reproductions supplied by edrs are the best that can be madethe official discourse of the learning...
TRANSCRIPT
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 442 943 CE 080 332
AUTHOR Rees, Gareth; Fevre, Ralph; Furlong, John; Gorard, StephenTITLE Notes towards a Social Theory of Lifetime Learning: History,
Place, and the Learning Society. Patterns of Participationin Adult Education and Training. Working Paper 6.
INSTITUTION Bristol Univ. (England).; Cardiff Univ. (Wales). School ofEducation.
SPONS AGENCY Economic and Social Research Council, Lancaster (England).ISBN ISBN-1-872330-07-XPUB DATE 1997-00-00NOTE 29p.; A Cardoff and Bristol University ESRC-Funded Learning
Society Project. Also funded by the Gwent, Mid Glamorgan,and West Wales Training Enterprise Councils. For otherworking papers, see CE 080 328-341 and CE 080 402.
CONTRACT ESRC-L123251041PUB TYPE Opinion Papers (120)EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Access to Education; Adult Education; Attendance Patterns;
Developed Nations; *Economics; *Educational Opportunities;Foreign Countries; *Human Capital; Job Training; *LifelongLearning; *Outcomes of Education; Social Theories;Vocational Education
IDENTIFIERS Great Britain; *Human Capital Theory; Learning Patterns;*Learning Society; Wales (South)
ABSTRACTThis working paper is a product of a regional study in
industrial South Wales of the determinants of participation andnon-participation in post-compulsory education and training, with specialreference to processes of change in the patterns of these determinants overtime and to variations between geographical areas. Discussion begins with anexamination of the way in which the official discourse of the learningsociety is dominated by a particular social theory of lifelong learning,called human capital theory. It demonstrates that human capital theoryinvolves an unwarranted abstraction of economic behavior from socialrelations more widely, maintaining that participation in lifetime learningcannot be understood in terms of the narrow calculation of utilitymaximization. This critique provides the basis for the development of thelineaments of a theoretical account in which learning behavior is conceivedas the product of individual calculation and active choice, but withinparameters set by both access to learning opportunities and collectivenorms--parameters that vary systematically over space and time so that placeand history must accordingly play a central role in any adequatetheorization. The paper concludes that this kind of theoretical approach hasimportant implications for empirical research and strategies aimed atcreating a learning society. (Contains 49 references and 16 notes.) (YLB)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
ISB
N 1
872
330
07 X 2
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
1
U.S
DE
PA
RT
ME
NT
OF
ED
UC
AT
ION
Offi
ce o
f Edu
catio
nal
Res
earc
h an
d Im
prov
emen
t
ED
U A
TIO
NA
LR
ES
OU
RC
ES
INF
OR
MA
TIO
NC
EN
TE
R (
ER
IC)
Thi
s do
cum
ent h
asbe
en r
epro
duce
d as
rece
ived
from
the
pers
onor
org
aniz
atio
n
orig
inat
ing
it.
Min
or c
hang
es h
ave
been
mad
e to
impr
ove
repr
oduc
tion
qual
ity.
Poi
nts
of v
iew
or
opin
ions
stat
ed in
this
docu
men
t do
notn
eces
saril
y re
pres
ent
offic
ial O
ER
I pos
ition
or
polic
y.
PAT
TE
RN
S O
F PA
RT
ICIP
AT
ION
IN
AD
UL
T E
DU
CA
TIO
N A
ND
TR
AIN
ING
A C
ardi
ff a
nd B
rist
ol U
nive
rsity
ESR
C-
fund
ed L
earn
ing
Soci
ety
Proj
ect
WO
RK
ING
PA
PER
6
Not
es T
owar
ds a
Soc
ial T
heor
y of
Lif
etim
e L
earn
ing
His
tory
,Pl
ace
and
The
Lea
rnin
g So
ciet
y
Gar
eth
Ree
s, R
alph
Fev
re, J
ohn
Furl
ong,
and
Ste
phen
Gor
ard
PE
RM
ISS
ION
TO
RE
PR
OD
UC
E A
ND
DIS
SE
MIN
AT
E T
HIS
MA
TE
RIA
L H
AS
BE
EN
GR
AN
TE
D B
Y
S.-
Kce
.,4
TO
TH
E E
DU
CA
TIO
NA
L R
ES
OU
RC
ES
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N C
EN
TE
R (
ER
IC)
1997
SCH
OO
L O
F E
DU
CA
TIO
N
Car
diff
Uni
vers
ityof
Wal
es
PAT
TE
RN
S O
F PA
RT
ICIP
AT
ION
IN
AD
UL
T E
DU
CA
TIO
NA
ND
TR
AIN
ING
A C
ardi
ff a
nd B
rist
ol U
nive
rsity
ESR
C-f
unde
dL
earn
ing
Soci
ety
Proj
ect
LIS
T O
F C
ON
TE
NT
SPA
GE
NU
MB
ER
WO
RK
ING
PA
PER
6N
otes
Tow
ards
a S
ocia
l The
ory
of L
ifet
ime
Lea
rnin
g
Intr
oduc
tion
1
His
tory
, Pla
ce a
nd th
e L
earn
ing
Soci
ety
The
off
icia
l dis
cour
se o
f th
e le
arni
ng s
ocie
ty2
Gar
eth
Ree
s, R
alph
Fev
re, J
ohn
Furl
ong
and
Step
hen
Gor
ard
A s
ocio
logi
cal c
ritiq
ue o
f hu
man
cap
ital t
heor
y4
Tow
ards
a s
ocia
l the
ory
of li
fetim
e le
arni
ng8
Con
clud
ing
com
men
ts17
Gar
eth
Ree
sJo
hn F
urlo
ng
Ref
eren
ces
19Sc
hool
of
Edu
catio
n,Sc
hool
of
Edu
catio
n,
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
ales
, Car
diff
Uni
vers
ity o
f B
rist
ol
Not
es23
Ral
ph F
evre
Step
hen
Gor
ard
I
Scho
ol o
f So
cial
and
Adm
inis
trat
ive
Stud
ies,
Scho
ol o
f E
duca
tion,
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
ales
, Car
diff
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
ales
Car
diff
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
ISB
N 1
872
330
07 X
4
The
pri
ncip
al a
im o
f th
is p
aper
is to
beg
in to
shi
ft th
ede
bate
on
the
Lea
rnin
g
Soci
ety
away
fro
m th
e no
rmat
ive
focu
s w
hich
has
pre
dom
inat
edhi
ther
to. W
eta
ke th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
an a
dequ
ate
soci
al th
eory
of
lifet
ime
lear
ning
to b
e a
nece
ssar
y co
nditi
on o
f cr
eatin
g a
Lea
rnin
g So
ciet
y, h
owev
er c
once
ived
.A
ccor
ding
ly, r
athe
r th
an b
egin
ning
with
que
stio
ns a
bout
wha
t a L
earn
ing
Soci
ety
ough
t to
cons
titut
e, w
e se
ek to
eng
age
initi
ally
with
issu
es o
f w
hat
patte
rns
of p
artic
ipat
ion
in le
arni
ng th
roug
h th
elif
e-co
urse
act
ually
are
and
of
how
bes
t to
unde
rsta
nd th
eir
dete
rmin
ants
. Mor
esp
ecif
ical
ly, w
e w
holly
agre
e w
ith C
offi
eld'
s (1
996)
arg
umen
ttha
t:
"...w
e ne
ed a
mor
e po
wer
ful s
ocia
l the
ory
ofle
arni
ng w
hich
will
enco
mpa
ss n
ot o
nly
the
cogn
itive
pro
cess
esw
ithin
the
head
s of
indi
vidu
als
but
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
el a
l.1
also
the
soci
al r
elat
ions
hips
and
arr
ange
men
ts w
hich
stim
ulat
e le
arni
ng."
(p.9
)
Our
ana
lytic
al e
mph
asis
is th
us o
n lif
etim
e le
arni
ng a
s a
set o
f so
cial
rel
atio
ns,
whi
ch c
an b
e ill
umin
ated
by
insi
ghts
dra
wn
from
soc
iolo
gica
l ana
lysi
s.In
deed
, in
som
e re
spec
ts, o
ur p
roje
ct is
to c
ount
erpo
se s
ocio
logi
cal r
easo
ning
agai
nst o
ther
, mor
e do
min
ant f
orm
s of
theo
ry.
Our
dis
cuss
ion
begi
ns w
ith a
bri
ef e
xam
inat
ion
of th
e w
ay in
whi
chth
e
offi
cial
dis
cour
se o
f th
e L
earn
ing
Soci
ety
is d
omin
ated
by
a pa
rtic
ular
soc
ial
theo
ry o
f lif
etim
e le
arni
ng: h
uman
cap
ital t
heor
y. F
or th
is r
easo
n al
one,
the
criti
cal e
valu
atio
n of
the
latte
r is
a s
erio
us u
nder
taki
ng. W
hat w
e de
mon
stra
teis
that
hum
an c
apita
l the
ory
invo
lves
an
unw
arra
nted
abs
trac
tion
of e
cono
mic
beha
viou
r fr
om s
ocia
l rel
atio
ns m
ore
wid
ely;
par
ticip
atio
n in
life
time
lear
ning
cann
ot b
e un
ders
tood
in te
rms
of th
e na
rrow
cal
cula
tion
of u
tility
max
imis
atio
n. T
his
criti
que
prov
ides
the
basi
s fo
r th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
at le
ast
the
linea
men
ts o
f a
mor
e sa
tisfa
ctor
y th
eore
tical
acc
ount
, in
whi
ch le
arni
ngbe
havi
our
is c
once
ived
as
the
prod
uct o
f in
divi
dual
cal
cula
tion
and
activ
ech
oice
, but
with
in p
aram
eter
s se
t by
both
acc
ess
to le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
and
colle
ctiv
e no
rms.
Mor
eove
r, th
ese
para
met
ers,
by
thei
r ve
ry n
atur
e, v
ary
syst
emat
ical
ly o
ver
spac
e an
d tim
e: a
ccor
ding
ly, p
lace
and
his
tory
mus
t pla
y a
cent
ral r
ole
in a
ny a
dequ
ate
theo
risa
tion.
We
conc
lude
that
this
kin
d of
theo
retic
al a
ppro
ach
has
impo
rtan
t im
plic
atio
ns n
ot o
nly
for
empi
rica
lre
sear
ch (
of th
e ki
nd o
n w
hich
we
are
curr
ently
eng
aged
), b
ut a
lso
for
stra
tegi
es a
imed
at c
reat
ing
a L
earn
ing
Soci
ety.
TH
E O
FFIC
IAL
DIS
CO
UR
SE O
F T
HE
LE
AR
NIN
G S
OC
IET
Y
Cof
fiel
d (1
996)
has
rec
ently
dra
wn
atte
ntio
n to
the
mar
ked
com
mon
aliti
es in
stat
e po
licie
sbo
th a
t the
leve
l of
natio
nal g
over
nmen
ts a
nd s
upra
-nat
iona
lor
gani
satio
ns -
with
res
pect
to th
e bu
ildin
g of
a L
earn
ing
Soci
ety.
The
latte
ris
con
ceiv
ed p
rim
arily
in te
rms
of o
bjec
tives
of
econ
omic
gro
wth
and
wel
l-be
ing.
