, 50% of respondents hadgenerated low income, 13.67% respondent hadgenerated high income and 33.33% respondent hadgenerated medium income by mushroom cultivation.From out of 10 respondents, 50% respondents had

108

30

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Fig. 11 : Bar Diagram Showing distribution of respondents according to their knowledge level regarding Post Harvest Technology

Percentage

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Fig. 12 : Bar Diagram Showing distribution of respondents according to their level of knowledge regarding Vermicompost

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Fig. 10 : Bar Diagram Showing distribution of respondents according to their knowledge level regarding

Mushroom Cultivation

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Fig. 13 : Bar Diagram Showing distribution of respondents according to their level of

knowledge regarding backyard Poultry Management

Percentage

Distribution of respondent according to their knowledge level in all five activities

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regarding Tailoring

Percentage

Distribution of respondent according to their Skill level in all five activities

110

23.07

28.84

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Fig. 19 : Bar Diagram Showing distribution of respondents according to their Income

generation from Tailoring

Percentage 50

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generation from Post Harvest Technology

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Distribution of respondent according to their Skill level in all five activities

111

generated medium income, 30% respondent hadgenerated low income and 20% had generated highincome by post harvest technology. From out of 12respondents. 41.66% respondent had generatedmedium income, 33.33% respondent had generatedhigh income and 16.66% respondents had generatedlow income by vermicompost. From out of 16respondents, 43.75% respondents had generatedmedium income, 31.25% respondents had generatedlow income and 25% respondents had generated highincome by backyard poultry management.

It was observed that from out of all five activities,maximum average income was generated throughtailoring (Rs 6258), followed by backyard poultrymanagement (Rs 5330), by vermicompost, (Rs 3500),by post harvest technology (Rs 2500) and frommushroom cultivation (Rs 1500).

Conclusion

Majority of the respondents had medium level ofknowledge as well as medium skill level about all fiveactivities which they have received training. Maximumrespondent had general high income by tailoring whereas maximum respondent had generated low income by

mushroom cultivation and maximum respondent hadgenerated medium income by Backyard poultrymanagement, vermicompost and post harvesttechnology. It may be concluded the tailoring andbackyard poultry management have been the bestenterprise for rural women in terms of incomegeneration.

References

Ahmed S K Z , Philip H (2002) Effectiveness of raining onfarm women of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.Madras Agril J 86 (1/3): 154-157

Khare Y R, Dubey M K, Khare N K (1996) Utility andeffectiveness of training on Mushroom (Oyster)production technology - A study. Bhartiya KrishiAnusandhan Patrika 11 (2): 121-128

Mahale G (1991) Impact of tailoring training programme onknowledge level of rural women. Maha J Extn Edu10 (2): 320-322

Santhi P, Muthu S (2005) Impact of employment generatingtechnologies to empower rural women through KrishiVigyan Kendra. Indian J Extn Edu 16 : 3730-3734

(Manuscript Receivd : 14.01.2010; Accepted 20.05.2012)

112

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 112-114 (2012)

Abstract

Technology dissemination to the farming community for itssocio-economic development has been a prime motive ofKrishi Vigyan Kendra. ICT tools assist in speedy and timelydelivery of the product to the end user. Websites are workingas source of technology but its development and maintenanceinvolves knowledge and superior technical skill related to webdesigning and substantial amount of money. With theadvancement in the computer technology, concept andtechnique of blogging and Unicode system of language aredeveloped, which are very user friendly. It has helped millionof people across the globe to express themselvespredominantly within few minutes, using local script andlanguage on the web using number of highly efficient andeffective applications like 'You-tube', 'Slide-share' and'Picasa'. It involves practically no money at all. One such blogmade and maintained by KVK-Rewa iskvkrewa.blogspot.com.1

Spread of message

functional at different level including the scientists whogenerate need based agricultural technologies.

Timely and speedy information transfer is of greatimportance in the field of development. Horizontalinformation sharing takes place between the serviceproviders, and vertically between service providers andfarmers. Traditional information spread used to takeseveral days and is accessible to few people only. Butnow, in the modern arena, number of new e-tools hasemerged and the process is still continuing in the fieldof communication such as website, web-page, socialsites and blog.

Development and maintenance of website or webpage requires great skill and involves big amount ofmoney but a blog offers all the facilities that a websiteprovides and at the same time can be developed by alay man with little knowledge about computer andinternet which costs next to nil. Actually, a blog is asub-domain provided by a server on its domain.

• Oxford Dictionary describes 'Blog' as a personalrecord that subject puts on their website givingan account of their activities and their opinions,and discussing places on the Internet they havevisited .2

• Word Web Online Dictionary portrays 'Blog' as ashared on-line journal where people can postdiary entries about their personal experiencesand hobbies.3

• www.highspeed.com glossary states that a blogis a journal that is available via a website. Theactivity of updating a blog is "blogging" andsomeone who keeps a blog is a "blogger." Blogsare typically updated daily using software thatallows people with little or no technicalbackground to update and maintain it.5

Agricultural Information and Technology dissemination throughBlog: A speedy approach

Chandrajiit Singh and Kinjulck C. SinghKrishi Vigyan Kendra, RewaJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482004 (MP)

Message through a B log

Extension W orkers

Extension W orkers

Administrator

Farmers / Beneficiaries

Horizontal and vertical dissemination of technologyrelated to agricultural and allied subjects for overall ruraldevelopment by various extension agencies has alwaysbeen a challenge. Major stake-holders in the field ofrural development are those which constitute vastpopulation of peasants engaged in agro-basedlivelihood activities, extension service providers,

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Use of Blog for various streams

Sharing of information and experience betweenextension personnel is helpful in rapid development ofknowledge and skill. Agricultural Technology can bedisseminated to modern and young generation offarmers who are using internet or mobile phones andkiosks. Blogs formatted in local languages and usingvarious suitable scripts can associate the farmer groupswith the great ease. A blog acts as compendium ofwork done and is useful for extension functionaries,research workers and academic personnel. It helps themin documentation and record keeping. One opts to useit as personal diary with great ease. Simultaneously itis very useful for students as it tend to improve theirwriting skills. It develops their habit of writing, whichhelps them in all of their future endeavors .Blog sites isused as online class forums which enables students toparticipate in a discussion with various personalitiesfar more effectively than they do otherwise. It providethem chance of expression and to contribute innovativeideas. Where as researchers use it to organize the data.They share their information with selected experts ofown choice, as research until completion requires a kindof secrecy. Although, blog is not suitable for the issuesthat requires immediate solution / spread of informationas it is done through medium like television and radio.

Facilities for Blog Users

It is completely free of cost and is accessible anywherein the world through net. It is very user friendly andworks on 'drag and drop' system which means there isno need to have prior knowledge of html and softwareto develop a blog and it is developed in few minutesonly in local language by using Unicode fortransliteration. Blog is a web page which offers a facility

of additions of number of pages to achieve a format ofa website. Unlike websites, blog acts a platform ofinteraction between a blogger and a reader wherereaders express their idea and opinion by publishingcomments about the articles of the blogger. Along withthe text, photographs and video are displayed toincrease the affectivity of the message. It also worksas directory for number of useful and important websitesrelated to the subject. Video calling and Voice callingfeatures can also be added to a blog.

Steps for Creating a Blog

• Create an account on a service provider eg.Google.6

• Open the account with the help of password.• Type the address www.blogger.com in the ad-

dress bar and press enter key.4• Click the option 'Create Your Blog'.• Click 'Continue' for the next three steps after fill-

ing the required information.• At the end of step three the new blog will be cre-

ated.• To write a new article, click 'New Post' and start

blogging.• After the article is complete click 'Post'. Finally

the content will appear on the web.

"kvkrewa.blogspot.com" is the first blog by aKrishi Vigyan Kendra in Madhya Pradesh being run bythe authors. Such on line journal can also be developedwhich can become important platform for experiencesharing.

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Service Providers for Blog

Few important service providers for blog are "rediff","ibibo" and "google". Blogs can be made very attractiveby using various interesting tools and applicationsprovided by the service providers. There are blogaggregators which publicize the blog and extend thereach of your blog.

Implications

Information and skill in using various tools keeps theprofessionals confident and organized. Updatedinformation about replicable success stories amongstExtension Personnel will lead to motivation and capacitybuilding. Similarly vertical upwards spread of informationabout monitor-able target of Extension Units will leadto ease of assessment. Whereas downward spread ofinformation about replicable success stories to the

beneficiaries may result in faster knowledge and skilldevelopment for economic benefits. One should takecare while writing for the blog, as regular user tends touse slangs and casual language which may spoil thequality of technical and proper usage of language.Restricted use of information

References

kvkrewa.blogspot.comOxford DictionaryWord Web Online Dictionarywww.blogger.comwww.highspeed.comwww.google.com

(Manuscript Receivd : 30.12.2011; Accepted 04.04.2012)

115

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 115-119 (2012)

Abstract

Information and Communication in the revival of socialorganizations. Information and Communication Technology cangive a new momentum to the social organizations andproductive activity of agriculture which, if raised effectively,could become transformational factors. ICT helps theextension system in re-orienting itself towards the overallagricultural development of small production systems. TheKisan Call Centre (KCC) is a combination of ICT andAgriculture technology. It uses a backend data support system,which is inbuilt into the overall Management InformationSystem. KCC enables farmers to have direct discussions withthe subject matter experts who are able to analyze the problemeffectively and provide the solution directly. It is observed fromthe result that the maximum calls of respondents were relatedto agriculture (54.85%) and only 4.02% from livestock.Amongst the different districts of M.P. the maximum calls werefound to be received from Shivpuri (12.27%). It is observedthat out of total call received from agriculture sector themaximum found to related to plant protection (42.98%)fallowed by production techniques (32.01%), marketing of farmproduction (12.03%), HYV seed (9.01%), weather forecasting(1.99%) and other (1.98%). The study also revealed thatfarmers not followed the recommendations or solutions of theirproblems due to communicational gap (as experts usedscientific vocabulary in the solutions), lack of education,solution is far different from the local farming practice, lesscooperation from agricultural department, difficulty in adoptionof recommendation due the reason that recommended inputare not available in local market and high cost ofrecommendation.

