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AUTHOR Eflin, JamesTITLE Industry in Concert with the Environment: Technological

Change and Industrial Ecology. Hands-On! Developing ActiveLearning Modules on the Human Dimensions of Global Change.

INSTITUTION Association of American Geographers, Washington, DC.SPONS AGENCY National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA.ISBN ISBN-0-89291-243-XPUB DATE 1997-00-00NOTE 151p.; Module developed for the AAG/CCG2 Project "Developing

Active Learning Modules on the Human Dimensions of GlobalChange." For related items, see SO 031 087, SO 031 089-094,and SO 031 096.

CONTRACT DUE-9354651AVAILABLE FROM Association of American Geographers, 1710 Sixteenth Street

NW, Washington, DC' 20009-3198. Tel: 202-234-1450; Fax:202-234-2744; Web site: http://www.aag.org/.

PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Teacher (052)EDRS PRICE MF01/PC07 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Active Learning; *Ecology; Environmental Education; Global

Approach; Higher Education; Human Geography; *Industry;*Technological Advancement; Thematic Approach; ThinkingSkills; Undergraduate Study

IDENTIFIERS *Global Change

ABSTRACTThis learning module aims to engage students in problem

solving, critical thinking, scientific inquiry, and cooperative learning. Themodule is appropriate for use in any introductory or intermediateundergraduate course that focuses on human-environment relationships. Themodule stresses the key principals, concepts, and problems in the emergingfield of industrial ecology. It focuses on three broad themes: the linkagesamong technological change, industrial change, and global environmentalchange; the utility of a systems approach to analyzing industrial activity;and the opportunities and constraints involved in making industries moreclosely resemble ecosystems in their productive and consumptive processes.Activities in the module are designed to address these themes through morespecific scenarios, such as product life cycle analyses and the examinationof local businesses. The module contains 6 figures, a guide, a summary, anoverview, a glossary, references for all units, supporting materials, andsuggested readings. It is divided into thematically coherent units, each ofwhich consists of background information, teaching suggestions, studentworksheets, and the answers expected for each activity. (BT)

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Industry in Concertwith the Environment:

Technological Change andIndustrial Ecology

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.Minor changes have been made toimprove reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy.

An Active Learning Moduleon the

Human Dimensions of Global Change

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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ofr,NDSDEVELOPING ACTIVELEARNING MODULES ON THEHUMAN DIMENSIONS OF GLOBAL CHANGE.

Industry in Concert with theEnvironment: Technological Change

and Industrial Ecology

Module developed for the AAG/CCG2 Project`Developing Active Learning Modules on the Human Dimensions of Global Change"

by

James EflinDepartment of Natural Resources and Environmental Management

Ball State UniversityMuncie, IN 47306

e-mail [email protected]

Significant revisions contributed by CCG2 Summer 1996 workshop participants Sarah Bednarz(Texas A&M University), Michael Coles (Clark University), Susan Cutter, (University of SouthCarolina), Lisa Graumlich (University of Arizona), Paul Laris (Clark University), Tom Lewis(Manchester Community Technical College), Susi Moser (Clark University), Shannon O'Lear(Syracuse University), Bimal Paul (Kansas State University), and Frances Slater (University ofLondon), and by Jeremy Holman (Clark University), Project Staff

Developing Active Learning Modules on the Human Dimensions of Global Change"Industry in Concert with the Environment: Technological Change and Industrial Ecology"

ISBN 0-89291-243-X

© 1997 by the Association of American Geographers1710 Sixteenth Street NWWashington, DC 20009-3198Phone: (202) 234-1450Fax: (202) 234-2744Internet: [email protected]

All materials included in this module may be copied and distributed to students currently enrolledin any course in which this module is being used.

Project director, Susan Hanson, Clark University, acknowledges the support of the NationalScience Foundation (NSF) to the Association of American Geographers (AAG) (Grant No. DUE-9354651) for the development of these teaching materials. Administrative support is providedthrough the AAG's Second Commission on College Geography (CCG2) and the AAG'sEducational Affairs Director, Osa Brand, and her staff General project support is provided byClark University, Worcester, Massachusetts which also hosted a workshop to develop themodules further. The hard work of the conference participants evident in these materials is greatlyappreciated. Kay Hartnett, Clark University, gave most generous and proficient graphic designadvice. Module authors, co-authors, and other contributors are solely responsible for theopinions, findings, and conclusions stated in this module which do not necessarily reflect theviews of the NSF or AAG.

This module is printed on recycled paper. Please recycle what you don't use.

4

Editor's Note

A major goal of this project 'Developing Active Learning Modules on the Human Dimensionsof Global Change," is to disseminate instructional materials that actively engage students inproblem solving, challenge them to think critically, invite students to participate in the process ifscientific inquiry, and involve them in cooperative learning. The materials are appropriate for usein any introductory and intermediate undergraduate course that focuses on human-environmentrelationships.

We have designed this module so that instructors can adapt it to a wide range of studentabilities and institutional settings. Because the module includes more student activities and moresuggested readings than most instructors will have time to cover in their courses, instructors willneed to select those readings and activities best suited to the local teaching conditions.

Many people in addition to the principle author have contributed to the development of thismodule. In addition to the project staff at Clark University, the participants in the 1996 summerworkshop helped to make these materials accessible to students and faculty in a variety ofsettings. Their important contributions are recognized on the title page. This module is the resultof a truly collaborative process, one that we hope will enable the widespread use of thesematerials in diverse undergraduate classrooms. We have already incorporated the feedback wehave received from the instructors and students who have used this module, and we intend tocontinue revising and updating the materials.

I invite you to become part of this collaborative venture by sending your comments, reactions,and suggested revisions to us at Clark. To communicate with other instructors using hands-onmodules, we invite you to join the Hands-on listserve we have established. We look forward tohearing from you and hope that you will enjoy using this module.

Susan HansonProject Director

School of GeographyClark University950 Main St.Worcester, MA 01610-1477ccg2@vax. clark-u. edu

Table of Contents

PageEditor's Note i

List of Figures v

A Guide to This Module iv

Summary 1

Module Overview 3

1

2

How Does Industry Alter the Global Environment? Understandingthe Problem Background Information 5

Setting the Stage 5

The Trends and Consequences of Technological Change 6

Technological Change and the Human Dimensions of Global Change 8

Industrial Ecology and Global Change 9

Instructor's Guide to Activities 12

Student Worksheets 18

Answers to Activities 19

A Conceptual Framework: Industrial Ecology as a SystemBackground Information 21

Entropy Isn't What it Used to Be 21

The Concept of a System 23

Industrial Systems 25The Elements of Industrial Ecology 27


Student Worksheets 41

Answers to Activities 46

U'

,, 6

3Opportunities and Constraints For Industrial EcologyBackground Information 49

The Barriers to Industrial Ecology 49Product Life Cycle Assessments 51

Moving Toward Industrial Ecology On an Uneven Playing Field: TheNorth/South Cleavage 54


Student Worksheets 67Answers to Activities 71

Glossary 73

References to All Units 75

Supporting Materials 83

Appendix: Suggested Readings 107

iv

List of Figures

Page

Figure 1: A Simple System Model 24

Figure 2: Open and Closed Systems of Materials Flow 25

Figure 3: (a) Linear material flows in "Type I" ecology (b) Quasi-cyclic materialsflows in "Type II" ecology (c) Cyclic materials flows in "Type DT' ecology 29

Figure 4: The Type DI Model of the Industrial Ecosystem 30

Figure 5: The Total Industrial Ecology Cycle 53

Figure 6: A Motor Vehicle Life Cycle 54

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Summary: Industry in Concert With the Environment:Technological Change and Industrial Ecology

AbstractThis module stresses the key principles,concepts, and problems in the newlyemerging field of industrial ecology. Thefocus is on three broad themes: the linkagesamong technological change, industrialchange, and global environmental change;the utility of a systems approach to analyzingindustrial activity; and the opportunities andconstraints involved in making industriesmore closely resemble ecosystems in theirproductive and consumptive processes. Theactivities are designed to address thesethemes through more specific scenarios, suchas product life cycle analyses and theexamination of local businesses.

Module ObjectivesThe module has four major objectives:

to demonstrate the linkages betweenindustrial processes and theenvironmental and human aspects ofglobal change at a variety of scales.to involve students in using a systemsapproach to understand industrialprocesses and draw analogies toecological processes.to enable students to makegeneralizations about technologicalinnovations and change.to demonstrate the opportunities,constraints, and values involved in theindustrial ecology approach to buildingindustrial systems in tune with theenvironment.

Skillsdata gathering (field work), presentation,analysis, and interpretationinterviewing

map reading and interpretationcritical reading and writingrole playingcreative writinglibrary/Intemet researchdebatingoral presentationteam collaborationissue analysis and position formation

ActivitiesActivities are designed for individuals, smallgroups, and/or the entire class:

group discussionsmap/collage presentationquantitative data gathering andinterpretationfilm review and interpretationdebatefield work (local industry and thehome)critical reading and writing

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheets (provided)Suggested readings (some provided)World mapColored markers or thumb-tacksAccess to World Wide Web (optional,but very helpful)Film Koyaanisqatsi (optional)

Human Dimensions of Global ChangeConcepts

technological changesystems, feedbacks, inputs, and outputsthermodynamics, entropyType I, II, and DI ecologiesindustrial ecologyindustrial metabolism

driving forcesimpacts

Geography Conceptsscale (local-global)core-periphery relationshipsnature-society relations

Time Requirements2-3 weeks (ie., 2 sessions per unit)

2

DifficultyIntermediate to challenging. Students learnto apply system, ecology, andthermodynamics terminology to industrialsystems at the local (firm) to global (North-South) scales through critical readings, fieldresearch, and discussions.

Module Overview

The word industry often conjures up images of dirty gray buildings with smokestacks that soilthe air and drainpipes that pollute rivers. This module takes a much broader view of industry,proposing that industrial systems are analogous to ecosystems: both consist of producers andconsumers interacting with one another in the input, output, and internalexchange of material andenergy. In industry, however, rapid technological advance has increased the speed at whichsociety converts raw material into products and accompanying waste.

This module seeks to provide students with an understanding of the key principles, concepts,and problems in the emerging field of industrial ecology. We ask students to decide forthemselves whether industry can become "greener": can it be made to replicate ecological systemsin the way ecosystems reuse all the organic material they produce?

The module explores three broad themes:

the linkages among technological change, industrialization, and global change;the utility of a systems approach to analyzing industrial activity; andthe opportunities and constraints involved in making industries more closely resembleecosystems in their productive and consumptive processes.

Unit 1 examines how technological change has enabled industry to transform nature in evermore powerful ways. As industrial production has been empowered with increasinglysophisticated technology, society's ability to effect global change has increased dramatically. Theactivities seek to develop the student's sense of connection to the global industrial complex andan appreciation of industry's ability to affect its local and global environments.

In Unit 2, students use a systems approach to analyze industrial processes; students are askedto pay particular attention to material and energy "inputs," their internal processing, and their"outputs" of products and waste. The activities engage students in systems analysis by havingthem critique their own homes, their local industrial sites, and popular case studies of their ownchoosing.

The third unit examines the problems and possibilities involved in industrial ecology study andpractice. In the activities, students grapple with the socioeconomic, technical, informational, andother constraints to making society's industrial activities sustainable. Students also identifyinstances where elements of industrial ecology are being practiced or where the potential exists todo so.

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How Does Industry Alterthe Global Environment?Understanding the ProblemBackground Information

Setting the Stage

In the popular 1984 movie The Gods Must be Crazy,' American audiences were introduced toa concept we now might call the human dimensions of global change; at that time, perhaps wewere less reflective on the global implications and simply watched the film for its humor. But in .

fact, this film illustrates the concept of technological change as a driving force,2 broadlyconceived, for environmental change.

Set in the Kalahari Desert, The Gods Must be Crazy opens with a band of Bushmen goingabout their everyday lives in their traditional encampment. One day, from high above, a Coca-Cola bottle is tossed out of the cabin window of a plane by its careless bush-pilot. The bottle fallsout of the sky and into the lives of the Bushmen The Bushmen become greatly disturbed,thinking that the bottle fell from their "gods" in the sky. Turmoil ensues among the band; theyhave never encountered an object like this before. Lacking previous experience of glass bottles,the Bushmen can only muse about the object's significance. What does it represent? How did itcome to be in their world? Is it good or is it evil? Does it have an inner power? What did thegods intend by giving it to the Bushmen? Were they being careless? Everything has a purpose,but is it possible that their gods were actually being wasteful?

Inevitably, squabbles break out among the clan over what to do with the bottle and whoshould hold it. After several disruptions to their way of life, the bottle's presence ultimately forcesthe Bushmen to reconsider their basic beliefs about power and equality in their society and toquestion their cosmological beliefs. Another society's waste quickly becomes an agent ofpermanent change in the Bushmen's way of living. At first, the Bushmen reject the new object;they try throwing it back to the gods in the sky. After this proves futile, the camp leader acceptsthe responsibility to carry it to the "end of earth," and to throw it out of their lives forever. In this

The Gods Must be Crazy was first released as a motion picture in 1984 as a C.A.T. Film, written, produced,directed, filmed, and edited by Jamie Uys. It was re-released in VHS format in 1990 by CBS/Fox Video. Length:109 minutes.

2 Words in bold face appear in the Glossary.

way, they feel that they can banish the evil that accompanied the bottle; once the bottle is gone,they believe their life will return to normal.

We can see in the Coke bottle an image of industrialized society which, as depicted in themovie, exists on the margins of the Bushmen's realm. The bottle demonstrates the contradictionsin modem society and that society's inability to recognize its influence on the rest of the world.

The bottle, of course, is a metaphor for technology; its introduction to the Bushmen's life is a

metaphor for technological change.

In this module we look at technology and technological change in terms ofhow they affectsocieties and the natural environment. Technology and its changes are, of course, createdbyhumans and affect them and the environment. This mutual relationship is important to understand

as a driving force of global societal and environmental changes and as a means of mitigating someof the impacts of these changes. The module concentrates on the crucial roles of technology,industry, and technological change in the context of global environmental change. It highlights theconceptual frameworks of industrial ecology, which serve as a guide for thinking about thelinkages between nature and society. Maybe it is safe to say that rather than the gods, "the peoplemust be crazy," if we don't think about these linkages.

The Trends and Consequences of Technological Change

Let's begin by examining technology and technological change over time. Our industrialsociety and the technology that helped create it did not fall out of the sky like the coke bottle.Technological changes evolve over long periods of time and have always had significantconsequences for humans and the environment. By technology, we refer to the means by whichpeople consciously modify the material nature of their world; technology mediates the interactionsbetween people and their environment. It is a resource like any other, except that unlikenaturalresources that exist whether humans recognize them or not, technology is intentionally created byhumans to structure the life-chances of people in society, to manipulate social and political power,and to alter the environment according to their wishes.

Over time, technological changes have lead to mechanization, industrialization, and manyassociated social changes. Lewis Mumford (1934) divided modern history into a series of threetechnological complexes, representing the rise of civilizations and economies based on mechanicaltechnologies. The first phase was characterized by the use of technical skills to harness water andwind power and by the use of wooden implements. The second phase coincided with what wenow call the Industrial Revolution and relied heavily on coal and iron resources. The third andcurrent phase is characterized by an increasing reliance on electricity and metal alloys.

According to Headrick (1990), the most important technological achievements in modemtimes have had at least two major objectives. First, each innovation has been designed to solve aparticular problem, e.g., irrigating a piece of land where water is scarce or immunizing people to

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social commentators worry that such technologies will create a cadre of "socially maladjusted"people who feel more comfortable with personal computers than interacting with each other face

to face. For some, this represents a shift from a modem to a postmodern society (Caste lls 1989;Harvey 1989; Cloke et al 1991; Soja 1989).

Technological changes also affect our relationship to the environment. Technology is the tool

by which we preserve, conserve, and exploit natural resources (Evemden 1992; Jenseth and Lotto1996; Cutter 1994). Increasingly sophisticated and powerful technology enables us to control orcondition more and more aspects of the environment; it also allows us to protect and distanceourselves from nature. Ultimately, the ways that we use technology for such purposes and its role

as a driving force for environmental change are very much influenced by our individual andcollective views of the environment.3

Technological Change and the Human Dimensions of Global Change

The first known air pollution disaster in the US occurred in 1948 in Donora, Pennsylvania

when fog, laden with sulfur dioxide vapor and suspended particles, stagnated in the MonongahelaValley for five days. Thousands of people became ill and about twenty died (Miller 1990). Thekiller fog resulted from a combination of conditions including the mountainous terrainsurrounding the valley, a stable weather pattern, and a spatial concentration ofindustries thatemitted deadly pollutants. To prevent future disasters of this kind, many industrialfacilities began

to construct taller smokestacks to force harmful emissions out of the local environment. Whilethis technological mitigation resolved a local pollution problem, it created another. Bythe 1970s,emissions from industries like coal-burning power plants were producing acid rain (deposition)that damaged forests, lakes, and buildings thousands of miles away from the source. Today, 75

percent of the acid rain that falls in Canada originates from emissions in the US. This exampleillustrates not only how one technological solution can produce another problem, but also how theenvironmental impacts of the technologies of the modem era have become regional orglobalrather than local in scale.

3 These world views (or paradigms) help explain how people relate to the biotic and abiotic worlds. Some scholars(e.&, O'Riordan 1989) place them on a continuum with the ends of the scale representing two extremes: at oneendof the scale are "ecocentric" views, which hold that humans are part of the biotic and abiotic worlds and thus haveno primacy over other species or elements that are part of planetary systems. This world view is most often held byradical environmentalists and deep ecologists. At the other end of the continuum is the "technocentric"world view,

which holds that humans hold primacy over other organisms and that nature simply provides opportunities(through its abundance of natural resources) for societies to use it and thus may manipulate elements in the bioticand abiotic world to improve human welfare and society at all cost. The ecocentric view suggests preservation ofresources over everything else, while the technocentric views tends toward exploitation of the environment.

Most people fall somewhere between these two positions. They hold a pragmatic view that combines someelements of ecocentric and technocentric views. Many of the environmental managers of today hold such amixedworld view, and believe that resources can be utilized in a sustained way to meet larger societal goals. This is the

view inherent in the concept of industrial ecology adopted in this module.

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Technological changes can have global impacts in two distinctly different ways. Some types ofglobal changes are systemic in nature. Systemic change occurs when activities in one placedirectly affect a globally functioning system (Turner et al 1990a). For example, industrialemissions of greenhouse gases like CO2, methane, or chlorofluorocarbons directly alter thechemical composition of the earth's atmosphere and may lead to changes in the global climate Asecond type of global change is cumulative. Cumulative change results from local activities thatare widely replicated in many places and together produce a change in the global environment(Turner et al 1990a). For example, many industrial processes affect local water sources. As theseindustries are replicated globally, they can have a cumulative impact on the hydrosphere and/orbiosphere.

Global environmental change results from the cumulative and systemic effects of countlessindividual and collective actions at the local level Local changes are often (but not always)immediately obvious -- they can be smelled, seen, or felt. The factors causing these changes arereasonably well understood and the means to improve local environmental conditions and toprevent further environmental degradation are relatively well known. But when there are noperceptible local effects, many individuals assume that they will have no global consequences. Asthe above discussion of systemic and cumulative global changes indicates, however, a time lag andgeographic distance between cause and effect are rather common in an age of large technologies.

Such transboundary and globally pervasive environmental problems create new challenges forpolicy makers and governments because they require international cooperation and negotiation.For example, at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 167 nations signed the FrameworkConvention on Climate Change intended to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the risk ofglobal warming Further, global environmental issues also involve a variety of complex issuessuch as equity and fairness, responsibility, and trust. Waste disposal (which has become a regionalor global problem as regulations, rising costs, and public opposition have forced industries andgovernment officials to search for more distant places to dispose of wastes) is just one example ofan issue involving these complexities. In some areas in the US, poorer communities often agreeto accept wastes for disposal in their community (along with the associated health andenvironmental risks) because of the increased revenues it will produce. Likewise, the poorercountries of the world have become not only suppliers of raw materials to the rest of the worldbut also the recipients of wastes produced in wealthier countries.

Industrial Ecology and Global Change

So where does focusing on the negative consequences of technological change leave us?Should we try to throw the "coke bottle" back to the Gods and reject technology as the Bushmendid? Or are we irrevocably committed to a world view that accepts technology despite theproblems it has created? Is the only solution to our problems more technology? If so, how do wealter our linear perspective" of technological development (which sees all new technology aspromising progress) and begin to take a more complex, holistic, and global perspective? Theanswers to these questions depend in part on the world view that each of us holds.

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?

Global changes are the ultimate consequence of a short-term perspective that focuses onsolving local and immediate problems without consideration of the global and long-termconsequences. In addition, the predominant paradigm in society is that technology can overcomeenvironmental problems and continue to improve the lives of human beings as long as we takemeasures to mediate technology's harmful effects. Some people argue that every technology willhave its unexpected consequences. But "technological fixes" or "tailpipe" solutions toenvironmental problems are at best temporary expedients and often they create as many newproblems as they solve (e.g., Lynn 1989).

Throughout history, human productive activity has occurred in what can be called an opensystem. People have taken natural materials, transformed them into products for use, anddiscarded worn-out products and left-over materials. This practice often forced early societies tochange locations as the build-up of wastes and the depletion of locally available resourcesrendered existing settlements uninhabitable or production processes unprofitable. This was fairlyreasonable behavior as long as uncontaminated places were easy to find. Today, however, thesituation is entirely different. It is no longer possible to avoid the wastes that we create; theirdisposal is a burden and, as we've seen, can contribute to global changes.

The current global situation suggests that our open industrial system cannot be sustainedindefinitely. We consume too many natural resources to produce the things we want or need whilegenerating too many by-products (toxic substances, emissions, solid waste etc.) that harm us andthe environment. These changes threaten to upset the global environmental conditions we haveadapted to and come to depend on, and they have the potential to threaten the survival of manyspecies on earth (including humans). For these reasons, we need to reconceptualize and redesignthe ways that industrial systems operate to place more control over the flow of materials. It ishere that industrial ecology can contribute.

The basic definition of the term "industrial ecology" connotes an industrial system thatoperates much like a natural ecosystem

In natural ecosystems, materials and energy circulate continuously in a complexweb of interactions: Microorganisms turn animal wastes into food for plants: theplants, in turn, are either eaten by animals or enter the cycle through death anddecay. While ecosystems produce some actual wastes (by-products that are notrecycled, such as fossil fuels), on the whole they are self-contained and self-sustaining. In a similar fashion, industrial ecology involves focusing less on theimpacts of each industrial activity and more on the overall impact of all suchactivities (Frosch 1995b:19).