Mor
e pa
rtic
ular
ly, h
e em
phas
ises
the
cruc
ial r
ole
acco
rded
to th
ein
divi
dual
act
or in
this
off
icia
l dis
cour
se a
nd th
e lim
itatio
ns w
hich
this
impo
ses
on e
ffec
tive
stra
tegy
.E
cono
mic
com
petit
iven
ess,
it is
arg
ued,
isde
pend
ent o
n a
high
ly s
kille
d la
bour
for
ce; a
nd, h
ence
, eco
nom
ic g
row
thpr
imar
ily r
efle
cts
the
capa
citie
s of
indi
vidu
al w
orke
rs to
acq
uire
thes
e
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.
nece
ssar
y sk
ills
and
com
pete
nces
.So
me
offi
cial
acc
ount
s (f
or e
xam
ple,
Eur
opea
n C
omm
issi
on, 1
996)
ext
end
this
ana
lysi
s to
cons
ider
the
dist
ribu
tiona
l con
sequ
ence
s of
the
achi
evem
ent o
f su
ch e
cono
mic
grow
th.
Wha
t wou
ld b
e th
e ef
fect
s on
em
ploy
men
t lev
els
? W
ho w
ould
hav
e ac
cess
tojo
bs ?
Wha
t wou
ld b
e th
e im
pact
s on
wid
er p
atte
rns
of s
ocia
l int
egra
tion
and
excl
usio
n ?
Oth
ers
are
nota
bly
sile
nt o
n th
ese
issu
es (
for
exam
ple,
Dep
artm
ent
for
Edu
catio
n an
d E
mpl
oym
ent,
1995
).
The
se a
rgum
ents
can
use
fully
be
deve
lope
d by
loca
ting
this
em
phas
is o
n th
ein
divi
dual
act
or w
ithin
the
wid
er a
naly
sis
of th
e re
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
educ
atio
n an
d tr
aini
ng a
nd e
cono
mic
dev
elop
men
t, of
whi
ch it
for
ms
part
.T
his
wid
er a
naly
sis,
we
sugg
est,
is th
at d
eriv
ed f
rom
hum
an c
apita
lth
eory
.]In
Sch
ultz
's (
1961
) in
itial
for
mul
atio
n, th
e cr
ucia
l ben
efits
of
inve
stm
ent i
nhu
man
cap
ital a
re s
et o
ut: w
here
ret
urns
to o
ther
for
ms
of c
apita
l are
con
stan
tor
dec
reas
ing,
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f hu
man
cap
ital,
prim
arily
thro
ugh
educ
atio
nan
d tr
aini
ng, w
ill c
onst
itute
the
prim
e so
urce
of
econ
omic
gro
wth
.A
ccor
ding
ly, i
t is
in th
e in
tere
sts
of e
mpl
oyer
s an
d, w
here
nec
essa
ry, t
he s
tate
to e
nsur
e th
at s
uch
inve
stm
ent i
n hu
man
cap
ital t
akes
pla
ce.
Cru
cial
ly,
how
ever
, it a
lso
follo
ws
that
for
indi
vidu
als
seek
ing
acce
ss to
des
irab
leem
ploy
men
t opp
ortu
nitie
s, th
eir
self
-int
eres
t will
be
serv
ed b
y pe
rson
alin
vest
men
t in
the
acqu
isiti
on o
f qu
alif
icat
ions
and
exp
erie
nce.
Inde
ed, a
sB
ecke
r (f
or e
xam
ple,
197
5) a
rgue
s, p
artic
ipat
ion
in e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
may
be
cons
ider
ed a
s a
form
of
mar
ket b
ehav
iour
, inv
olvi
ngth
e ra
tiona
lca
lcul
atio
n of
the
tota
l ben
efits
to b
e de
rive
d, s
ettin
g cu
rren
t rea
l inc
ome
fore
gone
(th
roug
h, f
or e
xam
ple,
rem
aini
ng in
edu
catio
n) a
gain
st e
nhan
ced
oppo
rtun
ities
of
futu
re r
ewar
ds (
such
as
bette
r jo
b pr
ospe
cts,
hig
her
wag
esan
d so
on)
.
Wha
t thi
s im
plie
s, th
eref
ore,
is th
at th
e sc
ope
for
effe
ctiv
e st
ate
inte
rven
tion
isci
rcum
scri
bed
(as
is p
erha
ps m
ost c
lear
ly il
lust
rate
d in
rec
ent B
ritis
h po
licy
inth
is f
ield
). B
asic
edu
catio
nal p
rovi
sion
cle
arly
nee
ds to
be
guar
ante
ed. S
ome
empl
oyer
s m
ay r
equi
re h
elp
and
enco
urag
emen
t to
prov
ide
the
mos
t eff
ectiv
efo
rms
of tr
aini
ng.
How
ever
, per
haps
mos
t per
tinen
tly f
or th
e cu
rren
tdi
scus
sion
, the
par
ticip
atio
n of
the
bulk
of
(pro
spec
tive)
em
ploy
ees
ined
ucat
ion
and
trai
ning
will
fol
low
aut
omat
ical
ly f
rom
a "
natu
ral"
cal
cula
tion
of th
e be
nefi
ts w
hich
will
flo
w to
them
in th
e fu
ture
. Hen
ce, t
he r
ole
of th
est
ate
in th
is c
onte
xt is
to e
nsur
e th
at th
ey a
re f
ully
aw
are
ofth
e na
ture
and
scop
e of
the
lear
ning
opp
ortu
nitie
s w
hich
are
ava
ilabl
e to
them
and
the
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.3
spec
ific
adv
anta
ges
whi
ch w
ill d
eriv
e fr
om th
eir
part
icip
atio
n; a
nd it
may
be
that
the
prov
isio
n of
app
ropr
iate
gui
danc
e w
ill b
e ne
cess
ary
to a
chie
ve th
is(R
ees
and
Bar
tlett,
199
6).
In s
hort
, the
refo
re, m
arke
t mec
hani
sms
albe
it
faci
litat
ed b
y lim
ited
stat
e in
terv
entio
nsw
ill e
nsur
e th
e ac
hiev
emen
t of
the
desi
red
patte
rns
of li
fetim
e le
arni
ng a
t som
e po
int i
n th
e fu
ture
.In
deed
, the
Lea
rnin
g So
ciet
y its
elf
com
es to
be
conc
eive
d ex
clus
ivel
y as
a d
esir
able
fut
ure
stat
e: a
targ
et to
be
achi
eved
, whe
re m
axim
um s
ocia
l ben
efits
will
be
ensu
red
thro
ugh
the
effe
ctiv
e op
erat
ion
of m
arke
t pro
cess
es.2
We
wis
h to
arg
ue, o
n th
e co
ntra
ry, t
hat p
artic
ipat
ion
in e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
cann
ot p
rope
rly
be u
nder
stoo
d as
bei
ng d
eter
min
ed w
ithin
a s
ui g
ener
isec
onom
ic r
ealm
. Hum
an c
apita
l the
ory
invo
lves
an
unw
arra
nted
abs
trac
tion
of b
ehav
iour
with
res
pect
to li
fetim
e le
arni
ng f
rom
the
soci
al r
elat
ions
inw
hich
it is
enc
ompa
ssed
. Thi
s, in
turn
, pro
vide
s th
e an
alyt
ical
bas
is f
or a
nov
er-s
impl
ifie
d vi
ew o
f st
rate
gy a
nd a
con
cept
ion
of th
e L
earn
ing
Soci
ety
itsel
f w
hich
is im
pove
rish
ed.
A S
OC
IOL
OG
ICA
L C
RIT
IQU
E O
F H
UM
AN
CA
PIT
AL
TH
EO
RY
As
we
have
see
n, th
en, h
uman
cap
ital t
heor
y ha
s im
plic
atio
ns b
oth
for
wid
erpa
ttern
s of
eco
nom
ic d
evel
opm
ent a
nd f
or th
e m
arke
t beh
avio
ur o
fin
divi
dual
s.T
he f
orm
er d
imen
sion
is c
once
rned
with
the
rela
tions
hips
betw
een
econ
omic
gro
wth
at t
he n
atio
nal o
r re
gion
al le
vel a
nd in
vest
men
t in
hum
an c
apita
l; an
d th
e la
tter
offe
rs a
n ac
coun
t of
deci
sion
-mak
ing
with
res
pect
to p
artic
ipat
ion
in e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
.It
is th
e la
tter
whi
ch is
of
prin
cipa
lco
ncer
n he
re a
nd o
n w
hich
sub
sequ
ent d
iscu
ssio
n fo
cuse
s (a
lthou
gh th
e fo
rmer
pose
s im
port
ant q
uest
ions
with
res
pect
to s
trat
egie
s fo
r bu
ildin
g a
Lea
rnin
gSo
ciet
y to
o: s
ee R
ees,
199
6). T
o si
mpl
ify
som
ewha
t, th
is p
artic
ular
asp
ect o
fhu
man
cap
ital t
heor
y sh
ares
man
y of
the
char
acte
rist
ics
of m
ore
gene
ral n
eo-
clas
sica
l ana
lysi
s of
mar
ket b
ehav
iour
(cf
. Fev
re, 1
997)
.In
par
ticul
ar, i
t is
base
d up
on th
e as
sum
ptio
ns w
hich
und
erpi
n th
e la
tter:
nam
ely,
that
indi
vidu
als
will
see
k to
max
imis
e th
eir
mat
eria
l wel
l-be
ing
(or
utili
ty)
in e
cono
mic
tran
sact
ions
; tha
t the
y po
sses
s fu
ll kn
owle
dge
of m
arke
t con
ditio
ns; a
nd th
atth
ey w
ill a
ct r
atio
nally
to a
chie
ve th
eir
pref
eren
ces
in th
e lig
ht o
f th
iskn
owle
dge
(see
,fo
r ex
ampl
e, M
artin
elli
and
Smel
ser,
199
0:29
).A
ccor
ding
ly, i
ndiv
idua
ls w
ill c
hoos
e to
und
erta
ke e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
to
8So
cial
theo
ry o
f le
arni
ng -
Ree
s ct
al.
4
the
exte
nt th
at th
ey a
re a
war
e of
the
oppo
rtun
ities
ava
ilabl
e an
d th
at th
ey a
reab
le to
max
imis
e m
ater
ial r
etur
ns th
roug
h do
ing
so.
Rec
ent d
evel
opm
ents
in th
e so
ciol
ogy
of e
cono
mic
life
hav
e re
new
ed th
ecr
itiqu
e of
suc
h ne
o-cl
assi
cal e
cono
mic
theo
ry (
for
exam
ple,
Gra
nove
tter
and
Swed
berg
, 199
2; S
mel
ser
and
Swed
berg
, 199
4; Z
ukin
and
Di M
aggi
o, 1
990)
.3M
ost g
ener
ally
, the
abs
olut
e di
ffer
entia
tion
betw
een
econ
omic
and
soc
ial l
ife
whi
ch it
impl
ies,
and
the
cons
eque
nt te
nden
cy f
or in
divi
dual
s to
be
gove
rned
by e
xclu
sive
ly m
ater
ial m
otiv
atio
ns, a
re r
ejec
ted.
As
Laz
ar (
1996
) ha
sre
cent
ly p
ut it
:
"...f
or s
ocio
logi
cal a
naly
sis,
eco
nom
ic a
ctio
n is
a f
orm
of
soci
al a
ctio
n,no
t mer
ely
a m
atte
r of
indi
vidu
als
actin
g in
pur
suit
of in
divi
dual
inte
rest
s, a
ndm
ust n
ot b
e an
alys
ed a
s if
it e
xist
s in
a r
aref
ied
real
m w
ith it
s pe
culia
r,au
tono
mou
s fo
rm o
f m
otiv
atio
n."