Key words: Information and CommunicationTechnology, Management Information System, KisanCall Centre, Indian Society of AgribusinessProfessionals

Role of Information and Communication Technology for agriculture:A case study of Kisan Call Center of Indian Society of AgribusinessProfessionals Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

R.S. Chouhan, Dushyant Kumar and H.O. SharmaAgro-Economic Research Centre,Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur - 482004 (MP)

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) isconsidered as an important means of achieving such atransformation. When used as a broad tool for providinglocal farming communities with scientific knowledge, ICTheralds the formation of knowledge societies in the ruralareas of the developing world. However, this can onlybe realised when knowledge and information areeffectively harvested for overall agricultural and ruraldevelopment. The development of precision farming incountries of the North emphasizes knowledge-intensity;hence the agricultural paradigm in the developing worldwill have to be recast to take advantage of knowledgeavailability to achieve multiple goals of income, food,jobs, etc. ICT has a significant role to perform in evolvingsuch a paradigm, as was evident from theInterdisciplinary Dialogue on IT: Reaching theUnreached (Swaminathan 1993). ICT in the revival ofsocial organizations. ICT can give a new impetus tothe social organizations and productive activity ofagriculture which, if nurtured effectively, could becometransformational factors. The 'knowledge' itself willbecome a technology for overall agriculturaldevelopment. Agricultural extension, in the currentscenario of a rapidly changing world, has beenrecognised as an essential mechanism for deliveringknowledge (information) and advice as an input formodern farming (Jones 1997). However, it has to escapefrom the narrow mindset of transferring technologypackages to transferring knowledge or informationpackages. If this can be achieved, with the help of ICT,extension will become more diversified, moreknowledge-intensive, and more demand driven andthus, more effective in meeting farmers' informationneeds. ICT has many potential applications inagricultural extension (Zijp 1994). It can bring new

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information services to rural areas where farmers, asusers, will have much greater control than before overcurrent information channels. Access to such newinformation sources is a crucial requirement for thesustainable development of the farming systems.

Convergence of ICT with agriculturaldevelopment Broad basing agricultural extensionactivities; developing farming system, research andextension; having location-specific modules of researchand extension; and promoting market extension,sustainable agricultural development, participatoryresearch, etc. are some of the numerous areas whereICT can play an important role. Several research studiesconducted on extension organisations have revealedthat the delivery of goods is effective when the grassroots extension worker covers a small area ofjurisdiction, with multiple purposes (broad basing). Theexisting system of large jurisdictions, each with a narrowrange of activities, is less effective. However, broadbasing requires grass roots workers to be at the cuttingedge of extension and master of many trades, which isnot really possible. IT can help here, by enablingextension workers to gather, store, retrieve anddisseminate a broad range of information needed byfarmers, thus transforming them from extension workersinto knowledge workers. The emergence of suchknowledge workers will result in the realisation of themuch talked about bottom-up, demand driventechnology generation, assessment, refinement andtransfer. Agricultural extension systems in mostdeveloping countries are under-funded and have hadmixed effects. Much of the extension information hasbeen found to be out of date, irrelevant and notapplicable to small farmers' needs, leaving such farmerswith very little information or resources to improve theirproductivity. ICT helps the extension system in re-orienting itself towards the overall agriculturaldevelopment of small production systems. With theappropriate knowledge, small-scale producers can evenhave a competitive edge over larger operations. Whenknowledge is harnessed by strong organisations of smallproducers, strategic planning can be used to providemembers with least-cost inputs, better storage facilities,improved transportation links and collective negotiationswith buyers. ICT can also play an important role inbringing about sustainable agricultural developmentwhen used to document both organic and traditionalcultivation practices. Developing countries can createTraditional Knowledge Digital Libraries (TKDL) to collectand classify various types of local knowledge so that itcan be shared more widely. These libraries could alsointegrate widely scattered references to IndigenousTechnical Knowledge (ITK) systems in a retrievable form.

Thus, IT could act as a bridge between traditional andmodern knowledge systems.

The Kisan Call Centre is a combination of ICTand Agricultural technology. It uses a backend datasupport system, which is inbuilt into the overall MIS(Management Information System). KCC enablesfarmers to have direct discussions with the subjectmatter experts who are able to analyze the problemeffectively and provide the solution directly. With theincrease in choices of farm inputs, pesticides,herbicides, high yielding varieties of seeds, a farmertoday requires guidance of expert agriculturists morethan anything else. Some one with whom they can sharetheir crop related issues and learn preventive measures.Kisan Call Center (KCC) is a pioneering initiative startedin Madhya Pradesh by the Indian Society ofAgribusiness Professionals (ISAP).

A central call centre has been established whichtakes queries of farmers and answers in their languagefrom 7 am to 7 pm, seven days a week. The MIS softwarecaptures callers' details and specifications of the querywhich helps in analysing area-wise and crop-wisedetails within a time space framework and providespreventive, advance action solutions. It also identifiespest attacks in any particular geographical area andthe information collected is provided to the StateAgriculture Department for taking timely action bybroadcasting on television, radio and other mediums.During the drought of 2009 Kharif, and untimely floodsin October 2009, KCC was transformed into a controlroom providing preventive solutions to reduce cropdamage on an area-specific basis across MadhyaPradesh.

The KCC Model has helped expedite farmerquery redressal by almost three times compared to itspredecessors. About 1.8 lakh calls were received duringthe first 18 months of the operation from around 1 lakhfarmers all across the state. So far, more than 3 lakhfarmers have benefited from this Kisan Call Center. Thelevel of satisfaction is evident from the fact that around12 percent of the calls are "Thank You" calls!

The present study was formulated to study theperformance of a KCC of Indian Society of AgribusinessProfessionals in Bhopal district of M.P. following specificobjectives

1. To study the per month call received in varioussector of agriculture from different district of M.P.

2. To analyze the discipline wise call received invarious sector of agriculture.

3. To identify the constraints in adoption of answerreceived by the respondents.

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Methodology

A Kisan Call Center of Indian Society of AgribusinessProfessionals Bhopal has been selected for the study.Out of the total call received in the year 2010-11 fromBhopal district of MP, 50 respondents has been selectedfor the study. Both primary and secondary data has beencollected for the study. The primary data were basedon the general information of the respondent andconstraints related of adoption of answer received fromthe call center. The secondary data were related to callreceived from the farmers and the calls were classifieddiscipline-wise. The whole data of call received wereconverted in to month wise call to drawn conclusion.

Results and discussion

The number of call received from the farmers of differentdistrict of MP, percentage of call received in differentaspects of discipline of agriculture and allied sector,and the constraints faced by the farmers in adoptioninformation and communication technology has beenexamined to drawn conclusions of the study.

Number of call received

The number of call received from the farmers in differentdistricts of M.P. has been identified and it is observedfrom the data that there were 13539 call received permonth by the KCC out of which the maximum wererelated to agriculture (54.85%) fallowed by horticulture(29.39%), other (11.74%) livestock (4.02%). (Fig. 1)Amongst the different district of MP, the maximum callwere found to be received from Shivpuri (12.27%)followed by Shajapur (11.22%), Rajgarh (4.63%), Sagar

(4.61%), Datia (4.13%), Chattarpur (4.07%), Tikamgarh(3.90%), Ujjain (3.10%), Betul (2.98%), Chhindwara(2.60%), Vidisha (2.41%), Dewas (2.34%), Mandsaur(2.31%) and Khargone (2.28%) districts of MP (Fig. 2)to the total call received by the KCC (13539/ month).

Call received in different aspects

The call received different aspects in the differentdiscipline has been examined and presented in table1. Considering different aspects of agriculture and alliedsectors. It is observed that out of total call received fromagriculture sector the maximum found to related to plantprotection (42.98%) fallowed by production techniques(32.01%) marketing of farm products (12.03%) HYV

Table 1. Percentage of Call Received in different as-pects

Particulars No. of calls Percentagereceived per to total

month

AgricultureWeather Forecasting 148 1.99Seed 669 9.01Production 2377 32.01Plant Protection 3192 42.98Marketing 893 12.03Others 147 1.98Total 7426

(54.85) 100HorticulturePlant and Plant Materials 678 17.04Production 1033 25.96Plant Protection 2108 52.98Marketing 84 2.11Others 76 1.91Total 3979

(29.39) 100Animal HusbandryPoultry 17 3.13Fisheries 8 1.47Dairy 68 12.5Piggeries 2 0.37Live Stock management 378 69.49Marketing 45 8.27Others 26 4.78Total 544

(4.02) 100Others 1590

(11.74)Grand Total 13539

(100.00)Figures in parenthesis show percentages to grand total

Fig 1. Call Received in different disciplines of Agricul-ture & Allied Sector (%)

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seeds (9.01%) weather forecasting (1.99%) and other(1.98%). In Horticulture discipline (Table 1) It is observedthat the maximum call were also found to received forplant protection (52.98%), followed by productiontechnique (25.96%) plant and plant material (17.04%)marketing of farm products (2.11%) and other (1.91%).

As reference to the Animal Husbandry disciplinethe maximum call were received for live stockmanagement techniques (69.49%), dairy technology(12.50%), marketing technique (8.27%), other (4.78%)and poultry technology (3.13%).

Constraints in adoption of ICT by the farmers

Constraints in adoption of ICT technology also beenobserved and presented in table 2. It has been observedfrom the data that the farmers not followed therecommendations or solutions received from the KCCdue to communicational gap as experts used scientificvocabulary in their solution (82%), lack of education(52%), solution is far different form the local farmingpractice (44%), less cooperation from agriculturaldepartment (24%), difficulty in adoption ofrecommendation due the reason that recommendedinput are not available in local market (30%), call arerarely received by the call center (20%) and high costof recommendation (12%).

Table 2. Constraints in Information and CommunicationTechnology (Kisan Call Centre)

Constraints Percentageof farmer

Communication Gap 82Lack of education 52Solution different from local farmingpractices 44Less corporation from Staff of theAgricultural Department 24Difficulties in adoption ofrecommendation 30High cast of recommendation 12Rarely received call on the number 20Total Respondents 50

It is concluded from the above discussion that out oftotal calls (13539/months), the 54.85% were found to

be related to agricultural disciplines. The maximum callswere concerned with plant protection technologies ofcrop cultivation followed by production technologies ofcrop cultivation, production technology of horticulturalcrops, plant protection technology of horticultural crops,HYV seeds of crop, plant and plant materials of fruitsand vegetables and time management practices relatedto the animal husbandry. The farmers were not adoptedthe recommendation and there was foundcommunication gap due to the difficulty in understandingthe solution and the solution was in scientific language,for different from the local farms practices,recommended input not available in the local marketand high cost of recommendation. Hence, it is suggestedthat the recommendation must be tuned with locallanguage, local farming system, availability of input inthe local market and lower expenditure.