Robert Frosch's notion of industrial ecology offers a useful metaphor for reconceptualizingindustrial systems while addressing issues of global change. Exactly how our current openindustrial systems will be transformed into closed industrial ecology systems remains, however, anunanswered question; it also remains to be accomplished.

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In next unit, we will examine industrial ecology in more detail and will develop the systemsapproach that forms the basis of the concept. In Unit 3, we will examine the opportunities andconstraints to industrial ecology and explore some of the analytical tools it provides for analysis.

1How Does Industry Alterthe Global Environment?Understanding the ProblemInstructor's Guide to Activities

GoalThe activities in Unit 1 (1) heighten the student's sense of place and sense of connection to bothlocal and global industrial activity, (2) emphasize how industrial activity brings about local andglobal environmental and social change, and (3) encourage students to interpret the changes thattechnological advancement has produced throughout the world.

Learning OutcomesAfter completing the activities associated with this unit, students should:

understand how local industries can have regional and global environmental impacts;recognize their connections to global industry by virtue of the everyday products they use;develop a sense of place within the global community; andrecognize the ways that technology has transformed the life chances of society and socialculture.

Choice of ActivitiesIt is neither necessary nor feasible in most cases to complete all activities in each unit. Selectthose that are most appropriate for your classroom setting and that cover a range of activity types,skills, genres of reading materials, writing assignments, and other activity outcomes. This unitcontains the following activities:

1.1 They Don't All Have Smokestacks1.2 Shirts, Shoes, and Watches1.3 Between Utopia and Dystopia

-- In-class discussion-- Mapping exercise-- Film review and interpretation

Suggested ReadingsThe following readings accompany the activities for this unit. Choose those readings mostappropriate for the activities you select and those most adequate for the skill level of yourstudents.

Background Information to Unit 1 (all students should read)Stem, Paul C., Oran R. Young, and Daniel Druckman 1992. Human causes of global change.In C. Stem, 0. Young, and D. Druckman, eds. Global environmental change. Washington,D.C.: National Academy Press, pp. 44-69.

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Lynn, Walter R. 1989. Engineering our way out of endless environmental crises. InTechnology and Environment. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, pp. 182-191.Ausubel, Jesse II, et al 1989. Technology and environment: An overview. In Technologyand Environment. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, pp. 1-20.

Activity 1.1 They Don't All Have Smokestacks

GoalsThis activity facilitates discussion on the linkages among technology, industry, and global change.Students consider industry in a broad sense in a brainstorming session, identify the important localindustries in the community, and discuss how the local industry might have links to global change.

Skillsidentifying linkages between local and global scalesbrainstorming

Material RequirementsFlip chart, notepad, or overhead projector to record information for use in a later activity(optional)

Time Requirements25 minutes

TasksThis is a starter activity intended to get students thinking about how industry in general isconnected to global change and, more specifically, how the businesses in your town or communityare linked to global change. Begin the activity by asking students the following questions:

1. What sorts of resources and what sorts of wastes are associated with the following industries?tourism agriculture military /defensefilm/entertainment construction (e.g., homes) fast food chains

2. Can you name some industries with strong global impacts that have the followingcharacteristics:

High carbon or other trace gas emissions;Large imports of resources from outside the region. (Be sure to note the impacts ofextraction. Are there any limitations to sustainable extraction of resources? What arethe implications for land degradation or biodiversity?); andLarge exports of waste, hazards or other impacts?

After you have considered these questions briefly, ask the class to select a local industry,preferably one that is important to the community and/or to the families of the students in the

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classroom. Important industries may the largest regional employer, a growth industry, a highlyvisible industry because of a recent event, or an industry with a good reputation. Ask students tobrainstorm for a few minutes about the potential impacts that the local industry has on theenvironment. Encourage them also to think about the industry's activities in a global context.

Does the local industry affect the global environment? Where do the various resources used inthe industry come from? Where do the wastes go?

Note: You may want to record the information from the brainstorming session on an overheadtransparency, a chalkboard, or flip chart for use in Activity 2.2.

Activity 1.2 Shirts, Shoes, and Watches

GoalsStudents examine local-to-global relationships by locating on a map where various items they ownhave been produced. This map can be further developed by adding the social and environmentalconditions associated with industries in various places (see Activity 2.5).

Skills1 map reading

group collaboration

Material Requirementsa world map (a copy for an overhead transparency is provided in Supporting Material 1.2)colored thumb-tacks or markers

Time Requirements20-25 minutes

TasksPlace a world map at the front of the classroom. (Use the map in Supporting Material 1.2 tocreate an overhead transparency or enlarge it to create a poster-sized map.) Ask students toexamine the label on the shirt of the student sitting next to them as well as the label on their ownshoes and watches to determine where the items were made. Ask each student (in a large class,select a few students) to use a color marker or thumbtack to indicate the origin of each item, onthe map. Use a different color for each product (ie., red for watches, blue for shoes, green forshirts). Since many countries will be marked more than once with the same color, the class shouldbe able to see a distribution of the origin of each item. Discuss the patterns visible on the map andask students to consider the relationship between their present location and the place where theitems were produced. Use the following questions to guide the brief discussion:

1101. What major regions of the world are not represented?

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2. Why are watches made in the Philippines or shoes in southeast Asia?3. What are the environmental, economic, and/or social consequences of global markets?4. Are you accountable for the environmental impacts resulting from the production of items in

other countries?

Alternative versionInstead of focusing on shirts, shoes, and watches, ask students to determine where the food theyeat in one day comes from Students will need to keep track of everything they eat during oneday and investigate where the products originate. Remind students that many packaged foods listonly the site of distribution on their labels -- not where the products were actually made. You canask students to prepare their own maps to bring to class (provide Supporting Material 1.2 as ahand-out) or use 15 minutes or more in class to map the locations as suggested above.

Activity 1.3 Between Utopia and Dystopia

GoalsStudents evaluate and respond to a film that graphically portrays the environmental and socialimpacts of the modern, global, industrial culture.

Skillsqualitative data interpretation

.( film interpretation

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheet 1.3 (provided)The film Koyaanisqatsi. Although this film is now out of print, copies can still be obtainedfrom university media collections or at local video rental stores. The complete citation isKoyaanisqatsi: Life Out of Balance, an IRE presentation produced and directed by GodfreyReggio (Carmel, CA: Pacific Arts Video Records), 1983; 87 minutes.

Time Requirements2 class periods (100 minutes); 87 minutes for the film and additional time (10-15 minutes) fordiscussion

TasksA thought-provoking conclusion to this unit is to watch the popular underground film,Koyaanisqatsi by Godfrey Reggio. Depicting a view of modem American society from theperspective of Native American ideals, the film explores the largesse and imbalances oftechnologically driven lifestyles to reveal the chaos and disorder that come from the mechanicalworld view. Viewers will find the film to be intense with penetrating minimalist music by Philip

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Glass; only one word is uttered throughout the entire film -- a chanting of the film's title"koyaanisqatsi."

Beginning and ending with a slow motion observation of a rocket launch, Koyaanisqatsi takesviewers on a ride across the sacred landscape of the Hopi people in the American Southwest. Thestarkness and serenity of an untouched land is then shattered with image after image of industrialand urban settings. People are reduced to the scale of ants, their buildings to piles of rubble.Flows of people, cars, and products quicken and quicken with the tempo of the music reaching acrescendo when, like the line by Marx, "all that is solid melts into air."' From utopia to dystopia,the film provides a prophetic image a possible future.

At the film's conclusion, we are presented with five definitions of the Hopi word koyaanisqatsi,including:

crazy lifelife in turmoillife out of balancelife disintegratinga way of life that calls for another way of living.

The message of Koyaanisqatsi is clear: if we continue to let technology overwhelm human-environment interactions, global change will occur in a manner that is detrimental to all livingthings The sacredness of the land will be destroyed; settlements will outsize human scale; and ourlives will take place at a dizzying pace. It is clearly a crazy life that calls for another way of living.Take at least two class periods (50 minutes each) to show the film to the class. Instructstudents to pay particular attention to film's main themes and to contemplate how othergroups of people unlike themselves might respond to the film's message.

After the film is over, use the remaining time to ask the class the following questions:1. What is the meaning of the Hopi word "koyaanisqatsi"? (Five definitions are provided near

the end of the film ) Which definition do you think has the most power or meaning interms of this film9 Why?

2. What is the film's primary message? Do you agree or disagree with it? Why?

4 Attributed to Karl Marx, from the Communist Manifesto; quoted in Berman (1982: 21).16

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3. Briefly speculate on responses to the preceding questions that might be given by personsfrom several cultures or social groups. Examples of these groups include the following:5

Libertarian party BuddhistsGreenpeace Republicans or DemocratsChristians United Auto Workers

4. Discuss the environmental images portrayed in the film in terms of three or more of thefollowing concepts:

embodied energy entropy (see Unit 2) technological changeenvironmentalism modernity sustainable development

5 References to various cultures, social groups, ethical positions, ideologies, or world views may be selected forcomparison, depending on other aims and goals of the class. The author of this module has found it useful to askstudents to provide interpretations from the standpoints of various writers whose materials have been read by theclass; these include Abbey (1968), Evernden (1992), Leopold (1966), McHarg (1971), and D. Smith (1993).Sometimes it is interesting to ask the students to provide an interpretation from the standpoint of their instructor,as well! It is equally useful to ask students to provide interpretations from the standpoint of the four schools of"environmentalism" (as discussed by O'Riordan 1981, 1989).

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How Does Industry Alterthe Global Environment?Understanding the ProblemStudent Worksheet 1.3


You will watch a popular underground film, Koyaanisqatsi, which depicts a view of modernAmerican society from the vantage point of Native American ideals. The film explores thelargesse and imbalances of technologically driven lifestyles to reveal the chaos and disorder thatcome from the mechanical world view. The film is quite intense with penetrating, minimalistmusic by Philip Glass. Only one word is uttered throughout the entire film -- a chanting of thefilm's title "koyaanisqatsi."

Pay particular attention to the key themes about technology and industrialization thatpermeate the film_ Also, try to imagine how other groups of people unlike yourself might respondto those themes. After the film is over, you will discuss the film and several questions related tothe central message of Koyaanisqatsi. Use the space below to take notes while you watch.

How Does Industry Alterthe Global Environment?Understanding the ProblemAnswers to Activities

Activity 1.1 They Don't All Have Smokestacks

Because this activity is primarily an in-class discussion, there are no specific answers. See Noteson Active Pedagogy for suggestions on leading a small group discussion.

Activity 1.2 Shirts, Shoes, and Watches

The maps created in this activity will vary depending on the items that students own. In general,the maps will show a high concentration of products that originate outside the US in areas such assoutheast Asia. Use the map and the patterns that develop to explore the links amongconsumption, global markets, and global environmental change.


There are no specific answers to this activity. Use the film to encourage debate and a lively classdiscussion.

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Industrial Ecology as aSystem: A ConceptualFrameworkBackground Information

In Unit 1, we mentioned that the predominant world view of our society today holds thattechnology can overcome environmental problems and continue to improve the lives of humanbeings as long as we take measures to mediate technology's harmful effects. There are those,however, who are less optimistic about science and technology. In this unit, we will look atperspectives that are critical of this dominant paradigm, and how they can inform a different, moreenvironmentally sound approach to industrial production and consumption. One such approach isknown as industrial ecology and is rooted in studies of both thermodynamics and systems. Beforewe examine industrial ecology in more detail, let's begin by exploring relevant concepts fromthese two areas.

"Entropy Isn't What it Used to Be"

In 1980, Jeremy Rifkin, a critic of the dominant techno-managerial world view, published acontroversial book entitled Entropy that provided a compelling conception of the interplay amongworld views, technology, and global environmental change Rifkin used the second law ofthermodynamics as the basis for a critique of modem society and its material economy. In anutshell, the second law holds that energy is degraded through its use; it becomes less and lessuseful to do work. Entropy is a measure of the state of usefulness of energy. The lower theentropy of a system, the more work that energy can do.

An easy way to understand entropy is to think of a home that is heated by a gas furnace. Thegas in the pipe leading to the furnace has low entropy (high energy content). Once burned, theentropy of the gas increases as the energy from the gas is dispersed into the home in the form ofheat. Eventually the heat dissipates into the surrounding environment as it escapes through thedoors and windows. The more the heat dissipates, the greater the increase in entropy. Once theenergy has escaped the house and entered into the surroundings, it is no longer in a useful state. Inother words, the energy has dissipated and is no longer useful for the purpose it was intended.Thus "entropy is never what is used to be" -- it increases all the time.

6Graffiti inscribed on the ceiling of a room in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.

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In Rifkin's view, entropy plays a key role in explaining the environmental problems of today.By applying the second law of thermodynamics to energy and materials consumption in modemsociety, Rifkin argued that technology speeds up the use of both energy and materials. In his view,the modem industrial system is a transformer of materials and energy, increasing entropy andreducing the usefulness of materials and energy.

What concerns Rifkin and others is the sustainability of natural resource use. They seetechnology as a tool that has locked society into an non-sustainable future. A characteristic of themodem era is the use of technology and natural resources in a profligate way, one that continuesto transform the earth, speed up the use of nonrenewable energy, and accelerate material entropyin the process. Material waste and waste heat are inevitable outcomes of this process. Waste heatis produced in the process of fuel combustion and is a measure of the inefficiency of energytransformation. Solid waste, produced as by-products of material fabrication or mineralextractions, is a measure of the inefficiency of a material manufacturing system. Effluentdischarged from a factory or processing plant is a measure of the inefficiency of chemicaltransformations. Each case illustrates an industrial system that is operating within the greatercomplex of the global environmental system and that is generating a dissipative loss (ie.,irreversible loss through the simple dispersion of energy and materials). Such losses representtangible evidence of the inefficiency of production systems, as the wastes are no longer recycledor reused in the production processes. Once lost from the system through dissipative loss, thesewastes must be disposed of -- stored in a landfill or a containment pond or discharged into the air,

soil, or water (where they become diffused).

From this cursory look at the second law of thermodynamics, entropy, and dissipation we cansee one major requirement for an alternatively designed industry -- to limit every opportunitywithin the production and consumption processes for energy and materials to get lost. Thisrequirement produces several possible strategies:

to increase energy and material efficiency -- something that can actually be achieved throughtechnological innovation;to make the process of resource extraction, production, consumption, and wastedisposal/emission/pollution into a closed loop cycle; in other words reuse and recyclematerials wherever possible; andto reduce the need for new/fresh natural resources and the release of wasteful and potentiallyharmful by-products (both of which can be facilitated by the first two strategies). This isparticularly necessary for nonrenewable resources (those that are not replaced after usethrough natural regrowth) and waste repositories that are finite (either literally or in a practicaleconomic sense).

Another implication of Rifkin's work is that we should increase our reliance on renewableforms of resources. Coupled with reduced depletion of nonrenewables, this would be a way toreduce the consumption of energy and resources. It may not be possible to shift entirely from theuse of nonrenewable resources, but it makes sense to devise and implement strategies forminimizing the use of nonrenewable materials and energy sources.

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The Concept of a System

If technology is in fact, as Rifkin would have it, simply a transformer of energy and matter intowaste, then it is virtually inevitable that its use will lead to continued degradation of theenvironment. Increasingly, this journey toward degradation is global in scope, cumulative inimpact, and uncertain in effect. But while technology introduces negative forces of change in theworld, it also benefits society. It provides returns from the stock of natural resources that arenecessary (or desired) for maintaining the ways of life to which humans have become accustomed.A hallmark of the modem world view is that technologies make progress (at times synonymouswith economic growth) possible. Yet, if the ultimate outcome of "progress" is a degradedenvironment, we might ask (like the Bushmen did of their new-found Coke bottle) if technology isgood or evil More pragmatically, we might consider what role technology ought to play in aredesign of industrial systems such that we can live sustainably and within the limits of the naturalenvironment.

For centuries, humans have considered themselves somehow outside of nature, seemingly ableto live less and less by the laws of ecology and thermodynamics. The increasing scale oftechnologies and the growing human population on earth that use them make it paramount thatwe rethink human-nature relationships as integrated. What is commonly known as the systemsapproach is one useful framework to reconceive this mutual relationship.

A system can be defined as a group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elementsforming a complex entity. Each element has specific properties that enable the system to function.This entity cannot continue to exist unless it has a continual input of materials to maintain itself;the entity will also have a constant output of waste materials to dispose of An entity that hasinputs and outputs and interacts with the external environment is called an open system. An entitythat has minimal interaction with the external environment is called a closed system.

Let's look at some examples of systems. A biologist might view the human body and its innerworkings as a system. The body itself is the entity; it has a well-defined boundary, generallyperceived to be the surface of the skin. The body is composed of many interacting, interdependentelements (e.g., the heart, lungs, stomach). Each element has a specific function that enables it tohelp the system function: the heart pumps blood, the lungs transfer oxygen, and the stomachdigests food. In order for the body to survive, it needs inputs such as oxygen, water, food, andother nutrients. The body also produces outputs of waste materials such as heat, carbon dioxide,feces, and so on. The body must in fact interact with its external environment in order to exist.On a larger scale (and one more relevant to the subject of industrial ecology), we frequently usethe term ecosystem to refer to the relationships and interactions between living things (plants,animals) and their environment (earth, air, water).

To summarize, a system can be defined as an entity that has the following properties:elements -- a set of objects within the entity having specific attributes and functions within thesysteminternal relationships -- a set of relationships among the elements (ie., inside the entity)

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external relationships -- a set of relationships between the system and its environmentinvolving the exchange of inputs and outputs.

Figure 1 summarizes these relationships in a simple model, and Figure 2 illustrates thedifference between closed and open systems. Keep in mind that these figures are simplificationsof reality in which we define the elements and boundaries. For example, we could also define theelements of a human body not at the level of organs (the heart, lung, and stomach) but at the levelof the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems. Our model could also have omitted someelements (e.g., the human soul which some believe is as essential as a heart). We could have evenforgotten to consider an essential venue of output such as the release of energy from the humanbody from stress. In sum, it is not as easy as it may seem to identify all the components andrelationships of a system.

Figure 1: A Simple System Model

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Figure 2: Open and Closed Systems of Materials Flow

a: An open system of materials flow.

INPUTS OUTPUTS

Ml (New Materials)

Energy

(Recycled wastes)

M3 (Unusable wastes)

M2 (Products)

b: A closed system of materials flow.

INPUTS

Energy

M4 (Recycled products)

M1 (New Materials)--0

EnergyM,

ProductsM4 Process

waste

OUTPUTS


Energy

Source: Frosch, Robert. Environment 37 (10):20. 1995. Reprinted with permission of the HelenDwight Reed Educational Foundation. Published by Heldref Publications, 1319 18th St. NW,Washington, DC 20036-1802. ©1997.

Now let's take the system idea to a higher leveL Human society as a whole can be thought ofas a system standing in constant input/output relations with the natural environment. This societalsystem is made up of subsystems or related sets of elements that are functionally linked to eachother and to the external environment (again, the definition of system boundaries and elementsmakes all the difference). One type of a subsystem or subset of elements is an industrial system,which we will explore in more detail below.

Industrial Systems

Industrial society uses technology, both mechanical and industrial, to transform raw andmanufactured materials to create goods with utility for society. Traditional technologies werebased on handicrafts, manual labor, and extensive agriculture. The products of traditional sociallabors were constructed with tools made directly, or nearly directly, by human hands (e.g., knives,

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hoes, and plows). Industrial technologies, by contrast, include automated production, mechanicalprocesses, and mechanized agriculture. In these industries, most tools are produced by othertools, that are in turn produced and managed by other tools and so on through secondary andtertiary levels of economic activity.

It is not only the types of technologies that distinguish industrial from pre-industrial societies.Industrial systems are often equated with processes that developed under the larger framework ofmodernity (Berman 1988; Toulmin 1990), within a mechanical world view (Rifkin 1980), and inurban, centralized systems of modern western society (Dicken and Lloyd 1981). But the mostimportant indicators of industrial activity are the scale and intensity of the transformations.Agriculture that uses automated or mechanical processes, sophisticated information transfers, andintensive management practices to create high yields from the land is really industrial agriculture.Similarly, modem raw materials extraction is also characterized by intensive applications ofmechanical and automated technologies, as well as by increasingly sophisticated uses ofinformation, making it appropriate to refer to these practices as industrial mining, industrialforestry, or industrial fisheries. By extension, it may be appropriate to regard some tertiaryactivities as industrial services, since they are similarly involved in the intensive transformation ofmaterials.

Now that we understand what makes systems industrial, what is it that makes them systems?Based on the definition of a system from the last section, industrial systems:

are entities comprised of elements (plants or sites where goods are produced or wheresupporting functions occur),are linked together through internal relationships (transfers of goods and flows ofinformation), andinteract with the broader social and physical environments through external relationships.

Think of the extraction and processing of raw materials such as oil and metal ores (input), andthe emission of wastes (output) such as CFC's or landfill-bound trash. Individual industries canbe seen as only one element (related to other elements) in a much larger system. Much ofclassical economic geography and industrial location theory emphasized the internal relationshipsof industrial systems. These schools neglected to focus on the relations of industries with thebroader physical environment except to see it as a source of raw materials (inputs) or a sink forresiduals (outputs) in a standard input-output analysis.

When we consider the human dimensions of global change, i.e., which human activities driveand mitigate major global changes, our focus must shift from the exclusive concentration oninternal relationships to the external relationships between industrial systems and the naturalenvironment Thinking about technology as a transformer of the environment, as Jeremy Rifkindid, enables us to make choices that might reduce the effects of the inevitable entropy withinsystems. The pace or speed of material throughputs and energy flows within an industrial systemcan be thought of as the metabolism of industry. From this organic analogy, we can make anatural extension -- industrial systems are like natural ecosystems in that they are made up of setsof producers and consumers (elements) that interact with one another (internal relationships) and

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A Type I ecology is characterized by a linear flow of material throughputs and corresponds tothe earth's very early life forms that were largely unconstrained by resource limitations.Essentially, food comes in and wastes goes out, with a seemingly unlimited supply of both.Picture the massive world ocean providing H2O for the ancient microscopic protozoan andbacteria and the atmosphere serving as a sink for their CO2 waste. There was not much internalrecycling of waste occurring, but there didn't have to be. As Graedel puts it, "at that time, thepotentially usable resources were so large and the amount of life so small, that the existence of lifeforms had essentially no impact on available resources" (Graedel 1994: 24). This parallels whatwe could call "hyper-waste" in human systems in which a "frontier mentality" prevails. Thismentality, common during the westward expansion of the United States, lead to viewingresources as unlimited, production and consumption as goals, and prolifigate waste generation asa necessary (and unproblematic) consequence of human activity. From our privileged present-dayvantage point, the frontier mentality appears counter to the principle of sustainability. After theAmerican Civil War, however, this perspective more closely represented "manifest destiny" andwas used (in part) as a justification for resource exploitation (Petulla 1977).

