republic the of texas - weebly · 2019-11-08 · 264 going visitingby friedrich richard petri (c....

264

Going Visiting by Friedrich Richard Petri (c. 1853)from the Texas Memorial Museum, Austin, Texas.

Socializing with neighbors was an important part of community life during the years of the

republic. Not all Texas settlers wore buckskin andmoccasins as this well-dressed family shows.

Why It MattersAs you study Unit 4, you will learn about Texas as a republic. After

the creation of the United States from the original 13 colonies, otherterritories were granted statehood. Only Texas entered the union as a

separate and independent nation. The distinctive nature of Texasowes much to its having been a republic before it was a state and to

the influence of its settlers.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 690–691 for primary source readings to accompany Unit 4.

The RepublicofTexas

1836–1845

“Times here are easy…money plenty, the peoplemuch better satisfied.”

—Dr. Ashbel Smith, December 22, 1837

1. Where did your immigrant ancestors settle? Doyou live close to where they originally settled?

2. Describe a festival you have attended. Whatare your most vivid memories?

L E A R N I N G f r o m G E O G R A P H Y

RICH HERITAGEThere are many reasons why people take the big stepof leaving their homes and moving to an unknown land—and Texas, during the years 1820 to 1860, witnessed all ofthem. The newly arriving immigrant groups tended to set-tle in one particular area, since it was easier to work withand live around people who spoke the same language andpracticed the same customs.

Many Mexicans came north while Texas was still a Spanishterritory to set up farms on the fertile Coastal Plains. Asthe United States grew, more Native Americans, who hadbeen forced off their lands east of the Mississippi, alsomoved into Texas. After Texas independence, thousands of Anglo Americans, mostly from the southern states,were drawn by the lure of cheap, plentiful land. Manycame from slave-holding states and brought enslavedAfrican Americans. Finally, immigrants from Germany and almost every other country in Europe arrived by shipto escape famine, political unrest, or religious persecution.

Texas’s wide-open spaces seemed to offer endless possibili-ties to anyone with dreams or a keen sense of adventure.Unfortunately, not all immigrant groups shared in thepolitical freedom and economic opportunities Texas hadto offer. Native Americans were pushed farther west ornorth into Oklahoma. Many African Americans—whomade up one-third of Texas’s population in 1860—still lived in slavery, and Mexican residents faced continued prejudice.

Nevertheless, each immigrant group made its own unique contribution to Texas’s history and culture.Today Texans celebrate their ethnic heritage in festivalsand competitions all across the state. Many of Texas’s place names, as well as the listings in local phone directories, still reflect those original patterns ofsettlement from the early nineteenth century.

&GEOGRAPHY HISTORY

266

A traditional band plays lively German music at the Texas Folklife Festival.

A Hispanicwoman dancesjoyfully at a fiesta.

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Houston

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SanFelipe

Brownsboro

Copano

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Nacogdoches

Brownsville

Corpus Christi

Industry

Fredericksburg

Comfort

CastrovilleYorktown

Praha

PannaMaria

Laredo

Galveston

IndianolaRefugio

San Patricio

Alabama-Coushatta Indian Reservation

Waco

Del Rio

An Alabama-Coushattaperforms a traditionalNative American dance.

African AmericanAnglo AmericanCzechFrenchGerman

IrishMexican/SpanishPolishNorwegianIndian reservation

Settlement in Texas, 1865

Extent of settlement

German

Mexican

Other

AngloAmerican

AfricanAmerican

63%

30%

2%

3%

2%

Ethnic Heritage, 1860

Juneteenth celebrations honor the dayTexans received news that enslavedAfrican Americans had been set free.

Ethnic Heritage, 1860

The XIT Rodeo and Reunionis held each August inDalhart, Texas.

Why It MattersThe victory at San Jacinto began a 10-year period in which Texas was an

independent nation. Those 10 years brought both challenges and achievements.Eventually Texas voluntarily gave up its independent status and became a part

of the United States.

The Impact Today• The existence of Texas as an independent republic continues to be a source of

great pride to Texans. Several organizations such as the Daughters of the Republic of Texas and the Sons of the Republic of Texas were formed to honor the people

who lived in Texas at that time and to preserve Texas history.• The United States itself would have a vastly different character if Texas had chosen to

remain a separate republic.

1837• Queen Victoriabegan her reign

in Great Britain

1838★ Mirabeau Lamar

elected president

1841• New Zealandbecame aBritish colony

1839★ Austin became new

capital of Texas

1835 1837 1839

268 CHAPTER 12 The Lone Star Republic

1836★ Sam Houston elected

first president of the Republic of Texas

★ Houston became capital of Texas

The Lone StarRepublic

Step 1 Fold two sheets of paper in half fromtop to bottom.

Step 2 Turn the papers and cut each in half.

Step 3 Fold the four pieces in half from topto bottom.

Step 4 Tape the ends of the pieces together(overlapping the edges very slightly) to makean accordion time line and label it as shown.

Cut alongfold lines.

Piecesof tape

Sequencing Events Study Foldable Time lines are used to list important dates in chronological order. Use this foldable to sequence key events that occurred in the first several years after Texas became a republic, or an independent nation.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter,record key events that occurred each year during the important years of the Lone Star Republic.

18361838

184018421837

18391841

1844

This image, titled View of Houston, shows the city in its earliest days.For a brief time, Houston was a capital of the Republic of Texas.

TEXASHISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the texans.glencoe.comWeb site and click onChapter 12—ChapterOverviews to previewchapter information.

1844• Samuel Morse sent first

long-distance telegraphmessage between Baltimoreand Washington

• James K. Polk electedpresident of the United States

1844 1845

269CHAPTER 12 The Lone Star Republic

1870

1845★ Texas became the

28th state in the United States of

America

1867★ The Houston

“Stonewalls” beat theGalveston “Robert E.

Lees” in first recordedbaseball game in Texas.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/tx2003/content.php4/665/1


DecemberHouston designatedas first capital ofRepublic of Texas

September 25France recognizesRepublic of Texas

March 3United States grants recognition to Republic of Texas

Sam Houston’sGovernment

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaAfter gaining independence, Texansfaced the challenge of building a newnation.

Key Termscapitol, annexation, expenditure,revenue, tariff

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthis section, complete a chart like theone shown here by filling in the sig-nificance of each person listed.

Read to Learn• what problems faced the Republic

of Texas during its first years.• why Texans wanted the United

States to annex Texas.

Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Texasleaders worked to build a successfulgovernment that would be recognizedand annexed by the United States.

SeptemberSam Houston iselected first presidentof Republic of Texas

Preview of Events

In his inaugural speech after taking the oath of office for president, SamHouston said: “I am perfectly aware of the difficulties that surround me . . .Had it been my destiny, I would infinitely have preferred the toils, privations,and perils of a soldier, to the duties of my present station.”

Later, President Mirabeau Lamar called himself a Texian during this periodto foster a sense of pride and nationalism. Texians or Texans, the pioneers ofthe republic faced many dangers in securing the safety of their nation.