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119

dj fd;k x;k rFkk ik;k fd laiw.kZ izkIr dkWy esa vf/kdrj Ñf"k ¼54-85%½ ls lacaf/kr jgs rFkk ek= 4-02% i'kq/ku ls lacaf/kr ik;s x;sAe/; izns'k ds fofHkUu ftyksa esa ls vf/kdre dkaaWy f'koiqjh ¼12-27%½ls ik, x, gSA Ñf"k {ks= ls izkIr dqy dkWy esa ls lokZf/kd dkWy ikS/k laj{k.k ¼42-98%½] ls blds ckn Qly mRiknu rduhd ¼32-01%½] foi.ku rduhd ¼12-03%½] mUur cht ¼9-04%½] ,oaekSle iwokZuqeku ¼1-99%½ leL;kvksa ds lek/kku ls lacaf/kr jgsA v/;;u ls ;g Hkh Kkr gqvk fd fo'ks"kKksa }kjk oSKkfud 'kCnkoyh dsiz;ksx] f'k{kk dh deh] LFkkuh; Ñf"k rduhdksa ls fHkUu lek/kku] Ñf"kfoHkkx }kjk de lg;ksx] flQkfj'kksa dh cktkj esa vuqiyC/krk] vf/kd vkxr ykxr os ck/kk,W ikb x;h gS ftlds dkj.k fdlku] dslhlhls izkIr flQkfj'kksa dk ikyu ugh dj ikrs gSA

References

Jones G E (1997) The history, development and the future ofagricultural extension' in B.E. Swanson, R.P. Bentzand A.J. Sofranko (1997) Improving agriculturalextension - a reference manual. Rome: FAO

Rahul Anand (2011) Kisan Call Center: Bridging theinformation gap. http://www.thebetterindia.com/2304/kisan-call-center-bridging-information-gap

Swaminathan M S (1993) Information Technology: Reachingthe unreached. Chennai: Macmillan India

Zijp W (1994) Improving the transfer and use of agriculturalinformation - a guide to Information Technology.Washington DC World Bank

(Manuscript Receivd : 20.12.2011; Accepted 10.03.2012)

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JNKVV Res J 46(1): 120-124 (2012)

Abstract

The study on economics of production of hybrid rice seedwas undertaken in two hybrid rice seed producing districts(Seoni and Balaghat) of Kaymore Plateau and Chhattisgarhplain of Madhya Pradesh. One block from each district i.e.Barghat from Seoni and Kirnapur from Balaghat were selectedon the basis of maximum production of hybrid rice seed.Further, 50 hybrid rice seed producers were selected randomlyfrom each block. The analysis revealed that the overall costof cultivation was Rs. 32997.84 /ha incurred in hybrid riceseed production. The major portion of the cost was labouremployment (47.37%) and use of bullock and machine power(19.01%) while material cost (including seed) constituted 35.58per cent of the total cost. The all products (Hybrid rice seed,Byproduct and Male seed) yielded in gross return of Rs.125045.50/ha and net return after deduction of cost was Rs.92045.66/ha. In terms of input-output ratio it was 1:3.78 Thus,hybrid rice seed production is highly profitable venture butthis required highly skilled labour for performing many criticaloperations supported by good managerial techniques andquick decision taking capacity. Therefore, this venture canbe promoted on larger area by providing technical backstopping and identifying potential area and farmers toundertake this activity on contractual basis.

To meet out the demand of increasing population and tomaintain food self-sufficiency and security, the presentproduction level of around 100 million tons of rice needto be enhanced up to 120 million tons by the year 2020.This additional production of about 20 million tons ofrice needs to be achieved under the situation ofshrinking resource base, specially land anddeteriorating natural resource without adverselyaffecting the environment. Encouraged by the successof hybrid rice technology in China, the ICAR initiated anational program for development and large scaleadoption of hybrid rice in the country in December 1989.This has been resulted in development of 43 commercialhybrid of rice in the country and presently hybrid rice is

Economics of hybrid rice seed production in Madhya Pradesh

R.R. Kashikar, P.K. Mishra, S.B. Nahatkar and H.O. SharmaDepartment of Agriculture Economics and Farm ManagementJawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa VidyalayaJabalpur 482 004 (MP)

planted in an area of about 1.5 million hectare andadditional rice of 2 to 2.5 million tons was added to ourfood basket through this technology (Anon 2010).

Success of hybrid rice technology is depends on,magnitude of heterosis which determines profitability,timely availability of quality seed and affordability ofhybrid rice seed by the farmers. Production of purehybrid seed in self pollinated crop, as rice at affordableprice is a highly skill oriented activity. Though extensivetrials on different components like suitable location,seasons, planting time, planting geometry, row ratio,GA-3 application and supplementary pollination etc, apackage for production of hybrid seed was optimized.After development of full proof package for productionof hybrid rice seed it is becoming lucrative propositionof entrepreneurial farmers. Therefore, the present studyon economics of production of hybrid rice seed inMadhya Pradesh was carried out.

Material and methods

The two hybrid rice seed producing agro-climatic zonesviz, Kaymore Plateau and Chhattisgarh plain of MadhyaPradesh were selected purposively for presentinvestigation. One district from each agro-climatic zonei.e. Seoni from Kaymore Plateau and Balaghat fromChhattisgarh plain were also selected purposively owingto concentration of hybrid rice seed producers. Oneblock from each district i.e. Barghat from Seoni districtand Kirnapur from Balaghat district were selected onthe basis of same criterion. From each block, cluster ofthree villages were selected on the basis of maximumarea under hybrid rice seed production. From eachcluster 50 hybrid rice seed producers were selectedrandomly. Thus the ultimate sampling unit comprisesof 100 hybrid rice seed growers. The study was basedon primary as well as secondary data. The primary data

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were collected from sample seed producers andrequired secondary data were collected from differentpublished and unpublished records as well as differentwebsites. For collection of primary data pre testedinterview schedule was used and data were collectedthrough survey method. For the purpose of analysis ofdata simple cost and profitability concept were used.

Results and discussion

Input use

Hybrid rice seed production is highly technical and skilloriented venture. This also required high managerialefficiency and quick decision taking capacity forperforming all operations in time. The information oninput used by sample farmers for production of hybridrice seed is given in table-1. The data presented in table1 show that the requirement of seed of parental material(A and R lines) is a major component of the input costof hybrid rice seed production after fertilizers and itaccounts for about 22 percent of the total input cost ofhybrid rice seed production. The A line parentageconstitute major part of seed parental material (19.57%). The another important component of material inputfor hybrid rice seed production is fertilizer and thisconstitute about 35 percent of the total material cost of

hybrid rice seed production. The major forms offertilizers required for production of seed of hybrid riceare Urea, DAP, Murate of Potash and Zinc Nirmala etal. (2010) also found similar results.

Insect pest and disease are not a major problemin the production of seed of hybrid rice as it is observed,only about 4.51 liter of plant protection agrochemicalsare used for this purpose and this accounts for 12.17per cent of the total input cost. But weed managementin kharif hybrid rice seed production is a major problem.As per recommendation farmers are applyingButachlore for control of major weeds in field of hybridrice seed production and total percentage expendituremade on this input is only 4.5 per cent of the input cost.The application of growth regulator GA-3 is essentiallyrequired for synchronize flowing of A and R lines forhigher seed setting. This input constitutes 18.02 percent of the total input cost. The expenditure onmiscellaneous items like jute bags, poly bags, ropesetc account for 9.01 per cent of the total cost. The overallinput material cost was Rs. 11094.63 per ha,Viraktamath et al. (2010) also confirmed these findings.

Human Labour Employment

Hybrid rice seed production is labour intensive venturebecause many technical operations like removal of offtype plants (Rouging) crossing of A and R line throughshaking the plants of both the lines using rope,transplanting of both the lines independently requiredhigher human labour. The operation wise genderspecific requirement of human labour in physical andmonitory units is given in table-2.

The data shows that overall labour requirementfor all the operations of hybrid rice seed production was298.50 labour days. This in terms of monitory value wasRs. 15632.14. The female labour requirement washigher (194.52 days) as compared to male labourrequirement (103.98). The maximum requirement ofmale labour is for field preparation and threshing, whilemaximum female labour is required for nurserymanagement and transplanting and for inter-cultureoperations followed by pollination and flag leaf clipping.The overall maximum labour is required for nurserymanagement and transplantation (19.33 %), followedby inter-culture operations (13.43 %). The abovediscussion clearly indicates that hybrid rice seedproduction is labour intensive venture and there aregender specific highly skilled oriented operations.

Table 1. Input use in production of hybrid rice seed (perha.)

Particulars Quantity Value Per cent(Rs)

Seed (Kg)A Line 10 2060.00 19.57R Line 5 245.00 2.21Fertilizers (Kg)Urea 198.19 1014.30 9.14DAP 151.02 1472.63 13.27MOP 98.97 467.80 4.21Zinc 24.98 984.90 8.88Plant Protection (Liter)(Agro Chemicals) 4.51 1350.00 12.17Weedicide (Liter) 1.99 500.00 4.50(Butachlore)GA-3 (gm) 15 2000.00 18.02Others (Bags etc.) - 1000.00 9.01Total 11094.63 100

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Table 2. Operation wise human labour employment

Operations Male Female TotalDays/Ha Rs /Ha Days/Ha Rs /Ha Days/Ha Rs/Ha

Field Preparation 13.56 726.67 0.11 5.56 13.67 732.23(4.58) (4.69)

Nursery &Transplanting 11.45 620.00 42.56 2402.22 54.10 3022.22(18.10) (19.33)

Manure & Fertilizers 9.00 474.44 12.23 645.55 21.23 1119.99(7.11) (7.17)

Inter-culture 5.22 265.55 35.88 1834.44 41.10 2099.99(13.77) (13.43)

Plant Protection 10.22 515.55 7.10 323.32 17.32 838.87(5.80) (5.37)

GA-3 Application 8.11 405.55 4.70 238.89 12.81 644.44(4.29) (4.12)

Pollination& Flag leaf clipping 5.11 288.89 31.89 1728.88 37.00 2017.77 (12.40) (12.91)

Harvesting 7.15 380.00 33.00 1731.11 40.15 2111.11 (13.45) (13.51)

Threshing 12.33 621.10 16.10 811.10 28.43 1432.20(9.53) (9.16)

Winnowing 11.99 599.99 10.77 541.11 22.76 1141.10(7.62) (7.30)

Watching, Grading etc. 9.44 472.22 - - 9.44 472.22(3.17) (4.02)

Total 103.98 5369.96 194.52 10262.18 298.50 15632.14 (100) (100)

Table 3. Operation wise bullock and machine power use (Rs/ha.)

Operation Bullock Labour Machine LabourValue Per cent Value Per cent

Field Preparation 1729.17 46.70 745.00 28.98Nursery &Transplanting 1015.97 27.44 228.75 8.20Manure & Fertilizers 171.53 4.63 382.09 14.86Inter-culture - - - -Plant Protection - - 262.64 10.22GA-3 Application - - 235.14 9.15Pollination &Flag leaf clipping - - - -Harvesting - - - -Threshing 786.11 21.23 420.84 16.37Winnowing - - 116.83 4.54Watching, Grading & Others - - 179.00 6.96Total 3702.78 100 2570.29 100

Bullock and Machine Power Requirement

The major field operations on sample farmers wereperformed by bullock and machine power in theproduction of hybrid rice seed. The data on its averageuse on sample farms is given in table 3. The totalmonitory requirement for use of bullock power on samplefarms was Rs. 3702.78 while for use of tractor it was

Rs. 2570.29. This shows that majority of sample farmersperform their field and other operations by bullockpower. Out of the total expenditure made on bullockpower nearly 74 per cent is made for primary fieldpreparation and transplanting of A and R lines.Remaining 26 per cent of expenditure is incurred onthreshing and application of manure and fertilizers.