A Type II ecology is characterized by quasi-cyclic flows of material throughputs that moreclosely resemble those of existing ecosystems. In this model, energy and limited material inputsare repeatedly cycled within the ecosystem by its members, with only limited amounts of wastesbeing generated as unusable by-products. In some cases, modem industrial systems havedeveloped such characteristics because dissipative losses of materials represent tangible monetarylosses. Within industrial systems, however, the degree of evolution toward a Type II ecologyvaries considerably by industry and place. In any event, the production of waste leads to entropywithin the system and ultimately means that such a practice is not sustainable.

Graedel presents a Type DI ecology as one that closely approximates natural ecosystems. Itis characterized by flows of materials that are continuously recycled among the members of theecological community or system. In its ideal state, the only exchanges with its externalenvironment are energy (primarily solar) as inputs to the natural ecosystem. Type DI ecologiescan be said to have achieved sustainable relationships with their surrounding environments. Figure3 below illustrates these three types of ecologies.

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Figure 3: (a) Linear material flows in "Type I" ecology. (b) Quasi-cyclic materialsflows in "Type II" ecology. (c) Cyclic materials flows in "Type Ill" ecology

(a)

(b)

(c)

energy andlimited

resources

energy

unlimitedresources

, .,_

ecosystem 'il"

unfirritede114% component ,L-

ecosystemcomponent

-.111

i1

\ ecosystem ecosystem ', component component ,1. ,

,

ecosystemcomponent

ecosystemcomponent

Iecosystem 'component

limitedwaste

Source: Graedel, T. 1994. In Socolow, Andrews, Berkhout, and Thomas, eds. Industrial ecology andglobal change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, p. 25. @1994 reproduced with thepermission of Cambridge University Press.

Graedel observes that the process of entropy has begun to appear within industrial systems in

the form of large-scale, cumulative global changes. "Accordingly," he suggests,

industrial systems (and other anthropogenic systems) are and will increasinglybe under selective pressure to evolve so as to move from linear (Type I) toEquasi]cyclic (Type II) or cyclic (Type DI) modes of operation. For the pastdecade or two, industrial organizations have largely been in the position ofresponding to legislation imposed as a consequence of real or perceivedenvironmental crises. Such a mode of operation is essentially unplanned,

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imposes significant economic costs, and may solve one problem only byexacerbating others. In contrast, industrial ecology is intended to facilitate theevolution of manufacturing . . . by explaining the interplay of processes andflows and by optimizing the ensemble of considerations that are involved. Acentral goal of industrial ecology, in combination with appropriate activities inother development sectors, is to achieve sustainable development (Graedel1994: 26).

Industrial ecology, in his view, is more than a description of linkages among elements within asystem. Rather, it is a prescription for the evolution of industrial systems to achieve an idealizedstate for long-term sustainability. Its ultimate goal is to transform industry and technology intosomething that is environmentally benign, industry that "closes the loop" between the system'soperations (its internal metabolism) and its external environment. Essentially, industrial ecologymeans evolving from a "take-and-dump" open system to a mostly closed system of flows. Figure4 illustrates the optimal industrial ecological system.

Figure 4: The Type Ill Model of the Industrial Ecosystem

limitedresources

r

materials materialsextractor -4-0- processor oror grower manufacturer .1

wasteprocessor consumer

limitedwaste

Source: Graedel, T. 1994. In Socolow, Andrews, Berkhout, and Thomas, eds. Industrial ecology andglobal change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, p. 27. ©1994 reproduced with thepermission of Cambridge University Press.

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[2.1

Industrial Ecology as aSystem: A ConceptualFrameworkInstructor's Guide to Activities

GoalStudents learn to examine local and regional industrial processes using analytical tools fromsystems theory and thermodynamics. Students also begin to understand the flexibility of theconcept of industrial ecology and explore their own definitions of it.


be able to use systems theory and the thermodynamic concept of entropy as analytical toolsfor examining local and regional industrial processes;recognize the difficulties involved in using systems theory when boundaries are not clearlydefined;have formulated their own definition of and goals for industrial ecology;be able to deconstruct claims about the ecological merit of products or industries according totheir own positions on the principles of industrial ecology; andbecome aware of the difficulties involved in implementing industrial ecology on a scale assmall as their own home.


2.1 Defining Industrial Ecology2.2 Critiquing Success Stories

2.3 Entropy of Your Home

2.4 Putting Local Industry in a Global Context

2.5 You Are What You Buy

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-- Critical reading and interpretationLibrary/Internet research and researchpaper

-- Daily log of personal habits, analysis ofpersonal waste, and short essay

-- Qualitative and quantitative research of afirm, analysis, and production of flowchart

-- Exploration ofproduct origins and impact,map making, and essay writing

2.6 It's Not Easy Being Green -- Critique of "green" advertising, creativewriting, creation of a collage


Background Information to Unit 2 (all students should read)Frosch, Robert A. 1995. Industrial ecology: Adapting technology for a sustainable world.Environment 37 (10): 16-24, 34-37.Richards, Deanna J., Braden R. Allenby, and Robert Frosch. 1994. The greening of industrialecosystems: Overview and perspectives. In B. Allenby and D. Richards, eds. The greening ofindustrial ecosystems. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, pp. 1-19.

Activity 2.1 Defining Industrial Ecology

GoalsBecause industrial ecology is a developing field, it is still defined in many ways. In this activity,students analyze existing interpretations of the concept and develop their own definitions of thecharacter and goals of industrial ecology.

Skillscritical reading and interpretation

Material RequirementsSupporting Material 2.1 (provided; make sufficient copies for class)

Time Requirements20-25 minutes of class time

Tasks.Before class, ask students to read the various definitions of industrial ecology from some principalauthors in the field (provided in Supporting Material 2.1; photocopy and distribute as needed). Inclass, ask students to come up with their own definitions. Begin by asking for key elements andconcepts of industrial ecology. Write these on the blackboard or on an overhead transparency.Use the students' definitions and the information below to lead a brief class discussion about theconcept of industrial ecology.

For Graedel (1995), industrial ecology is a technical matter for designers; he specifies sevenaspects of design that must be considered:

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choosing the right raw materials and avoiding (where possible) nonrenewable materialsand those in short supply;minimizing emissions to the air of CFCs, halons, CH4, N20, NOR, or volatile organiccompounds (VOC) by specifying more carefully the industrial processes used or by moreconsciously sequestering them prior to emission;minimizing liquid wastes or specifying those that are more easily recycled;minimizing solid wastes by working closely with suppliers, recyclers, and marketers;designing for energy efficiency through process design, reuse of energy used inmanufacturing, and minimizing energy consumed by products once they are in circulation;designing for recycling during manufacturing, including minimizing the throughputs ofpackaging waste from components entering the industrial site; andrecycling after use by returning used products to the manufacturer for reconditioning,disassembly, or other incorporation within the industrial cycle.

Frosch would agree -- in part -- that technical design considerations are necessary for industrialecology to succeed. He stresses, however, that "the answer will not depend entirely on inventingbreakthrough technologies. Rather, it may hinge on coordinating what are fairly conventionalmethods in more prudent ways and in developing legal and market structures that will allowsuitable innovation." While such practices "will involve complex considerations of product andprocess design," equally important will be innovations in ways of thinking about "economics andoptimization, as well as regulation and handling of hazardous materials" (Frosch, 1995a: 178).Socolow (1994) presents "six perspectives" on environmental management from within industrialecology that resonate with the terminology for human dimensions of global change. Theseperspectives are:

long-term temporal scale -- replacing the "short-term insult" of conventional industrialprocesses with those that provide for long-term habitability ofenvironments;8global scope -- expanding our view of the boundedness of systems, moving from a focuson local impacts to a conscious effort to "think globally" (which includes overcoming the"not in my back yard" or NIMBY sentiment);sensitivity of natural systems -- identifying components of natural ecosystems that areparticularly sensitive to fast-paced impacts of industrial activity;vulnerability -- identifying the sensitivity of human systems to the impacts of industrialactivity, including: emissions, incidence of disease, bioavailability, exposure, and dose, lossof ecosystem function, and resilience or resistance;mass-flow analysis -- unifying the analysis of materials through an integrative approachthat considers sources, transport media, and receptors, particularly those that areindestructible or persistent over a long term;

8 Socolow is speaking here of the persistence of toxic chemicals, long-term depletion and physicaldegradation that results from human habitation and use of environments, and human-induced events that lead toextinction of species or to biological simplification (Socolow 1994: 5-7).

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centrality of the industrial firm and the industrial farm -- seeing industry as a centraldecision maker in environmental affairs, demonstrating "that environmental objectives areno longer alien, to be resisted and then accommodated reluctantly [but] part of the fabricof production, like worker safety and consumer satisfaction" (Graedel, 1994: 12-13).

Represented in this way, we see industrial ecology firmly planted within a study of the humandimensions of global change. Implicit is a "goal" for industrial ecology:

"the evolution of the world's industrial activity into a sustainable and environmentallybenign system [that] requires a long-range view and a deep analysis of the environmentalimplications of today's industrial systems, and a creative approach to the design ofservices, products, and governmental policy" (Socolow, et al., 1994: frontispiece).

Activity 2.2 Critiquing Success Stories

GoalsStudents use their own principles of industrial ecology to investigate whether local industries liveup to them.

Skillshypothesis formulationlibrary/Internet researchwriting a research paper

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheet 2.2 (provided)Supporting Material 2.2a and 2.2b (provided)Video on McDonald's and EDF collaboration9 or similar video° (optional)

Time Requirements20 minutes in class for film; 4 to 5 weeks outside of class for research project.

9 Video is available from the National Pollution Prevention Center at the University of Michigan, 430 E.University, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1115. Phone: 313-764-1412, Fax: 313-936-2195, E-mail: [email protected] copy of the order form is provided in Supporting Materials 2.2b. Video running time is 18 minutes.

10 A six-part video series called The Road to Sustainable Development is available from The Gauntlett Group, Inc.:Industry Advisors for Sustainable Development, 5900 Hollis Street, Suite G, Emeryville, CA 94608. Tel: 510-658 -9013 or 1-800-247-7930; Fax: 510-658-3834. The video outlines an "Environmental Quality System" for"identifying and eliminating wasteful practices throughout operations; streamlining work processes to shortenproduct delivery cycles; and reducing environmental impact from every stage of production and distribution."

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TasksIntroduce this activity by showing the suggested video on the collaboration between McDonald'sand EDF to reduce solid waste. After the film, discuss with students whether McDonald's hasreally moved toward industrial ecology in any significant way.

In the remainder of the activity, students conduct extended research on the developments madewithin one of the four industries presented in the case studies in Supporting Material 2.2a. Allowstudents to select the industry of their choice, but try to ensure that students are spread evenlyamong the four cases. Encourage students to use a variety of research tools including the library,the Internet, interviews, phone calls, and other sources of information. Some sources ofinformation are provided in each case study.

In an eight to ten page research paper, students summarize their findings and provide an analysisof their chosen industry's steps toward industrial ecology (based on the principles they defined;see Activity 2.1).

Activity 2.3 The Entropy of Your Home

GoalsStudents develop an understanding of entropy by recording the flow of energy and materials

110 through their home over a one-week period. Students gain hands-on experience in gathering andprocessing quantitative and qualitative data and become aware of problems involved in reducingentropy on a personal level.

Skillsquantitative and qualitative data analysis, interpretation, and presentationcritical examination of personal lifestyle habits

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheet 2.3 (provided)Supporting Material 2.3 (optional; provided)Students' own recent gas, electricity, and water bills (optional)

Time Requirements15 minutes to introduce activity in class; one week outside of class for data collection and anadditional 3 to 4 days for students to analyze their data and prepare their reports. An additionalclass period may be required for optional in-class presentation of results.

TasksAsk each student to record the flow of materials through his or her household, dorm living area,or apartment for a one-week period. By imagining their home as a system, students note theinputs and out-flows, the internal reuse, and the disposal of the materials and energy within it.

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Depending on the depth at which you wish to pursue this activity, you may choose to havestudents simply record the materials and energy they use, recycle, and waste, or you may havethem go a step further by quantifying these variables (ie., weighing material inputs such as food,purchases, and packaging or measuring water, gas, or electric usage via recent utility bills or byreading meters). By identifying and recording the flow of energy through the home, students cansee how entropy is increased by the use and transformation of energy and materials.

After collecting this information for a one-week period, students evaluate the sustainability of thehome system by answering the questions on the student worksheet and preparing a table that liststhe inputs, internal reuse, disposal, and final state of their material and energy flows. A blanktable has been provided in Supporting Materials 2.3. Based on your time constraints and on theskill level of your students, you may provide the blank table as a hand-out or ask each student tocreate his or her own using a standard spreadsheet or word-processing software program.

Students will summarize their findings in a two to three page report that includes their table andtheir responses to the questions on the Student Worksheet. In addition to (or instead of) thewritten report, you might ask each student to prepare a poster-sized flowchart that illustrates theflow of materials and energy into and out of the home. If desired, allow one class period forstudents to present their findings and/or posters to the class.

This activity could be expanded by asking students to include a discussion of the geographicorigin of the inputs they identified (ie., electric power, water, vegetables, and clothing).

Activity 2.4 Putting Local Industry in A Global Context

GoalsStudents put the analytical tools implied in systems theory and the second law of thermodynamicsto use by researching local industrial processes. Students gain a more thorough understanding ofhow local industries contribute to global environmental change.

Skillsresearch using the analytical framework provided in the Background Information to Unit 2team collaborationflow chart constructiongroup discussion

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheet 2.4 (provided)The original notes on the local industry discussed in Activity 1.1 may be helpful if the classdecides to continue with the same company.

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Time Requirements15-20 minutes to introduce the activity; two to three weeks of research outside of class; one classperiod (50 minutes) to develop a flow chart with the class and discuss the results.

TasksDivide the class into small groups and ask each group to investigate an industrial firm to answerthe questions about it below. If you live in a small community with few industrial firms, ask eachgroup to focus on the same firm. If there are several large industrial firms in your area, ask eachgroup to focus on a different one.

Questions to consider:1. What are the major products of the industrial firm?2. What are the major inputs in terms of sources of materials and energy?3. Where do the major materials and energy come from? Are there any impacts at the source of

extraction?4. How long are the sources of materials and energy likely to be economically feasible to use?5. What are the major outputs in terms of the disposition of products and byproducts?6. Where do the products and byproducts go and what are the impacts of the outputs at the sites

of disposition?7. How long will the products and by-products last?

Encourage students to use a variety of means to answer these questions, including library andInternet research, interviews with firm representatives, company brochures and other publications,and site visits. Allow at least two to three weeks for students to conduct their research. Eachgroup should prepare a three to four page report (to be handed in) that addresses the questions.The report should also include a list of sources and references.

On the assigned day, hold a wrap-up session for the activity. Use the information students havegathered to draw a simple systems flow chart on an overhead transparency or on the blackboard.If each group looked at the same industrial firm, use input from each group to create a singleflowchart. If the groups looked at several different industrial firms, you will need to createseveral flowcharts. Discuss all of the inputs and out-flows connecting the business with sourcesand sinks for materials and energy.

Use the following questions to initiate a class discussion and to close the activity:What links with global change can you identify upon viewing our flowchart?How sustainable is this system? What do you mean by sustainable?How can some of the wastes be reduced? Can the industry make use of any recycled productsas inputs?

Note: This activity may be combined with Activity 2.5.

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Activity 2.5 You Are What You Buy

GoalsStudents learn about the scale and variability of the social and environmental impacts .associatedwith the mass production, use, and disposal of a specific product. This activity is designed toexpand the level of the analysis done in Activity 2.2 to the regional scale with a focus on aparticular product.

Skillsmapping and map interpretationlibrary/Internet researchteam collaborationposter or flowchart construction (optional)discerning the variability inherent in regional/global impactsessay writing

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheet 2.5 (provided)Maps at the scale of the selected industries (ie., regional, national, and/or global maps)

Time Requirements2-3 weeks outside of class

TasksDivide the class into groups of two to three students and ask each group to choose a product thatis sold on at least a regional scale. Each group investigates the type and location of the social andenvironmental impacts resulting from the product's production, use, and disposal Studentsshould attempt to answer the following questions:

1. What types of natural resources are used to produce this product? Where do they comefrom?

2. What adverse environmental impacts does this product create based on its constituentmaterials, processing, use and disposal? Where do they occur? Are they of the samemagnitude and quality in all those places?

3. What adverse social impacts are involved in the product's constituent materials,processing, use and disposal? Where might these occur? Are they of the same magnitudeand quality in all those places?

4. Where did the industry as a whole begin? Where is it centered now?5. What forces have caused the industry to operate the way it has in terms of its spatial

expansion or movement (if any), its targeting of consumer market(s), its method ofproduction?

Using this information, students prepare a four to five page report that includes the answers tothese questions and summarizes their findings. In addition, depending on the skill level of the

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class, each group should include a map of the product's origin and impacts. Students can usedifferent colors or symbols to indicate the origins of the product's constituent materials, thedisposal sites, and areas of environmental and social impacts. Introductory classes with little priorexperience with maps may need additional assistance; you may need to provide students withblank maps and/or excerpts from an introductory geography or cartography text book to illustratevarious types of maps. In more advanced classes, students may be able to use computer-basedsoftware programs to create their maps.

In addition to the written report, students can also create a poster that includes maps, text,diagrams, and other information from their research. If you choose to use the poster format,allow one class period for students to display and present their work to the class.

Note: This activity may be combined with Activity 2.4.

Alternative ActivityUse the map developed in Activity 1.2 that depicts the areas where shirts, shoes, and watches

are produced around the world. Rather than allow groups ofstudents to choose their ownproducts, break the class into three larger groups, each of which will research the environmentaland social impacts of watch, shirt, or shoe production. Within each group, individual studentscould take on the task of researching the product in one particular country that produces theproduct.

Activity 2.6 It's Not Easy Being Green

GoalsStudents use their knowledge of industrial ecology to critique the claims made by producers of"green" or "environmentally friendly" products.

Skillscritical analysis of text, advertising, and product labelsapplication of recently learned conceptscreative writing to a target audiencecollage production and artistic creativity

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheet 2.6 (provided)Magazines, newspapers, catalogues

Time Requirements7-10 days outside of class; one class period (50 minutes) for presentation of reports and collages.

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TasksStudents have been hired by a watch-dog environmental group to investigate the claims made bythe producers of "environmentally friendly" or "green" products. Their task is to scrutinize theseproducts and their advertisements based on what they've learned from systems theory andthermodynamics and to prepare a two to three page, double-spaced essay summarizing theirfindings to be published in the group's monthly newsletter. Students should consider whether theproducts' claims have any substance (according to what they identify as important factors inmeasuring the ecological merit of a product). Students may need to purchase and use the product,do additional library research on it or a similar product, or even request a catalog or otherliterature from the producer. Using these sources, students should be able to critically evaluatethe advertising claims and assess their validity. For example, some "green" paper napkins nowcontain recycled materials. Students considering such a product should investigate how muchrecycled materials the product contains, whether the recycled material is pre- or post-consumer,and whether the final product requires bleaching or other inputs that affect its "environmentallyfriendly" image In addition to the report, students also produce a collage of the advertisementsand product labels they've examined to be published with the essay.

Encourage students to find as many examples of advertising and packaging labels as they can forthe product they chose that make environmentally friendly claims. Students can use magazines,newspapers, catalogues, photographs, or other visual media for this exercise. Allow one classperiod for students to present their essays and collages.

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Industrial Ecology as aSystem: A ConceptualFrameworkStudent Worksheet 2.1


Think of the activities you undertake at home (your house, apartment, or dormitory). If youimagine your home as a system that serves to fulfill your needs and wants, what are the energyand material inputs and outputs of your home ; how have the inputs been transformed by the timethey leave? What outputs still have a use? How does seasonality affect the flows through yourhome? Is there any recycling or reuse of materials before they flow out of your home? How doyou dispose of the materials that leave your home?

By answering these questions, you will begin to understand the notion of entropy and the conceptof a system. Keep track of all of the materials and energy that enter and leave your home for aweek. For inputs, record your water use, gas use, electrical use, and all of your purchases (ie.,food, clothes, household products). You may need access to your utility meters or recent utilitybills. If you live in a dormitory, you will need to devise other ways of measuring or estimatingthese variables. For outputs, consider your solid wastes, recyclables, waste water, and thetemperature of your living space. Your instructor will provide you with additional information onjust how precisely you need to measure these materials.

Keep track of your data in a table including input, use, reuse/recycle, output, method of disposal,and the physical state of the material in disposal Indicate whether the entropy of the energy thatenters your home has increased, decreased, or been unaffected by the time it leaves your home.Prepare a two- to three-page summary of your findings and include your answers to the questionslisted below.

1. What are the environmental implications of your outputs? Where do they go for finaldisposal?

2. Do you have a sustainable supply of inputs?3. How can you reduce your dependence on unsustainable inputs and wasteful outputs? What

constraints do you face in reducing your use of unsustainable inputs and your production ofwasteful outputs? What actions have you taken (or will you take)?

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Student Worksheet 2.2

'Activity 2.2 Critiquing Success Stories

Some industries have taken steps to "green" their production processes. You may questionwhether or not their steps are truly meeting the principles of industrial ecology. In this activity,you will choose one industry from a set of four case studies provided by your instructor andinvestigate the steps it has taken toward becoming greener. Each case study includes a list ofresources that should help you get started on your research project. You should use theseresources as well as the library, the Internet, industry publications and reports, interviews withindustry representatives, and/or site visits to research the case study further. Your assessment ofthe industry's progress toward industrial ecology will depend on what you argue to be thedefinition, the direction, and the goals of industrial ecology.

Based on your research, write an eight- to ten-page, doubled-spaced research paper thatcritically analyzes the production and distribution cycle of the industry. You should identify whatcriteria you used to assess the industry's progress and support your conclusions with sufficientevidence from a variety of sources. Be sure to include a complete list of references.