Houston Forms a GovernmentIn September 1836, Texans elected Sam Houston as the first president

of Texas and Mirabeau B. Lamar as the first vice president. Texans alsoapproved the Constitution of 1836 and the proposal that Texas join the

✦1836 ✦1837 ✦1838 ✦1839 ✦1840

Person SignificanceHenry Morfit

William Wharton

Memucan Hunt

J. Pinckney Henderson

Sam Houston

United States. Houston and the Texas Con-gress met at Columbia in Brazoria County inOctober 1836 to organize the new government.

Houston named Stephen F. Austin as secretaryof state, but he served only a few weeks. Austindied of pneumonia on December 27, 1836, at theage of 43. President Houston declared that “theFather of Texas is no more. The first pioneer ofthe wilderness has departed.”

Selecting a new capital was one of the firstdecisions of the new government. Columbiawas too small. John K. Allen and his brotherAugustus had founded Houston, on BuffaloBayou. The Allens promised to build ahandsome city if the congress would locate thecapital there. In December 1836, congress desig-nated Houston as the capital for three years. Thedecision on a permanent site was delayed.

Early visitors to the new capital oftencommented on the muddy streets, crudelybuilt houses, and swarms of mosquitoes.Eventually, the government moved to thelarge, two-story capitol at the corner of MainStreet and Texas Avenue.

Houston Faces TroubleWith the Army

Houston also faced serious problems with themilitary. Many adventurers and soldiers hadarrived in Texas too late to fight in the revolu-tion but they wanted action. Army commanderFelix Huston called for an invasion of Mexico.

President Houston wanted no part of such aplan. He realized that a war would be costly andcould mean a quick end for the new republic.The president sent all but 600 of the soldiershome on leave and never recalled them to duty.The threat from the army disappeared.

The United StatesDelays Annexation

In the September 1836 elections, Texans hadindicated their strong desire to join the UnitedStates. Most Texans had emigrated from theUnited States and wanted U.S. protection. Texasand the United States had strong cultural ties.

Annexation, or becoming a part of the UnitedStates, did not come easily. Mexico refused torecognize Texas’s independence. The UnitedStates government did not want to annex Texas ifit meant damaging relations with Mexico.

Another problem was slavery. Many anti-slavery groups in the United States were against

This building served as the first capitol inHouston from 1837 to 1839, and again in1842. The historic Rice Hotel was later builton the same ground as the old capitol. Howdoes this building compare to moderngovernment buildings?

HistoryHouston★Houston★

271

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30°N

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Gulf ofMexico

ArkansasR

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Preston

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Santa Fe

Beaumont

Austin

Galveston

Houston

Victoria

Corpus Christi

Brownsville

Laredo

San Antonio LaGrange

Bastrop

Washington-on-the-Brazos

SanFelipe

The present-day borders of Texas were eventually set by the Compromise of 1850. In this agreement, Texas gave up claims to land for a large cash payment from the United States government.

Every explorer—English, French, and Spanish—named this northern river boundary after the color “red” due to the minerals that color the water currents.

annexation because Texas would join the Unionand tip the balance of power in the U.S. Senatetowards the slave states. These groups werestrong enough to block annexation and to delayofficial recognition of Texas as a republic.

Examining Why was annexation adifficult process for Texas?

Recognition as a NationThe United States did not officially recognize

Texas as a nation for several months. In 1836,President Jackson sent Henry Morfit of Virginiato Texas on a fact-finding mission. Morfit recom-mended that the United States delay recognitionof Texas. Morfit doubted that Texas could keep itsindependence against a Mexican invasion.

President Jackson accepted Morfit’s recommen-dation, but President Houston did not give up.He sent William H. Wharton and MemucanHunt to Washington, D.C., to work for bothrecognition and annexation.

Wharton and Hunt convinced Congress thatTexas had a responsible government. On March 3, 1837, President Jackson granted officialrecognition of Texas.

President Houston now moved to open diplo-matic negotiations with European powers. Hesent J. Pinckney Henderson to obtain recogni-tion and negotiate commercial treaties withFrance and Great Britain. At first these countrieshesitated to recognize Texas because they didnot want to offend Mexico. They also believedthat Texas would be annexed quickly by theUnited States.


The Treaty of Velasco of 1836stated that Texas’s westernboundary would not extendbeyond the Rio Grande. After theRepublic of Texas was establishedin 1836, a joint commissionbetween the United States andTexas established the easternboundary of Texas. Identifying Location Identify anorthern town on the map that isno longer part of Texas today.

Boundaries claimed by theRepublic of Texas, 1836

The Lone Star Republic, 1836

Henderson continued to press for recognitionof the Republic of Texas. France extended recog-nition on September 25, 1839, and a commercial treaty was negotiated between the twocountries. A year later Great Britain and theNetherlands recognized Texas.

Houston hoped that if these countries, espe-cially Great Britain, showed interest in Texas, theUnited States would move quickly to annexTexas. European countries were looking for waysto limit United States expansion. By the sametoken, the United States did not want Europeancountries to have a foothold on the continent.

Identifying What countriesrecognized Texas as a nation during Houston’s presidency?

Native Americanand Texan Conflicts

As more and more Anglo Americans settledin central Texas, the Wichitas, Comanches,Kiowas, and other Native Americans resentedthe newcomers. They began a series of raids in1836 that lasted for several years. In one attack,Comanches and Kiowas killed several settlersand kidnapped two women and several chil-dren, including Cynthia Ann Parker, fromParker’s Fort near present-day Groesbeck.

The frequency of the raids decreased afterPresident Houston called on the Texas Rangersto patrol central Texas. In a letter to MajorThomas I. Smith, the president wrote:

“I have been informed that there are somepersons on the frontier who have a dispositionto molest the . . . Lipan Indians. They cannot begood citizens, or they would wish to preservepeace with them.

Should any property be stolen from theIndians, or injury done them, I hope you willhave active measures taken for its restorationand for the preservation of their friendship.”

During this time Houston also tried toimprove relations between Texans and theCherokees in East Texas. Cherokees had movedinto Texas under Mexican rule in the 1820s afterbeing forced from their homes in Georgia. Theprovisional government sent Houston and oth-ers to reach an agreement with the Cherokeesduring the Texas Revolution.


During the Republic of Texas, the Texas Rangers were usedin part for patrolling the frontier. How did PresidentHouston use the Texas Rangers?

History

In the February 1836 treaty, the Cherokeespromised to remain peaceful during the Texasfight for independence. In return, the Texannegotiators promised the Cherokees title to theirland. Later, however, the Senate of the Republicof Texas refused to accept this treaty. TheCherokees did not receive title to their land, andeach day more settlers moved into land in EastTexas claimed by Native Americans.

Texas Debt SoarsLike many developing nations, the Republic

of Texas constantly had money problems.Expenditures, or money paid out, were much

greater than revenue, or money received. Inaddition, Texas had unpaid bills for the suppliesand equipment of the revolution. When Houstonbecame president, the debt was $1.25 million.

Congress took steps to raise money. It placed atariff, or tax, on various goods imported intoTexas. Congress also imposed property taxes,business taxes, and land title fees. These taxeswere difficult to collect, and the government con-tinued to spend more money than it collected. Bythe end of Houston’s first term as president, thepublic debt of Texas had climbed to $2 million.