In case of use of machine power (tractor,

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spreader, sprayer etc) some of the sample farmers usingtractor for field operations, nursery management andtransplanting. These operations constitute about 37 percent of the total expenditure made on use of machinepower. Use of machine power for spreading of manureand fertilizers is also carried out by some of the samplefarmers and this constitutes 14.86 per cent of the totalexpenditure made for use of machine power. Powersprayers were also use for application of plant protectionchemicals and GA-3 growth regulator. This accountsfor 20 per cent of the total expenditure on machinepower. Harvesting and post harvest handling speciallygrading is also carried out by machine power and thisaccounts for 28 per cent. The overall total expenditureon machine power was Rs. 2570.29 per ha. The totalexpenditure on bullock power and machine power wasRs. 7273.07 per ha.

Cost of cultivation

The data on overall cost of cultivation for production ofhybrid rice seed is given in table 4. The overall cost ofcultivation per hectare was Rs. 32997.84 for hybrid riceseed production on sample farm. The major portion ofthe cost was labour employment and use of bullock andmachine power, this constitutes more than 66 per centof the total cost per hectare. Material cost including seedconstitutes about 35.58 per cent of the total cost.Application of fertilizers constitutes about 11.94 per centand insecticides and pesticides accounts for 5.61 percent of the total cost. Miscellaneous expenditureconstitutes 3.04 per cent of the total cost (Anon 1990)also confirmed these results.

Profitability

The profitability from hybrid rice seed production workout on per hectare basis and data on the same arepresented in table 5.The data show that the per hectarehybrid rice seed production was 11.30 quintals. Theproduction of male seed which can be used as grainwas 21.20 quintal and byproduct and straw wasproduced as 29.81 quintal per hectare. In all theseproducts yielded in gross return of Rs. 125045.50 andnet return after deduction of cost per hectare was Rs.92045.66. In terms of input-output ratio it was 1:3.78which is much better for taking this venture by smalland marginal farmers of the area if they are supportedby corporate sector through contract farming of hybridrice seed production.

Thus, hybrid rice seed production is highly profitable

Table 4. Cost of seed production

Particulars Cost/ha. Per cent tototal cost

PowerHuman LabourFamily Labour 6449.96 19.55Hired Labour 9182.18 27.82Bullock Labour 3702.78 11.22Machine power 2570.29 7.79Sub Total 21905.21 66.38InputSeed 2305.00 6.98Fertilizers 3939.63 11.94Insecticides/ Pesticides 1850.00 5.61GA-3 1998.00 6.05Sub Total 10092.63 30.58Miscellaneous 1000.00 3.04Total 32997.84 100

Table 5. Return from Hybrid rice seed production (perha)

Particular Quantity Amount(q) (Rs)

Yield Hybrid Seed 11.30 96975.00Male Seed 21.20 26282.50

By - Product 29.81 1788.00Gross return - 125045.50

Total Cost - - 32997.84Net Return - - 92045.66Input Output Ratio- 1:3.78

venture but this required highly skilled labour forperforming many critical operations supported by goodmanagerial techniques and quick decision taking power.Therefore, this venture can be performed on larger areaby providing technical back stopping and identifyingpotential area and farmers for taking this venture.

e/;izns'k esa ladj /kku ds mRiknu dk vkfFkZd v/;;u djus ds fy,nks vf/kdre /kku cht mRiknd ftys ¼flouh ,oa ckyk?kkV½ dsekSjiBkj rFkk NRrhlx< iBkj Ñf"k tyok;q {ks=ksa dks p;fur fd;k x;k]ftlesa flouh ls cj?kkV ,oa ckyk?kkV ls fdjukiqj fodkl[k.Mksa dkp;u fd;k x;kA izR;sd fodkl [k.M ls 50 ladj /kku mRikndksa dk

124

p;u fd;k x;kA fo'ys"k.k ls Kkr gksrk gS fd ladj /kku chtmRiknu esa O;; :i;s 32997-84 izfr gs- ik;k x;k blesa ekuo JeO;; ¼47-37%½] e'khu ,oa cSyksa ds Je ij O;; ¼19-10%½ rFkk[kkn] cht] nok bR;kfn ij O;; ¼35-58%½ ik;k x;kA [kkn Mkyus¼11-94%½ rFkk nokvksa ds fNM+dko ij ¼5-61%½ O;; gqvkA blhizdkj dqy mRiknu vk; ¼cht] /kku iSjk rFkk uj cht½ ls vk; :i;s125045-50 izfr gs- izkIr gqbZA O;; dh jkf'k dks ?kVkus ij 'kq)ykHk :i;s 92045-66 izfr gs- ik;k x;k] vFkkZr ,d :i;s ds O;;ij cht mRiknd dks :i;s 3-78 izkIr gksrk ik;k x;kA ladj /kkuds cht dk mRiknu ykHknk;h gksdj ;g dq'ky ekuoh; Je jkstxkjgsrq vPNk d`f"k O;olk; ik;k x;k] lkFk gh vPNh rdfud ,oa lalk/kuksa ls gh ladj /kku cht mRiknu dk;Z fd;k tkuk laHko gSA Ñ"kdksads lkeqwfgd bl mRiknu dk;Z dks /kku ds {ks= esa izHkkoh cuk;k tkldrk gS bl gsrq lafonk [ksrh dks c<+kok nsuk vko';d gksxkA

References

Anonymous (1990) Technical Bulletin on Hybrid Cotton in India,Central Institute for Cotton Research Nagpur

Nirmala B, Muthuraman P, Shaik N, Mangal Sain, Meera,Viraktamath B C (2010) Economics of hybrid riceseed production in India Accelerating Hybrid ricedevelopment :495

Viraktamath BC Hariprasad A S, Ramesha M S Illyas M Ahmad(2010) Hybrid rice in Iindia. DRR Technical Bulletin47/2010:1-45

(Manuscript Receivd : 30.04.2012; Accepted 27.09.2012)

125

Assessment of microbial quality of enrobed chicken meat productusing plant binders

Surbhi Yadav, V. Appa Rao, R Narendra Babu and Jitendra Kumar Sharma*Department of Meat Science and TechnologyMadras Veterinary CollegeChennai 07, India*College of Veterinary Science, Jabalpur 482 001 (MP)

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 125-128 (2012)

Abstract

The effect of three plant binders viz. rice flour, tapioca flourand corn flour on the microbial quality of enrobed chickenmeat product kept at refrigeration temperature (4±1 0C) forup to 21 days storage period was studied. There was nosignificant difference in mesophillic count and yeast and mouldcount of enrobed chicken meat products with all the threebinders. The mesophillic count for all the three products wasfound to increase with the increase in days of storage but thecount was within the permitted limit of 5.33 log/cfu per gramof product. The yeast and mould count of all the three productswas increased with the increase in days of storage due tohigh carbohydrate content of the coatings. Enrobed chickenmeat product prepared with all the three plant binders wasmicrobiologically safe up to 21 days under refrigerated storage.

Keywords: Enrobed meat products, plant binders,mesophillic count, yeast and mould count

Chicken meat contributed 36.68% (2.30 million tons) tothe total meat production in India (FAO 2012). Poultrymeat is widely accepted by consumers with annualgrowth rate 10-15%. The growth is expected more innear future due to popularity, low price, easy availability,no religious taboos and more desirable characteristicsin poultry meat.

With increase in urbanization, improvement insocio-economic status and fast pace of life, the demandfor ready to eat and ready to cook convenient and valueadded meat products is on the rise. Owing to thepotential demand of convenience food in the worldmarket, many varieties of battered and breaded food,such as vegetable, poultry, meat and seafood had beenpromoted. The relative importance of coated food hasshifted to restaurants, fast food centres and

supermarkets. Deep fat fried meat products are quitepopular. Such products can be prepared in relativelyshort time and have characteristic crispy outer surface.

Battered food is prominent in the diet ofconsumers all over the world. A crispier texture, moredesirable colour and flavour and a contribution ofsubstantial eating are some of the advantages of usingbatter to coat food. Coating foods with a number oflayers of coating material such as batters and breadcrumbs are the most common way of adding value to afood item.

Battered and breaded products are eitherbattered (puff-tempura) or battered and breaded(interface-adhesion) prior to deep fat frying (Loewe1993). Batter used for fried foods can be defined asliquid dough, basically consisting of flours, starches,seasoning and water. Batters have become moresophisticated complex systems in which the nature ofthe ingredients is very wide ranging and their interactionaffects the finished product (Fiszman and Salvador2003). Enrobing /coating provide value addition to theproduct and even a slight improvement in the productquality fetches high price. The concept of enrobing andedible coatings has also gained significance due toaddition of various ingredients having antimicrobialproperties that are incorporated in batter. This approachcan be used to give a strong localized functional effectwithout elevating excessively the overall concentrationof a particular additive in the food.

Hence, the present study was conducted with anobjective to develop a value added, low cost and easilyadoptable technology for preparation of enrobedchicken meat product and assess its microbial qualityduring storage days.

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Material and method

Chicken breast fillets were procured from local chickenshops located at Chennai (Tamil Nadu). The chickenbreast fillets were washed and kept in deep freezer fortwo hours to attain a firm consistency. The meat wasthen sliced into uniform strips and further diced intochunks of approximately 1 x 1cm dimensions. Thereafterthe chunks were marinated using a marinade based ononion paste, ginger, garlic, green chilli paste, turmericpowder salt, sodium tripolyphosphates and curd for 2hr.

Plant binders

Three different plant binders viz. rice (Oryza sativa) flour,tapioca (Manihot esculatum) flour and corn (Zea mays)flour along with roasted chickpea flour (Cicer arietinum)were used in the preparation of coating batter.

Batter mix preparation

The batter was prepared using various ingredients suchas spice mix (5%), Capsicum powder (2%), Carboxymethyl cellulose (2%), Salt (3%), Leaveningagent(NaHCO3) (2%), Egg white (10%), Red chillipowder (1%), Sugar (0.5%), Self Raising flour (10%)and a combination of roasted gram flour (RGF) and plantbinder (64.5%). Three different batches of batter wereprepared using a combination of RGF and rice flour(25:75, T1), RGF and corn flour (35:65, T2) and RGFand tapioca flour (35:65, T3). The optimum ratios ofroasted gram flour and the three different plant bindersrespectively in the coating batter were selected on thebasis of preliminary trials.