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Activity 2.4 Putting Local Industry Into a Global ContextI

In this activity you will do some basic research on a local industrial firm that your instructorsuggests. You will work with two or three of your classmates and together you will answer thefollowing questions:

1. What are the major products of the industrial firm?2. What are the major inputs in terms of sources of materials and energy?3. Where do the major materials and energy come from. Are there any impacts at the

source of extraction?4. How long are the sources of materials and energy likely to be economically feasible to use?5. What are the major outputs in terms of disposition of products and byproducts?6. Where do the products and byproducts go and what are the impacts of the outputs at the

sites of disposition?7. How long will the products and byproducts last?

You will have at least two weeks to complete your research. You should use as many types ofsources as possible to answer these questions including the library, the Internet, interviews withfirm representatives, company brochures and other publications, and even tours or site visits.With your group, prepare a three to four page report (to be handed in) that responds to each ofthe above questions and that includes a complete list of sources and references.

On the assigned day, your instructor will draw a simple systems flowchart on an overhead orblackboard based on the information in your reports and your group's input. The flowchart willinclude all of the inputs and outputs of the industrial firm and the sources and sinks of materialsand energy. You will also discuss the sustainability of the firm, and the ways in which its wastescan be reduced, re-used as inputs, or recycled.

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Every product you purchase is derived from some type of natural resource and the use ofthese resources has impacts in locations that are often remote from where you live. With a groupof two or three other students, select a product that you use often and that is distributed on atleast a regional scale. Find out as much as you can about the product and the industry thatproduces it. The most useful sources of information (although quite biased) will be the brochuresand annual reports that the industry produces and distributes. You can obtain these publicationsby calling or writing the consumer information departments of particular companies in theindustry. Other typical sources will include newspaper, magazine, and journal articles. Lastly,many companies have their own Web pages on the Internet.

As you research your product and industry, try to answer, the following questions:What types of natural resources are used to produce this product? Where do they come from?What adverse environmental impacts does this product create in its consumption ofconstituent materials, its processing, use and disposal? Where do they occur? Are they of thesame magnitude and quality in all those places?What adverse social impacts are involved in the product's consumption of constituentmaterials, processing, use and disposal? Where might these occur? Are they of the samemagnitude and quality in all those places?Where did the industry as a whole begin? Where is it centered now?What forces have caused the industry to operate the way it has in terms of its spatialexpansion or movement (if any), its targeting of consumer market(s), its method ofproduction?

Be careful not to choose a product whose material components are too complex to traceadequately in the limited time you have -- products like computers or automobiles. Such a projectwould take much more time and resources than you have.

As a group, write a four to five page report that answers the above questions. Include with yourreport a map depicting the source and use regions of your particular product. Use differentcolors, symbols, or arrows to identify the sources of inputs, the destinations of wastes, andlocations of significant social and environmental impacts.

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As consumers, we are often faced with a wide range of products. There are dozens of differenttypes of breakfast cereal in the local supermarket. Aside from your own individual preferences,how do you select Cheerios over Rice Krispies or Fruit Loops? Environmentally consciousconsumers often make choices based on the level of environmental sensitivity of the product. Inother words, we look for "environmentally friendly" products -- those that reduce excesspackaging, use natural fibers over synthetic ones, and/or contain recycled materials. The"greening" of consumer products has now become quite a cottage industry.

You have been hired by a watch-dog environmental group to investigate the claims made by theproducers of an "environmentally friendly" or "green" product. Your task is to scrutinize theadvertisements and the product labels for this product and to consider whether the claims theymake have any substance. Find examples of environmentally friendly claims on advertising andpackaging labels for this product. You can use magazines, newspapers, catalogues, photographs,or other visual media for this exercise. You may need to purchase and use the product, doadditional library research on it or a similar product, or even request a catalog or other literaturefrom the producer to help you assess the validity of the claims. In addition, use what you'velearned from systems theory and thermodynamics to help you identify important factors inmeasuring the ecological merit of a product.

The environmental group has asked that you prepare a two- to three-page, double-spaced essaysummarizing your findings to be published in the group's monthly newsletter. They have alsoasked that you produce a collage of the advertisements and product labels to be published withthe essay.

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Industrial Ecology as aSystem: A ConceptualFrameworkAnswers to Activities

Activity 2.1 Defining Industrial Ecology

This activity is primarily a way of initiating a class discussion; therefore, no specific answers areprovided.

Activity 2.2 Critiquing Success Stories

The research papers for this activity will vary based upon the case study chosen and the researchconducted by each student. Use the following list of criteria as a guide for evaluating theirreports:

Did the student define the principles of industrial ecology that he/she used to critique theindustry and did he/she cite the authors who influenced these principles?Did the student clearly, methodically, and fairly apply these principles to the study?Did the student use the case study and the suggested sources of information provided by theinstructor?Did the student use a variety of research tools (e.g., library and Internet research, interviews,site visits, etc.)?Is the paper well written and concise?Does the paper reflect a considerable amount of research, synthesized knowledge, and timecommitment?

See Notes on Active Pedagogy for additional suggestions on evaluating students' work.

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Answers to this activity will vary depending upon students' access to relevant data and the levelof detail you ask students to include in their diary of the material and energy flow through theirhomes. Students should be able to provide quantitative estimates or measurements of most of theinputs and some of the outputs of their home "system." For example, electricity, water, and gasinputs can be estimated from a recent utility bill or by monitoring existing meters. Students wholive in dormitories may have to contact the physical facilities of the university or devise anotherway of measuring these variables. Inputs such as food products, packaging, and other purchasescan be quantified in terms of weight or volume. Outputs may be a bit more difficult for studentsto quantify. For example, students will not be able to quantify the outflows from electric or gasinputs, but should be able to indicate the use of these materials and their final disposition.Students can weigh or record the volume of solid wastes and recyclable materials. Waste waterwill most likely have to be estimated based upon the amount recorded as inputs.

Students should prepare a clear and concise table that provides a comprehensive list of the typesand quantities of all inputs and outputs (even those that are difficult to measure), reused andrecycled materials, and waste materials. Students should also provide a concise two to three pagereport that summarizes their one-week investigation and considers (1) the environmentalimplications of their outputs (2) the sustainability of their supply of inputs, and (3) ways to reducetheir dependency on unsustainable inputs and wasteful outputs and bathers that may prevent themfrom doing so. See Notes on Active Pedagogy for additional suggestions on evaluating students'written work.

Activity 2.4 Putting Local Industry in A Global Context

Student reports will vary based upon the industry chosen for analysis. Use the following generalcriteria as a guide for evaluating the reports.

Did the group address all of the questions on the student worksheet?Did the group consult a wide range of information sources and did they provide a detailed listof references?Is the report well written and concise?

You can also include in the evaluation each group's contribution to the class discussion and thecreation of the collective flow chart of the industry. See Notes on Active Pedagogy for additionalsuggestions on evaluating students work

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Student reports will vary depending upon the product chosen for investigation.Use the following criteria as a guide for evaluating the reports:

Did students choose a product distributed on a regional or larger scale?Does the paper address the five questions on the student worksheet?Did the group produce effective maps to illustrate the sources of inputs, the destinations ofwastes, and locations of significant social and environmental impacts?Is the paper well referenced and did the group make use of a variety of information sources?

See Notes on Active Pedagogy for additional suggestions on evaluating students' written work.


Students' essays will vary depending upon the product and the advertisements they choose.Students should be given the freedom to be creative in their collages, which may consist ofmagazine and newspaper clippings, product labels or wrappers, photographs, and/or othermaterials. Their essays should be written in a style that targets the audience of the environmentalgroup's newsletter.

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[..3.1 Constraints andOpportunities for IndustrialEcologyBackground Information

The evolution of the world's industrial activity into a sustainable andenvironmentally benign system requires a long-range view and a deep analysis ofthe environmental implications of today's industrial systems, and a creativeapproach to the design of services, products, and government policy (Socolow etal. 1994: frontispiece).

Near the end of Unit 2, we stated that the goal of industrial ecology is the transformation ofexisting wasteful industrial systems into efficient ecological industrial systems. But where doesone begin this process? In this unit, we look at the constraints and opportunities for industrialecology from a theoretical perspective and in the real-world context of individual industries andfirms. Let's begin with a general look at what stands in the way of industrial ecology before weexplore how the barriers actually play out.

Barriers to Industrial Ecology

The first use of the term "industrial ecology" is recent" and was popularized by RobertFrosch (1994, 1995a, 1995b) in his articles in Environment and Scientific American. Accordingto Frosch, there is a great deal of interest in industrial ecology and numerous efforts to achieve ithave begun, but important bathers remain. These barriers fall into six general categories:technical, economic, regulatory, legal, informational, and organizational.

A technical bather is the physical impossibility of conducting industrial activities such asrecycling and waste minimization. Right now, for example, there is no technology sophisticatedenough to chemically transform radioactive waste into useful material, even if a nuclear powerplant had the financial capability to afford it. Currently, the waste is either protected in storage oris kept in transit from one site to another.

" The first reference to industrial ecology is acknowledged to be Frosch and Gallopoulous (1989); see also Ayres(1989).

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Economic barriers are formidable. Firms weigh the cost of retrieving and recycling their by-products and wastes against the cost of either obtaining new materials or of simply disposing ofthe wastes. Even if it is technically possible to reuse and recycle, a firm will not do so unless it iscost-effective. When products are created and when wastes are disposed of, materials are mixedtogether. Almost always, they must be separated into their constituent parts in order to berecycled. This separation requires work and some financial expense. You are probably familiarwith the washing and/or sorting involved in the recycling of glass, plastic, and paper wastecollected by municipal recycling programs. Of course, much of this labor is voluntary (unlessrecycling is mandated by law) or unpaid. Nevertheless, the work needed to turn the wastematerial into useful products continues inside the factory, where sophisticated dismantling andseparation technologies are employed. Some materials are more easily recycled (entail a lowercost) than others. Metals are relatively easy to recycle. For example, soda cans (minus thelabeling) are all essentially composed of aluminum. Thus, the extra time to consider how theproduct's constituent elements should be separated and the energy to do so, do not have to beexpended. When you recycle aluminum, you get aluminum. Organic waste, on the other hand, ismuch more difficult to recycle and requires additional decisions about what to recycle (ie., theconstituent elements or the energy stored in the chemical bonds between them). These decisionswill be based heavily, although not entirely as we shall see, on cost.

Regulatory provisions such as taxes, fines, and pollution quotas have been used to imposeartificial (but environmentally related) costs on firms that would otherwise be ignored in an open-system method of waste control and resource usage. The intent of these regulations is to forcebusinesses to minimize their waste and to recycle. These regulatory provisions, however, can alsoserve as barriers. Regulations often contradict each other, leaving industries in a bind about whatthey can or cannot do. In response to many regulations, some industries have simply shifted thetype of waste they produce from one form to another. When firms were made responsible for air-and water-borne wastes, they often created more solid waste instead. For example, someindustrial facilities use "scrubbers" to remove particulate pollution from their air emissions.Although this technology helps control air pollution, it also produces a solid waste known assludge that must be disposed of

Legal barriers are laws that discourage firms, usually unintentionally, from practicingindustrial ecology. For example, according to a 'joint and several liability" clause associated withlawsuits, all firms involved in the production, use, and/or disposal of a toxic material areresponsible for any damages resulting from the product. Thus, a firm that supplies a harmlesscomponent of the product can be held responsible if the product in which that material iseventually used (by another firm) is harmful.

The remaining bathers are informational and organizational. Informational barriers refer to afirm's lack of knowledge of (or inability to find out) the costs involved in taking on an industrialecology production system or practice. Organizational barriers are often the "corporate culture"or "internal incentive system" of a firm that conflicts with the ideals of industrial ecology.Shareholders, corporate executives, and managers can become so accustomed to placing value on

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increased rates of production and profit that the ideals and values implied in industrial ecology areseen as foolish and contradictory.

These bathers to industrial ecology also produce opportunities (e.g., using cost-efficient"green" technologies, implementing practical regulatory structures, facilitating the distribution ofinformation). Overcoming the bathers to industrial ecology will require actions by individuals,firms, and governments. As you read through the rest of this unit, keep in mind these bathers andopportunities.

Product Life Cycle Assessments

It is probably not feasible to turn every individual firm or industry into a Type II or IIIindustrial ecological system. It seems much more realistic to link different companies andindustries such that what one company produces as "waste" could be used as inputs by another.For example, a company that produces waste water containing metallic elements could supply itto another company that needs it as input into its production process. In order to establish themost optimal linkages between firms and industries, it is necessary, however, to know exactlywhat materials go in and come out of each participant's production process. In other words, eachproduct needs to be analyzed from "cradle to grave" for material and energy flows to identify thetypes and quantities of materials needed and available. One useful analytical tool to do this is aproduct life cycle assessment. It allows companies and policy-makers to integrate environmentalconcerns into economic decisions. According to Richards and colleagues,

[A product life cycle] approach requires that, environmental impacts -- with"environmental" taken broadly to include relevant safety, health, and social factors-- be understood and summed up across the lifetime of the product, process,material, technology, or service being evaluated. The goal is to reduce to aminimum the overall environmental impact of a product or process, and not simplyaddress one aspect of that impact. The goal becomes important becauseminimizing the impacts of the subsystem does not insure that the impacts of theentire system are minimized, or even reduced (Richards et al. 1994: 13).

The first life cycle analysis was carried out by Coca-Cola in the late 1960s to define andquantify the total material and energy requirements and the environmental impacts of all theprocessing steps (from mining and extraction to disposal) for each technical option available tothe soft drink industry. The study forced Coca-Cola to examine issues such as materialavailability, energy use, and long-term opportunities for technical improvements. The companywanted to determine whether to purchase beverage cans or to produce them internally. They werealso interested in developing a plastic container for carbonated beverages. Simultaneously, publicconcern with the environment and rising costs of waste disposal were pressuring corporations toconsider the environmental impacts of their activities (Duda and Shaw 1996).

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The concept of the life cycle assessment developed out of the Coca-Cola study and othersimilar studies. The fundamental goal is to help producers and consumers choose the mostappropriate product or process. The choice is often made on the basis of calculating energy andmaterials flows, as the following example of grocery bags illustrates:

The purpose of this study was to determine the energy and environmental impactsof polyethylene and paper grocery sacks. In this study the term impact refers tothe quantities of fuel and raw materials consumed and the emissions released to theenvironment. The comparative recyclability, incineration, and landfill impacts ofthese sacks were also addressed in this analysis. (Franklin cited in Duda and Shaw1996).

Life cycle assessments provide a snapshot of the inputs and outputs from a system. They aretherefore an important tool for evaluating the opportunities and constraints for a particularproduct or process to close a loop in an industrial ecosystem. Life cycle inventories may be usedboth internally by organizations or externally to inform consumer or public policy decisions(Keoleian 1994).

Product life cycle assessments, however, do not always provide consumers with clear cutanswers. Consider the ongoing debates over paper vs. styrofoam disposable cups, cloth vs.disposable diapers, and paper vs. plastic grocery bags. Numerous life cycle studies have beenconducted on these products with conflicting results. One reason for the conflicting results is theproblem of delineating system boundaries. How far must one take the analysis? For example, insome cases solid waste is incinerated to create energy. Should this energy production be deductedfrom the sum total of energy used to create the product? This also presents a geographicalproblem. Should life cycle assessments be different for products consumed in different places?After all, a consumer in one country may not have the same ability to recycle his or her waste as aconsumer in another country because of a lack of infrastructure, incentives, and so on. The secondpoint of contention in life cycle studies involves comparing trade-offs. How does one choosebetween a product that consumes less energy but produces more solid waste and an alternativeproduct that may consume more energy but produce less waste? In all of these instances publicperceptions and preferences play an important role in deciding such questions.

Figure 5 is a model of the entire industrial ecology cycle and Figure 6 illustrates a life cycle forone specific product -- a motor vehicle.

52 5 8

Figure 5: The Total Industrial Ecology Cycle

virginmaterials

extraction

concentratedmaterials

separation,refining

processedmaterials

physical andchemical

preparation

finishedmaterials

forming

additionalcomponents

finishedcomponents

fabrication

finishedproducts

V

use

recycle obsolete disposalproducts

Source: Graedel, T. 1994. Industrial ecology: Definition and implementation. In R. Soca low, C.

Andrews, F. Berkhout, and V. Thomas, eds. Industrial ecology and global change. Cambridge, MA:

Cambridge University Press, his Figure 6. Reprinted with the permission ofCambridge University

Press.53

59BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Figure 6: A Motor Vehicle Life Cycle

raw materials manufacturing primary use

recyclematerials,

fluids. parts

body panelswheelcovers,

tires

platinumon

catalysts

.4

(vehicleassembly

1

secondary use

recyclingbattery >a.,

)4...platinumrecycling

tire %.--toi: incineration/ :

recycling

( ,

landfill i pyrolysis :

'.

oil, gas,filler

Note: Rectangles indicate products; ovals indicate processes

....1polypropylenebumpers

lead.plates.plastic

catalystpellets

. .plastics h. ; plasticrecycling products

autobodysteel

steelrecycling

steelproducts

Source: France, W. and V. Thomas. Industrial ecology in the manufacturing of consumer motorvehicle life cycle products. In R. Socolow, C. Andrews, F. Berkhout, and V. Thomas, eds. Industrialecology and global change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, their Figure 4. Reprintedwith the permission of Cambridge University Press.

In the next section, let's take the issue of barriers and opportunities from the local to theglobal scale. Clearly, not all industries and nations can begin the evolution toward industrialecology from an advantaged position like those in more developed countries like the US.

Moving Toward Industrial Ecology on an Uneven Playing Field: TheNorth/South Cleavage

Unit 1 outlined the development of the global industrial system in terms of the increasingability that technology has given humans to transform their local, regional, and globalenvironments and to influence culture as well. As we noted, these changes do not take placehomogeneously across the globe. There was, and is, regional variability in the effects of

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technological change. Some people and places have been devastated by the effects oftechnological change while others have profited.

The global system has experienced not only marked technological change in the course of itscreation, but also political and economic changes. In short, there is a clear division in theeconomic and political power among the nations of the world. The two parts of this division arecommonly referred to as the developed and developing countries, the First World and ThirdWorld, or the North and the South. Knox and Agnew, borrowing from Meier and Baldwin,describe this division in terms of core and periphery countries:

A country is at the core of the world economy if it plays a dominant, active role inworld trade. Usually such a country is a rich, market type economy of theprimarily industrial or agricultural-industrial variety. Foreign trade revolvesaround it: it is a large exporter and importer, and the international movement ofcapital normally occurs from it to other countries (Meier and Baldwin 1957: 147).

In contrast, . . . a country could be considered peripheral if it plays a secondary orpassive role in world trade. In terms of their domestic characteristics, peripheralcountries may be market-type economies or subsistence-type economies. Thecommon feature of a peripheral economy is its external dependence on the centreas the source of a large proportion of imports, as the destination for a largeproportion of exports, and as a lender of capital (Meier and Baldwin 1957: 147)(Knox and Agnew 1994: 16-17).

The countries of the North are considered core countries; they include the industrializedcountries of North America, Europe, the former USSR, Japan, New Zealand, and Australia. TheSouth, representing the political-economic periphery, includes China, all of South and SoutheastAsia, Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East.

Core-periphery divisions intensify barriers to industrial ecology. The periphery is at adisadvantage in its attempts to minimize its environmental impacts. People in the periphery havemuch lower incomes, and the core has an advantage in terms of its power to influence rules andregulations, international trade organizations, and the financial institutions of the world economy.This uneven distribution of money and power has pervaded (to a greater or lesser extent) allinternational meetings on the major global environmental issues such as global warming,hazardous waste trading, deforestation, and population issues.

Let's take global warming as an example. While the "developed" countries (core or Northerncountries) have relied on the burning of vast amounts of fossil fuel to reach and maintain theirstandard of living, the "developing" (peripheral /Southern) countries, which contribute much lowergreenhouse gas emissions per capita to the global total, are being asked to hold back the reins ontheir own development. At the same time, many in the developed world maintain that onlyeconomic development will be able to curb the exponential population growth occurring in theSouth. The rich nations, with only 25% of the world's population, produce more than half of all

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greenhouse gases. Most of this energy burning goes toward fueling what most peripheral citizenswould consider luxury items: cars, TV's, microwaves, and other amenities. In the periphery, mostcontributions to climate change are coming from agriculture and forests, in the form of methanefrom cattle and rice paddies, and carbon released from the burning of trees. These activities arelargely associated with survival efforts.

At the same time, Third World leaders are desperately trying to increase the availability ofelectricity and oil for development in their countries while millions of Third World citizens laborto increase their standard of living to one that comes closer to that of the First World. To achievethese goals, large investments are required in the periphery. The pressing issue here is that ifnations on the periphery follow the same wasteful road to development as the core countries havetaken, the global atmosphere and the earth's resources will be dangerously affected. Meanwhile,the periphery cannot afford the advanced pollution control technology that the core nowpossesses. The popular solution being proposed in international negotiation circles is for the richcore countries to finance the necessary technology, while simultaneously reducing their ownemissions.

In short, the move toward industrial ecology at the global level is only to some extent atechnological problem. It is also a political and economic problem involving complex issues suchas population growth, lifestyle choices, economic development, equity, and international justice.Again, these challenges are daunting and will require action at all scales from the farm and firm tothe international negotiating table and on all fronts (regulatory, political, organizational, andeducational). Nations across the globe need to turn to systems thinking regarding their economiesand the global environment. The essence of systemic and cumulative global changes is that whatwe do in one place can change what happens to all of us.

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Constraints andOpportunities for IndustrialEcologyInstructor's Guide to Activities

GoalStudents explore the opportunities and constraints provided by industrial ecology in the real worldat the local and regional scales. Students also read and respond to essays and articles that presentunsettling arguments or that make disturbing claims about the current trends in issues related toindustrial ecology.


be able to compare the usefulness of data used in life cycle analyses;recognize the role that values play in evaluating the relative environmental impacts of certainproducts (e.g., cloth versus disposable diapers);understand the major bathers to, and opportunities for, implementing industrial ecology;understand how bathers to implementing industrial ecology are intensified at the internationalscale; andbe able to respond critically to arguments against the feasibility of implementing industrialecology.


3.1 Life cycle Analysis

3.2 Industrial Ecology Game

3.3 Industrial Ecology Field Trip3.4 Free Trade and Agriculture

3.5 A Critical Brief

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-- Data analysis, recognition of values inassessing data, and creative writing

-- In-class game on creating inter-industrycooperation

-- Field trip or guest presentations-- Text comprehension, in-class debate, and

critical writing-- Writing a critical briefresponding to hot-

button issues in industrial ecology


Background Information to Unit 3 (all students should read)

For Activity 3.1Graedel, Thomas and Braden Allenby. 1995. An introduction to life cycle assessment. InIndustrial Ecology. New York, NY: Prentice HallHocking, Martin B. 1994. Disposable cups have eco-merit. Nature 369 (12 May): 107.