The Release of Santa AnnaSome Texans hoped that the release of Santa

Anna in November 1836 would lead to betterrelations with Mexico. After he was freed, SantaAnna briefly visited the United States. Hereturned to Mexico in March 1837. On hisarrival, he renounced all promises he had madein Texas and declared that he had left politicsforever. His retirement was brief. Within a fewyears, Santa Anna was back in power. Little hadchanged. Santa Anna’s release had notimproved Texas–Mexico relations. The Mexicangovernment still refused to recognize the inde-pendence of Texas.

Explaining How did Texas attemptto reduce its debt?

Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Define

expenditure, annexation, revenue,capitol, and tariff.

2. Reviewing Facts Who were thefirst president, vice president, andsecretary of state of the Republic ofTexas?

Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy On

what date did the United States rec-ognize the government of Texas?

Organizing to Learn4. Identifying Solutions Create a

chart and indicate how each con-flict was resolved during Houston’spresidency.

Critical Thinking5. Explaining Why did the Texas

Congress designate Houston as thefirst capital?

6. Summarizing Why did the publicdebt of Texas continue to increasethrough the years of the Republic?Conflict Solution

U.S. delays recognitionof Texas

Raids by Comanchesand Kiowas

F. Huston’s desire to invade Mexico

Identifying Problems Give tworeasons why some people in the UnitedStates opposed the annexation of Texas.


The number of Texas Rangers today is set by theTexas legislature at 107. The Rangers must live inTexas, complete 60 college credit hours, have arecord of 8 years of outstanding full-time lawenforcement experience, pass stringent written andoral exams, and be physically fit. There has neverbeen an official Texas Ranger uniform. By traditionthe dress is western with white hat, cowboy boots,western cut shirt, tie, pants, and belt.


October Austin becomesnew capital

Lamar ordersremoval ofCherokees

Lamar BecomesPresident

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaPresident Lamar’s policies differedsharply from Houston’s policies.

Key Termsendowment fundcabinetredback

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readthis section, complete a table like theone shown here with the key issues,goals of Lamar’s administration, andwhat actions were taken.

Read to Learn• what policies Lamar’s administration

used toward Native Americans.• how the programs of the Lamar

and Houston administrations were different.

Section ThemeGovernment and DemocracyGovernment policy promoted publiceducation.

Mirabeau Lamar iselected president

Preview of Events

Council House Fight between Texansand Comanches

In his 1836 inaugural address, Sam Houston had expressed his desire tohave peaceful relations with Native Americans. “Treaties of peace . . . and the maintenance of good faith with the Indians, present themselves . . . asthe most rational grounds on which to obtain their friendship.”

Mirabeau Lamar Becomes PresidentThe Constitution of 1836 stated that the president could not serve

consecutive terms; therefore, Houston could not be reelected when histerm ended in 1838. Texans elected Mirabeau B. Lamar, who had served asvice president under Houston. Lamar, who had great hopes for Texas,opposed annexation. He believed that one day Texas would be a powerful,independent nation that would extend all the way to the Pacific Ocean.

Issue Goals Actions TakenEducation

Native Americans

Military

✦1838 ✦1840✦1839

Native American holding peace pipe

Improving education was one of the new pres-ident’s goals. As did Thomas Jefferson, Lamarbelieved that citizens of a republic must be edu-cated so they could make intelligent decisions. Inhis inaugural address, he said:

“A cultivated mind is the guardian genius ofDemocracy, and while guided and controlled byvirtue, the noblest attribute to man.”

Stirred by Lamar’s ideas, congress set asidenearly 18,000 acres of land in each Texas county for the support of public schools.Congress reserved an additional 288,000 acres(116,400 hectares) of public land in central Texasas a source of income for two universities. Latergovernments of Texas substituted land in WestTexas. The value of the endowment fund multi-plied when oil was discovered on these lands inthe 1900s. Because of Lamar’s efforts, he is some-times called the “Father of Education in Texas.”

The Capital Is Moved to AustinIt had been agreed that Houston would serve

as the capital only until another site was cho-sen. In 1839 a commission and congress

approved a site on the Colorado River near thevillage of Waterloo. Lamar was delighted withthe decision. He wanted to expand Texas settle-ment westward.

The government appointed Edwin Waller tolay out streets and construct a capitol on the site.In October 1839, President Lamar and his cabinetarrived in the new capital, named Austin in honorof Stephen F. Austin. Austin joined Columbia,South Carolina, and Raleigh, North Carolina, ascities founded specifically to be capitals.

Lamar’s Policy TowardNative Americans

Lamar reversed Sam Houston’s policy towardNative Americans. Many Cherokees had settledon farms and in villages in northeastern Texas inwhat is today Smith and Cherokee Counties,and Lamar believed the Cherokees had no fairclaim to the Texas lands they occupied.

In addition, President Lamar had heardrumors that Mexican agents were attempting tostir up the Cherokees against Texas. In the sum-mer of 1839, President Lamar ordered theremoval of the Cherokees from Texas. On July 16the Texas army attacked the Cherokees near the


Austin★Austin★The new Texas state capital near Waterloo was renamed in honor of Stephen F. Austin. The site was chosen for its beauty, location, and promising future. What words would you use to describeAustin at that time?

Austin★Austin★

History

Neches River not far from present-day Tyler.Several Texans and nearly 100 Cherokees werekilled. Among the dead was the leader of theCherokees, Duwali, also known as ChiefBowles. The army burned Cherokee villages andfarms. The surviving Cherokees were forcedfrom their land and moved across the Red River,out of Texas.

Explaining How did PresidentLamar view Cherokee ownership of land?

Raids Lead to Council House FightThe government also tried to deal with the

Comanche presence. During 1838 and 1839,Comanches raided several outlying settlements.After a series of battles with Texans along theupper Colorado River, however, the Comanchesagreed to meet with Texas authorities. In themeeting held in San Antonio in 1840, hopes forpeace quickly vanished. The Comanches hadpromised to bring their Anglo captives, but theyproduced only one, a girl named MatildaLockhart. According to an eyewitness, “her head, arms, and face were full of bruises andsores.” Matilda told the Texans that 13 others

were being held captive in the hills west of SanAntonio. Angry Texan troops attempted to takethe Comanche negotiators as hostages until theComanches freed their captives. The Comanchesresisted, and in the struggle—known as the

Mirabeau Lamar wasborn in Georgia and movedto Texas in 1835. After thebattle of San Jacinto,David Burnet appointedhim secretary of war. Healso served as major gen-eral and commander of theTexas army.

When Houston waselected president, Lamarbecame his vice president.Two years later he becamethe second president of the republic. Lamar was popular with Texans and was thought of as an eloquent speaker.

Lamar is responsible forchoosing Austin as the cap-ital of Texas. He earned thenickname “Father ofEducation in Texas” for urg-ing congress to set asideland for public education,including two colleges oruniversities.

Mirabeau Lamar1798–1859

Chief Bowles attempted to save Cherokee land in Texas butwas unable to do so. He was killed near Tyler fighting theTexas army. Given President Lamar’s policies toward theNative Americans, what options did Chief Bowles have?