Preparation of enrobed meat product

The marinated chicken chunks were battered manuallyusing three different batters as per the formulations(Table-1). The battered chicken chunks were thenbreaded using the breading mix containing cornflakepowder and semolina (85:15) as breading material. Thebattered and breaded product was deep oil fried invegetable oil at a temperature of 160 0C for 5 minutesuntil the product acquired an internal core temperatureof 70 0C and a golden brown colouration on the surface.The different groups were cooled and packaged inLDPE bags and stored at refrigeration temperature andsubjected to physico-chemical analysis at weeklyinterval.

Microbial analysis

Total viable count and Yeast and mould count wasdetermined following the procedure described by theAmerican Public Health Association, (1992) for therefrigerated stored samples on 0,7,14 and 21 days toassess the microbial stability of the enrobed chickenmeat product.

Preparation of sample

Five gm of enrobed chicken meat product was takenaseptically and homogenized with 45 ml of 0.1 percentof peptone water in a stomacher to detain an initialdilution of 10-1. Serial tenfold dilution was made up to10-5 in pre-sterilized tubes containing 9ml of 0.1 percentpeptone water. The sample preparation and plating werecarried out under laminar flow and then incubated at370C.

Total viable count

Total viable count was carried out using plate count agaras per the procedure mentioned in APHA (1992). Afterincubation for 48 hours at 370C, the petriplates showing30-300 colonies were counted and the number of thecolonies in the original suspension was expressed aslog value/gm of meat by multiplying the counted colonieswith the reciprocal of the dilution.

Table 1. Formulation of enrobed chicken product withselected levels of different plant bindersIngredients T1 T2 T3

% (W/W) % (W/W) % (W/W)Spice mix 5 5 5Capsicum powder 2 2 2Carboxy methyl cellulose 2 2 2Salt (NaCl) 3 3 3Leavening agent(NaHCO3) 2 2 2Egg white 10 10 10Red chilli powder 1 1 1Sugar 0.5 0.5 0.5Self raising flour 10 10 10RGF+ Rice flour (25:75) 64.5 - -RGF+ Tapioca flour (35:65) - 64.5 -RGF+ Corn flour (35:65) - - 64.5

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Yeast and mould count

Yeast and mould count was carried out usingSabaruad's dextrose agar as per the procedurementioned in APHA (1992). After incubation at roomtemperature for 5 days the petriplates showing 15-150colonies were counted and the number of the coloniesin the original suspension was expressed as log value/gm of meat by multiplying the counted colonies withthe reciprocal of the dilution.

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed statistically using StatisticalSoftware Packages SPSS 17 developed by followingthe procedure of Snedecor and Cochran (1989). Datawere subjected to analysis of variance and means werecompared by critical difference tests. Means betweenperiods of storage, between treatment and withintreatments were compared by one way and two wayAnova.

Results and discussion

Total viable count

There was no significant change (P>0.05) observed inthe overall treatment means of total viable count inenrobed chicken meat products incorporated withdifferent binders viz. rice flour (3.90 ± 0.01), tapiocaflour (3.89 ± 0.06) and corn flour (3.88 ± 0.06). Therewas highly significant (P<0.01) increase in the overallstorage means of total viable count viz. 3.49 ± 0.00,3.84 ± 0.00, 4.01 ± 0.01 and 4.23 ± 0.03 on 0, 7, 14 and21 days of storage respectively. These findings are in

consonance with the results of Biswas et al. (2004),where a gradual increase in total plate count wasobserved during chilled storage of enrobed pork pattiesup to 21 days of storage and 45 days of frozen storage.However the total viable count in all the three treatmentswere lower than the threshold 5.33 log 10 cfu/g ofcooked meat products (Frazier and Westhoff 2008)even on 21st day of storage. Higher aerobic counts afterbreading and battering of fish finger were reported byReddy et al. (1990). Similar results were observed byYadav and Sharma (2008) where increase in mesophilliccount was observed up to 28 days of chilled storage.Owens (2001) stated that since coated products arecooked and frozen or refrigerated before distribution,microbial spoilage does not limit shelf-life of the product.Throughout the storage study the microbial count wasbelow the threshold values which might be due tocooking which drastically injured and/or killed thepsychrotropic and mesophillic population (Jay 1996).

Yeast and mould count

There was no significant change (P>0.05) in overalltreatment means of yeast and mould count of enrobedchicken meat products between the binders viz. riceflour (2.11 ± 0.00), tapioca flour (2.10 ± 0.00) and cornflour (2.10 ± 0.00). There was highly significant (P<0.01)increase in the overall storage means of the yeast andmould count viz. 1.92 ± 0.00, 2.08 ± 0.00 and 2.33 ±0.00 on 7, 14 and 21 days of storage respectively. Thisis similar to the results observed by Yadav and Sharma(2008) where increase in yeast and mould countsreached around 2.4 log cfu/ gm in enrobed chicken meatpatties. They suggested that the increase in yeast andmould count may be due to the presence of higheramount of carbohydrates in enrobed chicken meatpatties which is a good substrate for yeast and moulds.

Table 2. Total viable count and Yeast and Mould count of enrobed chicken meat product during the storageperiod

Parameters Treatment Storage period (in days) Treatment0 7 14 21 mean ± S.E.

Total viable count Rice flour (25:75) 3.49a ± 0.01 3.84b ± 0.01 3.99c ± 0.02 4.31d ± 0.01 3.90x ± 0.01Tapioca flour (35:65) 3.49a ± 0.01 3.83b ± 0.00 4.04c ± 0.03 4.22d ± 0.04 3.89x ± 0.06Corn flour (35:65) 3.48a ± 0.01 3.87b ± 0.01 4.02c ± 0.02 4.16d ± 0.05 3.88x ± 0.06

Storage mean ± S.E 3.49A ± 0.00 3.84B ± 0.00 4.01C ± 0.01 4.23D ± 0.03Yeast and mould count Rice flour (25:75) ND 1.93a ± 0.01 2.08b ± 0.01 2.33c ± 0.01 2.11x ± 0.00

Tapioca flour (35:65) ND 1.91a ± 0.01 2.08b ± 0.00 2.31c ± 0.02 2.10x ± 0.00Corn flour (35:65) ND 1.92a ± 0.01 2.08b ± 0.01 2.33c ± 0.01 2.10x ± 0.00

Storage mean ± S.E ND 1.92C ± 0.01 2.08B ± 0.00 2.33A ± 0.01

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Conclusion

The chicken meat products enrobed with different plantbinders in the coating batter remained microbiologicallystable during the entire storage period of 21 daysalthough there was a gradual significant increase(P<0.05) in the mesophilic count as the storage daysadvanced. Thus it can be concluded that enrobedproducts were microbiologically acceptable up to 21days of refrigerated storage under aerobic packaging.

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References

APHA (American Public Health Association) (1992)Compendium of Methods for the microbiologicalexamination of foods, (2nd edn. M.L. Speck).American Public Health Association Washington DC

Biswas AK, Keshri RC, Bisht GS (2004) Effect of enrobingand antioxidants on quality characteristics ofprecooked pork patties under chilled and frozenstorage conditions. Meat Science 66: 733-741

Fiszman SM, Salvador A (2003) Recent developments incoating batters. Trends in Food Science & Technol14: 399-407

Jay JM (1996) Antioxidants In Modern Food Microbiology (4thedn.) New Delhi India: CBS Publishers andDistributors 265-266

Loewe R (1993) Role of ingredients in batter systems. CerealFoods World 38 (9): 673-677

Owens CM (2001) Coated poultry products. In: Poultry MeatProcessing. CRC press, Taylor and Francis groupBoca Raton p 240

Reddy L, Shetty TMR, Dora KC (1990) Utilization of low-valuefish-preparation of fish fingers from croaker andperches. Fishery Technol 27(2):133-137

Yadav S, Sharma DP (2008) Effect of enrobing with or withoutpreservative on the quality characteristics of chickenpatties. Indian J Poultry Sci 43(3): 333-358

(Manuscript Receivd : 04.08.2012; Accepted 06.09.2012)

129

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 129-131 (2012)

Hepatocellular carcinoma in dogs: A case report

Ankush Maini, Debosri Bhowmick, Shobha Jawre and M.K. BhargavaNanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science UniversityCollege of Veterinary Science & Animal HusbandryJabalpur 482001 (MP)

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Abstract

A 9 year old German Shephard dog was reported to thehospital with the history of loss of appetite, gradual weightloss, vomition and abdominal swelling which was graduallyincreasing in size since last week. Ultrasonography revealedhypoechoic patches in liver parenchyma and anechoic asiticfluid was seen. The haematological profile and biochemicalparameters revealed an increased total leukocyte count withincrease in number of lymphocytes and neutrophils along withan increase in Serum pyruvate aminotransferase, Serumglutamic–oxaloacetic transaminase and AlkalinePhosphatases which were indicative of liver injury. The dogdied on second day of treatment and upon histopathologicalexamination Hepato Cellular Carcinoma was finally diagnosed.

Keywords: Ultrasonography, Histopathology, Hepatocellular carcinoma, dog

Primary hepatic tumor are rare. They account for 0.6to1.3 % of all canine neoplasm and 1.5 to2.3% of allfeline neoplasm. All malignant hepatic tumor occur inolder animals at an average age of 10 years (Withrowet al.1996). No breed appears to be at an increasedrisk of developing primary hepatic tumor. The etiology

is unknown, but experimental exposure to certaincarcinogens especially aflatoxins, pyrollizidine alkaloidsand diethilnitrsamine has been shown to induce primaryhepatic tumor. Five neoplasm of epithelial origin affectthe hepato-biliary system of domestic animals. Theseincludes hepatocellular carcinoma, bile duct carcinoma,hepatocellular adenoma, bile duct adenoma andhepatoblastoma.

Hepatocellular Carcinoma are the most commonmalignant tumor of canine and feline liver. Males appearto be at increased risk for developing tumor.

Material and methodolgy

The present investigation was made of a 9 year oldGerman Shephard dog Canis Lupus Familiarisregistered at TVCSC Jabalpur on 17-08-2011 with thefollowing history.

History

Loss of appetite, gradual weight loss and vomition. Theowner of the dog reported an abdominal swelling whichwas gradually increasing in size since last week.

130

Clinical examination report

Upon clinical examination it was observed that the dogwas afebrile but with pale mucous membrane.Onpalpation, ascites was suspected. The owner wasdirected for sonography and routine blood examinationof the dog.

Ultrasonography

Report revealed hypoechoic patches in liverparenchyma and anechoic asitic fluid was recorded .Ultrasonograhic examination also suggested renal andgastric involvement.