. 1991a. Paper versus polystyrene: A complex choice. Science 251 (1 February):504-505.

. 199 lb. Paper versus polystyrene: Environmental impact. (Letters section).Science 252 (7 June): 1361-1363.Portney, Paul R. 1995. The price is right: Making use of life cycle analysis. Issues in Scienceand Technology 10 (2): 69-75.

For Activity 3.2Edgington, Stephen M. 1993. Industrial ecology: Biotech's role in sustainable development.Bio/technology 13 (January): 31-34. (provided)

For Activity 3.4Globerman, Steven. 1993. Trade liberalization and the environment. In S. Globerman andM. Walker, eds. Assessing NAFTA: A tri-national analysis. Vancouver, Canada: TheFraser Institute, pp. 293-314. (provided)Ritchie, Mark 1993. Agricultural trade liberalization: Implications for sustainableagriculture. In R Nader, ed. The case against free trade: GATT, NAFTA, and theglobalization of corporate power. San Francisco, CA: Earth Island Press, pp. 163-194.

For Activity 3.5Helvarg, David. 1996. The big green spin machine: Corporations and environmental PRThe Amicus Journal 18 (2): 13-21. (provided)Puckett, Jim. 1994. Disposing of the waste trade: Closing the recycling loophole. TheEcologist 24 (2): 53-58.Tiemey, John. 1996. Recycling is garbage. The New York Times Magazine (30 June): 24-29,44, 48, 51, and 53.

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Activity 3.1 Life Cycle Analysis

GoalsStudents compare the material, water, and energy flows of the life cycles of the three products(paper, plastic, and ceramic cups). Students recognize the complexities involved in life cycleanalyses including data quality, boundary delineation, and value judgments.

Skillsqualitative/quantitative data assessmentdetermining relevant and non-relevant dataidentifying the role of values in making data interpretationsposition formulationcreative writingrole playing

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheet 3.1 (provided)Supporting Material 3.1 (provided; needed for Option 2)Suggested Reading (for all options): Graedel and Allenby (1995); Portney (1995)Suggested Reading: Option 1: Hocking (1994, 1991a, and 1991b)

Option 2: Hocking (1991a)Option 3: Hocking (1994)

Time RequirementsOption 1: 7- 10 daysOption 2: 7-10 daysOption 3: 2-3 days

TasksNote: All three options for this activity rely heavily on the three suggested readings listed above.Because of copyright restrictions and costs, these articles could not be distributed with thismodule. These readings should be readily available in your university's library or throughinterlibrary loan. Allow sufficient time to obtain them.

Option 1Divide the class into three groups, each of which will represent paper, plastic, or ceramic cupmakers. Ask each group 1) to conduct research outside of class to calculate the material flows,energy consumption, and water consumption for all three products and 2) to prepare an argumentfor why their product is more environmentally sound than the others. The three suggestedreadings by Hocking (1994, 1991a, 1991b) will be helpful to that end. Students should performthe calculations individually outside of class before meeting in group to compare results anddiscuss. Together they should consider how they could improve their product to make less of aproblem.

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On the assigned day, ask each group to present their calculations and their arguments. You maywish to structure the class discussion like a debate with each group defending their product.

Option 2:Students practice their creative writing skills by finishing a dialogue between fictional colleaguesin the life cycle analysis field about the relative environmental impacts of paper versus polystyrenecups. [The dialogue is provided in Supporting Material 3.1. Students will need Table 1 from thesuggested reading by Hocking (1991a) to make sense of the dialogue.] Students will firstsummarize the dialogue in Supporting Material 3.1 and then complete it by leading the discussiontoward some sort of closure or consensus. In addition to the dialogue, students will also write afew paragraphs answering the questions below:

Was any relevant information left out of the discussion?Were any of the comments in the dialogue redundant or unimportant?Do you agree or disagree with what anyone said? Why?Can all the variables in this debate really be measured quantitatively?Are any value judgments evident?What seems to be the biggest roadblocks to deciding which cup is best?

Option 3Ask students to read Hocking (1994). In the article, the author reports the findings of a life cycleanalysis comparing ceramic, glass, plastic, paper, and polystyrene foam cups.

Students write a two-page essay about the article to encourage critical thinking about theassumptions and value judgments underlying life cycle analyses. In their essays, students willaddress the following questions:

What criteria did Hocking choose for his analysis?Where did he draw the boundary of the system?Does he consider the energy use associated with disposing of or recycling disposable cups?How would you determine the energy used in disposing of a cup?Would the test results have been different if he had selected both materials flow and energyflow as his criteria?What cup should you use and why?

Activity 3.2 The Industrial Ecology Game

GoalsStudents see the potential (or lack thereof) for industries to cooperate by reusing each other'swaste products.

Skillslibrary/Internet researchteam and class collaboration

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Material RequirementsSuggested reading: Edgington (1993) (provided)3" x 5" note cards

Time Requirementsone class period (50 minutes)

TasksStudents read the suggested article by Edgington (1993) to get a feel for how industries caninteract to recycle each other's waste. The article reviews the apparent success of an industrialpark in Kahmdborg, Denmark in trading and reusing the wastes of its constituent companies; thisdescription provides a concrete example of how industrial ecology can work in the real world.

Before class, select several industries whose material and energy inputs and outputs arecomplementary. For example, a meat packing industry could provide hides to be used in makingleather furniture, or a soda manufacturer could provide waste plastic bottles to a carpet maker.Divide the class into small groups of three to four students and assign each group one of thepotentially cooperative industries (make sure that each group has a different industry). Give eachgroup a stack of 3" x 5" index cards and ask them to write each output that their industry createson the cards including the principal product and by-products (one per card). At the top of eachcard, they should also write the name of their industry. Finally, on a separate sheet of paper,students should make a "shopping list" of the material and energy inputs that their industryrequires. Allow them 10 or 15 minutes to complete this task.

Next, tell the groups that their task is to create an industrial ecology park (like the one in thesuggested readings). They must circulate throughout the classroom looking for sources of theinputs on their "shopping list" and attempting to find "takers" for their outputs. If they find asource of their inputs, students take the appropriate card from that industry. When they find ataker for one of their outputs, they give the appropriate card to that industry. The goal is to getrid of all of their output cards and to collect all of the necessary input cards. Allow only 5 or 10minutes for this part of the activity to provide a fast-paced, open-market atmosphere.

After the trading, bring the class together to discuss the process. Ask them how well they did infinding buyers for their outputs and in finding sources for the materials they need. Were theysuccessful in creating an industrial ecology park? What difficulties did they encounter? If timeallows, you may choose to draw a diagram or flowchart of the industrial park on the chalkboardattempting to link all of the industries.

Variations1. If your class has had little experience with this subject or if you have time constraints, you

may choose instead to provide a set of completed cards to each group on which you havealready listed the outputs for their industry; you can also provide them with the "shopping list"of inputs they need. This will require some preparation before class on your part, but it may

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allow the activity to run more smoothly because you can ensure that the inputs and outputsfrom all the industries are complementary (although they need not be perfectlycomplementary).

2. If you have sufficient time and would like to make the activity more detailed, assign industriesto each group and give them three or four days to research its processes and to prepare theiroutput cards and their "shopping list." This will allow students to get a more thoroughunderstanding of the real material inputs and outputs of the industry. Similarly, you can usesome of the industries that students have already examined in earlier activities so that they arefamiliar with their processes. This will reduce the need for students to do additional research,and it will link this activity to others in the module.

Activity 3.3 Industrial Ecology Field Trip

GoalsStudents learn about an industrial firm first-hand by visiting the site, interviewing the people whowork there on a daily basis, and developing a flowchart of the firm's system.

Skillsinterviewingfield observation

Material RequirementsTransportation to the site for the class

Time RequirementsOne day to visit the chosen site; allow additional time for in-class preparation before the visit andfor a debriefing after the visit.

TasksExploring industrial systems works well by taking a field trip to industrial firms or industrial farmsthat exemplify the elements of industrial ecology. The first step in preparing this activity is toscan the region to locate environmentally innovative industrial practices. Although not alllocations are equally endowed with firms that follow the ecological or metabolic metaphors, evenmaking a visit to one that does not permits a close comparison of ideals and realities (once youare back in the classroom).

Ask students to prepare for the site visit by investigating conventional practices within thetargeted industry through their library. (Alternatively, if you are familiar with the firm, providestudents with this background information.) This allows students to become familiar with theeconomic and social context of the firm and its industry, including a listing of categories of peoplewho benefit (or are negatively affected) by the firm.

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For additional background preparation, you can ask students to develop a flowchart of theindustrial process, including inputs and outputs of the firm's operations. A useful way for them toorganize this might be to borrow the formats for materials flows in raw materials processing,manufacturing, and customer use from Socolow (1994), with case examples for the automotive,beverage, camera, and clothing industries from France and Thomas (1994). This part of theactivity is not necessary if you have particular time constraints or if students have had sufficientpractice in previous activities creating flow charts.

Once students have gained an understanding of the firm and its industrial system, they are readyfor the site visit. Companies who are proud of their environmental record are likely to be open tovisits by students of environmental sciences, while those with less rosy records may be reluctantto extend a welcome. With a little persuasion and persistence, however, it is possible to get intomany sites (even the grayest of industries benefit from the public relations they gain by openingtheir doors a little bit). Once inside, students should (1) pay particular attention to the processesof materials and energy flows, (2) ask questions about the product cycle and the firm'smanagement practices, and (3) take notes of their visit.

After the visit and as a homework assignment, ask students to review their notes and prepare aone to two page written assessment of the performance of the firm. Using the concepts learnedthrough classroom lectures, background readings, and other activities, students should devisetheir own methodology for assessing the performance of the industry. You may want to referstudents to readings on impact assessment to enable them to have a firm grounding in the varietyof procedures and concerns found in other assessment techniques.12 Although the students'assessments are apt to be qualitative, you may encourage students to bring comparativequantitative data into the assessment, as well.

In the next class session after the visit, conduct a debriefing to discuss the visit and to comparestudents' notes and written assessments with the background information and flowcharts gatheredbefore the visit.

Variation: Inviting Industry into the ClassroomSometimes there are logical reasons why site visits are prohibited. Suitable sites may be too farfrom the school, resources for travel may be lacking, or class size may make a field trip difficult.Some firms may be unwilling to permit visitors, citing liability, staffing, or production disruptionreasons; size of class may also be a factor, since most factories are designed for efficiency ofoperation and not as classrooms or laboratories. In any of these cases, bring the industry to theclassroom!

12 Several excellent sources on impact assessment include McAllister (1980), Morris and Therivel (1995),Ortolano (1984), Porter, et. al. (1980), Smith (1993), and Wood (1995).

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Most firms maintain public relations offices, and many have programs for public education.Speakers bureaus and company officials may frequently be tapped to present a classroomdiscussion of the environmental affairs of the firm. With appropriate pre-planning by theinstructor, this can be a reasonable alternative to taking students on site for a first-hand look.Prior to the class presentation, students should read some focused literature about the particularindustry to gain some familiarity (this can include their own research, articles that you provide, orliterature provided by the firm). As an in-class or out-of-class exercise, students can develop achecklist for assessing the performance of the firm (see the main activity above).

A telephone call to the local or regional office of a particular industrial firm is certain to yieldinformation, if not an actual acceptance of an invitation. Contacting national trade organizationsor industrial associations may-also prove fruitful, as most industries maintain public relationsoffices or environmental quality assurance programs. There is nothing quite so effective,however, as finding a personal contact within a plant and exploiting that firm's image within thelocal community as a means of bringing the speaker to the classroom.

Activity 3.4 Free Trade's Effects on Sustainable Agriculture: A Debate

GoalsStudents develop a position on an international policy issue (international trade regulation) thathas serious potential effects on the future of industrial ecology.

Skillsassessment and comparison of opposing argumentsposition formulationdebatingtext comprehension

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheet 3.4 (provided)Suggested readings: Ritchie (1993)

Globerman (1993) (provided)

Time RequirementsFour to five days preparation outside of class before the debate; one class period (50 minutes) forthe debate; allow additional time outside of class for the optional written assignment after thedebate.

TasksStudents read the suggested articles, which present conflicting opinions of the effects of free tradeon the future of industrial ecology. Assign one-half of the class to one viewpoint and the otherhalf to the opposing viewpoint before students read the articles so that they can begin to

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formulate their arguments. Allow several days for students to do additional research to supporttheir perspective.

On the assigned day, hold a class debate. You should help keep the debate on track and ensurethat all students get a chance to speak.

If you wish, you can ask students to write an op-ed piece in which they defend their assignedposition. Essays should be no longer than two pages.

Activity 3.5 A Critical Brief

GoalsStudents write a critical brief in which they react to controversial issues in industrial ecology.

Skillscritical reading and writingposition formulation

Material RequirementsStudent Worksheet 3.5 (provided)Suggested readings: Helvarg (1996) (provided)

Tierney (1996)Puckett (1994)

Supporting Material 3.5a (provided; includes a list of alternative suggested readings)

Time Requirementsone week outside of class

Tasks13

Students need to learn how to think critically about global environmental change issues in thenews. Instructors need to teach students that to be critical is not to be harsh, negative, orjudgmental, but to demand that claims and propositions be well-constructed, logical, andsupported by principles of sound reasoning. The critical brief is an activity that helps studentslearn and practice these skills

Students read and respond to one or more controversial articles in a three- to four-page criticalbrief A critical brief should achieve two goals: 1) it should be descriptive, briefly stating thepremises, major themes, or arguments of each point of view; and 2) it should be evaluative,critically analyzing and critiquing the premises, arguments, and conclusions of each viewpoint.

13 Eflin and Eflin (1996) describe an in-class actiivity integrating critical reasoning skills and themes from globalenvironmental perspectives; a copy is available from the authors.

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Depending on your time constraints and your classroom situation, you can have students read justone, several, or all of the suggested readings. Additional topics and the references for suggestedreadings are provided in Supporting Material 3.5a.

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Constraints andOpportunities for IndustrialEcologyStudent Worksheet 3.1

Activity 3.1 Life Cycle Analysis1

This activity consists of three related, but different exercises. Your instructor will tell you whichof the following options you will complete.

Option 1Your instructor will divide the class into three groups, with each group representing either paper,plastic, or ceramic cup makers. Your group must conduct research to calculate the materialflows, energy consumption, and water consumption of all three cups, and then make an argumentfor why your product is more environmentally sound. Perform the calculations on your ownoutside of class and then meet with your group to compare results and discuss. Consider howyou could improve your product to make it more environmentally benign. Be prepared to presentyour findings and your argument to the class.

Option 2Imagine you are in a conference room with several of your colleagues in the life cycle analysisfield. You have been discussing and comparing the environmental impacts associated with theproduction, use, and disposal of paper and polystyrene (foam) cups. Everyone in the room wantsto reach an agreement on what factors need to be considered to compare the two disposableproducts and how these factors should be measured.

Your instructor will provide you with a written copy of the dialogue and some backgroundinformation to help you understand what has been said. Your task is to finish the dialogue as ifyou are actually a part of the conversation in the conference room. Write down exactly what youwould say. Begin by summarizing the conversation so far and suggesting how to move thediscussion toward consensus. Be sure to add more than just your own words -- include additionaldialogue from your colleagues. For example, if you think that Mrs. 0 would object to one ofyour statements, what would she say (besides "1 object")? Feel free to expand the bounds of the

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initial question. If you think reusable ceramic cups, for instance, have eco-merit, you could arguethat it is pointless to look at only paper and polystyrene. But be sure to support your argument!

After you've completed the dialogue, write a few additional paragraphs that respond to thefollowing questions:

1. Was any relevant information left out of the discussion?2. Were any of the comments in the dialogue redundant or unimportant?3. Do you agree or disagree with what anyone said? Why?4. Can all the variables in this debate really be measured quantitatively?5. Are any value judgments evident?6. What seem to be the biggest roadblocks to deciding which cup is best?

Option 3Determining the boundaries of a system and choosing the criteria for comparison (ie., energyflow, material waste or both) are two of the most controversial aspects of a life cycle assessment.Read the article provided by your instructor and answer the questions below in a two to threepage essay. While you read, be sure to consider the assumptions and value judgments implicit inthe analysis.

1. What criteria did Hocking choose for his analysis?2. Where did he draw the boundary of the system?3. Does he consider the energy use associated with, disposing of or recycling disposable

cups? How would you determine the energy used in disposing of a cup?4. Would the test results have been different if he had selected both materials flow and

energy flow as his criteria?5. What cup should you use and why?

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Before class, read the chapter provided by your instructor (Ritchie 1993) in which the authordenounces the international loosening of "barriers" to commerce in food products. These so-called bathers, however, include many food safety regulations, price regulations, and othermeasures designed to protect the sustainability of small farms and the livelihood ofthose workerswho cultivate them.

Also read the chapter by Globerman (1993) provided by your instructor. Although agriculture isnot his main focus, Globerman presents a different perspective, arguing that free trade may begood for the environment.

Your job is to defend one of the above perspectives in an in-class debate on the liberalization ofinternational agricultural trade. You will need to do some additional research before the debate toprepare your argument.

During the debate, be sure to take notes on the arguments made by both sides of the issue. Yourinstructor may ask you to write a formal essay based on the debate, your own research, and whatyou learned from the other perspective.

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Technological change, industrial ecology, and the human dimensions of global change arecontroversial subjects that require critical assessment for a rich and complete understanding. Youmay agree with the prevailing paradigm in modem society that technology brings progress andprogress is good. Likewise, the idea of an industrial ecology may seem idealistic or too complexto be practical For many themes within the field of the human dimensions of global change,arguments are made on both sides of the debate, requiring readers to take a close, criticalapproach.

One way to learn this approach is by writing a critical brief A critical brief should achieve twogoals: 1) it should be descriptive, briefly stating the premises, major themes, or arguments of eachpoint of view; and 2) it should be evaluative, critically analyzing and critiquing the premises,arguments, and conclusions of each viewpoint. The brief should be about three or four pageslong. It is advised that you locate additional related articles to help you respond to the assignedarticle(s).

Choose from among the following articles for your critical brief Your instructor will tell youhow many readings you are responsible for.

Helvarg, David. 1996. The big green spin machine The Amicus Journal 18(2):13-21Tierney, John. 1996. Recycling is garbage. The New York Times Magazine (30 June ):24-29,44,48,51,53.Puckett, Jim. 1994. Disposing of the waste trade. The Ecologist 24(2): 53-58.

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LI]Constraints andOpportunities for IndustrialEcologyAnswers to Activities

Activity 3.1 Life Cycle Analysis

Option 1There are no right or wrong answers to this activity. Student assessments will vary dependingupon the data sources they use for their analysis. Use the activity to initiate a lively classdiscussion or a class debate about the relative environmental impacts of each product.

Option 2Because this is a creative writing activity, student essays will vary. Make sure that students havemade a serious attempt to provide additional realistic dialogue to that provided. Students shouldalso include several paragraphs that address the questions on the student worksheet. See Notes onActive Pedagogy for additional suggestions on evaluating students' work.

Option 3Because this is a creative writing activity, student essays will vary. Their essays should includeresponses to the questions on the student worksheet and should demonstrate a clearunderstanding of the suggested reading. See Notes on Active Pedagogy for additional suggestionson evaluating students' work.

Activity 3.2 Industrial Ecology Game

There are no specific answers to this activity. The success of the game will depend on thevariation used, the industries selected, and student and instructor enthusiasm. If you providecompleted 3" x 5" cards with the outputs already specified, the activity will run more smoothlybecause you can ensure complementarity among the various groups' outputs and inputs. If youallow students to develop their own cards and lists, the game may not result in a perfect fit amongthe industries' needs and wastes, but it may describe a more realistic situation.

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Activity 3.3 Industrial Ecology Field Trip

Because of the nature of this activity, there are no specific answers.


Because this activity is a class debate, there are no specific answers. If it is necessary to gradestudents on this activity, you can evaluate them on the clarity of their arguments, their level ofpreparation, their respect for other students' perspectives, and their overall participation in thedebate. You should help to keep the debate moving and to allow each student to speak.


Students' critical briefs will vary depending upon the article they choose (or are assigned) to read.Use the following criteria to evaluate their work:

Is the brief descriptive and does it state the premises, major themes, and/or arguments of thereading(s)?Does the student critically analyze and critique the premises, arguments, and conclusions ofthe reading(s)? In other words, do they do more than summarize? Do they engage with thematerial?Is the brief well written, concise, and less than four pages (double-spaced) in length?

See Notes on Active Pedagogy for additional suggestions on evaluating students' written work.

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GlossaryNote: Words in bold in the right-hand column appear elsewhere in the glossary.

closed system

cumulative change

driving forces

ecosystem

a system that has little or no links to its external environment.

a type of global change resulting from individual local activities thatdo not directly affect a global functioning system but when widelyreplicated in multiple locations are globally significant.

societal forces that bring about global environmental change,including population, economy, technology, ideology, and socialorganizations.

self-regulating natural community ofplants and animals interactingwith one another and with their non-living environment.

entropy a measure of the amount of energy in a system that cannot beused to perform work; high entropy means that the energy in thesystem has very little capacity to do work.

greenhouse effect the role of various trace components of the atmosphere(such as H2O, CO2, etc.) in reabsorbing certain wavelengths of theenergy spectrum radiated from the earth's surface therebyincreasing the global temperature. This effect occurs naturally, butis augmented by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuelsand land cover changes since these changes emit trace gases thatbecome further concentrated in the atmosphere (enhancedgreenhouse effect).

greenhouse gases a group of gases, including carbon dioxide, methane,chlorofluorocarbons, ozone, and nitrous oxide that are radiativelyactive, i.e., they absorb longwave radiation in the atmosphere.

Industrial Revolution a series of social, political, and economic changeswithin the Britisheconomy between 1750 and 1850 that transformed the forces ofproduction; the influences of these changes spread throughout partsof the world and were seen in the US with the growth of the steelindustry, engineering, and increased electricity consumption.

nonrenewable resource a resource that is available in fixed amounts on the earth and can betotally depleted because (1) it is not replenished by naturalprocesses or (2) it is used more quickly than it can be replenished.