History

Tyler★Tyler★


Council House Fight—7 Texans and 35Comanches died. The Comanches killed many oftheir white captives and set out to avenge theComanche deaths. One historian called theCouncil House Fight “the greatest blunder in the history of Texan–Native American relations,”because after the incident the Comanches refusedto make treaties with Texans. They would talkpeace with American soldiers, but not withTexans. Years of bitter warfare resulted and manylives were lost.

News of daring raids by the Kiowas andComanches under the command of BuffaloHump spread quickly throughout Texas. Volun-teers gathered, commanded by Edward Burleson.Ben McCulloch led a group of Texas Rangers. AtPlum Creek, the Texans encountered a Comancheparty. Texans killed nearly 100 Comanches andlost only one of their own men.

The Texans invaded Comanche country inrevenge for earlier attacks on Victoria and

Linnville. In October 1840, Colonel John H.Moore led a surprise attack on a largeComanche village on the upper Colorado River.Nearly 130 Comanches died in the attack. Mostof the southern Comanches withdrew towardthe area of the Red River.

Texas Rebuilds Its NavyLamar thought that having a strong military

would force Mexico to recognize the Republic ofTexas. Lamar ordered the newly restored navyinto Mexican waters. The navy aided rebelswho were fighting for independence fromMexico in the province of Yucatán. Lamarhoped, in vain, that the Mexican governmentwould recognize Texas in exchange for thepromise that the Texan navy would not harassMexican ships. When Sam Houston regained thepresidency in 1841, he recalled the navy.

The Santa Fe Expedition Although the Nueces River traditionally had

been the boundary between Texas and Mexico,Texans claimed the Rio Grande as the border afterthe revolution. Texans were interested in control-ling Santa Fe, the trading center on the upper RioGrande. Santa Fe was the destination of tradersfrom St. Louis, Missouri.

Lamar sent an expedition to Santa Fe to con-trol the region and open trade with New Mexico.The Santa Fe expedition(consisting of soldiers,merchants, wagon driv-ers, and adventurers)began its trek on June 19,1841, from a camp nearAustin. Misfortune andhardship plagued themembers every step ofthe way. Heat, lack of water and food, andattacks by Native Americans led to suffering.

As the expedition neared Santa Fe, theexhausted members encountered a Mexicanarmy detachment that forced the Texans tosurrender. The prisoners were marched morethan 1,000 miles (1,609 km) from Santa Fe toMexico City. Many died on the way, and others

Austin Houston

SanAntonio

El Paso

SantaFe

The Santa FeExpedition


• Settlers immigrate to Texas.

• Cherokees move to Texas but do

not hold title to land.

• Comanches raid Texas

settlements.

President Lamar took a different approach to relations

with Native Americans than Houston.

Identifying Points of View Which president’s approach

would the Native Americans have preferred and why?

Causes and Effects of Western Conflict

• Lamar orders Cherokees to leave.

• Texas Rangers retaliate against

raids.

• Comanches withdraw to the High

Plains, leaving more land to the

Anglo settlers.

Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Use the word

cabinet in a sentence that pertainsto President Lamar and the govern-ment of Texas.

2. Reviewing Facts Why wasHouston not reelected when hisfirst term ended in 1838?

Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy

Why did the Texas Congressreserve 288,000 acres of publicland?

Organizing to Learn4. Listing Create a web like the one

shown below. List the problems thatthe Texans encountered during theSanta Fe expedition. Include detailsabout what led to the expedition andwhat the results were. (The resultswould include any lessons learned.)

Critical Thinking5. Explaining Why did President

Lamar want to have a strongmilitary?

6. Evaluating Solutions How effec-tive were President Lamar’s solu-tions to financial difficulties?

perished in a Mexican prison. Most of those whosurvived were released in April 1842, afterBritish and American diplomats worked fortheir release. The Santa Fe expedition was a fail-ure in many ways. It angered the Mexicans,resulted in the loss of many lives, and failed totake control of Santa Fe.

Financial DifficultiesLamar’s campaigns were costly, both in terms

of colonists and Native Americans killed and inmoney. The Indian wars cost the Republic of Texasnearly $2.5 million during his three years in office.Lamar was just as extravagant in other matters,such as outfitting expeditions and reorganizingthe Texas navy. He bought several ships, and keptthe navy on active duty in the Gulf of Mexico.

Lamar failed in attempts to borrowmoney from the Uni-ted States and Euro-pean nations. Addi-tional paper money,known as redbacks,was issued but quick-ly shrank in value. Bythe end of Lamar’sterm, a paper dollar in

Texas was worth about 15 cents. The public debtrose to $7 million. Many in Texas were becomingconcerned about the increasing national debt.

Analyzing Why did Lamar facefinancial difficulties?


Determining Cause and EffectWhat was the effect of the CouncilHouse meeting in San Antonio betweenTexas authorities and the Comanches?

Three hundred twenty-one people and twenty-one ox-drawnwagons carried supplies and merchandise of the traders onthe ill-fated Santa Fe expedition. Why were people willingto participate in such an expedition?

History

TEXASHISTORY

Student WebActivity Visit thetexans.glencoe.com Website and click onChapter 12—StudentWeb Activity to learnmore about the Texasnavy.

Problems Results

Santa FeExpedition

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe31.php?&st=665&pt=2&bk=20

280 CHAPTER 00 Chapter Title

. . . When [Houston] returned,[Elizabeth] was leaning against a col-umn . . . “Samuel, I want you toknow how much I appreciate theadmirable manner in which yourmen conducted themselves tonight . . . I’m confident your army will besuccessful. You should become a manof means following the war . . . Butyou will need some property to fulfillyour political aspirations. I assumeyou will become president of theRepublic of Texas.”

“I intend to seek that office.”“And beyond?”“I would steer toward annexa-

tion into the United States.”“After which you will become

. . . perhaps even president of theUnited States.”

“I must admit, I would seekthe office, if I had the opportunity.”

“I hope you will indeedbecome president . . . fulfilling yourhighest aspiration.”

“I have never said that was myhighest aspiration.”

“What could be moreimportant?”

“. . . I turned my back on Anglo society rejoining the Cherokeesas a member of the tribe . . . Onenight . . . Chief Bowles sat me downfor a talk. He said that I had run

away to find myself, but that I hadremained lost. ‘You must return toyour people,’ he said. ‘You areblessed with arare opportunityto obtain themost valuable ofall possessions,wisdom. Youmust sowcarefullythe fields ofknowledge andunderstanding. Then, my brother,you will reap wisdom, which is moreprecious than wealth or power. Yourdestiny is to lead your people; butwithout wisdom, the sun of life, youwill remain in despair.’”

John R. KnaggsJohn Knaggs’interest inTexas historybegan as achild. Knaggsgrew up nearone of the

Nueces River crossings used byMexican forces during theTexas Revolution. Whileresearching the revolution, hefound several “gaps” in infor-mation from the records ofcrucial events. In The BuglesAre Silent, Knaggs uses hisown imagination to fill in the “gaps.”

Reading to DiscoverImagine that you are pres-

ent when this fictional conver-sation is taking place. Howwould you know that Houstonvalued Chief Bowles’s advice?