Fig 1 & 2 shows hypoechoic patches in liverparenchyma upon ultrasonographic examination

Results and discussion

The haematological examination revealed WBC-36.1thousand/μl [6.00-17.0]; Lymphocytes-5.87thousand /ml [1.00-4.80]; Monocytes-3.40 thousand/ml Granulocytes-26.9 thousand /ml [3.00-12.00]; RBC-5.26 million/ml [5.50-8.50];Hb- 9.6g/dl [12.0-18.0]and HCT-31.30%

Thus, the blood status revealed an increased totalleukocyte count of 36.1 thousand/μl with increase innumber of lymphocytes 5.87 thousand/ml andneutrophils 26.9 thousand/ml as compared to the normalvalues of 6.00-17.0 thousand /ml, 1.00-4.80 thousand /ml and 3.00-12.00 thousand/ml respectively.Haemoglobin concentration was also low 9.6g/dlhowever total cell count was within normal range.

Biochemical Parameters

Serum glutamic–oxaloacetic transaminase, (SGOT)-48.80 IU/L; Serum pyruvate aminotransferase (SGPT)-94.8 IU/L; Blood Urea Nitrogen BUN-14.4 IU/L; SerumCreatinine CRE- 1.88 IU/L and alkalinePhosphatasesALP: 190IU/L.

Thus biochemical parameters exhibited anincrease in SGPT, SGOT, and ALP indicative towadsliver injury. However an increase in serum creatininewas observed but BUN remained within normallimits.The animal died on second day of hospitalregistration and post mortem examination was condutedin the Department of Veterinary Pathology.

The following post mortem findings were recordedwith General condition of carcass– emaciated, mucusmembrane- pale, In peritoneum, pericardium, pleuralsac–serosanguinous fluid was present; Lungs-patchesof pneumonia with exogenous pigmentation; Liver-color-yellow, size–reduced, surface-entire surface hasnumerous nodules of 2-3 cm; Portal lymph nodes–Enlarged, gall bladder–distended with bile;Spleen–Swollen, nodular growth and area of infarct; GastricMucosa-highly congested with dark bile tinged contents;kidney-blister like lesions.

Fig 3. Liver showing numerous nodule

Fig 4. Spleen showing nodular growth

Fig 5. Gastric mucosa highly congested with darkbile tinged contents

131

Fig 6. Kidney showing blister like lesions

Fig 7. section of liver growth showing enlargedeosinophilic cells.H&E 400X

Post Mortem Diagnosis : Nodular Cirrhosis

For Confirmatory Diagnosis

Tissues were collected for histopatholgical examinationfrom liver, spleen, and kidney.

Fixation

The tissue pieces from lesions of approximately 1.5 cmin size were placed in 10% formalin for fixation for 48hrs.

Tissue Processing

After fixation dehydration processing of tissues wasdone and paraffin blocks were prepared. The sectionswere cut of 5μ thickness and stained with haematoxylinand eosin.

Microscopic Appearance of lesions

1. The tumor cells resembled hepatocytes. each cellhad eosinophilic cytoplasm and their nuclearmorphology was variable.[Fig-7]

2. Stroma was composed of sinusoid like bloodspaces lined by single layer endothelial cells .

3. In sisoidal spaces varying number of macrophageswere observed.

4. Cords of variable thickness were formed by tumorcells and these were separated by blood spaces.Glandular acinar structures were also observed atfew places (Fig 8).

Fig 8. Section of liver growth showing acini seperatedby blood spaces. H&E400X

Confirmatory Diagnosis

The tumor was finally diagnosed as “Hepato cellularcarcinoma”

Conclusion

For confirmatory diagnosis and histological type oftumor, histopatholgical examination was essential.Ultrasonography helps in identifying the cases of livertumor and laboratory examination aids in knowing thegeneral health status of tumorus patient. Knowing thestage of tumor would help in the prognosis of the case.

References

World Health Organization Classification of Tumors –International Agency for Research On Cancer IARC: 158-197

Department of Pathology, Department of Surgery andRadiology, Disease Investigation lab records -College of Veterinary Science and AnimalHusbandry, Jabalpur.

Withrow Stephen J, Gregory E Maeneen . Small animal clinicaloncology 2nd edition, W.B. Saunders company :248-251

(Manuscript Receivd : 13.08.2011; Accepted 15.03.2012)

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JNKVV Res J 46(1): 132-133 (2012)

Colibacillosis in free-ranging pigeons

Nidhi Rajput, M.P.S. Tomar*, A.B. Shrivastav, Sanjay Shukla** and Varsha Sharma**Centre for Wildlife Forensic & Health*Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Histology**Department of Veterinary MicrobiologyCollege of Veterinary Science & Animal HusbandryNanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science UniversityJabalpur 482001 (MP)

Figure 1. Exudate over the air sacs (a), heart (b) and liver (c)

(a) (b) (c)

Abstract

Colibacillosis is caused by Escherichia coli, that is commonlyencountered in poultry flocks. The causative organism ofcolibacillosis is normal inhabitant of poultry intestines and flareup in poor management conditions. Transmission to other birdsis mainly due to consumption of feed and water contaminatedwith the faeces of affected birds. Free range pigeons rarelyshow diarrhoea but often develop limb paralysis, which mightbe due to species variation. Awareness among poultry farmersand scientific disposal of poultry waste is suggested to managethe secondary spread.

Keywords : Pigeon, Escherichia coli

Colibacillosis is an infectious disease caused byEscherichia coli. In most cases the symptoms areaccompanied by profuse diarrhoea. The bacteriumshows typical pathology in the form of airsacculitis,pericarditis, perihepatitis and peritonitis (Pennycott1994). Isolation of E. coli from the heart, liver or otherlesions confirms the diagnosis.

The article reports two cases of colibacillosis inBlue rock pigeons (Columbia livia). The pigeons were

brought by the State Forest Officials at different timeduration for treatment at CWF&H, Jabalpur. One pigeonwas found lying near the residential area and unable tofly. Clinical examination revealed paralysis in the limbs;however, the body condition was good. Treatment wasinitiated with the oral administration of neurotropicvitamins. On the 3rd day of treatment, the pigeon diedwithout signs of recovery and improvement. Anotherpigeon was brought to the Centre with the similar historyand clinical signs, but died within 24 hours. Detailednecropsy of both the carcasses revealed deposition ofexudate over the air sacs, liver, heart and kidneys (Fig.1a, b and c). Gizzard and proventriculus were emptywith normal mucosa. However, the intestinal lumenexhibited focal haemorrhages with the presence of smallamount of mucous. The swabs of exudate was collectedfrom the organs and placed in nutrient broth for microbialpopulation at 37ºC for 24 hrs. After incubation, a loopfulof nutrient broth was streaked over the nutrient agarand incubated at 37ºC for 24 hrs. Nutrient agar revealedthe presence of colonies of bacteria in the form of dewdrops (Fig. 2). Microscopic examination of the coloniesshowed presence of small rod shaped organism. Aloopful of the isoloted colonies was streaked over the

133

Eosin-methylene blue (EMB) agar, that exhibited typicalmetallic sheen after 24 hrs incubation at 37ºC. Itconfirmed the presence of organism as E. coli (Fig. 3).

E. coli are Gram negative, facultative anaerobicbacilli that are the part of normal intestinal microflora ofpoultry. Although most, E. coli are non-pathogenic,some strains may establish outside of the intestines andcause disease. These strains are known as AvianPathogenic E. coli (APEC). High numbers of E. coli aremaintained in the poultry house environment throughfaecal contamination. The pigeons were recovered fromand near the areas surrounded by poultry farms. Usuallypoultry are suspected to be the source of origin ofcolibacillosis in pigeons (Dho-Moulin and Fairbrother1999). Hence, pigeons might get infections from thecontaminated water bodies near poultry houses.Absence of profuse diarrhoea in both the cases mightbe due to species variation. However, exceptionalparalysis of limbs in the pigeons should be kept inconsideration. Upcoming such cases should be treated

Figure 2. Dew-drops like bacterial colonies onnutrient agar

Figure 3. Metallic sheen like bacterial colonies oneosin-methylene blue (EMB)agar

with antibiotics along with the multivitamins for quickcontrol over the suspected colibacillosis. Control ofcolibacillosis in free-ranging pigeons is difficult,however, can be achieved by controlling the disease inpoultry farms as well as by disposing the waste waterof poultry houses employing scientific approaches forfurther dissemination and making awareness among thepoultry farmers.

References

Dho-Moulin M, Fairbrother JM (1999) Avian pathogenicEscherichia coli (APEC). Vet Res 30(2-3): 299-316

Pennycott T (1994) Pigeon diseases – results from a Scottishdiagnostic laboratory. Proceedings AnnualConference Association of Avian Veterinarians: 231-239

(Manuscript Receivd : 25.09.2011; Accepted 01.03.2012)

134

Abstract

The present study was undertaken to elucidate the effect ofcastration on the performance of crossbred pigs. The studywas conducted on a total of 20 weaned male piglets of 2months age pertaining to Large White Yorkshire crosses withdesi pigs were procured and randomly allotted to two groups(Castrated and uncastrated) containing 10 pigs each. Pigswere maintained at piggery unit of Livestock farm, Adhartal,Jabalpur. Growth parameters were recorded at fortnightintervals from 56 days to 195 days of age. highly significant(P<0.01) differences in performance traits between thecastrated and uncastrated group study reveated of pigs inthe body weight, daily feed intake and feed efficiency whereassignificant (P<0.05) differences were observed in daily weightgain, chest girth and height at withers. Castration has nosignificant effect on body length of pigs

Keywords: Body weight, feed intake, feed efficiency,body length, chest girth, height at withers

Pig production is considered as one of the mostimportant activities in animal husbandry programmesespecially for improvement of economic status offarmers. Therefore, there is a growing need for expertservices in Swine management and health. Swinepractice today is technically more demanding and theswine owners look forward to competitive and qualitativeservices from the professional porcinologists. Pigindustry contributes substantially to the Nation'seconomy in India where pork and pork products formmore than 10% of the total annual meat production (FAO2003). The grains that are rendered unmarketable canbe converted into pork sometimes almost as effectivelyas sound grains. Similarly table garbage, bakery waste,culled potatoes, unmarketable fruits can be fed to hogsotherwise they are a total loss to the producers.Castration can greatly influences growth rate in meatproducing animals and is considered as important toolin enhancing meat production (Solomon et al. 1988).

Effect of castration on performance of crossbred pigs

V.N. Gautam, Shraddha Shrivastava, G.P. Lakhani and R.P.S. BaghelDepartment of Livestock Production and ManagementCollege of Veterinary Science and Animal HusbandryNanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science UniversityJabalpur 482 004 (MP)

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 134-136 (2012)

Materials and methods

The study was carried out for the period of five monthsfrom December 2009 to May 2010 with a pre-experimental period of one month. Twenty weaned malepiglets at the age of 2 months pertaining to Large WhiteYorkshire crosses with Desi pigs were procured frompiggery unit of Livestock farm, Adhartal, Jabalpur andrandomly divided into two groups. i.e. Castrated anduncastrated. Each group had two replicates and eachreplicate had five piglets of identical body weights. Thecastration was performed in group one by the standardprocedure as described by Tyagi and Singh (1991).Growth parameters were taken at fortnight intervals byusing standard weighing balance. The daily weight gainof each piglet for various stages of growth wascalculated by using the formula given by Pandey et al.(1996). Feed efficiency was calculated by using theformula given by Banerjee, (1998).

