Republican Imperatives Republican Imperatives and Imperial Wards: and Imperial Wards:

U.S. Expansion Overseas in the U.S. Expansion Overseas in the Late 19th CenturyLate 19th Century

The White Man’s The White Man’s Burden?Burden?

1899 cartoon. 1899 cartoon. Uncle SamUncle Sam balances balances his new possessions, his new possessions, which are depicted as which are depicted as savage childrensavage children

The figures are The figures are identified as identified as Puerto RicoPuerto Rico, , HawaiiHawaii, , CubaCuba, , PhilippinesPhilippines, , and "Ladrones" (the and "Ladrones" (the Mariana IslandsMariana Islands))

The QuestionThe Question“It would be better to abandon this combined garden and Gibraltar of the Pacific [I.e., the Philippines]… than to apply any academic arrangement of self-government to these children. They are not capable of self-government. How could they be? They are not a self-governing race… What alchemy will change the oriental quality of their blood and set the self-governing currents of the American pouring through their Malay veins? How shall they in the twinkling of an eye, be exalted to the heights of self-governing people which required a thousand years for us to reach, Anglo-Saxons though we are?”

--Albert Beveridge to the

U.S. Senate, January 1900

ExpansionExpansion Had its economic Had its economic

engines:engines: Quest for:Quest for:

New marketsNew markets Coaling stationsCoaling stations Naval basesNaval bases

In the late-19th In the late-19th Century the U.S. had Century the U.S. had its close encounters its close encounters with:with: Hawaii, Samoa, the Hawaii, Samoa, the

Philippines, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, and CubaGuam, and Cuba

But…But…

QuestionsQuestions

What would be the political What would be the political relationship between Americans and relationship between Americans and the peoples of potential colonies?the peoples of potential colonies?

Was citizenship thinkable?Was citizenship thinkable? If not, could America hold an array If not, could America hold an array

of islands in despotic dependency of islands in despotic dependency and still remain a free republic?and still remain a free republic?

QuestionsQuestions Where there as Where there as Mark Mark

Twain askedTwain asked in 1901, in 1901, “two kinds of “two kinds of civilization--one for civilization--one for home consumption and home consumption and one for the heathen one for the heathen market?”market?”

The issues that these The issues that these questions raised were questions raised were at once at once evident among evident among most Americansmost Americans living living at the end of the 19th at the end of the 19th century.century.

““Fitness” for GovernmentFitness” for Government

“Many of [the Philippine] people are utterly unfit for self-government, and show no signs of becoming fit. Others may in time become fit, but at present can only take part in self-government under a wise supervision, at once firm and beneficent. We have driven Spanish tyranny from the islands. If we now let it be replaced by savage anarchy, our work has been for harm and not for good.”

-- Theodore Roosevelt, 1899

Discussions of Expansion Discussions of Expansion and National Policyand National Policy

WereWere ““tensely strung tensely strung

between the poles between the poles of duty and of duty and distrust, of distrust, of missionary zeal and missionary zeal and the missionary’s the missionary’s skepticism toward skepticism toward the prospect of the the prospect of the heathen’s heathen’s redemption.”redemption.”

The tension was not new:The tension was not new:

Expansionism was not new:Expansionism was not new: Trans-Atlantic migration, settlement, Trans-Atlantic migration, settlement,

conquestconquest Trans-Appalachian migrationTrans-Appalachian migration The Louisiana purchase and Indian The Louisiana purchase and Indian

RemovalRemoval Manifest Destiny Manifest Destiny The Mexican WarThe Mexican War

And the annexation of Texas, California, the And the annexation of Texas, California, the Southwestern territories, and AlaskaSouthwestern territories, and Alaska

The tension was not new:The tension was not new:

By the end of the 1890s, the decade By the end of the 1890s, the decade that saw the superintendent of the that saw the superintendent of the census declare the census declare the frontier “closed,” frontier “closed,” Americans began to look overseas.Americans began to look overseas.

Expansion overseas came into Expansion overseas came into especially sharp focus when the U.S. especially sharp focus when the U.S. went to war with went to war with Spain in 1898Spain in 1898 The U.S. had already established its The U.S. had already established its

first governing presence (along with first governing presence (along with Germany and Great Britain) in 1890Germany and Great Britain) in 1890

18981898

By 1898, Spain had retreated from its By 1898, Spain had retreated from its colonies and colonies and U.S. naval and ground forcesU.S. naval and ground forces spread from the spread from the Caribbean to the Far East.Caribbean to the Far East.