Reader’s Dictionaryaspiration: a great ambition

or ultimate goalannexation: an addition

to something larger or more significant

obtain: succeed in gainingpossession of; to acquire

reap: to harvest; to win orobtain

ANALYZING LITERATUREEvaluate and ConnectWhat do you believe Chief Bowles wastrying to tell General Houston when hespoke with him about wisdom andleading his people?

Interdisciplinary Activity Journalism Prepare a CNN-styleinterview with Elizabeth after the elec-tion of General Houston as the presi-dent of Texas. What informationmight she have to share with the citi-zens of the Republic of Texas?


The Bugles Are Silent by John R. Knaggs

In this chapter, General Houston talks about annexation and the presidency.


SeptemberMexican army occupiesSan Antonio andretreats

DecemberTexas army attacksMexican town of Mierand then surrenders

Houston RegainsPresidency

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaSam Houston’s return to thepresidency signaled a change in thegovernment’s economic and NativeAmerican policies.

Key Termarchives

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthis section, complete a chart like theone shown here, outlining importantevents and their outcomes.

Read to Learn• what ways President Houston tried

to reduce government spending.• about conflicts with Mexico.• how Houston attempted to resolve

the Texan–Native American conflicts.

Section ThemeEconomic Factors Texas attemptedto balance the budget, yet the debtincreased.

MarchMexican army invadessouthern Texas andretreats

Preview of Events

In a bitter campaign filled with gossip and scandal, Sam Houston defeatedLamar’s chosen successor—David G. Burnet—for the presidency. Houstonhad disliked Lamar’s policies and programs and wanted to undo the damagehe felt Lamar’s administration had done to Texas. The major issues duringHouston’s second term were the budget, the threat of invasion from Mexico,and annexation by the United States.

A Policy of EconomyWhen Houston regained the presidency in 1841, he eliminated dozens

of government positions and cut the size of the army. He tried to sell navyships, but angry citizens of Galveston prevented the sale.

Despite these attempts to cut costs, the debt of the republic increased,largely because of the high interest that had to be paid.

✦1842

Event OutcomeArchives War

Woll Invasion

Mier Expedition

Regulator–Moderator War

President Sam Houston


A Temporary PeaceHouston also tried to renew peaceful and fair

dealings with Native Americans. His letter ofOctober 9, 1842, to Indian commissionersexpressed his views concerning NativeAmerican rights:

“Neither the Indians nor the whites shall passinto the territory of the other without lawful per-mission . . . Should a white man kill an Indian orcommit any crime upon an Indian on his property. . . he shall be punished by laws of therepublic.”

Treaties signed with various Native Americangroups at Bird’s Fort and at Torrey’s TradingHouse ensured a period of calm for several years.

Invasion Triggers the Archives WarThe Santa Fe expedition produced a response

from Mexico. In March 1842 a Mexican army ofabout 500 soldiers, commanded by GeneralRafael Vásquez, invaded Texas and occupiedSan Antonio, Goliad, and Refugio.

Although Vásquez withdrew after severaldays, many Texans panicked. President Houstondeclared a public emergency and tried to savethe government archives, or official documents,by moving them from Austin to Houston. ManyAustin residents suspected that Houstonintended to move the capital from Austin per-manently. When government officials tried tomove the archives, some Austin residents, led byAngelina Eberly, fired on them. This skirmish,called the Archives War, ended with thearchives—and the capital—remaining in Austin.

Explaining What caused theArchives War?

Woll Invades TexasIn September 1842, Mexican forces invaded

Texas again. This time a larger Mexican army,numbering 1,400 and commanded by GeneralAdrián Woll, occupied San Antonio. The Texasmilitia and the Texas Rangers rushed to SanAntonio. After some heavy fighting, Woll’sarmy was driven out of Texas.

The Texans suffered losses in the fighting. TheMexican army trapped Captain NicholasDawson and a company of volunteers fromFayette County. Dawson and about 35 of the vol-unteers were killed. Dawson and his fallen sol-diers were later buried on Monument Hill nearLa Grange, Texas.

The Mier ExpeditionThe Woll invasion angered Texans. Many cit-

izens demanded that President Houston takeaction to protect the republic. Houston tried tosettle the problems peaceably. Houston hopedthat the U.S., France, and Great Britain wouldpressure Mexico to leave Texas alone.

In November 1842, Houston ordered GeneralAlexander Somervell and a militia of 750 to patrolthe area from San Antonio to Laredo. WhenSomervell’s forces reached Laredo, they found nosigns of the Mexican army, so Somervell orderedhis soldiers back to Gonzales. About 300 of the sol-diers balked at the decision. Under the leadership

History

Angelina Eberly played a decisive role inpreventing Sam Houston from moving the governmentarchives from Austin to Houston in 1842. Why is itimportant to protect government archives?

Austin★

of Colonel William S.Fisher, these Texansmoved down the RioGrande and attackedthe Mexican town ofMier (MEE•ehr). TheTexans expected aneasy victory. Early in

the battle, however, General Pedro Ampudia and900 Mexican soldiers arrived to reinforce thetroops defending Mier. After two days of fighting,the Texans, outnumbered and low on supplies,surrendered on December 26, 1842.

The Drawing of the Black BeansThe Mexican army began to march their cap-

tives to Mexico City, but the Texans overpoweredtheir guards and escaped on February 11, 1843.The Texans lost their way in the mountains andsome died of starvation and exposure. Mexicantroops recaptured the survivors about a week later.

Santa Anna, now back in power in Mexico,ordered every tenth Texan executed as pun-ishment for their escape attempt. Of the 176men recaptured, 17 were to die. To determinewhich men would be executed, the prisonerswere ordered to draw beans from a jar. Thosewho drew black beans were shot; those whodrew white beans were marched to prison inMexico City.

Thomas J. Green described the drawing of theblack beans:

“The decimation [selection of every tenth pris-oner to die] took place by the drawing of black andwhite beans from a small earthen mug. The whiteones signified exemption, and the black death. Onehundred and fifty-nine white beans were placed inthe bottom of the mug, and seventeen black onesplaced upon the top of them. The beans were notstirred, and had so light a shake that it was per-fectly clear they had not been mixed together. Suchwas their anxiety to execute Captain Cameron, andperhaps the balance of the officers, that firstCameron, and afterward they, were made to drawa bean each from the mug in this condition.”

MEXICO

Mier

San Antonio

Laredo

History Through Art

Mier Expedition: The Drawing of the Black Bean byFrederic Remington, 1896 This image captures the tensionand anxiety of the prisoners whose fate will be decided by thebean they draw. Does this image support Thomas Green’sdescription in the text? Explain.

The remaining prisoners were transferred toVera Cruz, where they joined the San Antonioprisoners Woll had taken. A few of the Texascaptives were pardoned, eight prisoners man-aged to escape, and others died of disease orstarvation. On September 16, 1844, those whoremained in prison were released.

Feuds Lead to Unrest in East TexasLate in his second term, Houston also had to

deal with trouble that developed in East Texasfrom 1839 to 1844 near the old Neutral GroundTerritory. The feud between the settlers in thispart of Texas began over land titles. Two groups of settlers—the Regulators and theModerators—had been fighting for severalyears. Each group had formed to keep law andorder because there were few local officials avail-able to do so. As a result of the conflict, propertywas burned and several people were murdered.A general state of unrest and lawlessness pre-vailed in Shelby and neighboring counties. Locallaw enforcement tried but could not stop thefeud. Some of the lawmen were even personallyinvolved on one side or the other.