Linear body measurements like body length (fromtop of the head in between the ears to the base of thetail), chest girth (around the body just behind the frontlegs and over the shoulder area) and height at withers(from the top of the withers to the bottom of the foreleg)were measured in inches by using the standardmeasuring tape in the morning before offering feed tothe pigs at fortnightly interval (Singh et al. 2001). Datawere analysed by standard statistical method asdescribed by Snedecor and Cochran (1994).

Results and discussion

The fortnightly body weight of castrated and uncastratedpigs from 56 to 195 days of age (Table 1) indicatedsignificantly (P<0.01) higher final body weight incastrated groups. The difference was not significant forthe first fortnights of experiment. The present study werein close agreement with Walstra (1969), who reported

135

Tab

le 1

. A

vera

ge fo

rtnig

htly

bod

y w

eigh

t, da

ily g

ain.

fed

inta

ke a

nd fe

ed e

ffici

ency

of p

igs

in c

astra

ted

and

unca

stra

ted

grou

ps o

f pig

Fortn

ight

Ave

rage

bod

y w

eigh

t (kg

)A

vera

ge d

aily

gai

n(gm

)A

vera

ge fe

ed in

take

Feed

effi

cien

cyB

ody

Wei

ght

Cas

trate

dU

n ca

stra

ted

Cas

trate

dU

n ca

stra

ted

Cas

trate

dU

n ca

stra

ted

Cas

trate

dU

n ca

stra

ted

2½ m

onth

s14

.65a ±

0.1

414

.03b ±

0.1

433

3.33

a ± 0

.10

3046

6b ± 0

.15

0.87

a ± 0

.001

0.72

b ± 0

.002

2.61

4a ± 0

.17

2.37

2b ± 0

.19

3 m

onth

s20

.00a ±

0.1

819

.10b ±

0.1

438

2.33

a ± 0

.10

362.

00b ±

0.1

21.

24a ±

0.0

021.

16b ±

0.0

023.

245a ±

0.1

03.

203a ±

0.1

2

3½ m

onth

s26

.12a ±

0.2

225

.01b ±

0.2

543

7.66

a ± 0

.10

422.

00b ±

0.2

21.

33a ±

0.0

021.

28b ±

0.00

13.

042a ±

0.1

33.

032b ±

0.2

3

4 m

onth

s32

.78a ±

0.1

830

.12b ±

0.2

347

6.33

a ± 0

.10

365.

0b ± 0

.12

1.64

a ± 0

.002

1.37

b ± 0

.001

3.44

7a ± 0

.15

3.75

3a ± 0

.10

4½ m

onth

s39

.98a ±

0.1

536

.00b ±

0.1

651

4.00

a ± 0

.20

420.

33b ±

0.2

12.

03a ±

0.0

031.

51b ±

0.00

23.

947a ±

0.1

63.

595b ±

0.1

7

5 m

onth

s48

.57a ±

0.3

044

.56b ±

0.2

561

4.00

a ± 0

.20

611.

00a ±

0.2

12.

24a ±

0.0

031.

60b ±

0.0

023.

651a ±

0.1

52.

617b ±

0.0

9

5½ m

onth

s56

.25a ±

0.1

953

.19b ±

0.2

054

9.33

a ± 0

.21

616.

00b ±

0.2

12.

45a ±

0.0

031.

76b ±

0.00

24.

466a ±

0.1

52.

858b ±

0.1

1

6 m

onth

s63

.79a ±

0.2

761

.66b ±

0.31

539.

00a ±

0.1

760

5.00

b ± 0

.29

2.97

a ± 0

.002

2.03

b ± 0

.001

5.51

5a ± 0

.17

3.35

5b ± 0

.17

6½ m

onth

s71

.32a ±

0.5

770

.19b ±

0.4

153

8.00

a ± 0

.45

609.

00b +

0.3

23.

12a ±

0.03

02.

35b ±

0.00

15.

801a ±

0.4

63.

857b ±

0.2

7

Diff

eren

t sup

ersc

ript i

n a

row

diff

er s

igni

fican

tly (P

<0.0

5)

that barrows grew faster than boars when fed ad libitum.However, Bendangyanger et al. (2007) showed thatbody weight of both male and female pigs from birth to15 month of age were significantly (P<0.01) higher inpigs reared under organized farm as compare tounorganized farm.

Average daily weight gain were significantly differ(P<0.01) between the two groups. Castrated groupsgained higher daily weight gain upto fifth fortnight,. outfrom the sixth fortnight onwards superior daily weightgain was noticed in the uncastrated pigs. It was in closeagreement with the findings of Knudson et al. (1985)and Chang et al. (1990) who observed that the dailyweight gain was higher in barrows than the boars but itwas statistically non-significant.

The average daily feed intake was significantly(P<0.01) lower in uncastrated groups (3.12±0.030, kg)then with castrated group (2.35 ± 0.001 kg). This mightbe due to the lower energy requirements to produce aunit of body weight in uncastrated group then castratepigs. It was in agreement with the findings of Newelland Bowland (1972) and Ravi et al. (1999) who reportedthat the average daily feed intake was lower inuncastrated pigs than the castrated pigs.

Highly significant (P<0.01) feed efficiency (3.182± 0.20) was recorded in uncastrated pigs compared tothe castrated pigs (3.970 ± 0.28). The poor feedefficiency exhibited by the castrates showed that theyhave consumed more to produce a unit of body weightunder ad libitum feeding conditions. This also reflectsthat probably energy requirements to produce a unit ofbody weight was also more in castrates, especially so,when the fat accretion is increased in castrated pig,which requires more energy compared to proteinaccretion. It was consistent with the findings of Yen etal. (1988), Chang et al. (1990), Yadav et al. (1993) andRavi et al. (1999) who observed better feed efficiencyin uncastrated pigs than the castrated pigs.

There was no significant variation in the bodylength of the castrated and uncastrated pigs, whereassignificantly (P<0.05) higher chest girth was observedin castrated group pigs. This was in close agreementwith Singh et al. (1985) who reported that the chestgirth appeared to be a very good indicator of live weightin pigs. It was found that there was highly significant(P<0.05) difference in body length between castratedand uncastrated group of pigs and castrated group wastaller than the uncastrated group.

The present study revealed significant increasein body weight,average daily weight gain, daily feedintake, feed efficiency from 2nd month with maximum

136

efficiency observed in 6.5 months in the castrated group.As the castrated group showed a better growth patternthan non castrated pigs it is recommended that so as tohave a higher body weight, one has to go for castrationof males which are not used for breeding.

orZeku v/;;u esa cf/k;kdj.k dk ladj lwdjksa ds fofHkUu fodklekin.Mksa dk izHkko ns[kk x;k gS] bl v/;;u ds fy;s 20 uj ladjlwdj 'kkod ¼yktZ OgkbV ;kdZ'kk;j x ns'kh½ dk p;u nks ekg dh mezij fd;k x;k gS p;u ds i'pkr~ 'kkodks dks 2 lewgksa esa lkeku :ils foHkkftr fd;k x;k gS A ftlesa 10&10 lwdjksa ds nks lewgksa¼cf/k;k vkSj fcuk cf/k;k½ ,d lewg ds lHkh ladj 'kkodksa dksrqyukRed v/;;u ds fy;s cf/k;kdj.k fd;k x;k gS A lwdj dsfofHkUu fodkl ekin.Mksa dks i[kokM+s ds varjky ij fjdkMZ fd;k x;kA ;g v/;;u ds varxZr 'kjhj ds otu] nSfud nkus dk lsou vkSjnkus dh n{krk] Nkrh dh ifjf/k ,oa 'kjhj dh Å¡pkbZ esa cf/k;k vkSjfcuk cf/k;k ds chp P<0.01 erHksn Fks] tcfd nSfud otu] Nkrh dhifjf/k vkSj Å¡pkbZ esa P<0.05 erHksn Fks] tcfd lwvjksa ds 'kjhj dhyackbZ esa dksbZ egRoiw.kZ varj ugha Fkk A

References

Bandangyanger V, Sharma B, Vidyarthi, VK, Bora, NN, SahariaJ (2007).studies on productive traits in Indigenouspigs of Nagaland. Indian Vet. J.86:53-54

Banerjee GC (1998) A Text book of Animal Husbandry. 8thEd., Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt Ltd NewDelhi, 778

Chang WK, Chung, IB, Kim, VG,Cheong, SK (1990) Effect ofcastration on growth, food conversion and carcasscharacter in pigs. Research reports of the RuralDevelopment Administration, Livestock, KoreaRepublic 32: 12-16

F A O (2003) Production year book Vol 44 Food andAgricultural Organization of United Nations, RomeItaly

Knudson BK, Hogberg, MG, Merkel, RA, Allen, RE , Magee,WT (1985)a Developmental comparisons of boarsand barrows. 1 Growth rate, carcass and musclecharacteristics. J Anim Sci 61: 789

Newell JA, Bowland, JP(1972) Performance, carcasscomposition and fat composition of boars, gilts, andbarrows fed two levels of protein. Can J Anim Sci55: 543 - 551

Pandey RN, Singh SK, Singh RL, Dubey, CB and Sinha, NRP(1996). Genetic studies on daily weight gain in exotic,desi and their half bred pigs. Indian J Anim Sci 66 :797-805.