(p.6
00)
Wha
t are
em
phas
ised
, the
n, a
re th
e co
ntin
uitie
s be
twee
n ec
onom
ic a
ctio
n an
din
stitu
tions
, on
the
one
hand
, and
wid
er s
ocia
l net
wor
ks a
nd o
rgan
isat
ions
, on
the
othe
r. H
ence
, for
exa
mpl
e, b
ehav
iour
in e
cono
mic
mar
kets
is, i
n Po
lany
i's(1
957)
term
, "em
bedd
ed"
in s
yste
ms
of s
ocia
l rel
atio
ns, p
artic
ular
ly n
etw
orks
of in
terp
erso
nal r
elat
ions
.M
oreo
ver,
as,
of
cour
se, D
urkh
eim
arg
ued
in h
isfa
mou
s cr
itiqu
e of
util
itari
an a
ppro
ache
s as
a w
hole
(Fe
vre,
199
7), e
cono
mic
mar
kets
hav
e ch
arac
teri
stic
nor
mat
ive
base
s (i
n th
e sa
me
way
as
the
mor
eob
viou
s ca
ses
of e
xcha
nge
base
d on
"re
cipr
ocity
" or
"re
dist
ribu
tion"
)(P
olan
yi, 1
957)
. And
to th
ese
mig
ht b
e ad
ded
the
perv
asiv
e in
flue
nce
ofdi
ffer
entia
l pow
er b
etw
een
soci
al g
roup
s
Thi
s di
ssol
utio
n of
the
boun
dary
bet
wee
n ec
onom
ic a
ctio
n an
d so
cial
rel
atio
nsm
ore
wid
ely
has
mor
e sp
ecif
ic c
onse
quen
ces
for
the
way
s in
whi
ch th
ede
term
inan
ts o
f in
divi
dual
beh
avio
urs
are
conc
eptu
alis
ed. M
ost o
bvio
usly
, the
neo-
clas
sica
l for
mul
atio
n ig
nore
s th
e po
ssib
ility
that
indi
vidu
als
may
pur
sue
ends
(or
hav
e pr
efer
ence
s) w
hich
are
dif
fere
nt f
rom
str
aigh
tfor
war
dm
axim
isat
ion
of m
ater
ial w
ell-
bein
g.T
his
pote
ntia
l for
a d
iver
sity
of
pref
eren
ces
may
be
conc
eive
d, in
Web
eria
n te
rms,
as
refl
ectin
g di
ffer
ent
valu
e po
sitio
ns (
alth
ough
the
latte
r, in
turn
, may
be
shap
ed w
ithin
nor
mat
ive
stru
ctur
es: s
ee b
elow
). H
ence
, for
exa
mpl
e, a
n em
ploy
ee m
ay u
nder
take
apr
ogra
mm
e of
trai
ning
bec
ause
he
or s
he p
rize
s th
e in
trin
sic
plea
sure
obt
aine
dfr
om th
e pr
ogra
mm
e or
fro
m th
e en
hanc
ed c
apac
ity to
do
a jo
b, e
ven
whe
re
Soci
al th
eory
of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.9
the
mat
eria
l ben
efits
to b
e de
rive
d ar
e ne
glig
ible
.T
his
actio
n w
ould
be
"rat
iona
l", e
ven
thou
gh th
e en
ds w
hich
are
sou
ght d
evia
te f
rom
thos
e as
sum
edin
the
conv
entio
nal e
cono
mic
mod
el o
f pr
efer
ence
s.In
deed
, a r
esea
rch
prog
ram
me
(of
a ch
arac
teri
stic
ally
Web
eria
n ki
nd)
mig
ht in
vest
igat
e th
eci
rcum
stan
ces
pres
umab
ly, d
eriv
ed f
rom
the
wid
er c
onte
xt o
f so
cial
netw
orks
, etc
. - in
whi
ch d
evia
tions
fro
m "
econ
omic
" ra
tiona
lity
occu
r.4
Thi
s, in
turn
, wou
ld o
pen
up th
e po
ssib
ility
of
anal
ysin
g in
divi
dual
beh
avio
urw
ith r
espe
ct to
lear
ning
opp
ortu
nitie
s no
t in
term
s of
som
e un
iver
sal e
cono
mic
ratio
nalit
y, b
ut r
athe
r of
alte
rnat
ive
ratio
nalit
ies
whi
ch a
re s
ocia
lly c
onst
itute
d(c
f. L
azar
, 199
6).5
Eve
n m
ore
fund
amen
tally
, the
cri
tique
of
neo-
clas
sica
l the
ory
rais
es th
equ
estio
n of
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch b
ehav
iour
in m
arke
ts m
ay u
sefu
lly b
eco
ncei
ved
as th
e pr
oduc
t of
indi
vidu
al c
hoic
e an
d de
cisi
on-m
akin
g at
all.
As
we
note
d ea
rlie
r, a
con
vent
iona
l soc
iolo
gica
l app
roac
h em
phas
ises
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch in
divi
dual
s ar
e so
cial
ised
into
det
erm
inat
e no
rmat
ive
stru
ctur
es a
ndth
ese,
in tu
rn, s
hape
not
onl
y th
e pr
efer
ence
s he
ld b
y in
divi
dual
s, b
ut a
lso
thei
r pe
rcep
tions
of
the
feas
ible
alte
rnat
ives
whi
ch a
re a
cces
sibl
e.Fo
rex
ampl
e, m
ost s
ocio
logi
sts
of e
duca
tion
wou
ld b
e co
mfo
rtab
le w
ith th
e no
tion
that
, in
Gam
betta
's (
1987
) w
ords
:
"...c
lass
-rel
ated
iner
tial f
orce
s ca
n af
fect
the
pref
eren
ce s
truc
ture
by
alte
ring
the
valu
es a
ttach
ed to
any
giv
en o
ptio
n: th
e w
orki
ng-c
lass
bel
ief,
for
inst
ance
, tha
t aca
dem
ical
ly o
rien
ted
scho
ols
are
not f
or p
eopl
e lik
e us
', or
vice
ver
sa, t
he u
pper
-cla
ss b
elie
f th
at o
nly
acad
emic
ally
ori
ente
d sc
hool
s ar
efo
r pe
ople
like
us'
".(p
.15)
In th
is c
onte
xt, i
t is
clea
r th
at th
e ex
erci
se o
f ch
oice
by
the
indi
vidu
al is
hig
hly
cons
trai
ned
by a
str
uctu
re o
f ta
ken-
for-
gran
ted
pres
uppo
sitio
ns w
ith r
espe
ct to
wha
t is
avai
labl
e an
d ap
prop
riat
ely
soug
ht a
fter
.M
oreo
ver,
this
str
uctu
re o
fpr
esup
posi
tions
is s
yste
mat
ic, i
n th
e se
nse
that
it is
ass
ocia
ted
with
a g
iven
loca
tion
with
inin
this
cas
eth
e re
latio
ns o
f so
cial
cla
ss. W
hat t
his
sugg
ests
,th
eref
ore,
is th
at th
ere
are
defi
nabl
e re
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
indi
vidu
alpr
efer
ence
s an
d th
e ch
oice
s ba
sed
upon
them
, nor
mat
ive
syst
ems
and
the
loca
tions
in th
e so
cial
str
uctu
re w
ithin
whi
ch s
ocia
lisat
ion
occu
rs. T
raci
ng o
utth
ese
rela
tions
hips
wou
ld b
e a
maj
or e
lem
ent i
n un
cove
ring
how
alte
rnat
ive
ratio
nalit
ies
com
e to
be
soci
ally
con
stitu
ted.
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.6
Nev
erth
eles
s, it
is im
port
ant n
ot to
ove
rsta
te th
e ef
fect
s of
soc
ialis
atio
n: in
othe
r w
ords
, to
avoi
d an
ove
r-so
cial
ised
con
cept
ion
of th
e in
divi
dual
, whe
rehi
s or
her
act
ion
is v
iew
ed a
s a
pass
ive
refl
ectio
n of
wid
er s
ocia
l for
ces.
We
shou
ld n
ot s
ubst
itute
the
neo-
clas
sica
l "as
ocia
l rat
iona
l ego
tist"
with
aso
ciol
ogic
al "
cultu
ral d
upe"
(cf
. Ing
ham
, 199
6, p
.554
). H
ence
, for
exa
mpl
e,ev
en w
here
the
rang
e of
pos
sibl
e co
urse
s of
act
ion
is p
erce
ived
to b
e hi
ghly
rest
rict
ed, i
ndiv
idua
ls r
emai
n ab
le to
com
pare
alte
rnat
ives
and
to c
hoos
e"r
atio
nally
" be
twee
n th
em.
Inde
ed, i
ndiv
idua
ls a
re a
ble
to r
ejec
t the
pref
eren
ce s
truc
ture
s in
to w
hich
they
are
soc
ialis
ed, a
s, f
or in
stan
ce, a
nyan
alys
is o
f pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in a
dult
educ
atio
n pr
ogra
mm
es d
emon
stra
tes.
Indi
vidu
al a
ctor
s re
mai
n au
tono
mou
s th
roug
h ex
erci
sing
cho
ice
over
the
cour
ses
of a
ctio
n w
hich
they
pur
sue,
eve
n th
ough
thei
r ch
oice
s ar
e m
ade
with
in p
aram
eter
s w
hich
are
set
ext
erna
lly. A
naly
tical
ly, t
here
fore
, the
task
isto
pro
duce
an
acco
unt o
f th
e in
tera
ctio
n of
indi
vidu
al c
hoic
e w
ith it
spa
ram
eter
s (c
f. S
wed
berg
, Him
mel
stra
nd a
nd B
rulin
, 199
0, p
.70)
.
It is
als
o cl
ear
that
thes
e ex
tern
al p
aram
eter
s ar
e no
t con
fine
d to
the
effe
cts
ofso
cial
isat
ion.
Indi
vidu
al c
hoic
es a
re n
ot s
impl
y co
nstr
aine
d by
soc
ially
cons
titut
ed p
refe
renc
es, b
ut a
lso
they
ref
lect
the
soci
al s
truc
ture
of
actu
ally
avai
labl
e op
port
uniti
es. A
ccor
ding
ly, p
refe
renc
es th
emse
lves
may
be
shap
edw
heth
er th
roug
h so
cial
isat
ion
or m
ore
dire
ctly
- b
y th
e re
ality
of
feas
ible
alte
rnat
ive
actio
ns.
Mor
eove
r, th
e sc
ope
of a
uton
omy
and
choi
ce is
not
neut
ral i
n th
e fa
ce o
f pr
oces
ses
of s
ocia
l exc
lusi
on a
nd in
tegr
atio
n, b
ut is
stru
ctur
ed b
y th
ese
wid
er s
ocia
l rel
atio
ns.
Indi
vidu
als
do n
ot e
njoy
a le
vel
play
ing-
fiel
d in
acc
ess
to o
ppor
tuni
ties
for
educ
atio
n an
d tr
aini
ng (
as f
or o
ther
good
s an
d se
rvic
es);
and
this
is tr
ue, i
n pr
inci
ple,
irre
spec
tive
of h
ow p
eopl
eun
ders
tand
thes
e op
port
uniti
es.
For
exam
ple,
cha
nges
in s
tate
pro
visi
on o
fed
ucat
iona
l opp
ortu
nitie
s (c
onse
quen
t, sa
y, o
n th
e 19
44 E
duca
tion
Act
) or
inth
e or
gani
satio
n of
eco
nom
ic p
rodu
ctio
n (l
eadi
ng to
the
expa
nsio
n of
wom
en's
empl
oym
ent,
etc.