In August 1844, the situation worsened andspread to surrounding counties in Texas and

Louisiana. Houses were burned, people weredriven out of their homes, and violence seemedto be everywhere. Houston sent 600 soldiersinto the area to bring about peace. Houstonhimself traveled there and reminded the set-tlers that they were all Texans and should notfight each other. He persuaded both sides toend the Regulator–Moderator War.

Summarizing What occurred as aresult of the Mier expedition?


Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Use the word

archives in a sentence describingwhat kinds of documents thesemight be.

2. Reviewing Facts Why did the cap-ital remain in Austin instead ofmoving to Houston in 1842?

Reviewing Themes3. Economic Factors Public debt

refers to money owed by a govern-ment. Why did the public debt ofTexas continue to increase despiteattempts by Houston to balancethe budget?

Organizing to Learn4. Sequencing Create a time line

like the one shown here. Place theletters of the following events inthe proper order.

a. Fisher and his militia attackMier.

b. Mexican army commanded byVásquez occupies San Antonio,Goliad, and Refugio.

c. Escaped prisoners from the Mierexpedition are recaptured.

d. Houston tries to move archivesfrom Austin.

Critical Thinking5. Explaining What happened to

those who drew a black bean ascompared to a white bean? Whywere the officers more likely todraw the black beans?

6. Analyzing How did Houston make temporary peace with theNative Americans?

Drawing Conclusions What had theRegulators and the Moderators been fight-ing over for several years? What couldhave prevented this conflict?

Many historians believe the election of 1840(William Henry Harrison vs. Martin VanBuren) was the first “modern” presidentialcampaign in the U.S. Two parties, the Whigsand the Democrats, conducted parades, massmeetings, and bonfires to draw attention totheir candidates. Personal attacks andaccusations of scandal were common. Texas politicians followed this trend in the election of 1841.

Why Learn This Skill?When studying past or current events, it is important

to distinguish between fact and opinion. Facts relateexactly what happened, when and where it happened,and who was involved. An opinion expresses a feelingor belief about the event. You should know how todistinguish a fact from an opinion so that you willhave accurate information and not confuse the two.

Learning the SkillHere are some ways to distinguish facts from

opinions:• Check facts for accuracy by comparing them to

other sources.• Can you ask questions beginning with who, what,

when, or where? If so, you are dealing with facts.• Identify opinions by looking for statements of feel-

ings or beliefs.• Opinions often begin with “I believe” or “In my

view.”• Opinions often contain words like should, would,

could, best, greatest, all, every, or always.

Practicing the SkillRead each statement below. Then, on a separate

piece of paper, write F if the statement is a fact or O ifit is an opinion.

1Houston is the most wonderful place in the world.

2Comanches and Kiowas killed several settlers andkidnapped two women and several children fromParker’s Fort.

3There was a cowardly tribe among us, theTonkawas . . . hated by all other Indians of every tribe.

4In the Council House Fight, 12 Comanche chiefs,20 warriors, and several women and childrenwere killed.

5Congress passed acts in 1839 and 1840 that setaside nearly 18,000 acres (7,290 hectares) ofland in each Texas county for public education.

6She is a noble woman, wife, mother, andpatriot—a woman of great thought and heart—yet the most modest and unpretentious ofwomen—Texas is proud of her.

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Distinguishing Fact From Opinion

Distinguishing Fact From Opinion Read an articlefrom your local newspaper. Determine whether you candistinguish fact from opinion in the article. Write downsome examples of opinions and facts from the article.Refer back to the questions under Learning the Skill ifnecessary. Share this with your class.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 1, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

285

Early Texas schoolhouse


Texas Becomesa State

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaEfforts for Texas annexation were given a boost by the changing political atmosphere in the United States.

Key Termsmanifest destinyjoint resolution

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information Complete a table like the one shown here byfilling in the roles that these peopleplayed in the annexation of Texas.

Read to Learn• about the “Texas Question.”• about the annexation of Texas.

Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Withthe approval of the United StatesCongress, Texas became a state assoon as its people approved annexa-tion and adopted a state constitution.

Preview of Events

February 19Ceremony recognizesTexas as the 28th U.S. state

A strange thing happened during Houston’s inaugural address. He was togive up his sword to symbolize the transition from war to peace. When thetime came, Houston could not let go of it. He stood silent on the speaker’splatform, staring at the sword in his hands. He finally spoke: “I have worn itwith some humble pretensions in defence [sic] of my country; and should thedanger of my country again call for my services, I expect to resume it, andrespond to that call, if needful, with my blood and life.”

✦1845

Person Role James Polk

John Tyler

Anson Jones

J. Pinckney Henderson

✦1846

The Texas QuestionThroughout the years of the republic, most Texans still wanted Texas

to join the United States. In 1836, they had voted overwhelmingly forannexation. Sam Houston had worked for this outcome throughout his

Sam Houston’s sword and scabbard

February 28U.S. Congress passesjoint resolution onannexation

July 4Texas approvesannexation

December 29President Polk signsresolution makingTexas a state

first term as president of the republic. How-ever, the push for annexation stopped whenMirabeau B. Lamar, who did not favor becom-ing part of the U.S., succeeded Houston.

By Houston’s second term, the “TexasQuestion” had become important in UnitedStates politics. Those against annexationbelieved that it would benefit southern slave-holders. They also argued that annexationwould mean war with Mexico. Annexationwas more popular than it had been in 1836.Thousands of Americans had immigrated toTexas, strengthening ties to the United States.

In April 1844, representatives from the UnitedStates and Texas signed a treaty that wouldmake Texas a territory of the United States. Thetreaty also provided that Texas would give itspublic lands to the United States. In return forthis, the United States agreed to pay all the debtsof the Republic of Texas.

Some Texans were disappointed with theterms of the treaty. They had hoped for immedi-ate statehood, but the treaty only made Texas aterritory. Others fought the treaty, arguing thatTexas should keep its very valuable public lands.Even under these terms, however, the majority ofTexans favored the treaty of annexation.

Texans confidently expected the United Statesto accept the treaty. They were surprised whenthe United States Senate rejected it by a vote of35 to 16. Many senators opposed the treatybecause Texas would ultimately enter the U.S. asa slave state. This would give the South anadvantage in the United States Senate. Othersenators voted against the treaty because theydid not want to anger Mexico. Still others votedagainst it because 1844 was an election year andthey wished to avoid controversy. Yet, the Texasquestion soon became the center of controversythroughout the United States.


History Through Art

Emigrants to the West by W.M. Cary, 1880 Many settlers immigrated to Texas.What dangers would be met along the road to the West?

Polk Wins ElectionAnnexation became an issue during the United

States presidential election of 1844. The Demo-cratic Party candidate was James K. Polk of Ten-nessee. Polk, as well as his supporters, wantedTexas to become part of the United States. HenryClay of Kentucky, the Whig Party candidate, wasagainst immediate annexation. He feared thecountry would split over the issue of slavery.Polk’s victory in a very close election showed thatmost of the voters favored annexation.