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open system a system that has flows to or links with its environment.

paradigm

sinks

the working assumptions, procedures, and findings routinelyaccepted and employed by a group of people; a paradigm definesone's view of the world and the approach one takes to definingproblems, researching them, and solving them.

places where materials are collected or disposed of eithertemporarily or permanently (i.e., the global atmosphere is a sink forgreenhouse gases; biomass or riverbeds are temporary sinks forcarbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous.)

sustainable (-ability) an activity that can be maintained without jeopardizing the health ofhumans or the environment now or in the future.

sustainable development development that meets the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generations to meet their ownneeds.

system a group of elements organized in such a way that every element isto some degree dependent on every other element.

systemic change

technology

Type I ecology

Type II ecology

Type DI ecology

a type of global change that results from human activities thatdirectly affect a globally functioning system (e.g., release ofgreenhouse gases into the atmosphere may lead to changes in theglobal climate system)

practical methods for controlling physical objects and forces;the means by which humans modify the material nature of theirworld.

a system characterized by a linear flow of material throughputs;involves the consumption of unlimited resources and the productionof unlimited wastes.

a system characterized by a quasicyclic flow of materialthroughputs; involves the consumption of energy and limitedresources and the production of limited wastes.

a system characterized by a cyclic flow of materials that arecontinuously recycled among the members of the system; in an idealstate, involves minimal exchanges with the environment, except forenergy inputs.

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Supporting MaterialsThe materials in this section support the background information and the student activities. EachSupporting Material is numbered according to the section or activity in which it may be used.For example, Supporting Material 1.1 accompanies Activity 1.1. Materials that are intended tosupport the Background Information in the module, such as overhead originals or otherdocuments, are numbered according to the Unit. For example, Supporting Material 3accompanies the Background Information for Unit 3.

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Overhead Originals for Class Discussion of Unit 2

The following pages contain overhead originals that can be used to support the informationpresented in Background Information of Unit 2. The instructor may use these in class tosummarize the information students read in the module or to organize lecture material.

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A Simple System Model

Supporting Material 2a

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Open and Closed Systems of Materials Flow

a: An open system of materials flow.

INPUTS

M1 (New Materials)

Energy

OUTPUTS

(Recycled wastes)


M2 (Products)

b: A closed system of materials flow.

INPUTS

M1 (New Materials)--

Energy

Energy

M4 (Recycled products)

M2Products

Ms Processwade

OUTPUTS

-* M3 (Unusable wastes)

Energy

Source: Frosch, Robert. Environment 37 (10):20. 1995. Reprinted with permission of the HelenDwight Reed Educational Foundation. Published by Heidref Publications, 1319 18th St. NW,Washington, DC 20036-1802. ©1997.

Supporting Material 2b

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(a) Linear material flows in "Type I" ecology (b) Quasi-cyclic materialsflows in "Type 11" ecology (c) Cyclic materials flows in "Type Ill" ecology

(a)

(b)

(c)

energy andlimited

resources

energy

unlimited ecosystem unlimitedresources component , w to

--111a

s

t, ecosystem ecosystem ,,, component component ,

- - - - _

ecosystemcomponent

ecosystemcomponent(

ecosystem ecosystem ', component component

limitedwaste

Source: Graedel, T. 1994. In Socolow, Andrews, Berkhout, and Thomas, eds. Industrial ecology and

global change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, p. 25. 01994 reproduced with the

permission of Cambridge University Press.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Supporting Material 2c

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The Type Ill Model of the Industrial Ecosystem

r

limitedresources

materials materialsextractor processor oror grower manufacturer

wasteprocessor consumer

limitedwaste

Source: Graedel, T. 1994. In Socolow, Andrews, Berkhout, and Thomas, eds. Industrial ecology andglobal change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, p. 27. ©1994 reproduced with thepermission of Cambridge University Press.

Supporting Material 2d

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Supp

ortin

g M

ater

ial 1

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Selected Definitionsof Industrial Ecology

Frosch, Robert A. Industrial ecology: Aphilosophical introduction. Proceedings,National Academy of Sciences 89 (February1992): 800-803.`The idea of an industrial ecology is based upon astraightforward analogy with natural ecologicalsystems. In nature an ecological system operatesthrough a web of connections in which organismslive and consume each other and each other's waste.The system has evolved so that the characteristic ofcommunities of living organisms seems to be thatnothing that contains available energy or usefulmaterial will be lost. There will evolve someorganism that will manage to make its living bydealing with any waste product that providesavailable energy or usable material. Ecologists talkof a food web: an interconnection of uses of bothorganisms and their wastes. In the industrial contextwe may think of this as being use of products andwaste products. The system structure of a naturalecology and the structure of an industrial system, oran economic system, are extremely similar."

Allenby, Braden. Achieving sustainabledevelopment through industrial ecology.International Environmental Affairs 4, no.1(1992)."somewhat teleologically, 'industrial ecology' maybe defined as the means by which a state ofsustainable development is approached andmaintained. It consists of a systems view of humaneconomic activity and its interrelationship withfundamental biological, chemical, and physicalsystems with the goal of establishing andmaintaining the human species at levels that can besustained indefinitely, given continued economic,cultural, and technological evolution."

Jelinski, L.W., T.E. Graedel, R.A. Laudise, D.W.McCall, and C. Kumar N. Patel. Industrialecology: Concepts and approaches.Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences,USA 89 (February, 1992)."Industrial Ecology is a new approach to theindustrial design of products and processes and theimplementation of sustainable manufacturingstrategies. It is a concept in which an industrial

system is viewed not in isolation from itssurrounding systems but in concert with them.Industrial ecology seeks to optimize the totalmaterials cycle from virgin material to finishedmaterial to component, to product, to waste products,and to ultimate disposal. Characteristics are: 1)

proactive not reactive, 2) designed in not added on,3) flexible not rigid, and 4) encompassing notinsular."

Patel, C. Kumar N. Industrial ecology.Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences,USA 89 (February 1992)."Industrial ecology can be best defined as the totalityor the pattern of relationships between variousindustrial activities, their products, and theenvironment. Traditional ecological activities havefocused on two time aspects of interactions betweenthe industrial activities and the environment -- thepast and the present. Industrial ecology, a systemsview of the environment, pertains to the future."

Hileman, Bette. Industrial ecology route to slowglobal change proposed. Chemical andEngineering News (August 24, 1992), p.7."Industrial ecology is the study of how we humanscan continue rearranging Earth, but in such a way asto protect our own health, the health of naturalecosystems, and the health of future generations ofplants and animals and humans It encompassesmanufacturing, agriculture, energy production, andtransportation nearly all of those things we do toprovide food and make life easier and more pleasantthan it would be without them."

Tibbs, Hardin B.C. Industrial ecology: Anenvironmental agenda for industry. WholeEarth Review 77 (December 1992)."Industrial ecology involves designing industrialinfrastructures as if they were a series of interlocking[hu]manmade ecosystems interfacing with thenatural global ecosystem. Industrial ecology takesthe pattern of the natural environment as a model forsolving environmental problems, creating a newparadigm for the industrial system in the process."

"The aim of industrial ecology is to interpret andadapt an understanding of the natural system and

Supporting Material 2.190

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apply it to the design of the [hu]manmade system, inorder to achieve a pattern of industrialization that isnot only more efficient, but that is intrinsicallyadjusted to the tolerance and characteristics of thenatural system. The emphasis is on forms oftechnology that work with natural systems, notagainst them."

Lowe, Ernest. Industrial ecology Anorganizing framework for environmentalmanagement. Total Quality EnvironmentalManagement, Autumn 1993."The heart of industrial ecology is a simplerecognition that manufacturing and service systemare in fact natural systems, intimately connected totheir local and regional ecosystems and the globalbiosphere. . . . the ultimate goal of industrial ecologyis bringing the industrial system as close as possibleto being a closed-loop system, with near completerecycling of all materials."

Allenby, Braden and Thomas E. Graedel.Industrial ecology (pre-publication edition). NewYork: Prentice Hall, 1993."Industrial ecology is the means by which humanitycan deliberately and rationally approach andmaintain a desirable carrying capacity, givencontinued economic, cultural, and technologicalevolution. The concept requires that an industrial

system be viewed not in isolation from itssurrounding systems, but in concert with them. It is asystems view in which one seeks to optimize the totalmaterials cycle from virgin material, to finishedmaterial, to component, to product, to waste product,and to ultimate disposal. Factors to be optimizedinclude resources, energy, and capital."

Hawken, Paul. The ecology of commerce. NewYork: Harper Business, 1993."Industrial ecology provides for the first time alarge-scale, integrated management tool that designsindustrial infrastructures 'as if they were a series ofinterlocking, artificial ecosystems interfacing withthe natural global ecosystem.' For the first time,industry is going beyond life cycle analysismethodology and applying the concept of anecosystem to the whole of an industrial operation,linking the 'metabolism' of one company with thatof another."

Source: University of Michigan. 1995. AppendixB. Pollution Prevention Educational ResourcesCompendium: Industrial Ecology. NationalPollution Prevention Center, pp. 21-22. Reprintedwith the permission of the National PollutionPrevention Center.


Case Study 1: "Clean Coal" and the Future of Electric Power

The United States is richly endowed with coal, a form of carbon-based fossil fuel. Much ofthe coal in the Western US is low in sulfur content (lignite), while that found in abundance in theMidwest is higher in sulfur content (bituminous). The trick is to balance the blends of these twocoals to optimize power production while limiting air emissions, particularly of sulfur dioxide(SO2) and nitrous oxides (NO.). In 1986, the US Department of Energy (DOE) launched the"Clean Coal Technology Program" to demonstrate a new generation of innovative coal processes.We can envision a coal "fuel chain," along which steps can be taken that affect the amount of

sulfur and nitrogen emissions released to the atmosphere from the production system. In industrialecology, the goal is to minimize these emissions. Advanced technologies include precombustioncleaning (through physical, chemical, or biochemical means); fluidized bed combustion andadvanced combustors (which clean coal in the process of its combustion); post-combustion"scrubbing" of SO2 and catalytic reduction of NOR, and integrated coal gasification combinedcycles (which use turbines that run on conventional steam and waste gas).

Suggested sources of information:Center for Energy and Economic Development, 1800 Diagonal Road, Suite370, Alexandria,VA 22314. Tel (703) 684-6292; FAX (703) 684 -6297; online at CEEDNet viahttp://www.conx.com/ceed. An 11-minute video called America's Fuel is available onlinewhich describes clean coal technology.National Mining Association, 1130 17th St. N.W., Washington D.C. 20036-4677; telephone(202) 463-2665.Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), P.O. Box 10412, Palo Alto, CA 94303;telephone(510) 934-4212.

Supporting Material 2.2a

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Case Study 2: The Future of Steel Production -- Minimills

Once the world's leading producer of steel, the United States saw its market share dropprecipitously during the 1970s and 1980s. Midwestern cities were hurt by steel mill closures, asjobs vaporized and an increasing stream of foreign-manufactured products entered themarketplace. The large steel mills that lined the south shore of Lake Michigan and elsewhere inthe southern Great Lakes region -- belching smoke and acidic emissions and consuming vastquantities of coke, iron ore, and other inputs -- attested to the failure of Big Steel to adapt to achanging economic landscape and technological developments. For many years, Big Steel failedto modernize its plants, even though the adoption of new production technologies could havelessened the industry's environmental impacts and improved its efficiency. Big Steel and itsindustrial-social culture seemed destined -- in the US at least -- to go the way of the dinosaurs.

The integrated steel mill of the past serves as a perfect example of an immature industrialecology -- closer to the Type I than Type II model of Graedel (1994). Its problem was waste,including wasteful material inputs (virgin ore and coke), wasteful conversions of energy (relianton high-sulfur coal for coke in blast furnaces), wasteful outputs (sulfurous emissions and otheratmospheric pollutants), and wasteful human inputs (top-heavy management and lowproductivity).

During the 1980s, a new model developed that turned the tide for American steel

II)manufacturing -- the steel minimill. Richard Preston (1991) traces the rise of the minimill in aseries of articles published in the New Yorker. Preston's particular focus is the Nucor SteelCorporation and its revolutionary process for continuous snip production of sheet metal Thephenomenon is important both from an economic geography perspective (with its implications forinternational trade, regional development, and location theory) and from an industrial ecologyperspective. From the latter perspective, minimills represent small-scale installations whosematerial inputs come from scrap steel; hence, minimills serve as materials recyclers. They useelectric arc furnaces instead of coal-fired blast furnaces, greatly reducing the energy inputs perunit of steel output, and having the potential to reduce atmospheric emissions.

Suggested Sources of Information (see References to All Units for complete citations)On the future of the steel industry in general: Baker, 1994b, 1995a; Boyd, et aL, 1993; Clash,1994; Church, 1994; Hogan, 1991; Miles, 1988; Ohasi, 1992; and Smith, 1995.On Nucor Steel Corporation in particular: Alexander, 1994; Baker, 1994a, 1995b; Boston,1990; Brody, 1988; Lubove, 1993; Pare, 1991; Schroeder and Konrad, 1990; Wofford, 1995.


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Case Study 3: Recycling Scrap: Municipal Solid Waste and Waste-to-Energy

There has been a growing recognition that the "waste stream" of municipal solid waste(MSW) represents an abundance of materials that can be reused or recycled. In particular,organic materials comprise a significant proportion of MSW and can provide a source of fuel.The process of turning waste material into an energy source is known in the industry as "waste-to-energy"(WTE). The industrial ecology cycle involved in WTE is fairly straightforward.Organic material in MSW is separated from non-combustible material, then incinerated in a WTEplant. Combustion of this organic fuel produces thermal energy that is harnessed using a steamturbine to drive an electric generator. Advanced technologies are used to capture the sulfur andNOx byproducts, preventing them from leaving the plant.

The electrical power thus produced can be sold to the local power grid, and the uncombustedsolid wastes (recyclable metals, compostable matter, glass, rock) can be sold elsewhere makingthe WTE business lucrative. The overall reduction in solid waste that has to be sent to a landfill isa credible environmental benefit. The appeal of WTE from MSW is great, given our industrialecology perspective, and our recognition that technology change can serve as a positive guidingforce for global change. There were approximately 125 WTE plants in the United States in 1995and they appear to be growing in popularity (Arrandale 1993; Charles and Kiser 1995; Hocker1991; Williams 1990).

Additional Sources of InformationSolid Waste Technologies (formerly Solid Waste & Power) is a trade journal with a wealth ofinformation on the solid waste industry including companies, services, and products. Eachyear, its annual special issue Industry Sourcebook provides company profiles and a guide toover fifty organizations that provide technical assistance, information, or other supportfunctions for the solid waste industry.Power Plays, by Susan Williams, is a database of renewable energy developers, with particularfocus on MSW WTE producers ( $150 softbound, $200 hardbound available from InvestorResponsibility Research Center, P.O. Box 50, Plainfield, NH 03781; telephone 603-675-9274)A catalog of government publications is available from the US Environmental ProtectionAgency, Catalog of Hazardous and Solid Wastes Publications (EPA 530-B-95-001 Sept.1995)Online Sources:

- EPA Fact Book (http://www.epa.gov or http://www.cainet/recyclellin.dexhtml)- Recyclers World (http://www.recycle.net/recycle/index/index/html)- Use Less Stuff( http : / /www.com.ch.as.msen.com:70 /1 /vendor /cygnus/uls)- Also, the US Department of Energy (DOE) and the Solid Waste Association of North

America (SWANA) maintain websites; access may be gained by typing "municipal solidwaste" in a netsearch.


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Case Study 4: Energy Crops and a New Role for Industrial Agriculture

A promising alternative to unsustainable hydrocarbon fuels may come from the farm. Thebiomass produced by plants represents stores of chemical energy, fixed through their metabolic

processes and powered by the photosynthesis of CO2 and H2O. Plant tissues can be convertedinto thermal energy through combustion, which releases CO2. In biomass energy conversion,however, there is the possibility of achieving a Type DI ecology: if the CO2 released duringcombustion is balanced by CO2 taken up by growing plants, then biomass energy can "close theloop" and qualify as an industrial ecology.

Biomass energy stocks are derived from two principle sources -- the production of energycrops and organic wastes. Various grasses, conventional row crops that are rich in starches (e.g.,corn and sorghum), fast-growing trees (or short-rotation woody crops such as hybrid poplar andhoney locust in North America), and wetland species such as cattails and reeds (often used forwastewater treatment) can serve as energy crops. To provide liquid fuels that are especiallyattractive for use in transportation, the carbohydrates in biomass may be distilled to yield alcoholssuch as ethanol, which is already in use in many parts of the American Midwest and throughoutBrazil. Biomass energy production has the potential to protect against soil erosion, establishwildlife habitat, provide versatile and modern energy carriers (in the form of solids, liquids, orgases), and to protect the viability of agricultural communities against increasing urbanization.

Additional Sources of Information (for complete citations, see References to All Units)On ethanol production:

More for Less is a video from the Annenberg/CPB Project film series Race to Save the Planet;it describes the ethanol program in Brazil (approx. 60 minutes in length).See also Goldemberg et al. (1993); Reddy and Goldemberg (1991); and Wyman et aL(1993).On technical problems with biomass conversion, see Hohenstein and Wright (1994); Wright(1994).On economic problems see Turhollow (1994).On environmental problems see Ramney and Mann (1994) and Williams (1994)Also useful is NREL in Review, the periodical produced by the National Renewable EnergyLaboratory, Golden, Colorado.Oak Ridge National Laboratory has a Website on the biofuels feedstock development program(BFDP), URL is http://wwvv.esd.omLgov/bfdp/bfdpmosaic/binmenu.htmlThe addresses of the DOE's five regional biomass energy programs are listed below;Biologue is the industry's trade journal.

. Northeast RegionRichard Handley


1.0

95

CONEG Policy Research Center, Inc.400 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 382Washington, DC 20001(202) 624-8454(202) 624-8463 FAX

Northwest RegionJeff JamesU. S. DOE Seattle Regional Support Office800 5th Avenue, Suite 3950Seattle, WA 98104(206) 553-2079(206) 553-2200 FAX

Southeast RegionPhilip C. BadgerTennessee Valley AuthoritySoutheast Regional Biomass Energy Program435 Chemical Engineering BuildingMuscle Shoals, AL 35660(205) 386-3086(205) 386-2963 FAX

Western RegionDave SwansonWestern Area Power Administration1627 Cole BoulevardP. O. Box 3402Golden, CO 80401(303) 275-1706(303) 275-1707 FAX

Great Lakes RegionFred KuzelCouncil of Great Lakes Governors35 East Wacker Drive #1850Chicago, IL 60601(312) 407-0177(312) 407-0038 FAX


96

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rn

CC11

Supporting Material 2.2b

103

97

The

Ent

ropy

of Y

our

Hom

e

Inpu

tU

seR

euse

or

Rec

ycle

Out

-flo

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sal

(whe

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Phys

ical

Sta

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9810

5

Overhead Originals for Class Discussion of Unit 3

The following pages contain overhead originals that can be used to support the informationpresented in Background Information of Unit 3. The instructor may use these in class tosummarize the information students read in the module or to organize lecture material

Supporting Material 3

99

106

The Total Industrial Ecology Cycle

virginmaterials

extraction

concentratedmaterials

separation,refining

processedmaterials

physical andchemical

preparation

finishedmaterials

forming

finishedcomponents

recycle

fabrication

additionalcomponents

finishedproducts

V

use

obsoleteproducts

Source: Graedel, T. 1994. Industrial ecology: Definition and implementation. In R. Socolow, C.Andrews, F. Berkhout, and V. Thomas, eds. Industrial ecology and global change. Cambridge, MA:Cambridge University Press, his Figure 6. Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge UniversityPress.

Supporting Material 3a

100

1077

A Motor Vehicle Life Cycle

raw materials manufacturing primary use

fluids, partsmaterials,

recycle

body panelswheelcovers,

tires

Platinumon

catalysts

( vehicleassembly

1

platinumrecycling

.tire

incineration/recycling;

( landfill 1 pyrolysis

*-

oil, gas,filler

Note: Rectangles indicate products; ovals indicate processes

Hpolypropylenebumpers

secondary use

lead.plates.plastic

catalystpellets

plastics plasticrecycling : ; products.

autobodysteel

landfill

steelrecycling

steelproducts

Source: France, W. and V. Thomas. Industrial ecology in the manufacturing of consumer motor

vehicle life cycle products. In R. Socolow, C. Andrews, F. Berkhout, and V. Thomas, eds. Industrialecology and global change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, their Figure 4. Reprintedwith the permission of Cambridge University Press.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

° Supporting Material 3b

101

1O8

Life Cycle Dialogue

Mr.

Ms. W:

Mr. M:

Okay, so it's obvious that the major raw material for a paper cup is wood,and the major raw material for polyfoam cups is hydrocarbons, or oil and gas. Theraw extraction of both of these materials involves some well- known impacts. In thefirst case, the clear cutting of extensive areas of watersheds increases the likelihood offlood and drought. In the second case, we are all familiar with the name ExxonValdez, not to mention the daily leakage of oil from coastal refineries and fromdelivery systems.

Interestingly enough, according to my Canadian data, the production of the average10.1g paper cup requires as much hydrocarbon fuel as that of a polyfoam cup. Thetable I provided you shows the petroleum needed per paper cup to be between 2.8 and5.5g, for an average of 4.1g, versus 3.2g for polyfoam.

That is interesting. But I think your data is either incorrect or outdated because myown research has led me to a much lower value for oil use in paper cups. I know thatin the United States today 56% of the energy used in paper production (this is anaverage for all grades of paper) comes from waste biomass. Of the other 44%, onlyabout 8% comes form oil. Only 15% comes from natural gas. The 8% oil amounts toaround 1.7g per cup.

Well, I'd personally agree with those figures for a modem integrated paper mill. But Iknow that lightboard paper from nonintegrated mills requires a bit more fuel,something like 2 to 3 grams per 10-gram paper cup. Also, only half the petroleumused to make polyfoam cups is burned, leaving half still available within the finishedcup if recycled. In the end, paper and polyfoam cups probably leave the same amountof net nonrecycled petroleum.

Ms. 0: Yeah, if the polystyrene is recycled to reuse that other half of fuel .

Mr. H: Well, I had relied on older reference material which was more readable, althoughadmittedly less up to date. I wouldn't be surprised if the fuel use has decreased overthe years, especially in the United States.

Mr. J: Let's move on, then. Could you explain your comparison of the chemicals used in theraw materials category, Mr. H?

Mr. Yes, theinorganicchemicals.used for paper cups include sodium hydroxide, sodiumsulfate, sodium chlorate, sulfuric acid, sulfur dioxide, and calcium dioxidemost ofwhich are used only one time around, without being recycled.