) ha
ve r
esul
ted
inst
ruct
ural
cha
nges
inle
arni
ngop
port
uniti
es, w
hose
impl
icat
ions
hav
e, a
rgua
bly,
onl
y pa
rtia
lly b
een
abso
rbed
into
peo
ple'
s so
cial
und
erst
andi
ng a
nd n
orm
ativ
e st
ruct
ures
; in
fact
, one
of
the
inte
rest
ing
anal
ytic
al is
sues
her
e is
pre
cise
ly th
e di
sjun
ctiv
e be
twee
n th
ese
dim
ensi
ons
(for
exa
mpl
e, R
ees,
199
2, C
hapt
ers
3 an
d 4)
.6
All
of th
is im
plie
s a
muc
h m
ore
com
plex
set
of
soci
al p
roce
sses
thro
ugh
whi
chpa
rtic
ipat
ion
in li
fetim
e le
arni
ng is
det
erm
ined
, tha
n is
der
ived
fro
m h
uman
capi
tal t
heor
y. A
t bes
t, th
e la
tter
may
be
conc
eive
d as
a p
artia
l acc
ount
, whi
ch
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
Ree
s et
al.
117
may
app
ly in
rat
her
spec
ific
cir
cum
stan
ces.
In th
e ne
xt s
ectio
n, w
e be
gin
to
outli
ne a
mor
e ge
nera
l ana
lytic
al f
ram
ewor
k, w
hich
atte
mpt
s to
build
on
the
criti
que
whi
ch h
as b
een
sket
ched
her
e.
TO
WA
RD
S A
SO
CIA
L T
HE
OR
Y O
F L
IFE
TIM
EL
EA
RN
ING
As
we
have
see
n, th
en, a
maj
or p
art o
f th
eso
ciol
ogic
al a
naly
sis
ofpa
rtic
ipat
ion
in e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
pre
sent
s al
mos
t am
irro
r im
age
ofhu
man
cap
ital t
heor
y an
d ne
o-cl
assi
cal e
cono
mic
ana
lysi
s m
ore
wid
ely.
Her
e,
the
emph
asis
has
bee
n ov
erw
helm
ingl
y on
the
cons
trai
nts
with
in w
hich
indi
vidu
al a
ctor
s op
erat
e.?
For
exam
ple,
pat
tern
s of
atta
inm
ent w
ithin
com
puls
ory
scho
olin
g or
of
part
icip
atio
n in
pos
t-co
mpu
lsor
y ar
eas
ofed
ucat
ion
have
cha
ract
eris
tical
ly b
een
anal
ysed
in te
rms
ofth
e ch
angi
ng
stru
ctur
e of
opp
ortu
nitie
s w
hich
are
ava
ilabl
e(t
hrou
gh s
tate
pol
icie
s, e
tc.)
and
the
diff
eren
tiatio
n of
indi
vidu
als'
acc
ess
to th
ese
oppo
rtun
ities
acc
ordi
ng to
thei
r lo
catio
n w
ithin
the
soci
al s
truc
ture
, par
ticul
arly
thei
rcl
ass,
gen
der
and
ethn
ic b
ackg
roun
ds. C
lear
ly, m
uch
of th
e m
ains
trea
m r
esea
rch
onth
e ef
fect
s
of s
elec
tive
and
com
preh
ensi
ve s
yste
ms
of s
econ
dary
scho
olin
g ill
ustr
ate
this
mod
e of
ana
lysi
s (f
or e
xam
ple,
Hal
sey,
Hea
th a
nd R
idge
,19
80).
Sim
ilarl
y,
man
y ac
coun
ts o
f th
e sh
ift f
rom
an
elite
to a
mas
s sy
stem
of h
ighe
r ed
ucat
ion
or o
f pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in a
dult
educ
atio
n pr
ogra
mm
esfa
ll in
to th
e sa
me
gene
ral
mou
ld (
for
exam
ple,
Mar
sh a
nd B
lack
burn
, 199
2; M
cGiv
ney,
1993
). A
ndm
uch
the
sam
e ca
n be
sai
d of
a g
reat
dea
l of
the
rese
arch
on
the
take
up
ofop
port
uniti
es f
or v
ocat
iona
l tra
inin
g, w
heth
er s
uppl
ied
byth
e st
ate
or(a
lthou
gh th
e an
alys
is is
far
less
dev
elop
ed)
by e
mpl
oyer
s (f
or e
xam
ple,
Ban
ks
et a
l., 1
992;
Ree
s, F
ield
er a
nd R
ees,
199
2).
Freq
uent
ly, t
his
conc
eptu
alis
atio
n in
term
s of
the
rest
rict
ion
ofin
divi
dual
choi
ce o
ver
cour
ses
of a
ctio
n ha
s be
en u
sed
to p
erm
it th
e re
duct
ion
of th
eco
mpl
exiti
es o
f in
divi
dual
beh
avio
ur to
cha
ract
eris
tic e
duca
tiona
l"p
athw
ays"
or "
traj
ecto
ries
" (t
he te
rm w
hich
we
shal
l use
her
e).8
Prec
isel
y be
caus
e
auto
nom
y is
bou
nded
by
exte
rnal
con
ditio
ns, i
tis
pos
sibl
e to
iden
tify
regu
lari
ties
in in
divi
dual
s' e
duca
tiona
l exp
erie
nces
as
they
proc
eed
thro
ugh
the
life
cour
se. H
ence
, for
exa
mpl
e, H
alse
y, H
eath
and
Rid
ge(1
980)
iden
tifie
d
diff
eren
t rou
tes
thro
ugh
com
puls
ory
scho
olin
g, b
ased
on
perf
orm
ance
at k
ey
junc
ture
s su
ch a
s th
e "1
1+"
or "
com
mon
ent
ranc
e"ex
amin
atio
ns, a
nd w
ere
conc
erne
d to
ela
bora
te o
n th
e na
ture
and
eff
ects
of
the
flow
s of
indi
vidu
als
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.12
8
from
dif
fere
nt s
ocia
l bac
kgro
unds
thro
ugh
them
.Si
mila
rly,
Ban
ks e
t al.
(199
2) d
evel
op th
e no
tion
of "
care
er tr
ajec
tori
es"
to e
ncap
sula
te th
eco
ntra
stin
g ex
peri
ence
s of
you
ng p
eopl
e du
ring
the
year
s af
ter
they
hav
epa
ssed
the
min
imum
sch
ool-
leav
ing
age;
and
aga
in, t
hese
are
rel
ated
to k
eyfe
atur
es o
f so
cial
bac
kgro
und
and
prev
ious
edu
catio
n.
At o
ne le
vel,
wha
t is
invo
lved
her
e is
no
mor
e th
an th
e at
tem
pt to
des
crib
ech
arac
teri
stic
pat
tern
s of
edu
catio
nal a
ttain
men
t, pa
rtic
ipat
ion
and
so o
n.In
divi
dual
edu
catio
nal e
xper
ienc
es a
re s
impl
y ag
greg
ated
into
typo
logi
es,
whi
ch m
ay th
en b
e re
late
d to
the
oppo
rtun
ities
pro
vide
d an
d th
e so
cial
reso
urce
s av
aila
ble
from
dif
fere
nt b
ackg
roun
ds. H
owev
er, t
he c
once
pt o
f th
e"t
raje
ctor
y" e
mbo
dies
a c
lear
ana
lytic
al e
lem
ent t
oo. O
ur a
rgum
ent h
ere
has
rece
ntly
bee
n el
abor
ated
by
Hod
kins
on, S
park
es a
nd H
odki
nson
(19
96)
thro
ugh
thei
r in
voca
tion
of S
trau
ss' (
1962
) w
ell k
now
n di
scus
sion
; the
y sa
y:
"Str
auss
(19
62)
sugg
ests
that
we
ofte
n de
scri
be th
is p
redi
ctab
ility
[of
indi
vidu
al V
ajec
tori
es7
acco
rdin
g to
one
of
two
met
apho
rs. T
he f
irst
is th
eca
reer
ladd
er. F
rom
this
poi
nt o
f vi
ew, e
arly
dec
isio
ns a
roun
d th
e tr
ansi
tion
to w
ork
are
the
low
er r
ungs
of
the
ladd
er. A
s ou
r liv
es d
evel
op w
e gr
adua
llycl
imb,
in a
dir
ectio
n th
at is
cle
ar a
nd p
redi
ctab
le to
a k
now
ledg
eabl
e ou
tsid
er.
... T
heot
her
met
apho
r fo
r ca
reer
dev
elop
men
t ...
is th
at o
f co
okin
g an
egg
.W
heth
er w
e po
ach
it, f
ry it
, boi
l it o
r sc
ram
ble
it, it
will
alw
ays
be a
n eg
g. ..
.W
orki
ng-c
lass
mal
es, l
et u
s sa
y, c
an d
evel
op in
a v
arie
ty o
f w
ays,
but
thei
rce
ntra
l 'w
orki
ng-c
lass
mal
enes
s' w
ill a
lway
s al
low
the
expe
rt o
utsi
der
topr
edic
t the
ran
ge o
f op
port
uniti
es a
nd ty
pe o
f tr
ajec
tory
that
they
will
fol
low
."(p
.141
)
Wha
t thi
s hi
ghlig
hts,
ther
efor
e, is
that
ther
e ar
e tw
o el
emen
ts in
volv
ed.
Firs
tly, t
he "
traj
ecto
ry"
whi
ch p
eopl
e jo
in is
ver
y la
rgel
y de
term
ined
by
the
reso
urce
s w
hich
they
der
ive
from
thei
r so
cial
bac
kgro
unds
. Hen
ce, t
o ex
tend
Stra
uss'
(19
62)
exam
ple,
wor
king
-cla
ss m
ales
' exp
erie
nce
of in
itial
sch
oolin
gan
d su
bseq
uent
edu
catio
n an
d tr
aini
ng d
iffe
rs s
yste
mat
ical
ly f
rom
that
of
mid
dle-
clas
s fe
mal
es; t
heir
acc
ess
to le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
is s
yste
mat
ical
lydi
ffer
entia
ted
by th
e so
cial
res
ourc
es o
r ca
pita
l ava
ilabl
e to
them
. Sec
ondl
y,an
indi
vidu
al's
cap
acity
to ta
ke u
p w
hate
ver
lear
ning
opp
ortu
nitie
s ar
eav
aila
ble
is c
onst
rain
ed b
y hi
s or
her
pre
viou
s hi
stor
y in
this
res
pect
.A
ccor
ding
ly, o
nce
an in
divi
dual
has
sta
rted
out
on
a gi
ven
"tra
ject
ory"
, the
nth
e pr
obab
ility
of
proc
eedi
ng th
roug
h its
sub
sequ
ent s
tage
s is
rel
ativ
ely
high
;
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.
139
the
sequ
ence
of
educ
atio
nal e
xper
ienc
es is
to a
con
side
rabl
e ex
tent
cum
ulat
ive.
For
exam
ple,
if s
omeo
ne le
aves
sch
ool a
t 16
with
no
qual
ific
atio
ns, t
his
itsel
fre
stri
cts
subs
eque
nt a
cces
s to
fur
ther
or
high
er e
duca
tion
and
to a
nyth
ing
othe
r th
an v
ery
limite
d vo
catio
nal t
rain
ing
(cf.
for
exa
mpl
e, B
anks
et a
l.,19
92).