Annexation gained momentum from growingsupport for expansion. Settlers wanted to live inthe fertile lands in Oregon, California, andTexas. Merchants wanted ports on the Pacificcoast where American ships could stop on theirway to trade with Asia. Most Americansbelieved the United States was destined toexpand coast to coast. This belief was calledmanifest destiny.

Even before Polk took office, President JohnTyler asked Congress to reconsider annexation.Tyler argued that Congress could no longerdelay its decision. The voters had expressed theirwishes, and it was time for Congress to act.

Identifying Who were the two U.S.presidential candidates in 1844?

Congress and TexasApprove Annexation

Congressional leaders who wanted annexa-tion proposed that Texas be annexed by a jointresolution. This resolution, passed by both housesof Congress, would have the force of law andwould require only a simple majority of votes ineach house. Approving a treaty, on the other hand,required a two-thirds majority in the Senate.

On February 28, 1845, Congress passed a jointresolution for annexation. It contained terms morefavorable to Texas than those of the treaty of 1844.Texas could enter the Union as soon as its peopleapproved annexation and adopted a state consti-tution. Texas could keep its public lands but couldsell some of these lands to pay its debts. The reso-lution also stated that Texas could be divided intoas many as five states with the approval of Texasand the United States. President Tyler signed theresolution on March 1 and submitted the offer tothe Texas government. Most Texans were pleasedwith the terms. The joint resolution provided forimmediate statehood, bypassing the time Texaswould be a territory.

Anson Jones, elected president of Texas in 1844,called a special session of the Texas Congress toconsider the terms of annexation, which werequickly accepted. The people would have to


Anson Jones settled inTexas in 1833 and estab-lished a successful medicalpractice. As tensionincreased between Texasand Mexico, Jones joinedthe army. Later, he wasappointed Texas’s ministerto the United States, andsecretary of state.

In 1844, he was electedthe last president of theRepublic of Texas and heldthis office until Texas’sannexation, which heopposed. Jones resigned hispresidency and turned overthe government to GovernorHenderson, the first gover-nor of the state of Texas.

After Texas became astate, Jones hoped to beelected to the U.S. Senate,but Sam Houston andThomas Jefferson Ruskwere chosen. Jones’s standon statehood had cost himhis political career. Henever got over his defeat,and he died a bitter man.

Anson Jones 1798–1858

Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Define manifest

destiny and joint resolution.2. Reviewing Facts Why were some

people in the United States againstannexing Texas?

Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy

Why (to the surprise of manyTexans) did the United StatesSenate reject the treaty of 1844 to annex Texas?

Organizing to Learn4. Creating Charts Create a chart

like the one shown here, outliningthe important dates in the annexa-tion of Texas.

Critical Thinking5. Identifying Viewpoints The

annexation of Texas to the U.S.caused different opinions amongTexans. Why did some Texansfavor annexation in 1845? Why didsome Texans oppose annexation?

endorse annexation and draft a new state constitu-tion. The convention, meeting in Austin on July 4,1845, overwhelmingly backed annexation. Theconvention then wrote a new state constitution.

On October 13, Texas approved annexation bya vote of 4,254 to 257 and ratified the constitutionby 4,174 to 312. The Congress of the United Statesconsented to the Texas Constitution of 1845. OnDecember 29, 1845, President Polk signed the resolution that made Texas a state.

Mexico Offers RecognitionMexico refused to recognize Texas independ-

ence until 1845, when the United States andTexas finally agreed on annexation. GreatBritain and France both preferred that Texasremain an independent nation rather thanbecome a part of the United States. For this rea-son, British and French diplomats tried to con-vince Mexico that it should recognize Texasindependence. In May 1845, Mexico agreed toacknowledge an independent Texas on one con-dition—Texas must reject annexation by theUnited States.

Though accepting the offer would ensurethat Texas and Mexico would enjoy improvedrelations, Texas was not interested. The TexasCongress quickly rejected the Mexican pro-posal and voted to accept annexation by theUnited States.

“The Republic of Texas Is No More”On February 19, 1846, at a ceremony in front of

the Texas capitol, Anson Jones, the last presidentof the republic, turned over the government to J.Pinckney Henderson of San Augustine, the firstgovernor of the state. President Jones closed hisfarewell address by declaring that “the final actin this great drama is now performed: theRepublic of Texas is no more.” The Lone Star flagwas lowered, and the Stars and Stripes wasraised. Texas officially became the 28th state inthe United States of America.

Analyzing Why did the U.S.Congress favor annexation by joint resolution?


Date EventFebruary 28, 1845

March 1, 1845

July 4, 1845

October 13, 1845

December 29, 1845

February 19, 1846

The United States Congress tried to admitstates in pairs—one slave state and one freestate—so the U.S. Senate would be equallybalanced between slave and free states. Theadmission of Florida as the 27th state tippedthe balance toward slave states. Texasbecame the 28th state and tipped the balanceeven more. Iowa and Wisconsin soon wereadded to the Union to restore thebalance in the Senate.

Drawing Inferences Why do yousuppose Sam Houston would not giveup his sword during his inaugurationceremony?

Reviewing Key Terms1. For each term in the left-hand column, choose a word

from the right-hand column that relates to it and write asentence including the two terms.joint resolution tariff

expenditure annexation

cabinet capitol

endowment fund revenue

Reviewing Key Facts2. List two reasons why annexation of Texas to the United

States was delayed.3. Describe the actions of the Native Americans in central

Texas during 1836 and 1837.4. Why did the government debt of Texas grow during the

beginning of the republic?5. Examine what Lamar hoped to accomplish by sending the

Texas navy into Mexican waters. What happened to thenavy when Sam Houston became president?

6. Describe the results of the Texas attack on the Mexicantown of Mier.

7. What did selecting a black bean mean for those Texanswho were taken prisoner after the Mier expedition?

8. List three terms of the joint resolution for annexation.

Critical Thinking9. Synthesizing Information Why was President Houston

concerned about the treatment of Native Americans?

10. Making Comparisons Compare the presidencies ofHouston and Lamar. Make a chart like the one below.

11. Determining Cause and Effect How did Santa Anna’srelease affect Texas’s relations with Mexico?

12. Analyzing Information The Texas voters approvedboth annexation and the constitution by a great major-ity. Why do you think so many Texans wanted to beannexed by the United States? What do you think theyhoped to gain?


Issue Houston LamarEducation

Native Americans

Military

Debt

The Lone Star Republic

Key Issues During the Republic of Texas

President Issues and Events

Sam Houston1836–1838

Mirabeau Lamar1838–1841

Sam Houston1841–1844

Anson Jones1844–1846

• New capital is Houston.• U.S. grants Texas official

recognition.• Houston attempts to improve

relations with Native Americans.• Debt of Texas increases.

• Lamar sets aside land for publiceducation.

• Comanches raid Texassettlements.

• Austin becomes the capital.• Comanches withdraw to

the High Plains.• Santa Fe expedition fails.

• Texas signs peace treaties with some Native American tribes.

• Houston settles civiliandisputes.

• Mexican and Texan troops engage in military skirmishes.

• U.S. Congress votes to annex Texas.