Supporting Material 3. 1

102

1,09

The chemical requirements for the polystyrene foam cup are much smaller. One reasonis that in some of the chemical reactions solid-phase catalysts are used that can reactmany thousands of times over before they have to be replaced.

Ms. 0: Now, for the rest of your table, Mr. H, you show "per metric ton" figures rather than"per cup" figures. How do we compare these?

Mr. H: If you notice at the top of the table, I've listed 10.1g as the average paper cup weight,and 1.5g as the average polyfoam cup weight. So the mass of a paper cup is 6.73times larger. For the data under utilities, water effluent, and air emissions, you mustmultiply the numbers for paper by 6.7 to compare the two on a per-cup basis.

Mr. M:

Mr. H:

Ms. 0:

So, looking at the amount of cooling water used per metric ton of material, we see50m3 of water for paper cups and 154m3 of water for polyfoam cups. To comparethem, multiply 50m3 by 6.7, which gives us 335m3 for paper cups. Thus, a paper cupuse about 2.2 times the cooling water of a polyfoam cup.

Following the same logic, we'd find that the paper cups use 14 times the steam, 44times the electricity, 43 times the waste water effluent, and so on, on a per-cup basis.

About that effluent data -- there are a few things that trouble me. I noticed yourreferences are based on kraft mills in the 1970s which did not treat their effluent thenat all. Today, any US mill would discharge only about 5kg of biochemical oxygendemand (BOD) per metric ton, not 30 to 50 kg. I also think your 5 to 7kg oforganochlorides should be closer to 3kg.

Actually, at least some of the Canadian mills had effluent discharges between 1985 and1989 in the amounts I listed. But I would agree that the American experience inreducing BOD, organochlorides, and the like, has to be much better to meet EPAstandards.

Let's talk about recycling capability for a moment. I've been hearing that paper cupscan't be recycled because the adhesive resin used to hold the paper fibers together isunable to be removed in the repulping process.

Mr. J: That goes for cups with plastic or wax films as well.

Ms. 0: And as far as polystyrene goes, its recycled resin can't legally be reused in foodapplications. Food applications includes disposable cups!

Ms. W: Well now, hold on. Polyfoam can be reused as products other than just food and drinkcontainers. We've got standard packing materials, insulation, flotation billets, patio


Mr. J:

Mr. H:

furniture, etc. All the technical problems with polystyrene recycling are pretty muchtaken care of now. What remains is the expansion of recycling programs.As for paper cups, they in fact can and are being recycled as part of mixed officewasteresin and all. Actually, one of the biggest technical bathers to its recyclabilityis contamination with styrofoam!

The biggest plus I see for paper is that its major raw material, wood, is renewable,whereas oil for polystyrene is not -- at least not on human time scales. And polyfoamcups are basically inert, so they won't biodegrade, where paper will.

Actually, there's increasing evidence that paper does not degrade fully in landfillconditions, especially in dry climates. And when it does degrade, it releases methaneand carbon dioxide in a 2:1 ratio of methane to CO2. And a methane molecule hasfrom 5 to 20 times the greenhouse warming effect of a CO2 molecule.

Ms. 0: But wouldn't the fixing of carbon dioxide by new tree growth compensate for any CO2emissions from degrading paper?

Mr. H: Well, I don't know about that.....

And now your turn


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1Ll

Additional Readings for Critical Briefs

The following readings are selections that have been successfully used as assignments for criticalbriefs. You can substitute these topics and the associated readings for the ones suggested onStudent Worksheet 3.5.

Entropy and Natural Resource ScarcityRifkin, Jeremy. 1989. Entropy: Into the greenhouse world. New York, NY: Bantam, pp.19-114, 207-256, 274-291.Dollog Norman H. 1975. Introduction. From Heat death and the phoenix: Entropy,order, and the future of man. Hlcksville, NY: Exposition Press, pp. xi-xviii.Young, Jeffrey T. 1991. Is the entropy law relevant to the economics of natural resourcescarcity? Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 21: 169-179.

After reading Young's article, students should also read the two Comment papers written inresponse to Young:

Daly, Herman E. 1992. Is the entropy law relevant to the economics of natural resourcescarcity? -- Yes, of course it is! Journal of Environmental Economics and Management23: 91-95.Townsend, Kenneth N. 1992. Is the entropy law relevant to the economics of naturalresource scarcity? Comment. Journal of Environmental Economics andManagement 23:96-100.

Nuclear Energy and Wastes

Berkhout, Frans. 1994. Nuclear power: An industrial ecology that failed? In R. Socolow,C. Andrews, F. Berkhout, and V. Thomas, eds. Industrial ecology and global changeCambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, pp. 319-327.Hafele, Wolf. 1991. Energy from nuclear power. In Energy for planet earth, readingsfrom Scientific American. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman, pp. 95-106.Weinberg, Alvin M. 1991. Is nuclear energy necessary? In T. Goldfarb, ed. Taking sides.Guilford, CT: Dushkin Press.Hayes, Denis. 1991: Nuclear power: The fifth horseman. In T. Goldfarb, ed. Takingsides. Guilford, CT: Dushkin Press.

In addition, ask students to locate at least one secondary reading that focuses on nuclear energyor issues of nuclear waste. They should provide complete bibliographic citations for eachadditional article they use and include a discussion of it in their critical brief


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Industrial Ecology & Fossil FuelsFor this brief ask students to include a discussion of the first three articles below plus one thatthey have selected from those noted with asterisks (**). Students should also locate at least oneadditional reading that focuses on the industrial use of energy. They should provide completebibliographic citations for each additional article they use and include a discussion of it in theircritical brief

Graedel, Thomas. 1994. Industrial ecology: Definition and implementation. In R.Socolow, C. Andrews, F. Berkhout, and V. Thomas, eds. Industrial ecology and globalchange. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 23-41.Fulkerson, William, Roddie R Judkins and Manoj K Sanghvi. 1991. Energy from fossilfuels. In Energy for planet earth, readings from Scientific American. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman, pp. 83-94.Ross, Marc H., and Daniel Steinmeyer. 1991. Energy for industry. In Energy for planetearth, readings from Scientific American. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman, pp. 35-48.**Davis, Ged R. 1991. Energy for planet earth. In Energy for planet earth, readings fromScientific American. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman, pp. 1-10.**Holdren, John P. 1991. Energy in transition. In Energy for planet earth, readings fromScientific American. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman, pp.119-130. Include theassociated chapter, Epilogue: Moving toward greater energy efficiency, by Robert Malpas,pp. 131-132.**Spitler, E. E. 1992. The energy business and conservation. In M. Oelschlaeger, ed.After Earth Day: Continuing the conservation effort. Denton, TX: University of NorthTexas Press, pp. 106-119.

Supporting Material 3. 5a

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Appendix: Suggested ReadingsThe AAG was able to obtain reprint permission from the original publishers for only some ofthereadings suggested in the activities of this module. To avoid copyright problems, we suggest youmake these readings available to your students by putting them on reserve. The followingreadings are enclosed:

Edgington, Stephen. 1995. Industrial ecology: Biotech's role in sustainable development.Bio /Technology 13 (January): 31-35. Reprinted with the permission of Nature America Inc.

Globerman, Steven. 1993. Trade liberalization and the environment. In S. Globerman and M.Walker, eds. Assessing NAFTA: A trinational analysis. Vancouver, Canada: The FraserInstitute, pp. 294-314. Reprinted with the permission of The Fraser Institute and StevenGloberman

Helvarg, David. 1996. The big green spin machine: Corporations and environmental PR. TheAmicus Journal 18,2 (Summer): 13-21. Reprinted with the permission of the NaturalResources Defense Council.

1071.

4

Industrial Ecology: Biotech'sRole in Sustainable

DevelopmentCan an enviromental concept rally business, government, and academia

to work together for long-term economic growth?

In July 1994, the National Science and Technol-ogy Council (Washington, D.C.) rolled out itsplan for the U.S. to regain its global competitiveadvantage over the next 50 years. "Our vision is

of long-term economic growth that creates jobswhile improving and sustaining the environment,"declares its executive summary.' "Reconciling thesegoals requires an environmental technology strategythat helps industry shift from waste management topollution prevention, efficient resource use, andindustrial ecology."

Industrial ecology? While it may sound like vote-getting doublespeak, some say it represents the firstreasonable plan for reconciling technological devel-opment with environmental concerns. So far, lead-ers of business, government, and academia are en-thusiastically supporting it.

What is the driving force behind this new shadeof "green?" "We are in the early phases of a newindustrial revolution," says Joel Hirschhorn(Hirschhorn & Associates, Lanham, MD), a long-time observer of Washington's industrial policies."Technology is beginning to be judged. not only forthe cost of producing the product, but for the cost ofits environmental impact and clean up." Hirschhornsays regulatory commitments to clean up the envi-ronment worldwide, culminating in the U.S. with the1990 Pollution Prevention Act, have driven thisprocess. In his view, these laws have set in motion aparadigmatic shift in which technology's new role isto prevent problems rather than to solve them.

Industrial ecologists are looking to biotechnol-ogy for the tools to enable this revolution. This bodeswell for expanding biotech's applications beyondhealth care to almost any waste-producing industrialprocess. But in the near term, biotech drug makersand those who want to beneed to examine theirown production facilities through the eyes of anindustrial ecologist. For those companies that havealready done so, reduced production costs, fewerregulatory hassles, and the public's enhanced per-ception of their products suggest that this new indus-trial revolution has already begun for themat theirbottom line.

cc0u.LLw

Stephen M. Edgington

Switzerland), who has spent the past year writing abook about industrial ecology,2 the concept in itscurrent form sprang from a Scientific Americanarticle proposing that business should operate morelike biological ecosystems: A network of interrela-tionships in which everything that is produced isused by some organism in the system to support itsown metabolism! The analogy, although never in-tended to be perfect, somehow caught the imagina-tions of a diverse group of academics, governmentpolicy makers, and business people.

"A very basic thing about industrial ecology,"says Erkman, "is that for the first time it gives youthe big picture as opposed to the various segmentedapproaches of environmental groups." Erkman saysthe concept's major theoretical impact was to changethe perception of industry from being opposed tonature to being a part of nature. "Carrying thisbiological metaphor to its logical conclusion sug-gests that industrial systems today are similar to theprimitive ecosystems that first evolved on earth," hesays. "At first there was no recycling, and toxicwastes accumulated to the point where they threat-ened life as it existed." Erkman says that whenmicroorganisms learned to use this wasteby con-

1

FIGURE 1.

Some technologydevelopmentscenarios.'Remediation andrestoration: Treatharmful materials afterthey enter theenvironment. Control:Treat hazardousmaterials before theyenter the environ-ment. Monitoring andassessment: Monitorthe releases ofpollutants. Avoidance:Avoid the productionof environmentallyhazardous materials.

AVOIDANCE

mirtiii MONITORING &ASSESSMENT

O 0M130 O 0

TIME

00

OO

A New ParadigmWhat is this new paradigm for business? Accord-

ing to Suren Erkman (Journal de Geneve, Geneva, Stephen M. Edgingron is senioreditorof Bio/Technology.

Reprinted with the permission of Nature America In 1. 5.

CONTROL

REMEDIATION &RESTORATION

BIC/TECHNOLOGY VOL. 13 JANUARY 1995 31

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Business should

operate more like

biological

ecosystems: A

network of

interrelationships

in which

everything that is

produced is used

by some

organism in the

system to

support its own

metabolism.

verting from anaerobic to aerobic metabolismtheyestablished the first means of using what had beentoxins to support life and to make their waste prod-ucts support other existing life forms. "The idea is toevolve industrial systems like biological systems sothat they too become sustainable in their develop-ment," he says.

In the face of stepped-up government regulationand increased liability, industrial ecology's real sell-ing point for business is that it converts a probleminto a potential revenue stream. Instead of standingat the end of the production pipetrying to catchany potentially hazardous wastethey can nowreengineer the process so that what "comes out of thepipe" finds ready buyers. Forecasts of tighter andtighter profit margins and less reliable raw materialstreams makes the idea of recycling part of their"waste" back into their own production processesvery appealing..

But despite these economic imperatives, a centralquestion that still needs answering is "What are theindustrial equivalents of microorganisms ?" The ques-tion of how one designs industrial processes that candeal with variability in its raw materials is alsocentral to making the system work. This will requirenew technologies that are both more selective andmore adaptive than most machine-driven processesat present. To answer this question, industrial ecolo-gists are looking to biotech applications for answers.

Industrial SymbiosisIndustrial ecologists are fond of pointing to the

biotech company Novo Nordisk (Kalundborg, Den-mark) as a real-world example of how industrialecology's goals might be accomplished. Located in asmall industrial city of 20,000 Novo Nordisk hasworked with other companies to evolve symbioticrelationships over the past 40 years that have resulted inboth reduced costs and lessened environmental impacton the community. The companies have learned how touse each other's "waste" to create viable commercialproducts (see "Making an Industrial Ecology ParkWork").

"People sometimes claim the environment will costmoney," says Novo Nordisk's Jorgen Christensen, sitemanager of the Kalundborg plant, "and that may betrue, but in our case, it has not been sowe have mademoney." Christensen says the process that is now called"industrial ecology," or "industrial symbiosis," beganin Kalundborg, not through the execution of some well-developed plan, but through a series of projects thattook place because they made economic sense.

Christensen thinks it was the close proximity of theindustries involved that was an initial driving force."The fact that these companies are located a few milesfrom each other," he says, "first of all made it economi-cally feasibleif we were 100 miles away from eachother it would not have worked." But Christensen isalso quick to point out that it was also the "mentaldistance" between the employees of the various com-panies that made a significant contribution to its devel-opment. "In a small town like ours," he says, "peopleknow each other: Our children go to the same schools,we compete with each other in sports, we see each othersocially." He says the process started when employeesat these companies beginning to talk informally about

32 810/TECHNOLOGY VOL. 13 JANUARY 1995 116

how they could share resources.Christensen says the initial incentive was not envi-

ronmental but economic. "We saw increased profitsresulting from resource saving, reduction in emissions,and gains in recycling," he says. One by one, theseinitial projects suggested other projects until at somepoint in the 1980s people began to realize that some-thing unique was occurring. "People started saying thatit is nice that we cooperated," says Christensen, "andthen someone said that this is a kind of symbiosis orecology, a local journalist picked it up, then a nationalnewspaper, and soon we were asked to give papers onthis internationally." Christensen says that as a result allthe companies involved are becoming more environ-mentally conscious.

But exactly how much has this alliance of compa-nies saved by joining forces? "Since we are asked thisquestion so often we have tried to make a 'guestimate'of economic benefit," he says. The group calculatesthat, out of a total investment of $60 million, they areannually receiving a $10-12 million payback$120million total so far. "We think the average payback timeis less than five years," he says, "with most of theprojects requiring less time, but a few taking up to sevenyears to begin to show a profit."

Christensen says there are other rewards from imple-menting these systems that are difficult to measure inhard cash. "Novo Nordisk published an environmentalreport in 1994 that it will issue annually," he says. "Ithink the fact that we did that has been well received inmany places." But Christensen is quick to point out thatso far it is the city itself that has received the lion's shareof publicity.

With Novo Nordisk's $2 billion in annual sales and11,000 employees worldwide, it would seem that Novomight want to replicate the successful Kalundborgmodel elsewhere. "It's embarrassing to say that so farwe have not been able to," Christensen says, citing alack of the kinds of proximity that launched theKalundborg site.

Designing for the EnvironmentWhile Kalundborg demonstrates that industrial

ecology's principles can work, businesses must alsodevelop processes to replace those that are heavilypolluting. At present, the chemical and electronicsindustries have led the way in making formal commit-ments to explore this path. This past summer, theAmerican Chemical Society (Washington, D.C.) hostedfour days of presentations under the banner "Design forthe Environment" at their annual meeting. "Traditionalchemistry has been designed to optimize yield withlittle regard for the impact of the chemicals or theprocess on the environment," says coorganizer JoeBreen (Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, Wash-ington, D.C.). "We are trying to promote the ideaamong chemists that designing environmentally be-nign molecules is a better option overall."

In searching for alternati ve synthetic methods, Breensays some elegant solutions are beginning to emergefrom the adaptation of enzymatic processes for specificapplications. Not only does an adaptation like thisdecrease the number of steps in chemical synthesis, butthe geometric orientation that enzymes give chemicalbond formation means maximizing yields and eliminat-ing the racemic mixtures that can produce pollutants

through side reactions. "Instituting enzymatic reac-tions in industrial processes that can eliminate dozensof steps is definitely the trend of the future," he says.

Among drug makers, pharmaceutical giant Hoechst(Frankfurt, Germany) is one of the first to implementthese methods to clean up its processes. "A new law inGermany requires companies to check each productionprocess in order to detect any kind of byproducts thatcould be seen as waste for which there may be somekind of use," says Hoechst's manager, corporate re-search, Dieter Brauer. Hoechst asked a team of tenresearchers to look at alternative processes for produc-

ing cephalosporic acid, a precursor of their antibioticproducts. Working part time, the researchers were ableto develop an enzymatic process within a year and ahalf that was optimized for modifying cephalosporin Einto cephalosporic acid. After another two years ofwork to gain the proper regulatory permissions andmodify the factory, Hoechst found that it had reducedits waste from this process alone from 20 to 2 tons peryear. "Not only that," says Brauer, "but the wasteleft over from this process is nontoxicinstead oftransporting it to another facility we can just burn it."

Brauer says it is difficult to pin down the exact

Making an Industrial Ecology Park Work"We would advise companies that want to form

an industrial park on our model," says Christensen,"to start with a nucleus of two or three companiesthat can trade something." Once the trading systemis worked out among the initial players, other indus-tries can join in. At Kalundborg, the basic units oftrade are water, energy, and waste. Trades need notbe directly reciprocal for the system to work. Forexample, Novo Nordisk delivers nitrogen-richbiomass from its enzyme-fermentation vats forfarmers to use as fertilizer, and its surplus yeastfrom the plant's insulin production process isused as fodder for farm animals. Meanwhile itbuys its steam from the power plant, and itswater from Lake Tisso. Christensen says thebasis for these arrangements has been commer-cially sound agreements that all parties enteredinto voluntarily.

In the U.S., many suggest that current regu-lations on waste make companies hesitant toengage in this kind of exchangethe Environ-mental Protection Agency (EPA, Washington,D.C.) may step in and prohibit the reuse ofthese materials in industrial processes. "I haveheard that there are regulatory barriers to thesensible reuse of waste elsewhere," Christensensays. "Luckily, we have been able to talk to authori-ties here and come to reasonable agreements aboutthese things."

According to Ernie Lowe, of IndigoDevelopment (Oakland, CA), whose com-pany is in the process of developing and retrofittingindustrial parks internationally, these types of rea-sonable agreements may be justaround the corner in the U.S.He says the EPA itself has cometo realize that regulationswhich prevent waste reuse arenot always in their best in-terest. "One of the strongcurrents in thinking atthe EPA is the recogni-tion of the limits ofregulation and how theyact to the detriment of environment," he says. As aresult, Lowe says that the EPA Futures Group hascommissioned his group to write a primer on indus-trial ecology. He says this primer will serve as thefoundation for an EPA-funded industrial park that

will put these principles into action. "The EPAdemonstrates its commitment to these principlesthrough projects like these and through a moresystematic approach to regulation," he says. "Thisshould remove the barriers to the implementation ofKalundborg-like parks in the U.S."

STATOIL REFINERY

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810/TECHNOLOGY VOL. 13 JANUARY 1995 33

A fascinating

possibility is

that biotech

drug makers

will some day

be able to

adapt these

enzymatic

processes to

transform what

are now

chemical waste

streams into

difficult-to-

synthesize

therapeutics.

savings that result from implementing this process."But when we considered the elimination of the costsinvolved in handling hazardous chemicals combinedwith the simplicity of the new factory's design," hesays, "we decided to try and implement the programplantwide."

Brauer has heard that companies like BASF(Ludwigshafen, Germany), Bayer (Leverkusen,Germany), Eli Lilly (Indianapolis, IN), andMonsanto (St. Louis, MO) are all looking intosimilar processes. "This is a general development inthe field prompted not only by law but by internalinterest," he says. According to Brauer, the majorblock to this type of innovation for existing pro-cesses will not be research and development but theregulatory approvals involved. "Since a pharma-ceutical or an agricultural product may requirehundreds of million of dollars to get product ap-proval, if you want to change the process you mustmost often also repeat all the regulatory trialsit isclear that no one will do that."

Brauer believes that a method is needed to gainregulatory approval for an approved product'sbioequivalence so that all the tests do not have to berepeated. He says that, in the European community,the matter is currently under consideration. "Thereview is absolutely necessary if we are going tomodernize our industries with environmentallyfriendly processes such as engineered enzymes andmicroorganisms," says Brauer.

Drugs from WasteA fascinating possibility is that biotech drug mak-

ers will some day be able to adapt these enzymaticprocesses to transform what are now chemical wastestreams into difficult-to-synthesize therapeutics. TomasHudlicky, in the chemistry department of VirginiaPolytechnic Instate and State University (Blacksburg,VA), says he has already demonstrated this by usingbacteria to produce a variety of potential drugs, includ-ing glycosidase inhibitors434 and the precursors oftaxorpotentially potent cancer therapeutics. "We'vealso just finished working out the synthesis of theanticancer alkaloid pancratistatin in 13 steps," saysHudlicky. "The National Cancer Institute (Bethesda,MD) has requested proposals for this because theywould like to do clinical trials in ovarian cancer andleukemia with it but they can't get enough of the drug."Hudlicky says that so far his group has developed 20or so natural compounds and carbohydrates throughthese biocatalytic synthesis methods.

Despite these successes, Hudlicky thinks thatthe U.S. academic community has been less-than-

' receptive to his discoveries. "The U.S. is not exactlythe center of open mindedness when it comes tothese methods," he says. "So far, the National Insti-tutes of Health (NIH, Washington, D.C.) has re-jected 10 grant proposals I've submitted relatingsynthetic chemistry and biology." Hudlicky saysthat while Europeans have caught on to these meth-ods, his NIH study section reviewers don't see it asnew chemistry. "The people who review these grantsact as if they did not want this type of chemistry tobe available," he says. "Traditional synthesis ofthese compounds usually requires 30-plus steps, butour methods get you to the same place in six or seven."

34 BIOTECHNOLOGY VOL. 13 JANUARY 1995

118

Hudlicky feels fortunate that individual review-ers at the National Science Foundation (NSF, Wash-ington, D.C.) are not of the same mind as NIH grantreviewers. The NSF, through a joint program withthe EPA called the "Environmentally Benign Syn-thesis Initiative," is funding his work. But to makeresearch ends meet, he has been forced to findsupport elsewhere. At present, Mallinckrodt (St.Louis, MO), and Genencor International (So. SanFrancisco, CA) are also supporting his research.