U.S. pondered questions of the status and U.S. pondered questions of the status and government of:government of: HawaiiHawaii

Whose white elites had been seeking annexation since Whose white elites had been seeking annexation since their coup against Queen Liliuokalani (1893)their coup against Queen Liliuokalani (1893)

Cuba, Puerto Rico, PhilippinesCuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines Whose liberation from Spain left many questions open Whose liberation from Spain left many questions open

Arguments Against Arguments Against ImperialismImperialism

There were There were arguments being made against arguments being made against imperialismimperialism at the end of the century at the end of the century American Anti-Imperialist LeagueAmerican Anti-Imperialist League

But they came from such a But they came from such a broad cross broad cross sectionsection of Americans that it was difficult to of Americans that it was difficult to build any type of coherent opposition:build any type of coherent opposition: One One anti-imperialistanti-imperialist issued a call for all of those issued a call for all of those

opposed to imperialism to “stand shoulder to opposed to imperialism to “stand shoulder to shoulder”shoulder”

Republican, Democrat, Socialist, Populist, Gold-man, Republican, Democrat, Socialist, Populist, Gold-man, Silver-man, and MugwumpSilver-man, and Mugwump

Not to mention women reformers and African Not to mention women reformers and African AmericansAmericans

1898-19021898-1902

From the debate on the annexation From the debate on the annexation of Hawaii in 1898 to the conclusion of Hawaii in 1898 to the conclusion of the war against Philippine of the war against Philippine independence in 1902independence in 1902 A A double edged disdaindouble edged disdain for the for the

“children of barbarism”“children of barbarism” That such “backward” people were fit for That such “backward” people were fit for

nothing but domination by the U.S. who was nothing but domination by the U.S. who was divinely ordained to carry out its missiondivinely ordained to carry out its mission

That such “backward” people should be left That such “backward” people should be left to their own “savage” ways to their own “savage” ways

The ResultThe Result

Each region (Hawaii, Cuba, Puerto Each region (Hawaii, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines) found itself Rico, and the Philippines) found itself gripped in U.S. possession gripped in U.S. possession “only at “only at arms length.”arms length.” The U.S. held themThe U.S. held them But at a safe distance from anything But at a safe distance from anything

approximating approximating Full citizenshipFull citizenship EqualityEquality Sacred workings of self-governmentSacred workings of self-government

HawaiiHawaii

HawaiiHawaii

Somewhat of an exceptionSomewhat of an exception Sizable population of European and Sizable population of European and

American settlers who after 1893 held American settlers who after 1893 held political control and sought statehoodpolitical control and sought statehood

There were Hawaiians, Japanese, There were Hawaiians, Japanese, Chinese, American, European, and Chinese, American, European, and “racially mixed” people living on the “racially mixed” people living on the islands butislands but 1894 Constitution made it very difficult for 1894 Constitution made it very difficult for

non-whites to participate in governmentnon-whites to participate in government The franchise was narrowed from 14k to 2,800 The franchise was narrowed from 14k to 2,800

most of whom were employees of Dolemost of whom were employees of Dole

HawaiiHawaii

Before war with Spain in 1898, the Before war with Spain in 1898, the U.S. government rejected annexation U.S. government rejected annexation of Hawaii in 1893 and 1897 on of Hawaii in 1893 and 1897 on primarily racial groundsprimarily racial grounds The islanders were not “fit” to be U.S. The islanders were not “fit” to be U.S.

citizens and the 1882 Chinese Exclusion citizens and the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act forbade citizenship to AsiansAct forbade citizenship to Asians

With war however, came a heightened With war however, came a heightened sense of Hawaii’s military potentialsense of Hawaii’s military potential

HawaiiHawaii Opposition to annexation cracked in July Opposition to annexation cracked in July

18981898 ButBut

Congress extended Chinese Exclusion to the Congress extended Chinese Exclusion to the Territory of HawaiiTerritory of Hawaii

Limited U.S. citizenship to “all white persons, Limited U.S. citizenship to “all white persons, including Portuguese, and persons of African including Portuguese, and persons of African descent, and all persons descended from the descent, and all persons descended from the Hawaiian race… who were citizens of the Hawaiian race… who were citizens of the Republic of Hawaii immediately prior to transfer Republic of Hawaii immediately prior to transfer [of sovereignty].”[of sovereignty].”

Property qualifications to hold officeProperty qualifications to hold office Property and literacy qualifications for franchise Property and literacy qualifications for franchise

HawaiiHawaii

Petitions for statehood were rejected Petitions for statehood were rejected in 1903, 1911, 1913, and 1915in 1903, 1911, 1913, and 1915

It seemed, at least during the GAPE, It seemed, at least during the GAPE, that the U.S. was willing to take that the U.S. was willing to take Hawaii (for military and economic Hawaii (for military and economic reasons), but not the Hawaiian peoplereasons), but not the Hawaiian people

Hawaii would not become a state Hawaii would not become a state until 1959until 1959

CubaCuba

CubaCuba

U.S. leaders thought that Cubans perhaps U.S. leaders thought that Cubans perhaps even more than Hawaiians were incapable even more than Hawaiians were incapable of citizenshipof citizenship U.S. set about creating a stable, reliable U.S. set about creating a stable, reliable

mechanism for Cuba governmentmechanism for Cuba government Favorable to American interests, not the Cuban Favorable to American interests, not the Cuban

independentistasindependentistas U.S. limited the franchise to about 5% of the U.S. limited the franchise to about 5% of the

populationpopulation But theBut the independentistas independentistas still won key municipal and still won key municipal and

assembly elections in 1900assembly elections in 1900

CubaCuba

Platt Amendment (1903) Platt Amendment (1903) incorporated into a treaty with Cubaincorporated into a treaty with Cuba Annexation of Cuba had been Annexation of Cuba had been

proscribed in the U.S. Declaration of proscribed in the U.S. Declaration of War with Spain, but independence had War with Spain, but independence had notnot