Ravi A, Reddy KK, Rao DS (1999) Voluntary feed intake,growth performance and carcass characteristics ofcrossbred (LWY x Desi) pigs. Indian Vet J 76: 463-465

Solomon M B, Campbell R G, Steele N C Capema TJ, J PMcMurtry (1988) castration can greatly influencesgrowth and meat production in animals J Anim Sci66:3279- 50

Singh SK, Pandey RN, Sharma BD (2001) Prediction of bodyweight from linear body measurements in pigs. IndianJ Anim Res 35: 15-20

Singh THS, Sarkar AB, Nath DR, Goswami RN (1985) Interrelationship of body weight with some bodymeasurements in Hampshire pigs: A note. Indian JAnim. Prod 1(2): 88-89

Snedecor GW , Cochran, WG (1994) Statistical methods.IOWA State University Press Ames, IOWA USA

Walstra P (1969) Experiments in the Netherlands on the effectof castration of pigs in relation to feeding level. Inmeat productions from entire male animals. D NRhodes J A Churchill Limited London, 129-141

Yadav BPS, Varma AS, Gupta JJ (1993) Effect of sex andcastration on nutrient utilization and growth incrossbred pigs. Indian J. Anim. Sci, 63: 1094-1096

Yen HT, Yu IT , Wang TS (1988) Effects of castration andfeeding level on growth and carcass characteristicsof pigs. J Chinese society of Anim Sci 17: 53-60

(Manuscript Receivd : 01.01.2012; Accepted 07.06.2012)

137

Abstract

In a survey of total 848 lactating buffaloes (397 fromunorganized and 451 from organized sector) the overallincidence of hypogalactia was found higher in unorganizedsector (77.07%) as compared to organized sector (7.09%).In unorganized sector the lactation wise incidence ofHypogalactia was recorded higher in the buffaloes in 5thlactation (49.35%) followed by 4th lactation (42.48%). Similarlyin organized sector the incidence in buffaloes having 5thlactation was (46.88 %) followed by 4th lactation (40.63%).The incidence of reproductive disorders was found higher inunorganized sector as compared to organized sector. Inunorganized sector the incidence of anoestrus was found 33%while, in organized sector it was only 10.64%. The incidenceof repeat breeding was found higher in unorganized sector(13.85%) as compared to organized sector (3.10%). Theincidence of retention of placenta was reported higher inunorganized sector (9.82%) as compared to organized sector(6.43%). The incidence of prolapse of uterus was higher inorganized sector (7.54%) as compared to unorganized sector(6.05%).

Keywords: Hypogalactia, anoestrus, retention ofplacenta, repeat breeder, prolapse

India has 105.34 million buffaloes population that ranked1st in the world. Where as in Madhya Pradesh buffalopopulation is 9.13 millions from which around 1, 12,635(Censes 2007) are in Jabalpur.

Hypogalactia, is a syndrome in which the lactatinganimal gives less than the expected milk (Antarakar1980). Calcium, Phosphorus and Magnesium are themajor minerals in nutrition, metabolism and productionof ruminants. Hypocalcaemia, hypophosphataemia,

Epidemiological studies on hypogalactia and commonreproductive problems in buffaloes of Jabalpur region

A.K. Soni, P.C. Shukla and R.P.S. BaghelCollege of Veterinary Science and Animal HusbandryNanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science UniversityJabalpur 482 001 (MP)

hypomagnesaemia and hypoglycaemia are the primaryfactors that induce hypogalactia in dairy animals(Underwood and Suttle 1999). While, fodders grownon mineral deficient soil is also the important reasonfor the same (Radostits et al. 2010). Adverse climatewith improper management, prolonged malnutrition andgross disturbances in the normal rumen microbialpopulation mainly contribute significantly to bovinehypogalactia.

Feed shortage has been identified as the singlelargest constraint in improving livestock productivity bothquantitatively and qualitatively. There exists a large gapin demand and supply of feed resources. As per theestimate, there exists a deficiency of 33% green fodder,10% dry fodder and 35% concentrate mixture in thecountry (Ramachandra et al. 2007).

Mal nutrition is one of the most limiting factor inlivestock production in rural areas of India results inpoor growth rate, delayed sexual maturity, anoestrusand repeat breeding are the most important disordersof dairy animals (Baghel 2006).

Materials and methods

A survey on total 848 lactating buffaloes (397 fromunorganized and 451 from organized sector) was donein villages and dairy forms of Jabalpur district. The datawere recorded regarding average milk production inpervious and present lactation, stage of lactation,vaccination, deworming status and commonreproductive problems like retention of placenta,anoestrus, repeat breeding have been recorded as perthe method by Sinha et al. (2011).

JNKVV Res J 46(1): 137-139 (2012)

138

Results and discussion

Overall incidence

The incidence of hypogalactia recorded was 77.07% inunorganised sector it was due to lack of availability ofgreen fodder throughout the lactation period and noadditional supplementation for milk production given tothe animals while, in organised sector it was 7.09%. Itwas lower than the unorganized sector because of theproper plan of nutrition, supplementation and bettermanagement during the lactation period of animal.However, Waghmare et al. (2000) reported theincidence of hypocalcaemia which is the primary causeof Hypogalactia in Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri and Raigaddistricts of Kokan region of Maharashtra, as 40%, 27 %and 28.43% respectively (Table 1 & Figure 1).

Table 1. Over all incidence of hypogalactia in buffaloes(including history of deworming and vaccination)

Parameter of survey Organised UnorganisedSector Sector

Vaccination 96.67 % 22.16%

Deworming 94.01% 11.33%

Incidence of Hypogalactia 7.09% 77.07%

Lactation wise incidence

Among the hypogalactic buffaloes the stage oflactation was also recorded to know the lactation wiseincidence. In unorganized sector the incidence ofhypogalactia recorded was higher (49.35%) thanbuffaloes of organized sector in 5th lactation (46.88%)followed by 4th lactation 42.48% and 40.63% followedby 3rd lactation 5.88% and 6.25% than 2nd lactation2.29% and 6.25 % (Table 2 & Figure 2).

Incidence of reproductive disorders

In villages (Unorganized sector), during the study theincidence of anoestrus was found to be (33.00%)followed by repeat breeding (13.85 %), retention ofplacenta (ROP) was observed 9.82 %, while prolapseof uterus was observed 6.05% buffaloes. In dairy sector(organized sector) of Jabalpur the incidence ofAnoestrus was found 10.64 % followed by prolapse ofuterus (7.54%), retention of placenta (ROP) wasobserved in 6.43 %, while repeat Breeding wasobserved 3.10%. The incidence of reproductivedisorders were higher in unorganized sector ascompared to organized sector may be due to thedeficiency of some area specific minerals like P, Zn,Mn, Fe, and Cu which varied from area to area. On theother hand in villages as such concentrate and mineralmixture feeding in animals periodically is not practiced(Table 3 & Figure 3).

Table 2. Lactation wise incidence of hypogalactia in buf-faloes

Unorganized sector Organized sectorTotal hypogalactic Total hypogalacticbuffaloes = 306 buffaloes = 32

Stage of Incidence Stage of Incidencelactation Total % lactation Total %

5th 151 49.35 5th 15 46.88

4th 130 42.48 4th 13 40.63

3rd 18 5.88 3rd 2 6.25

2nd 07 2.29 2nd 2 6.25

139

bl vuqla/kku ds varxZr dqy 848 nq/kk# HkSlksa esa nqX/k mRiknu dh{kerk dk losZ{k.k fd;k x;kA v/;;u esa ;g ik;k x;k fd vlaxfBriz{ks=ksa dh HkSalksa esa nqX/k de gksus ¼gk;iksxsysDVf'k;k½ dh fLFkfr¼397 HkSalksa es ls 77-07%½ laxfBr iz{ks=ksa dh ¼459 HkSlksa esa ls7-09%½ dh vis{kk T;knk ik;h x;hA blh izdkj nqX/k dky ds vkadyuds nkSjku pkSaFks ,oa ikpaosa nqX/k dkyksa esa mijksDr voLFkk] vlaxfBriz[k.Mksa dh HkSlksa esa ¼Øe'k% 49-35% ,oa 42-48%½ laxfBr iz[k.Mksadh HkSlksa dh vis{kk ¼Øe'k% 46-88% ,oa 40-63%½ T;knk ikbZ xbZAlosZ{k.k ds nkSjku fofHkUu iztuu laca/kh ifjfLkfFkfr;ksa dk Hkh v/;;ufd;k x;kA ifj.kke Lo#i ;g ns[kk x;k fd vlaxfBr {ks=ksa esa xehZij u vkuk ¼33%½ ckjacj xehZ ij vkuk ¼13-85%½ tsj dk:duk ¼9-82%½ vkfn] laxfBr iz{ks= ds HkSlksa ls ¼Øe'k% 10-64%,3-10% ,oa 9-82%½ vis{kkd`r T;knk ikbZ xbZA ijUrq HkSlksa esaxHkkZ'k; dk ckgj fudyuk ¼izksysIl vkWQ ;wVsjl½ dh voLFkk vlaxfBr{ks=ksa dh vis{kk ¼6-05%½ laxfBr iz{ks=ksa dh HkSlksa esa dqN T;knk¼7-54%½ ikbZ xbZ gSA

Table 3. Incidence of reproductive disorders in organized and unorganized sector of Jabalpur region

Unorganized SectorVillages of Jabalpur No. of Total Reproductive Disorders

farmers animals Anoestrus Repeat breeder ROP Prolapse

Total 182 397 131 55 39 24% Disorders 33.00 % 13.85 % 9.82 % 6.05 %

Organized SectorReproductive Disorders

Total No. Anoestrus Repeat breeder ROP Prolapseof Animals

Dairies of Jabalpur Region 451 48 14 29 34% Disorders 10.64 % 3.10 % 6.43 % 7.54 %

Fig 3. Incidence of reproductive disorders in organizedand unorganized sector of Jabalpur region

Reference

Antarkar RG (1980) Studies of blood calcium in post parturientcows and buffaloes and evaluation of oral andparenteral calcium therapy. (As cited by Rode AMMVSc thesis MAVFSU Nagpur 1982)

Baghel R P S (2006) Reproductive disorders in relation tomalnutrition in dairy animals. In. proc. XXII Annualconvention and National Symposium on InnovativeTechnologies for Fertility Enhancement in Livestock.Department of Animal reproduction, gynaecology &Obstetrics MHOW 10-12 November 2006 94-108

Livestock Census (2007) Department of Animal HusbandryDairying and Fisheries Ministry of AgricultureGovernment of India http://www.dahd.nic.in/relcensus.htm

Livestock Census (2007) Prasasnik Prativedan 2009-2010.Department of Animal Husbandry Government ofMadhya Pradesh pp 46-47

Radostits OM, Blood DC, Gay CC (2010) In: Text book ofVeterinary Medicine. 10th Edn Publ Bailliere TindallLondon p 1310-1367

Ramachandra KS, Taneja VK, Sampath KT, Anandan S,Angadi UB (2007). Livestock feed resources indifferent agro eco systems of India - Availability,requirement and their management. National Instituteof Animal Nutrition and Physiology Bangalore India

Sinha RK, Baghel RPS, Nayak S (2011) Studies on effect ofstrategic nutrient supplementation on productive andreproductive performance of buffaloes. MVSc thesisMPPCVV Jabalpur

Underwood EJ, Suttle NF (1999) the mineral nutrition oflivestock. 3rd Edn Publ CABI publication

Waghmare AV, Pethe SG, Sonawane SP, Samad A, KesharDV, Bhalerao DP, Gaikwad RV, Jagdish S (2000)Bovine hypocalcaemia and hypophosphataemia inKonkan region of Maharashtra. Indian Vet J Pract20-23

(Manuscript Receivd : 06.11.2011; Accepted 09.05.2012)