We
wis
h to
arg
ue th
at th
is c
once
pt o
f "t
raje
ctor
y"is
inte
gral
to th
ede
velo
pmen
t of
an a
dequ
ate
soci
al th
eory
of
lifet
ime
lear
ning
. By
exte
nsio
nfr
om p
revi
ous
rese
arch
, it i
s po
ssib
le -
alth
ough
em
piri
cally
com
plex
to
iden
tify
a ra
nge
of c
hara
cter
istic
seq
uenc
es o
f le
arni
ng e
xper
ienc
es th
roug
hth
e lif
e co
urse
("t
raje
ctor
ies"
), w
hich
con
stitu
te th
e co
re o
f th
e ex
plan
andu
mof
suc
h a
theo
ry.9
How
ever
, whi
lst t
hese
"tr
ajec
tori
es"
do c
erta
inly
ref
lect
an
exte
rnal
ly c
onst
itute
d st
ruct
ure
of le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
and
soci
ally
diff
eren
tiate
d ac
cess
to th
emas
our
ear
lier
disc
ussi
on s
ugge
sts
-it
is
nece
ssar
y to
ela
bora
te a
mor
e nu
ance
d ac
coun
t of
thei
r de
term
inan
ts. M
ore
spec
ific
ally
, we
need
to e
xplo
re m
ore
fully
the
way
s in
whi
ch "
traj
ecto
ries
"ar
e de
mbe
dded
f in
soc
ial r
elat
ions
mor
e w
idel
y; a
nd to
take
pro
per
acco
unt o
fth
e in
tera
ctio
n of
indi
vidu
al c
hoic
es a
nd c
onst
rain
ing
para
met
ers
in th
ede
term
inat
ion
of c
ours
es o
f ed
ucat
iona
l act
ion.
In lo
catin
g "t
raje
ctor
ies"
at t
he c
ore
of o
ur th
eore
tical
con
cern
s, a
ttent
ion
isne
cess
arily
foc
used
on
proc
esse
s of
soc
ial c
hang
e.M
ost i
mm
edia
tely
, of
cour
se, t
his
rela
tes
to th
e se
quen
ces
of e
duca
tiona
l exp
erie
nces
whi
ch o
ccur
thro
ugh
indi
vidu
al li
fe c
ours
es.
How
ever
, in
addi
tion,
cha
ract
eris
tic"t
raje
ctor
ies"
are
them
selv
es tr
ansf
orm
ed o
ver
time;
the
kind
s of
"tra
ject
orie
s" w
hich
are
typi
cal c
urre
ntly
are
sig
nifi
cant
ly d
iffe
rent
fro
mth
ose
of e
arlie
r (a
nd, i
ndee
d, b
y im
plic
atio
n, f
utur
e: s
ee b
elow
) ep
ochs
.In
othe
r w
ords
, the
re is
als
o a
proc
ess
of h
isto
rica
l or
inte
r-ge
nera
tiona
l cha
nge,
with
in w
hich
indi
vidu
al e
xper
ienc
e m
ay b
e lo
cate
d. A
ccor
ding
ly, i
t is
poss
ible
to m
ark
out h
isto
rica
l per
iods
in te
rms
of th
eir
patte
rn o
f ty
pica
l "tr
ajec
tori
es"
(as,
for
exa
mpl
e, A
ntik
aine
n et
al.,
199
6, p
. 14,
do
for
Finl
and)
.C
lear
ly,
tran
sfor
mat
ions
in th
e st
ruct
ure
of a
vaila
ble
oppo
rtun
ities
for
edu
catio
n an
dtr
aini
ng a
re k
ey in
flue
nces
her
e.C
hang
es in
sta
te e
duca
tion
polic
ies,
inem
ploy
ers"
str
ateg
ies
with
res
pect
to tr
aini
ng p
rovi
sion
or
in c
omm
unity
-ba
sed
prog
ram
mes
of
info
rmal
lear
ning
are
all
exam
ples
of
way
s in
whi
chch
arac
teri
stic
"tr
ajec
tori
es"
may
be
rest
ruct
ured
ove
r tim
e, th
roug
h ex
pand
ing
or c
ontr
actin
g th
e le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
whi
ch a
re a
vaila
ble.
Mor
eove
r, s
uch
chan
ges
also
impa
ct u
pon
the
role
pla
yed
by in
divi
dual
s' s
ocia
l bac
kgro
unds
in
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.14
I0
diff
eren
tiatin
g ac
cess
to s
uch
oppo
rtun
ities
.Fo
r ex
ampl
e, th
e po
st-w
arex
pans
ion
of s
econ
dary
and
hig
her
educ
atio
n in
Bri
tain
, alo
ng w
ith m
arke
dch
ange
s in
em
ploy
men
t str
uctu
res,
hav
e co
ntri
bute
d si
gnif
ican
tly to
cha
ngin
gw
omen
's e
duca
tiona
l pro
file
rel
ativ
e to
that
of
men
; wha
t it m
eans
to b
e a
wom
an in
this
con
text
is d
iffe
rent
now
fro
m w
hat i
t use
d to
be
(for
exa
mpl
e,R
ees,
199
2).
It is
impo
rtan
t to
note
, mor
eove
r, th
at th
ese
hist
oric
al o
r in
ter-
gene
ratio
nal
chan
ges
in c
hara
cter
istic
"tr
ajec
tori
es"
unde
rpin
mos
t str
ateg
ies
for
build
ing
aL
earn
ing
Soci
ety.
Wha
t the
latte
r in
volv
e is
gen
erat
ing
a se
t of
typi
cal
"tra
ject
orie
s" (
how
ever
def
ined
) in
the
futu
re w
hich
is s
igni
fica
ntly
dif
fere
ntfr
om th
e pr
esen
t one
. As
we
saw
ear
lier,
for
inst
ance
, off
icia
l str
ateg
ies
at th
em
omen
t are
pre
dom
inan
tly c
once
rned
with
shi
ftin
g th
e m
ix o
f "t
raje
ctor
ies"
tow
ards
a s
ituat
ion
whe
re a
muc
h hi
gher
pro
port
ion
of th
e po
pula
tion
enga
ge.
in th
e re
new
al o
f sk
ills
and
com
pete
nces
thro
ugho
ut th
eir
wor
king
live
s,ir
resp
ectiv
e of
thei
r lo
catio
n w
ithin
the
empl
oym
ent s
truc
ture
.In
put
ting
thin
gs in
thes
e te
rms,
how
ever
, the
par
tial n
atur
e of
con
cept
ualis
ing
the
Lea
rnin
g So
ciet
y si
mpl
y as
a d
esir
able
fut
ure
obje
ctiv
e is
exp
osed
. Vie
wed
inth
is w
ay, b
uild
ing
a L
earn
ing
Soci
ety
beco
mes
abs
trac
ted
from
wha
t are
inre
ality
long
-ter
m p
roce
sses
of
hist
oric
al c
hang
e th
roug
h w
hich
pat
tern
s of
lear
ning
("t
raje
ctor
ies"
) ha
ve b
een
tran
sfor
med
. By
focu
sing
exc
lusi
vely
on
ate
leol
ogy
of e
nds
whi
ch r
emai
n to
be
achi
eved
, a p
rope
r an
alys
is o
f th
ese
proc
esse
s of
cha
nge
may
be
avoi
ded;
inde
ed, t
his
is p
reci
sely
our
cla
im w
ithre
spec
t to
curr
ent s
trat
egie
s de
rive
d fr
om h
uman
cap
ital t
heor
y.M
oreo
ver,
this
fut
ure
orie
ntat
ion
also
per
mits
the
pres
enta
tion
of a
kin
d of
"W
hig
hist
ory"
of
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f lif
etim
e le
arni
ng, i
n w
hich
the
wea
knes
ses
and
shor
tcom
ings
of
the
pres
ent a
re c
once
ived
as
the
nece
ssar
y pr
econ
ditio
ns o
fth
e ac
hiev
emen
t of
a de
sire
d st
ate
of le
arni
ng in
the
futu
re. T
he p
ossi
bilit
yth
at e
lem
ents
of
past
pra
ctic
e w
ere
supe
rior
to th
e pr
esen
t or,
to p
ut it
ano
ther
way
, tha
t the
dev
elop
men
t of
part
icip
atio
n in
edu
catio
n an
d tr
aini
ng m
ay b
edi
stin
ctly
non
-lin
ear,
esp
ecia
lly f
or p
artic
ular
pop
ulat
ion
grou
ps, i
sdi
scou
nted
, thr
ough
a f
ailu
re to
eng
age
with
the
com
plex
ities
of
the
soci
alpr
oces
ses
invo
lved
.'0 A
s w
e ha
ve a
rgue
d el
sew
here
, for
exa
mpl
e, in
a r
egio
nlik
e So
uth
Wal
es, i
t may
be
that
the
colla
pse
of e
mpl
oym
ent i
n na
tiona
lised
indu
stri
es, s
uch
as c
oal,
stee
l and
rai
lway
s, w
here
initi
al a
nd c
ontin
uing
trai
ning
wer
e pr
ovid
ed f
or a
ll em
ploy
ees
and
wer
e in
tegr
al to
the
inte
rnal
labo
ur m
arke
ts le
adin
g to
sup
ervi
sory
and
man
ager
ial j
obs,
has
bro
ught
abo
uta
sign
ific
ant d
eter
iora
tion
in le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties,
at l
east
for
men
. And
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.15
equi
vale
nt a
rgum
ents
can
be
mad
e w
ith r
espe
ct to
the
dem
ise
of c
omm
unity
-ba
sed
lear
ning
thro
ugh
the
Min
ers'
Inst
itute
s. T
here
is a
rea
l sen
se, t
hen,
inw
hich
sub
stan
tial s
ectio
ns o
f the
pop
ulat
ion
now
hav
e le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
whi
ch a
re s
igni
fican
tly w
orse
than
thei
r pa
rent
s (o
r, m
ore
corr
ectly
, the
irfa
ther
s) e
njoy
ed (
Gor
ard
et a
l., 1
996;
Ree
s, 1
997)
.
Thi
s em
phas
is o
n th
e ne
cess
ity o
f loc
atin
g th
e co
ncep
t of t
he L
earn
ing
Soc
iety
with
in a
n an
alys
is o
f the
com
plex
ities
of c
hang
e in
soc
ial p
atte
rns
ofpa
rtic
ipat
ion
in le
arni
ng n
eces
saril
y dr
aws
atte
ntio
n to
the
spec
ifici
ties
of p
lace
too.
Qui
te s
impl
y, a
s ou
r S
outh
Wal
es e
xam
ple
begi
ns to
sug
gest
,ch
arac
teris
tic "
traj
ecto
ries"
var
y fr
om o
ne lo
calit
y to
ano
ther
.It
is, o
f cou
rse,
wid
ely
reco
gnis
ed th
at th
ere
are
subs
tant
ial v
aria
tions
in p
atte
rns
of, f
orin
stan
ce, e
duca
tiona
l atta
inm
ent a
nd p
artic
ipat
ion
mor
e w
idel
y, b
etw
een
diffe
rent
reg
ions
of B
ritai
n an
d ev
en b
etw
een
mor
e lo
cal a
reas
(fo
r ex
ampl
e,R
ober
ts, D
ench
and
Ric
hard
son,
198
7; G
arne
r, M
ain
and
Raf
fe, 1
988)
.H
owev
er, t
he th
eoris
atio
n of
suc
h di
ffere
ntia
tion
is m
uch
less
dev
elop
ed. A
sw
e ha
ve n
oted
, ana
lytic
al c
once
rns
have
cha
ract
eris
tical
ly fo
cuse
d on
wha
t are
pres
ente
d as
nat
iona
l pat
tern
s an
d th
e lo
catio
n of
indi
vidu
als
with
in a
spa
tially
undi
ffere
ntia
ted
soci
al s
truc
ture
of c
lass
, gen
der
and
ethn
ic b
ackg
roun
ds (
but
see,
for
exam
ple,
Cof
field
, Bor
rill a
nd M
arsh
all,
1986
; and
Ash
ton,
Spi
lsbu
ryan
d M
agui
re, 1
990)
.11
Cer
tain
ly, t
here
hav
e be
en v
ery
few
(if
any)
atte
mpt
sto
rel
ate
hist
oric
al o
r in
ter-
gene
ratio
nal c
hang
es in
pat
tern
s of
edu
catio
nal
part
icip
atio
n ("
traj
ecto
ries"
) to
reg
iona
lly a
nd lo
cally
spe
cific
pro
cess
es o
fso
cial
and
eco
nom
ic d
evel
opm
ent.