• Texas approves of annexation with the U.S.

• Texas joins the U.S. on December 29, 1845.

Geography and History ActivityDraw the following on a blank map of Texas. Refer to themap titled The Lone Star Republic on page 272 to completethe following directions.13. Label and draw stars next to the republic’s first and sec-

ond capitals.14. In the area of East Texas, draw three arrows pointing

toward the Red River. Label the area “Cherokees.”15. In the area of central Texas, write the names of the fol-

lowing tribes: Wichitas, Comanches, and Kiowas.

Cooperative Learning Activity16. Evaluating the Presidents As presidents of the Republic

of Texas, Sam Houston (who served twice), MirabeauLamar, and Anson Jones had many problems to solve.Divide into groups of three or four students. As a group,decide what grade (A to F scale) you would give eachpresident of the republic. Give Sam Houston a grade foreach term. Consider the following issues: foreign rela-tions, relations with Native Americans, establishing agovernment, reducing the debt, education, and conflictsamong Texans. The group should write a report card foreach president.

Practicing Skills17. Distinguishing Fact From Opinion To get accurate

information about past and current events, you must beable to distinguish between facts and opinions. Read thefollowing account of the Council House Fight. Then writetwo examples of fact and two examples of opinion.

On Tuesday, 19th of March, 1840, 65 Comanchescame to town to make a treaty. They brought withthem, and reluctantly gave up, Matilda Lockhart, whomthey captured in December 1838 . . .

This was the third time these Indians had come fora talk, pretending to seek peace, and trying to get

ransom money for their . . . captives. Their propositionnow was that they should be paid a great price forMatilda . . . Now the Americans, mindful of the treachery of the Comanches, answered . . .

“We will . . . keep four or five of your chiefs, whilstthe others of your people go to your nation and bringall the captives, and then we will pay all you ask forthem . . . This we have determined, and, if you try tofight, our soldiers will shoot you down.”

—From Memoirs of Mary Maverick, 1921

Portfolio/TAKS Writing Activity18. Persuasive Writing Imagine you are a Texan in 1840

who favors annexation. Write a letter to a friend whodoes not want Texas in the United States. Try to persuadeyour friend to support your position. Save your work foryour portfolio.

Use the graph to answer the following question.

In February of 1845, about how many more U.S. senatorssupported the annexation of Texas than in June of 1844?

F 5 G 10 H 15 J 20


Self-Check QuizVisit the texans.glencoe.com Web site and click onChapter 12—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

TEXAS HISTORY

Test-Taking Tip:

Decide what information you require and disregardany information that you do not need. The two

numbers that you need to answer the problem are thenumber of senators who supported annexation in June

and the number who supported it in February.

0

10

20

30

40

50

Nu

mb

er o

f V

ote

s

Date of Vote

60

June 8,1844

16

27

25 14

31

7

35

February 27,1845

December 22,1845

Yea Nay Abstaining votes

U.S. Senate Votes on Annexation of Texas

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe31.php?&st=665&pt=3&bk=20

A ll societies try to find ways to guard theircitizens from threats posed by those whodo not obey laws. During the 1820s and

early 1830s, the people of Texas formed volun-teer companies for self-protection. These compa-nies patrolled the frontier regions looking fordanger and, when their work was completed,returned home to care for their families and tendto their fields.

The ad interim, or temporary, government cre-ated three companies of citizen-soldiers in 1836and charged them with protecting Anglo settlersfrom attacks by Native Americans. They werealso to serve as an army in the event of an inva-sion by Mexico. In this way, the Texas congresswas fulfilling one of the major duties of any gov-ernment—to guarantee the safety of its citizens.

Texas RangersUnfortunately, the ad interim Texas government

could ill afford a military force of any kind. Itpaid volunteers little or nothing at all.The men had to provide theirown horses and bring theirown firearms. Often, theRangers, as these meneventually came to becalled, had to live off theland. About all the gov-ernment could do waspledge to pay them $25 amonth, provide them withland, and supply them withammunition. Many Rangers servedtheir terms out of dedication and civic duty.Some, however, used their authority for personalgain. Occasionally, innocent people suffered fromthe rough system of frontier justice.

Sam Houston became the republic’s first presi-dent in September 1836, but his election did notbring the Rangers better conditions or wages.There were limits to how much the Rangerswould endure in the name of patriotism. Oncefinished with their scouting assignments, theygenerally returned home.

Jack HaysRangers like Jack Hays added to their small gov-

ernment income by working as surveyors. Rangerduties called for protecting surveyors while they

To Protect and to Serve

292

Jack Hays (above right) was a member of the Texan Mounted Militia (above).

Jack Hays

worked near Native American hunting grounds.Since Hays was out on the frontier anyway, heaccepted jobs from private individuals whowished to have their land marked and measured.In this manner, Hays was able to supplement hisgovernment salary.

Hays went on to become one of the mostfamous of the Texas Rangers during the 1840s.President Mirabeau B. Lamar adopted a “get-tough” policy against those who opposed thegoals of the new republic. Congress issued legis-lation in 1841 creating new Ranger companies toresolve conflicts with the Native Americans andprotect the republic from Mexico. Jack Hays wonan appointment to head one of the Ranger forces.

This time the congress did better for theRangers, paying them $30 monthly. Hays’s paywas $150. However, it was still not easy for theRangers to support themselves. Some even hadto borrow money to pay for their expenses whileon duty, as there were few government benefits.

Patrolling the Plains Fearing for his own safety, Hays purchased a

Colt revolver. This handgun had just been man-ufactured and it seemed ideal for protecting set-tlers on the frontier. Because it could shoot five

rounds without reloading, most of the Rangerswanted the handgun. Since the government hadlimited finances, Hays may have bought his ownColt from a Waco merchant. Other Rangersacquired their revolvers secondhand from theTexas navy, which had procured the weapons forits sailors in 1839.

Hays and his fellow Rangers spent much oftheir time during the Lamar administration asemployees of the government, safeguarding Texasimmigrants and handling issues with NativeAmerican tribes angered over Anglo movementwestward. Rangers also patrolled the frontierlooking for raiding expeditions from south of theRio Grande. When war broke out with Mexico in1846, companies of Rangers fought beside U.S.Army troops. Jack Hays was among them.

293

1. Making Generalizations What reasons other thanpay may exist to attract a person to a job?

2. Making Inferences How might working for thegovernment differ from working for a business?

3. Writing About Economics Write a paragraph thatdevelops one of the themes listed below. Use standardgrammar, spelling, sentence structure, and punctuation.Include information and examples from the feature asdetails to support your argument. a. Careers in law enforcement or the military provide

opportunities to serve one’s country.b. Government workers deserve generous job benefits.c. Individuals can show patriotism or civic-mindedness.

One of the persistent myths of Texas Ranger historyis that, until recently, all Rangers were of AngloEuropean descent. Surviving enlistment records provethat Texans of Hispanic and Native American descentserved from the Mexican period well into statehood.Mounted militia units were called rangers as early as1823. The Texas Rangers, created in 1835, served as asubstitute for an army when Texas lacked the funds tomaintain a large military force.

T E X A SF I C T I O N

Texas Rangers continue to serve Texans today.

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