The Platt amendment provided The Platt amendment provided provisions for a territorial government provisions for a territorial government similar to that of Hawaiisimilar to that of Hawaii It seemed the U.S. was willing to take Cuba, It seemed the U.S. was willing to take Cuba,

not Cubansnot Cubans

CubaCuba

Platt Amendment (1903)Platt Amendment (1903) Forbade Cubans to enter into treaties Forbade Cubans to enter into treaties

with foreign powers on their on behalfwith foreign powers on their on behalf Provide for the cession of necessary Provide for the cession of necessary

lands to the U.S. for coaling and naval lands to the U.S. for coaling and naval stations stations

Granted the U.S. the right to intervene Granted the U.S. the right to intervene to maintain Cuban “independence,” and to maintain Cuban “independence,” and the maintenance of a Cuban the maintenance of a Cuban government adequate for the protection government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual libertyof life, property, and individual liberty

Puerto RicoPuerto Rico

Puerto RicoPuerto Rico

Spanish rule came to an end on Spanish rule came to an end on October 18, 1898 when U.S. Major October 18, 1898 when U.S. Major General John Brooke became the General John Brooke became the island’s military governorisland’s military governor

Initially most military and Initially most military and government officials thought that government officials thought that Puerto Rico would become a territory Puerto Rico would become a territory and then a state and it residents U.S. and then a state and it residents U.S. citizenscitizens

But this did not happenBut this did not happen

Puerto RicoPuerto Rico Ultimately laws stated that Puerto Rican Ultimately laws stated that Puerto Rican

citizens were entitled to the “protection” of the citizens were entitled to the “protection” of the U.S.U.S.

Laws also did away with the U.S. Constitution Laws also did away with the U.S. Constitution as the legal framework in Puerto Rico and as the legal framework in Puerto Rico and revoked its right to send one non-voting revoked its right to send one non-voting member to the U.S. House of Representativesmember to the U.S. House of Representatives

U.S. Senate report said the revision of Puerto U.S. Senate report said the revision of Puerto Rican status was made because Puerto Ricans Rican status was made because Puerto Ricans werewere Illiterate, of a wholly different character, and Illiterate, of a wholly different character, and

incapable of exercising the rights granted by the incapable of exercising the rights granted by the U.S. Constitution U.S. Constitution

Puerto RicoPuerto Rico Congress decided to:Congress decided to:

““hold the territory as a mere possession”hold the territory as a mere possession” And toAnd to ““govern the people thereof as their situation and govern the people thereof as their situation and

the necessities of their case might seem to the necessities of their case might seem to require.”require.”

Jones Act (1917) granted Puerto Ricans U.S. Jones Act (1917) granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship, but it imposed requirements citizenship, but it imposed requirements that left 70% of the pop non-citizensthat left 70% of the pop non-citizens One historian - U.S. imposed a system of One historian - U.S. imposed a system of

government that left Puerto Rico less democratic government that left Puerto Rico less democratic than it had been under autocratic Spain.than it had been under autocratic Spain.

The PhilippinesThe Philippines

The PhilippinesThe Philippines

Tensions arose soon after Admiral Tensions arose soon after Admiral Dewey’s victory over the Spanish Dewey’s victory over the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in May 1898.fleet in Manila Bay in May 1898.

For the next several months For the next several months Aquinaldo vainly pursued U.S. Aquinaldo vainly pursued U.S. recognition of the Philippine recognition of the Philippine independence movementindependence movement

The PhilippinesThe Philippines

Hostilities broke out between Hostilities broke out between Aquinaldo’s troops and the U.S. Aquinaldo’s troops and the U.S. Army on the outskirts of Manila on Army on the outskirts of Manila on February 4, 1899, and organized February 4, 1899, and organized warfare continued in one form or warfare continued in one form or another until the last of the another until the last of the insurgents surrendered in May insurgents surrendered in May 1902.1902.

The PhilippinesThe Philippines

Following a brutal, bloody war, the U.S. Following a brutal, bloody war, the U.S. maintained a tenuous presence in the maintained a tenuous presence in the Philippines as it pursued what President Philippines as it pursued what President McKinley had called “benevolent McKinley had called “benevolent assimilation” for the Philippine people.assimilation” for the Philippine people.

Philippine Autonomy Act (1916) Philippine Autonomy Act (1916) Placed in the hands of the Philippine people as Placed in the hands of the Philippine people as

large a share of the control of their domestic large a share of the control of their domestic affairs as can be given themaffairs as can be given them

Set them on the road toward independenceSet them on the road toward independence