How
ever
, in
the
term
s of
our
ear
lier
disc
ussi
on, p
reci
sely
bec
ause
char
acte
ristic
"tr
ajec
torie
s" a
re "
embe
dded
" in
wid
er s
ocia
l rel
atio
ns, t
hey
refle
ct th
e sp
atia
l and
tem
pora
l diff
eren
tiatio
n of
the
latte
r. M
ost o
bvio
usly
,th
e st
ruct
ure
of le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
and
the
impa
cts
of it
s tr
ansf
orm
atio
nar
e sh
arpl
y di
ffere
ntia
ted
betw
een
plac
es.
Hen
ce, f
or e
xam
ple,
alth
ough
chan
ges
in s
tate
pro
visi
on h
ave
been
inst
igat
ed la
rgel
y at
the
natio
nal l
evel
,th
eir
effe
cts
have
freq
uent
ly b
een
expe
rienc
ed m
ost a
cute
ly in
loca
l con
text
s.N
ot o
nly
have
man
y po
licy
chan
ges
been
impl
emen
ted
prim
arily
at t
he lo
cal
leve
l, bu
t als
o th
e in
tera
ctio
n of
nat
iona
l pol
icie
s w
ith lo
cal c
ondi
tions
has
prod
uced
hig
hly
varia
ble
loca
l im
pact
s.F
or in
stan
ce, t
he n
atio
nal p
olic
y of
expa
ndin
g le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
for
youn
ger
adul
ts th
roug
h, s
ay, Y
outh
Tra
inin
g, in
rea
lity
had
very
diff
eren
t effe
cts
acco
rdin
g to
the
loca
l con
text
of
seco
ndar
y an
d fu
rthe
r ed
ucat
ion
prov
isio
n, e
mpl
oyer
par
ticip
atio
n an
d so
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.16
12
fort
h; a
nd th
is is
ref
lect
ed in
wid
e di
ffere
nces
in ta
ke-u
p, c
ompl
etio
n, a
ndev
entu
al o
utco
mes
for
youn
g pe
ople
(fo
r ex
ampl
e, R
ees,
Will
iam
son
and
'sta
nce,
199
6).
Sim
ilarly
, eve
n ch
ange
s in
pro
visi
on in
wha
t has
bee
nco
ncei
ved
as a
nat
iona
l hig
her
educ
atio
n sy
stem
exe
rt d
istin
ctiv
e im
pact
s on
diffe
rent
loca
litie
s as
a r
esul
t of e
ssen
tially
loca
l cap
aciti
es to
res
pond
to n
ewop
port
uniti
es.
Mor
eove
r, th
e ef
fect
s of
cha
nges
in in
dust
rial s
truc
ture
and
asso
ciat
ed e
mpl
oym
ent o
ppor
tuni
ties,
whi
lst d
eriv
ing
from
wid
er n
atio
nal a
ndin
tern
atio
nal e
cono
mic
dev
elop
men
ts, a
re e
xper
ienc
ed in
loca
l lab
our
mar
kets
and
the
educ
atio
nal a
nd tr
aini
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
asso
ciat
ed w
ith th
em (
Ash
ton,
Spi
lsbu
ry a
nd M
agui
re, 1
990)
. For
inst
ance
, col
liery
clo
sure
s in
Sou
th W
ales
wer
e th
e re
sult
of s
hifts
in in
tern
atio
nal e
nerg
y m
arke
ts a
nd n
atio
nal s
tate
polic
ies,
but
thei
r im
pact
was
to r
emov
e fr
om p
artic
ular
loca
l are
as jo
bs a
ndth
e tr
aini
ng w
hich
wen
t with
them
(R
ees
and
Tho
mas
, 199
1).
Like
wis
e,de
cisi
ons
of m
ulti-
natio
nal c
ompa
nies
to lo
cate
adv
ance
d m
anuf
actu
ring
plan
tsin
reg
ions
like
Sou
th W
ales
hav
e in
trod
uced
who
lly n
ew o
ppor
tuni
ties
with
resp
ect t
o ed
ucat
ion
and
trai
ning
, who
se e
ffect
s ha
ve b
een
quite
loca
lised
(R
ees
and
Tho
mas
, 199
4).
Equ
ally
, whi
lst t
he p
roce
sses
of s
ocia
l diff
eren
tiatio
n of
acc
ess
to le
arni
ngop
port
uniti
es a
re p
erva
sive
, the
form
whi
ch th
ese
proc
esse
s ta
ke m
ay b
eaf
fect
ed b
y th
e lo
cal c
onte
xt (
a po
int w
hich
has
not
bee
n ad
equa
tely
rec
ogni
sed
in c
onve
ntio
nal s
tudi
es o
f edu
catio
nal p
artic
ipat
ion
and
atta
inm
ent)
.F
orex
ampl
e, th
e si
gnifi
canc
e of
som
eone
's g
ende
r to
thei
r ed
ucat
ion
and
trai
ning
is p
artly
det
erm
ined
by
the
stru
ctur
e of
loca
l em
ploy
men
t opp
ortu
nitie
s, a
s th
eco
llaps
e of
a m
ale-
dom
inat
ed e
mpl
oym
ent s
truc
ture
in S
outh
Wal
es h
asill
ustr
ated
(Is
tanc
e an
d R
ees,
199
4); a
lthou
gh th
is is
cle
arly
med
iate
d by
cla
ssba
ckgr
ound
and
the
cons
eque
nt e
xten
t of d
epen
denc
e on
loca
l opp
ortu
nitie
s(c
f. Lo
verin
g, 1
990)
.A
ccor
ding
ly, t
here
are
com
plex
inte
ract
ions
bet
wee
npe
ople
's lo
catio
ns w
ithin
the
soci
al s
truc
ture
, the
ir sp
atia
l loc
atio
ns, a
nd th
eir
acce
ss to
lear
ning
opp
ortu
nitie
s.In
sho
rt, t
hen,
the
stru
ctur
e of
lear
ning
oppo
rtun
ities
to w
hich
indi
vidu
als
have
acc
ess
is n
ot u
nifo
rm fr
om p
lace
topl
ace;
teas
ing
out t
he p
reci
se e
mpi
rical
sig
nific
ance
of t
his
spat
ial
diffe
rent
iatio
n is
a m
ajor
, alb
eit c
ompl
ex, p
art o
f the
req
uire
d an
alys
is o
fch
arac
teris
tic p
atte
rns
of "
traj
ecto
ries"
.A
nd th
is,
in tu
rn, r
aise
s th
epo
ssib
ility
that
str
ateg
ies
for
build
ing
a Le
arni
ng S
ocie
ty w
ill h
ave
to ta
keac
coun
t of w
hat m
ay b
e si
gnifi
cant
var
iatio
ns b
etw
een
loca
litie
s in
lear
ning
reso
urce
s (a
poi
nt to
whi
ch w
e re
turn
late
r).
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
ei a
l.17
13
Cha
ract
eris
tic "
traj
ecto
ries
" do
not
, how
ever
, sim
ply
refl
ect t
he c
onst
rain
ing
effe
cts
of s
truc
ture
s of
lear
ning
opp
ortu
nitie
s, e
ven
whe
re th
e la
tter
are
prop
erly
con
ceiv
ed a
s "e
mbe
dded
" in
his
tori
cally
and
spa
tially
dif
fere
ntia
ted
soci
al r
elat
ions
. The
indi
vidu
al e
duca
tiona
l exp
erie
nces
of
whi
ch th
ey a
reco
mpr
ised
are
sim
ulta
neou
sly
the
prod
ucts
of
pers
onal
cho
ices
bet
wee
nal
tern
ativ
e ac
tions
.12
Thi
s is
see
n m
ost c
lear
ly w
here
an
indi
vidu
al o
pts
topu
rsue
a c
ours
e of
act
ion
whi
ch d
evia
tes
from
an
esta
blis
hed
"tra
ject
ory"
;w
hat A
hlei
t (19
94)
refe
rs to
as
the
"bio
grap
hica
l dis
cont
inui
ties"
whi
ch r
esul
tw
hen,
say
, a r
edun
dant
min
er o
r a
mot
her
who
se c
hild
ren
have
left
hom
ech
oose
s to
ent
er a
uni
vers
ity a
cces
s pr
ogra
mm
e.H
owev
er, e
ven
whe
rein
divi
dual
s' b
ehav
iour
is c
onsi
sten
t with
typi
cal p
atte
rns
of le
arni
ng("
traj
ecto
ries
"), i
t is
alw
ays
poss
ible
for
them
to d
o so
met
hing
els
e; th
eir
actio
ns th
us r
emai
n th
e pr
oduc
t of
choi
ces
and
need
to b
e un
ders
tood
as
such
.T
o re
itera
te a
poi
nt m
ade
earl
ier,
ther
efor
e, th
e an
alyt
ical
puz
zle
is to
unr
avel
the
inte
ract
ion
of in
divi
dual
cho
ices
and
con
stra
inin
g so
cial
par
amet
ers.
Thi
sis
, of
cour
se, a
fam
iliar
and
per
enni
al p
robl
em in
soc
ial a
naly
sis;
and
, in
wha
tfo
llow
s, w
e do
not
cla
im a
ny d
efin
itive
con
trib
utio
n to
res
olvi
ng it
.13
Rat
her,
our
conc
ern
is to
mak
e an
ess
entia
lly p
ragm
atic
con
trib
utio
n to
exp
lori
ng th
esa
lienc
e of
thes
e is
sues
to a
n un
ders
tand
ing
of p
atte
rns
of le
arni
ng th
roug
h th
elif
e-co
urse
(cf
., H
odki
nson
, Spa
rkes
and
Hod
kins
on, 1
996,
Cha
pter
9).
At t
he m
ost b
asic
leve
l, th
en, t
he c
hoic
es w
hich
indi
vidu
als
exer
cise
ove
r th
eir
part
icip
atio
n in
edu
catio
n an
d tr
aini
ng r
efle
ct th
e ki
nds
of k
now
ledg
e w
hich
they
pos
sess
of
the
lear
ning
opp
ortu
nitie
s av
aila
ble.
Mor
e in
tere
stin
gly,
how
ever
, the
ir a
ctio
ns a
re c
hose
n in
res
pect
of
pref
eren
ces
whi
ch a
re d
efin
edw
ithin
wha
t we
refe
rred
to e
arlie
r as
soc
ially
con
stitu
ted
ratio
nalit
ies;
that
isto
say
, ind
ivid
ual c
hoic
es a
re m
ade
over
cou
rses
of
actio
n to
be
follo
wed
, but
not i
n ra
ndom
way
s.In
the
part
icul
ar c
onte
xt o
f ed
ucat
iona
l exp
erie
nce
thro
ugh
the
life-
cour
se, w
e su
gges
t tha
t a k
ey c
once
pt in
und
erst
andi
ng th
ela
tter
is th
at o
f "l
earn
er id
entit
y".1
4A
s W
eil (
1986
) pu
ts it
, "le
arni
ngid
entit
ies"
ref
er to
:
"...t
he w
ays
in w
hich
adu
lts c
ome
to u
nder
stan
d th
e co
nditi
ons
unde
rw
hich
they
exp
erie
nce
lear
ning
as
faci
litat
ing'
or
'inhi
bitin
g', '
cons
truc
tive'
or 'd
estr
uctiv
e'.
Lea
rner
iden
tity
sugg
ests
the
emer
genc
e or
aff
irm
atio
n of
valu
es a
nd b
elie
fs a
bout
'lea
rnin
g', '
scho
olin
g' a
nd 'k
now
ledg
e'.
The
cons
truc
t inc
orpo
rate
s pe
rson
al, s
ocia
l, so
ciol
ogic
al, e
xper
ient
ial a
ndin
telle
ctua
l dim
ensi
ons
of le
arni
ng, a
s in
tegr
ated
ove
r tim
e."
(p.2
23)
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
Ree
s et
al.
1814
"Lea
rnin
g id
entit
y" th
us e
ncap
sula
tes
how
indi
vidu
als
com
e to
vie
w th
epr
oces
s of
lear
ning
and
, acc
ordi
ngly
, pro
vide
s th
e fr
amew
ork
thro
ugh
whi
chal
tern
ativ
e co
urse
s of
edu
catio
nal a
ctio
n ar
e ev
alua
ted.
Mor
eove
r, a
s W
eil
(198
6) in
dica
tes,
an
indi
vidu
al's
"le
arni
ng id
entit
y" is
ess
entia
lly p
erso
nal,
with
em
otio
nal a
s w
ell a
s in
telle
ctua
l dim
ensi
ons
(cf.
Sen
nett
and
Cob
b, 1
972)
.A
nd y
et, h
owev
er p
erso
nal "
lear
ning
iden
titie
s" m
ay b
e, th
ey r
emai
n th
epr
oduc
ts o
f in
divi
dual
s" s
ocia
l exp
erie
nce.
And
her
e to
o, w
e w
ish
toem
phas
ise
the
way
s in
whi
ch th
e la
tter
is p
erva
ded
by h
isto
ry a
nd p
lace
.
Mos
t obv
ious
ly, t
hen,
com
puls
ory
scho
olin
g is
a p
ower
ful s
ourc
e of
"le
arne
rid
entit
y".
Qui
te s
impl
y, th
ose
who
hav
e ha
d a
succ
essf
ul e
xper
ienc
e of
lear
ning
at s
choo
l are
mor
e lik
ely
to h
ave
deve
lope
d a
posi
tive
"lea
rnin
gid
entit
y" a
nd th
eref
ore
be r
eadi
er to
eng
age
with
lear
ning
opp
ortu
nitie
s in
late
r lif
e.B
ut "
lear
ning
iden
tity"
is n
ot s
impl
y a
mat
ter
of s
ucce
ss o
r fa
ilure
at s
choo
l; it
is a
lso
the
prod
uct o
f m
ore
com
plex
pro
cess
es. F
or e
xam
ple,
the
form
s of
cur
ricu
lum
, ped
agog
y an
d as
sess
men
t ass
ocia
ted
with
, say
, the
196
0sgr
amm
ar s
choo
ls, s
erve
d to
con
stru
ct th
e le
arne
r in
qui
te d
iffe
rent
way
s fr
omth
ose
mad
e av
aila
ble
with
in th
e se
cond
ary
mod
erns
of
the
sam
e pe
riod
or
the
prog
ress
ive
com
preh
ensi
ve o
f th
e 19
70s.
The
"le
arni
ng id
entit
ies"
that
educ
atio
nal i
nstit
utio
ns a
spir
e to
eng
ende
r in
thei
r st
uden
ts th
eref
ore
vary
bot
hbe
twee
n di
ffer
ent t
ypes
of
inst
itutio
n an
d hi
stor
ical
ly a
s w
ell.
The
se f
acto
rsth
us u
nder
lie th
e w
ays
in w
hich
the
stru
ctur
e of
lear
ning
opp
ortu
nitie
s (w
hich
,as
we
have
see
n, h
as it
self
bee
n ch
angi
ng)
has
been
eva
luat
ed d
iffe
rent
ly b
ysu
cces
sive
gen
erat
ions
. To
use
a sp
ecif
ic e
xam
ple
from
our
cur
rent
res
earc
h,it
may
wel
l be
that
the
trai
ning
opp
ortu
nitie
s w
hich
bec
ame
avai
labl
e af
ter
coal
nat
iona
lisat
ion
in 1
947
wer
e re
gard
ed v
ery
diff
eren
tly b
y th
e fi
rst
gene
ratio
ns o
f m
iner
s to
exp
erie
nce
them
, who
se s
choo
ling
was
over
whe
lmin
gly
conf
ined
to e
lem
enta
ry le
vels
, com
pare
d w
ith th
ose
who
ente
red
the
indu
stry
sub
sequ
ently
, fol
low
ing
wha
t by
then
was
uni
vers
alse
cond
ary
educ
atio
n.In
deed
, as
we
have
arg
ued
else
whe
re, f
or th
e ea
rlie
rge
nera
tions
, the
wor
k-pl
ace
trai
ning
whi
ch th
ey r
ecei
ved,
far
fro
m b
eing
unde
rsto
od in
nar
row
ly v
ocat
iona
l ter
ms,
may
wel
l hav
e co
nstit
uted
the
mos
tsi
gnif
ican
t ele
men
t of
thei
r ed
ucat
iona
l exp
erie
nce
as a
who
le (
a po
int w
hich
com
plic
ates
cur
rent
ly f
ashi
onab
le a
rgum
ents
abo
ut th
e vo
catio
nal "
rele
vanc
e"of
sch
ool-
base
d ed
ucat
ion)
(R
ees,
199
7).
19S
ocia
l the
ory
of le
arni
ng -
Ree
s et
al.
15
It is
als
o cl
ear,
how
ever
, tha
t "le
arni
ng id
entit
ies"
are
not
sim
ply
the
prod
uct
of f
orm
al e
duca
tion;
they
als
o em
erge
in r
elat
ion
to m
ore
info
rmal
lear
ning
oppo
rtun
ities
, with
rat
her
diff
eren
t im
plic
atio
ns f
or th
e ev
alua
tion
ofal
tern
ativ
e co
urse
s of
act
ion.
Tra
ditio
nally
, the
fie
lds
of s
port
and
mus
ic h
ave
prov
ided
a m
inor
ity o
f yo
ung
peop
le w
ith th
e op
port
unity
to d
evel
op a
diff
eren
t con
cept
ion
of th
eir
own
abili
ties
from
that
gai
ned
thro
ugh
form
aled
ucat
ion
(Fur
long
, 199
1). F
or o
lder
lear
ners
, exp
erie
nce
with
in p
oliti
cal a
ndco
mm
unity
org
anis
atio
ns c
an h
ave
a si
mila
r ef
fect
(W
eil,
1986
).In
deed
,ag
ain
as w
e ha
ve a
rgue
d el
sew
here
, in
part
icul
ar p
lace
s an
d ep
ochs
, thi
s la
tter
kind
of
activ
ity h
as b
een
muc
h m
ore
sign
ific
ant i
n sh
apin
g "l
earn
er id
entit
ies"
than
the
form
al e
duca
tion
syst
em.
For
exam
ple,
his
tori
cally
in in
dust
rial
Sout
h W
ales
, the
re is
evi
denc
e of
con
flic
t bet
wee
n ra
ther
wel
l art
icul
ated
ideo
logi
cal s
yste
ms,
with
in w
hich
indi
vidu
al "
lear
ner
iden
titie
s" w
ere
deve
lope
d, w
hose
ori
gins
wer
e ve
ry m
uch
in c
omm
unity
-bas
ed a
ctiv
ity.
Hen
ce, i
t is
sugg
este
d th
at N
on-c
onfo
rmis
m g
ave
rise
to a
con
cept
ion
ofed
ucat
ion
as in
divi
dual
cul
tura
l acc
ompl
ishm
ent,
whi
ch c
ontr
aste
d sh
arpl
yw
ith th
e co
llect
ivis
m a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith w
hat L
ewis
(19
93)
term
s "w
orke
rs"
educ
atio
n" th
roug
h th
e W
orke
rs"
Edu
catio
nal A
ssoc
iatio
n, th
e N
atio
nal
Lab
our
Col
lege
and
so
on.
It r
emai
ns to
be
seen
, how
ever
, the
ext
ent t
o w
hich
the
actu
al le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
whi
ch th
ese
ideo
logi
cal s
yste
ms
supp
orte
dw
ere
appr
opri
ated
by
indi
vidu
als
for
thei
r ow
n pa
rtic
ular
pro
ject
s; a
s, f
orin
stan
ce, w
here
min
ers
used
wor
kers
' edu
catio
n as
a r
oute
to in
divi
dual
occu
patio
nal m
obili
ty, r
athe
r th
an th
e co
llect
ive
adva
ncem
ent o
f th
e w
orki
ngcl
ass
(Ree
s, 1
997)
.
Wha
t the
se b
rief
exa
mpl
es b
egin
to il
lust
rate
, mor
eove
r, is
the
com
plex
ity o
fth
e so
cial
exp
erie
nce
with
in w
hich
"le
arne
r id
entit
ies"
are
roo
ted.
Cer
tain
ly,
such
exp
erie
nce
exte
nds
beyo
nd th
e fo
rmal
inst
itutio
ns o
f ed
ucat
ion
and,
inde
ed, c
omm
unity
-bas
ed le
arni
ng to
o. H
ence
, for
inst
ance
, the
wor
kpla
ce is
one
key
aren
a w
ithin
whi
ch th
e "l
earn
ing
iden
titie
s" f
orge
d th
roug
h th
efo
rmal
edu
catio
n sy
stem
may
be
rene
gotia
ted
(or,
alte
rnat
ivel
y, r
einf
orce
d).
As
the
expe
rien
ce o
f th
e co
al in
dust
ry s
ugge
sts,
wha
t is
invo
lved
her
eca
nex
tend
bey
ond
the
spec
ific
ally
voc
atio
nal;
as w
e ha
ve s
ugge
sted
, nat
iona
lisat
ion
may
hav
e co
ntri
bute
d as
sig
nifi
cant
ly to
shi
ftin
g ch
arac
teri
stic
edu
catio
nal
expe
rien
ces
in p
lace
s lik
e So
uth
Wal
es a
s di
d th
e ch
ange
s in
edu
catio
n po
licy
whi
ch c
ompr
ised
par
t of
the
sam
e po
st-w
ar s
ettle
men
t (R
ees,
199
7).
Sim
ilarl
y, th
e de
velo
pmen
t in
rece
nt y
ears
of
a si
gnif
ican
t adv
ance
dm
anuf
actu
ring
sec
tor
in th
e re
gion
, bas
ed to
a g
reat
ext
ent o
n fo
reig
n di
rect
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.16
inve
stm
ent,
may
in d
ue c
ours
e co
ntri
bute
tow
ards
an
equi
vale
nt r
edef
initi
on o
fed
ucat
iona
l exp
erie
nce
and
asso
ciat
ed "
lear
ner
iden
titie
s".
Mor
eove
r, th
ese
chan
ges
may
hav
e pa
rtic
ular
impa
cts
on s
peci
fic
soci
al g
roup
s: m
ost
obvi
ousl
y, w
omen
.15
The
se la
tter
argu
men
ts a
lso
pose
in a
n ac
ute
way
the
issu
e of
cha
nges
in"l
earn
er id
entit
ies"
ove
r tim
e. H
ence
, for
exa
mpl
e, "
educ
atio
nal a
nd tr
aini
ngcu
lture
s", e
mbo
dyin
g di
stin
ctiv
e di
spos
ition
s am
ongs
t pee
rs to
war
ds e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
,. m
ay d
evel
op to
ref
lect
not
onl
y cu
rren
t soc
io-e
cono
mic
circ
umst
ance
s in
a g
iven
are
a, b
ut a
lso
the
resi
due
of th
e pa
st (
cf. R
ees
and
Ree
s, 1
980)
. For
inst
ance
, will
ingn
ess
to u
nder
take
job-
rela
ted
trai
ning
may
refl
ect b
oth
the
trad
ition
s of
suc
h pr
ovis
ion
in a
loca
lity,
as
wel
l as
the
requ
irem
ents
of
curr
ent e
mpl
oym
ent p
atte
rns.
Mor
eove
r, f
amily
life
is a
key
vehi
cle
thro
ugh
whi
ch s
uch
inte
r-ge
nera
tiona
l tra
nsm
issi
on o
ccur
s.So
me
youn
g pe
ople
hav
e gr
own
up in
fam
ilies
whe
re c
ontin
uing
edu
catio
n an
dtr
aini
ng is
par
t of
the
rout
ine
cycl
e of
em
ploy
men
t lif
e fo
r fa
mily
mem
bers
; it
is a
nat
ural
ised
for
m o
f ex
peri
ence
.Fo
r ot
hers
curr
ently
the
maj
ority
the
oppo
site
is tr
ue.
In th
ese
circ
umst
ance
s, th
en, p
artic
ipat
ing
in le
arni
ng a
fter
com
puls
ory
scho
olin
g, w
hen
it do
es ta
ke p
lace
, dem
ands
a r
e-w
orki
ng o
fpe
rson
al h
isto
ry (
cf. H
odki
nson
, Spa
rkes
and
Hod
kins
on, 1
996)
.
Wha
t all
of th
is s
ugge
sts,
ther
efor
e, is
a m
uch
mor
e co
mpl
ex a
nd n
uanc
edso
cial
theo
ry o
f lif
etim
e le
arni
ng th
an th
at o
ffer
ed b
y th
e cu
rren
tly d
omin
ant
disc
ours
e of
hum
an c
apita
l the
ory.
As
shou
ld b
e cl
ear,
how
ever
, muc
h of
the
fore
goin
g re
mai
ns te
ntat
ive;
it p
rovi
des
the
basi
s fo
r a
syst
emat
ic p
rogr
amm
eof
em
piri
cal r
esea
rch,
rat
her
than
a f
ully
fin
ishe
d an
alys
is.1
6 N
ever
thel
ess,
even
at t
his
stag
e, it
off
ers
som
e in
sigh
ts in
to th
e na
ture
of
the
Lea
rnin
gSo
ciet
y, w
hich
we
set o
ut b
rief
ly in
the
conc
ludi
ng s
ectio
n of
our
pap
er.
CO
NC
LU
DIN
G C
OM
ME
NT
S
At o
ne le
vel,
our
disc
ussi
on s
ugge
sts
no m
ore
than
the
need
to tr
ansc
end
conc
eptio
ns o
f th
e L
earn
ing
Soci
ety
whi
ch a
re r
oote
d in
eco
nom
istic
mod
els
of m
arke
t beh
avio
ur.
Alth
ough
, as
we
have
arg
ued,
suc
h co
ncep
tions
curr
ently
dom
inat
e of
fici
al d
isco
urse
, thi
s co
nclu
sion
may
, nev
erth
eles
s, b
ere
gard
ed a
s un
exce
ptio
nal.
How
ever
, wha
t is
sign
ific
ant i
s th
at it
is r
oote
d in
an a
naly
sis
of th
e so
cial
rel
atio
ns o
f lif
etim
e le
arni
ng, r
athe
r th
an s
impl
y
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.2
117
expr
essi
ng a
n al
tern
ativ
e se
t of
norm
ativ
e pr
efer
ence
s.H
ence
, cho
ices
with
resp
ect t
o pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
may
be
ratio
nal,
with
out
conf
orm
ing
to th
e pr
efer
ence
s pr
esum
ed in
hum
anca
pita
l the
ory.
Itis
reco
gniti
on o
f th
is s
impl
e po
int t
hat,
at le
ast i
npa
rt, e
xpla
ins
wel
l doc
umen
ted
relu
ctan
ce to
take
up
oppo
rtun
ities
(as
, for
inst
ance
, in
the
case
of
You
thT
rain
ing)
. Mor
e ge
nera
lly, t
here
isno
rea
son
to e
xpec
t a s
impl
e co
nsen
sus
over
the
impl
icat
ions
of
educ
atio
n an
d tr
aini
ngpr
ogra
mm
es: o
ppor
tuni
ties
prov
ided
by
the
stat
e or
by
empl
oyer
sm
ay w
ell n
ot b
e co
nstr
ued
as s
uch
bypo
tent
ial t
rain
ees
or e
mpl
oyee
s, f
or e
xam
ple.
And
this
poi
nt, m
oreo
ver,
als
opr
oble
mat
ises
sim
plis
tic d
istin
ctio
ns b
etw
een
educ
atio
n an
d vo
catio
nal
prep
arat
ion;
as
we
have
see
n,ev
en w
orkp
lace
trai
ning
may
be
cons
truc
ted
assi
gnif
ican
t edu
catio
nal e
xper
ienc
es, g
iven
par
ticul
ar"l
earn
er id
entit
ies"
.
It is
als
o im
port
ant t
o no
te th
atou
r st
ress
on
the
com
plex
ity o
f th
e so
cial
rela
tions
of
lifet
ime
lear
ning
ism
ore
than
som
e po
st-m
oder
n ce
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par
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whi
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mbr
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d di
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as im
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Mos
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o be
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rate
gies
nee
d to
take
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the
actu
al p
roce
sses
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chan
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rtun
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Cam
brid
ge: C
UP.
26S
ocia
l the
ory
of le
arni
ng -
Ree
s et
al.
22
NO
TE
S
1.Fo
r an
ela
bora
tion
of th
ese
com
men
ts, s
ee F
evre
(19
97).
2.It
is a
per
vasi
ve f
eatu
re o
f th
e de
bate
s ar
ound
the
conc
ept o
f th
eL
earn
ing
Soci
ety
that
it is
vie
wed
as
a st
ate
to b
e ac
hiev
ed w
holly
in th
efu
ture
. Thi
s is
true
not
onl
y of
the
offi
cial
acc
ount
s sk
etch
ed h
ere,
but
als
o of
wha
t wou
ld b
e vi
ewed
as
radi
cal a
ltern
ativ
es (
for
exam
ple,
Ran
son,
199
2).
Thi
s is
a p
oint
to w
hich
we
retu
rn la
ter.
3.Fo
r a
usef
ul c
ritic
al r
evie
w o
f re
cent
con
trib
utio
ns to
this
area
, see
Ingh
am, 1
996.
4.Fe
vre
(199
7) e
xplo
res
som
e po
ssib
le a
ltern
ativ
es to
"ec
onom
ic"
ratio
nalit
y in
the
cont
ext o
f pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
in d
iffe
rent
natio
nal s
ocie
ties.
5.Se
e R
ees,
Will
iam
son
and
lsta
nce
(199
6) f
or a
n at
tem
pt to
app
ly th
ese
idea
s to
the
deci
sion
s of
sch
ool-
leav
ers
to r
ejec
t You
th T
rain
ing.
6.In
his
ext
rem
ely
inst
ruct
ive
disc
ussi
on o
f th
ese
and
rela
ted
issu
es, i
tse
ems
to u
s th
at G
ambe
tta (
1987
, esp
ecia
lly p
p.10
-11)
sig
nifi
cant
lyun
dere
stim
ates
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f th
ese
"str
uctu
ral c
onst
rain
ts".
Cer
tain
ly, w
ew
ish
to a
rgue
that
they
sho
uld
cons
titut
e a
maj
or, i
ndep
ende
nt d
imen
sion
ofth
e an
alys
is, r
athe
r th
an a
bsor
bing
them
into
the
disc
ussi
on o
f ho
w p
refe
renc
esar
e sh
aped
.7.
Ingh
am (
1996
, p.5
54)
cite
s D
uese
nber
ry's
wel
l-kn
own
obse
rvat
ion
that
"...e
cono
mic
s is
abo
ut h
ow p
eopl
e m
ake
choi
ces
and
soci
olog
y is
abo
ut h
owpe
ople
don
't re
ally
hav
e an
y....
"8.
Des
pite
the
cent
ralit
y of
this
not
ion
to a
gre
at d
eal o
f re
sear
ch in
the
soci
olog
y of
edu
catio
n, r
elat
ivel
y lit
tle c
ritic
al a
ttent
ion
seem
s to
hav
e be
enpa
id to
it.
One
rec
ent e
xcep
tion
to th
is g
ener
alis
atio
n is
Hod
kins
on, S
park
esan
d H
odki
nson
(19
96),
esp
ecia
lly C
hapt
er 9
. As
will
be
seen
, the
ir a
naly
sis
over
laps
in s
igni
fica
nt r
espe
cts
with
our
ow
n.9.
For
a pr
elim
inar
y ac
coun
t of
such
"tr
ajec
tori
es"
deri
ved
from
our
fiel
dwor
k, s
ee G
orar
d (1
996)
.10
.T
his
tend
ency
is m
ost c
lear
ly e
xem
plif
ied
in o
ffic
ial d
isco
urse
; see
, for
exam
ple,
Dep
artm
ent f
or E
duca
tion
and
Em
ploy
men
t (19
95).
11.
Thi
s is
in m
arke
d co
ntra
st to
wha
t has
bee
n ha
ppen
ing
in s
ocia
l ana
lysi
sm
ore
wid
ely
(for
exa
mpl
e, M
asse
y, 1
995,
esp
ecia
lly C
hapt
ers
1 an
d 8)
.12
.A
s H
odki
nson
, Spa
rkes
and
Hod
kins
on (
1996
) ag
ain
rem
ind
us, t
his
emph
asis
on
indi
vidu
al a
uton
omy
lead
s St
raus
s (1
962)
to r
ejec
t bot
h th
em
etap
hors
whi
ch h
e id
entif
ies
as u
nder
pinn
ing
the
notio
n of
"tr
ajec
tory
".H
e
Soc
ial t
heor
y of
lear
ning
- R
ees
et a
l.
2723
says
: "...
neith
er m
etap
hor
capt
ures
the
open
-end
ed, t
enta
tive,
exp
lora
tory
,hy
poth
etic
al, p
robl
emat
ical
, dev
ious
, cha
ngea
ble,
and
onl
ypa
rtly
uni
fied
char
acte
r of
hum
an c
ours
es o
f ac
tion.
" (p
.65)
Our
own
appr
oach
ret
ains
am
uch
grea
ter
sens
e of
the
pred
icta
bilit
y of
peo
ple'
s ac
tions
.13
.T
he in
tens
e de
bate
aro
und
the
wor
k of
Bou
rdie
upe
rhap
s pr
ovid
es th
ebe
st k
now
n ex
plor
atio
n of
thes
e th
emes
in e
duca
tiona
lan
alys
is. A
s Je
nkin
s(1
988)
sug
gest
s in
one
of
his
cont
ribu
tions
to th
is d
ebat
e, th
ere
may
sim
ply
beno
sat
isfa
ctor
y re
solu
tion
of th
e pr
oble
m, b
eyon
d pe
rson
al p
refe
renc
e.14
.Fo
r an
ela
bora
tion
of s
ome
the
argu
men
ts w
hich
fol
low
,se
e Fu
rlon
g(1
996)
.15
.It
has
to b
e ad
mitt
ed, h
owev
er, t
hat t
here
is li
ttle
empi
rica
l evi
denc
e of
such
a s
hift
as
yet (
Ree
s, 1
996)
.16
.Se
e G
orar
d et
al.(
1996
), G
orar
d (1
997)
and
Gor
ard
et a
l. (1
997)
for
an
elab
orat
ion
of th
e em
piri
cal r
esea
rch
on w
hich
we
are
curr
ently
eng
aged
.
28S
ocia
l the
ory
of le
arni
ng -
Ree
s et
al.
2429
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