Genencor's Gregg Whited is particularly upbeatabout the potential of Hudlicky's waste-stream-de-rived products. "There is tremendous potential there,once the microbiology gets polished up," he says. Asfor funding problems for this type of work, Whited saysGenencor's history of working with enzymatic pro-cesses has taught him that there is an inherent resistancebetween chemists and biologists when it comes tocoming up with the best way to make a compound. "Forsome reason," he says, "the traditional view is that ifyou can't order it from Sigma (St. Louis, MO) it's justnot real."

Whited says he has had the experience of presentingbiocatalytic reactions to chemists and have them leavethe room without a question. But when he shows asimilar group the same reactions without mentioningthey are enzymatically catalyzed, they are fascinated.He says what will eventually turn it around is whenchemists become convinced that the enzymatic reac-tion is the cheaper way of doing things. He thinksHudlicky's work will help move them in that direction.

ConclusionsBy considering industrial ecology, companies plan-

ning to build new facilities may find more cost-effec-tive ways to set up their processing sites that not onlyreduce energy consumption but turn waste streams intoprofit. Researchers looking for new challengeswhether entrepreneurial or scientificmay find a readymarket for translating their drug-development skillsinto environmental applications. New drug manufac-turing strategies may even emerge as byproducts ofindustrial ecology strategies. The greatest short-termbenefit the biotech industry may get from developingnew products from waste streams is widespread publicsupport for an industry that delivers on going "green."

References1. Technology for a Sustainable Future. 1994. Washington, D.C.:

Office of Science and Technology Policy.2. Erkman. S. 1994. Ecologic industrielle, metabolisme industriel, et

societe d'utilisation. In press.3. Frosch. R.. and N. Gallopoulos. 1989. Strategies for manufactur-

ing. Scientific American 261:144-152.4. Hudlicky, 1..1. Rouden. and H. Luna. 1993. Rational design of aza

sugars via biocatalysis: Mannojirimycin and other glycosidaseinhibitors. J. Org. Chem 58:985-987.

5. Hudlicky, T., J. Rouden, H. Luna, and S. Allen. 1994. Microbialoxidation of aromatics in enantiocontrolled synthesis. 2. J. Am.Chem. Soc. 116:5099-5107.

6. Hudlicky, T., H. Olivo. and B. McKibben. 1994. Microbial oxia,-don of aromatics in enantiocontrolled synthesis. 3. J. Am. ChemSoc. 116:5108-5115.

7. Konigsberger, K., and T. Hudlicky. 1993. Microbial oxidation of2-bromostyrene byPseudomonas putida 39/D. Isolation and iden-tification of metabolites. Tetrahedron: Asymmetry 12:2469-2474.

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earli

er in

Wei

ntra

ub's

cha

pter

for

this

vol

ume.

3Ib

id.,

Ann

exes

913

A-C

.12

2

296

Ass

essi

ng N

AF

TA

oblig

es c

ount

ries

with

"st

rict

er"

envi

ronm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds to

har

mon

ize

thos

e st

anda

rds

with

the

"mor

ela

x" s

tand

ards

of

othe

r trad

ing

part

ners

.O

n th

e co

ntra

ry, c

ount

ries

are

free

to r

aise

thei

r en

viro

nmen

tal

stan

-da

rds

to w

hate

ver

chos

en le

vel

is d

esir

able

.T

o be

sur

e, d

ispu

tes

may

ari

se o

ver

whe

ther

spe

cifi

c en

viro

nmen

tal

prov

isio

ns a

re m

erel

y di

sgui

sed

trad

e ba

rrie

rs.

In d

ispu

tes

rega

rdin

g a

coun

try'

s st

anda

rds

that

rai

sefa

ctua

l iss

ues

conc

erni

ng th

e en

viro

nmen

t, th

atco

untr

y m

ay c

hoos

e to

hav

e th

edi

sput

e su

bmitt

ed to

the

NA

FTA

disp

ute

settl

emen

t pro

cedu

re r

athe

rth

an to

pro

cedu

res

unde

ran

othe

r tr

ade

agre

emen

t suc

h as

GA

TT

. The

sam

e op

tion

is a

vaila

ble

for di

sput

es c

once

rnin

gira

tle m

easu

res

take

nun

der

spec

ifie

d in

tern

atio

nal

envi

ronm

enta

lag

reem

ents

. The

pan

elhe

arin

g th

e di

sput

e w

illpr

esum

ably

see

k to

det

erm

ine

if th

e ac

tion

take

n is

cre

dibl

e on

env

iron

men

tal

(or

rela

ted)

gro

unds

or

whe

ther

itis

tran

spar

ently

a tr

ade

prot

ectio

nist

mea

sure

. In

disp

ute

settl

emen

t, th

eco

mpl

aini

ng c

ount

ry b

ears

the

burd

en o

fpr

ovin

g th

at a

noth

er N

AFT

Aco

untr

y's

envi

ronm

enta

l or

heal

thm

easu

re is

inco

nsis

tent

with

NA

FTA

.In

wha

t is

argu

ably

a ne

w d

epar

ture

for

an

inte

rnat

iona

ltr

ade

agre

emen

t, th

e N

AFT

A c

onta

ins

gene

ral s

tate

men

ts th

at th

e si

gnat

orie

sw

ill w

ork

join

tly to

enh

ance

the

prot

ectio

n of

hum

an, a

nim

al a

nd p

lant

life

and

heal

th a

nd th

een

viro

nmen

t. T

his

oste

nsib

ly r

efer

s to

ear

lier

com

mitm

ents

on

the

part

of

the

nego

tiato

rs to

carr

y on

par

alle

l dis

cus-

sion

s re

gard

ing

envi

ronm

enta

lin

itiat

ives

. The

Agr

eem

ent a

lso

embo

d-ie

s a

gene

ral s

tate

men

t tha

t no

NA

FTA

cou

ntry

sho

uld

low

er it

she

alth

,sa

fety

or

envi

ronm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds f

or th

epu

rpos

e of

attr

actin

g in

vest

-m

ent.

It is

unc

lear

at t

his

time

how

effe

ctiv

ely

this

latte

r cl

ause

can

be

enfo

rced

giv

en th

atco

mpl

aint

s w

ould

hav

e to

be

hand

led

thro

ugh

adi

sput

e re

solu

tion

proc

edur

e. M

oreo

ver,

itis

unc

lear

wha

t sta

ndar

ds o

fev

iden

ce w

ould

be

requ

ired

to "

prov

e" th

at in

vest

men

tpa

ttern

s w

ere

chan

ged

by c

hang

es in

env

iron

men

tal l

aws

and

stan

dard

s.Fi

nally

, as

part

of

the

para

llel t

rack

nego

tiatio

ns, M

exic

o an

d th

eU

.S. a

gree

d in

the

spri

ng o

f 19

92 to

a c

oope

rativ

e pl

an f

orim

prov

ing

the

envi

ronm

ent a

long

the

bord

er. A

spa

rt o

f th

is p

lan,

the

U.S

. gov

ernm

ent

pled

ged

$379

mill

ion

over

two

year

s fo

rva

riou

s ac

tiviti

es, w

hile

the

Mex

ican

gov

ernm

ent's

sha

re is

$466

mill

ion.

Cri

tics

of th

eco

oper

ativ

epl

an h

ave

focu

sed

on tw

o is

sues

inpa

rtic

ular

: (i)

the

failu

re o

f th

e pl

an

Tra

de L

iber

aliz

atio

n an

d tle

Env

ironm

ent

297

to o

utlin

e an

y ne

w r

even

ue-r

aisi

ng m

easu

res

for

bord

er e

nvir

onm

enta

lpr

ogra

ms;

(ii)

the

abse

nce

of a

bin

atio

nal e

nfor

cem

ent g

roup

lega

llyem

pow

ered

to e

nfor

ce p

ollu

tion

law

s on

bot

h si

des

of th

e bo

rder

.'In

sho

rt, t

he N

AFT

A e

mbo

dies

sev

eral

uni

que,

alb

eit g

ener

al c

om-

itmen

ts to

pro

tect

the

envi

ronm

ent a

nd to

ens

ure

that

env

iron

men

tal

amen

ities

are

not

sac

rifi

ced

to a

ttrac

t cap

ital i

nves

tmen

t. T

he la

tter

com

mitm

ent i

s an

obv

ious

obe

isan

ce to

arg

umen

ts r

aise

d by

cri

tics

ofN

AFT

A th

at "

envi

ronm

enta

l dum

ping

" w

ill ta

ke p

lace

, whe

reby

toxi

cfi

rms

relo

cate

to M

exic

o to

eva

de s

tric

ter

enfo

rcem

ent o

f en

viro

nmen

tal

stan

dard

s in

the

Uni

ted

Stal

es a

nd C

anad

a. P

reci

sely

how

and

to w

hat

exte

nt th

ese

com

mitm

ents

will

be

carr

ied

out i

n pr

actic

e is

unc

lear

at t

hepr

esen

t tim

e. I

ndiv

idua

l cou

ntri

es r

etai

n so

vere

ignt

y ov

er th

eir

dom

es-.

tic h

ealth

and

saf

ety

stan

dard

s, a

lthou

gh th

ese

stan

dard

s ca

n be

cha

l-le

nged

as

unw

arra

nted

trad

e re

stri

ctio

ns.

Eco

nom

ic I

ncen

tives

and

the

Env

iron

men

tIt

is c

lear

that

the

NA

FTA

,pe

r se

,do

es n

othi

ng d

irec

tly to

wea

ken

envi

ronm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds a

nd th

eir

enfo

rcem

ent i

n th

e m

embe

r co

un-

trie

s. T

hat i

s, c

ount

ries

are

fre

e to

str

engt

hen

thei

r en

viro

nmen

tal l

aws

and

enfo

rcem

ent e

ffor

ts a

s lo

ng a

s "l

egiti

mat

e" e

nvir

onm

enta

l obj

ec-

tives

arc

bei

ng p

ursu

ed. H

ence

, pot

entia

l env

iron

men

tal o

bjec

tions

toN

AFT

A m

ust b

e ba

sed

on th

e ad

vers

e im

pact

s th

at tr

ade

liber

aliz

atio

nha

s, d

irec

tly o

r in

dire

ctly

, on

envi

ronm

enta

l am

eniti

es. I

n th

is s

ectio

n,w

e co

nsid

er th

e po

tent

ial f

or s

uch

impa

cts.

The

rel

atio

nshi

p be

twee

n ec

onom

ic a

ctiv

ity a

nd th

e en

viro

nmen

tca

n be

mad

e m

ore

expl

icit

by n

otin

g th

at a

ll ec

onom

ic a

ctiv

ities

invo

lve

the

tran

sfor

mat

ion

of s

peci

fic

inpu

ts in

to s

peci

fic

outp

uts.

Som

e of

the

inpu

ts u

tiliz

ed w

ill b

e cl

osel

y re

late

d to

env

iron

men

tal a

men

ities

suc

has

cle

an a

ir a

nd c

lean

wat

er. F

or e

xam

ple,

the

activ

ities

in q

uest

ion

mig

ht u

tiliz

e w

ater

as

a di

rect

inpu

t in

the

prod

uctio

n pr

oces

s or

they

4Fo

r a

deta

iled

disc

ussi

on o

f th

e bo

rder

env

iron

men

tal p

lan,

see

Jan

Gilb

reat

h R

ich,

Pla

nnin

g th

e B

orde

r's F

utur

e: T

he M

exic

an-U

.S. I

nteg

rate

dH

orde

,. E

nvir

onm

enta

l Pla

n, A

ustin

: The

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

exas

, I.J

3J S

choo

l of

Publ

ic A

ffai

rs, U

.S.-

Mex

ican

Occ

asio

nal P

aper

No.

1, M

arch

199

2.

_12

312

4

298

Ass

essi

ng N

AF

TA

mig

ht u

se w

ater

indi

rect

ly, e

.g. b

y du

mpi

ng w

aste

byp

rodu

cts

into

near

by w

ater

way

s. I

t is

diff

icul

t to

be p

reci

se in

def

inin

g en

viro

nmen

tal

amen

ities

, sin

ce w

hat i

s in

clud

ed in

the

defi

nitio

n w

ill d

epen

d, in

par

t,up

on th

e ta

stes

and

pre

fere

nces

of

the

indi

vidu

al o

ffer

ing

the

defi

nitio

n.Fo

r ex

ampl

e, s

ome

mig

ht o

pt f

or a

bro

ad d

efin

ition

incl

udin

g cl

ean

air

and

wat

er, t

he p

rese

rvat

ion

of b

iodi

vers

ity, t

he p

rese

rvat

ion

of w

ilder

-ne

ss a

reas

and

so

fort

h. O

ther

s m

ight

opt

for

a n

arro

wer

def

initi

on.

For

purp

oses

of

this

dis

cuss

ion,

we

do n

ot n

eed

to d

efin

e en

viro

n-m

enta

l am

eniti

es p

reci

sely

; how

ever

, it i

s us

eful

to b

e ab

le to

thin

k of

thes

e am

eniti

es a

s be

ing

divi

sibl

e an

d as

bei

ng "

used

up"

by

spec

ific

econ

omic

act

iviti

es to

a g

reat

er o

r le

sser

ext

ent.

In th

is c

onte

xt, t

rade

liber

aliz

atio

n w

ould

dam

age

the

envi

ronm

ent t

o th

e ex

tent

that

itac

cele

rate

d th

e ra

te a

t whi

ch e

nvir

onm

enta

l am

eniti

es a

re u

sed

up. 1

3yth

e sa

me

toke

n, o

ther

eco

nom

ic a

ctiv

ities

can

hav

e th

e ef

fect

of

incr

eas-

ing

avai

labl

e en

viro

nmen

tal i

nput

s, e

.g. w

ater

trea

tmen

t pro

cedu

res

whi

ch r

educ

e ch

emic

al a

nd o

ther

pol

luta

nts

in w

ater

way

s.In

this

con

text

, the

re a

re s

ever

al w

ays

in w

hich

eco

nom

ic a

ctiv

ityca

n af

fect

the

envi

ronm

ent.

Mos

t dir

ectly

, an

incr

ease

in th

e ov

eral

l lev

elof

eco

nom

ic a

ctiv

ity w

ould

pre

sum

ably

lead

to a

n in

crea

se in

the

utili

zatio

n of

env

iron

men

tal i

nput

s. C

hang

es in

the

mix

of

econ

omic

activ

ities

can

lead

eith

er to

incr

ease

s or

dec

reas

es in

the

utili

zatio

n of

envi

ronm

enta

l inp

uts.

For

exa

mpl

e, a

s re

al in

com

es r

ise,

the

dem

and

for

envi

ronm

enta

l am

eniti

es s

houl

d in

crea

se. W

hile

the

incr

ease

inde

man

d m

ay b

e re

lativ

ely

smal

l at l

ow le

vels

of

inco

me,

it c

an b

eex

pect

ed to

incr

ease

at a

fas

ter

rate

as

a na

tion

beco

mes

wea

lthie

r. I

nm

ore

tech

nica

l ter

ms,

the

inco

me

elas

ticity

of

dem

and

for

envi

ronm

en-

tal i

nput

s is

arg

uabl

y po

sitiv

e an

d la

rger

at h

ighe

r le

vels

of

inco

me.

' If

dem

and

turn

s st

ron

gly

in th

e di

rect

ion

of c

onsu

min

g m

ore

envi

ronm

en-

tal a

men

ities

, it i

s qu

ite p

ossi

ble

that

incr

ease

d le

vels

of

econ

omic

activ

ity (

and

resu

lting

incr

ease

s in

inco

me

leve

ls)

may

lead

to o

vera

llde

crea

ses

in th

e ut

iliza

tion

of e

nvir

onm

enta

l inp

uts.

°

5In

com

e el

astic

ity o

f de

man

d is

def

ined

as

the

perc

enta

ge c

hang

e in

the

quan

tity

dem

ande

d of

a s

peci

fic

good

div

ided

by

the

perc

enta

ge c

hang

e in

real

inco

me.

6T

hat i

s to

say

, a s

hift

tow

ards

a m

ix o

f "c

lean

er"

activ

ities

mig

ht o

ffse

t the

125

Tra

de L

ibem

lizat

io a

nd th

e E

nviro

nmen

t29

9

Ord

inar

ily th

ere

will

be

seve

ral

diff

eren

t way

s to

pro

duce

a g

iven

prod

uct.

Put i

n ot

her

wor

ds,

seve

ral e

cono

mic

act

iviti

es m

ay r

esul

t in

the

sam

e or

sim

ilar

prod

ucts

bei

ng p

rodu

ced.

The

act

iviti

es d

iffe

r in

the

sens

e th

at d

iffe

rent

mix

esof

fac

tor

inpu

ts a

re u

sed;

e.g

. som

e us

e m

ore

labo

ur r

elat

ive

to c

apita

l, so

me

use

mor

e ca

pita

lre

lativ

e to

labo

ur a

nd

so f

orth

. In

this

con

text

, som

e ac

tiviti

es m

ay u

seen

viro

nmen

tal r

e-

sour

ces

mor

e in

tens

ivel

yth

an o

ther

s. A

s no

ted

abov

e, a

s in

com

esin

crea

se, m

embe

rs o

f a

soci

ety

in th

eir

role

s as

bot

h co

nsum

ers

and

vote

rs w

ill li

kely

spe

nd a

n in

crea

sing

shar

e of

thei

r in

com

es o

n ac

tiviti

es

whi

ch u

se r

elat

ivel

y sm

all a

mou

nts

ofen

viro

nmen

tal i

nput

s.D

iffe

rent

way

s to

pro

duce

any

giv

en p

rodu

ct m

ay p

ersi

stfo

r pe

ri-

ods

of ti

me,

eve

n if

som

e w

ays

are

clea

rly

less

eff

icie

nt th

an o

ther

s,

beca

use

inef

fici

ent p

rodu

cers

may

be

subs

idiz

ed o

r ot

herw

ise

prot

ecte

d

by th

e go

vern

men

t.In

crea

sed

com

petit

ion

can

be e

xpec

ted

to c

hang

eth

e m

ix o

f ac

tiviti

es in

use

. Spe

cifi

cally

,ac

tiviti

es w

hich

are

hig

h co

st

rela

tive

to o

ther

act

iviti

es p

rodu

cing

sim

ilar

prod

ucts

shou

ld b

e dr

iven

out o

f th

e ec

onom

y. I

n th

is r

espe

ct,t

rade

libe

raliz

atio

n ca

n be

exp

ecte

d

to le

ad to

suc

h a

ratio

nalis

atio

nof

pro

duct

ion

with

in a

pro

tect

ed e

con-

omy,

at l

east

on

the

mar

gin.

One

can

fit

the

"env

iron

men

tal d

umpi

ng"

argu

men

tint

o th

e fr

ame-

wor

k su

gges

ted

in th

e pr

eced

ing

para

grap

h. S

peci

fica

lly,pr

ior

to f

ree

trad

e, it

may

be

chea

per

to p

rodu

ce a

pro

duct

in th

e U

.S. t

han

in M

exic

o,

even

if c

erta

in c

osts

asso

ciat

ed w

ith e

nvir

onm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds m

ust b

e

born

e in

the

U.S

., be

caus

e of

rel

ativ

ely

high

U.S

. tar

iffs

on

Mex

ican

impo

rts.

If

thes

e ta

riff

s ar

eel

imin

ated

, pro

duce

rs m

ay f

ind

that

it is

chea

per

to m

ove

from

the

U.S

. to

Mex

ico

in o

rder

to a

void

cos

ts o

f

com

plyi

ng w

ithen

viro

nmen

tal s

tand

ards

.' In

eff

ect,

a re

duct

ion

in

prot

ectio

n in

the

U.S

. mig

htle

ad to

the

subs

titut

ion

of o

ne s

et o

fac

tiviti

es, i

.e. p

rodu

ctio

n in

Mex

ico,

for

anot

her

set o

f ac

tiviti

es, p

rodu

c-

tion

in th

e U

.S.,

hold

ing

the

prod

uct c

onst

ant.

impa

ct o

f an

incr

ease

inth

e ov

eral

l lev

el o

f ec

onom

ic a

ctiv

ity.

Not

e th

at it

may

not

be

less

cos

tly in

aso

cial

sen

se if

the

cost

s of

envi

ronm

enta

l ext

erna

litie

s ar

e pr

oper

ly a

ttrib

uted

to p

rodu

ctio

nin

Mex

ico.

126

300

Ass

essi

ng N

AFT

A

It s

houl

d be

not

ed th

at a

"re

vers

e du

mpi

ng"

argu

men

t can

als

o be

mad

e. N

amel

y, tr

ade

liber

aliz

atio

n m

ight

itse

lf -

prom

ote.

mar

ket o

ri-

ente

d re

form

s in

dom

estic

eco

nom

ic p

olic

ies

incl

udin

g re

duct

ions

ingo

vern

men

t sub

sidi

es a

nd o

ther

pri

cing

dis

tort

ions

. Suc

h re

form

s, in

turn

, cou

ld r

esul

t in

a su

bstit

utio

n of

less

env

iron

men

tally

dam

agin

gac

tiviti

es f

or m

ore

envi

ronm

enta

lly d

amag

ing

activ

ities

. Pro

babl

y th

em

ost r

elev

ant c

ase

in p

oint

her

e ar

e su

bsid

ies

exte

nded

by

man

y de

vel-

opin

g co

untr

ies

to e

nerg

y in

tens

ive

activ

ities

suc

h as

tran

spor

tatio

n an

dhe

avy

man

ufac

turi

ng.8

If

trad

e lib

eral

izat

ion

agre

emen

ts le

ad to

a r

e-du

ctio

n in

trad

e di

stor

ting

subs

idie

s, a

n im

port

ant b

ypro

duct

mig

ht b

ere

duce

d en

viro

nmen

tal p

ollu

tion,

sin

ce h

eavi

ly p

ollu

ting

activ

ities

,w

hich

are

oft

en th

e fo

cus

of g

over

nmen

t sub

sidi

es in

dev

elop

ing

coun

-tr

ies,

wou

ld b

ecom

e re

lativ

ely

less

pro

fita

ble.

In th

e ne

xt s

ectio

n, w

e co

nsid

er e

mpi

rica

l evi

denc

e be

arin

g up

onth

ese

pote

ntia

l lin

kage

s. T

he f

oreg

oing

dis

cuss

ion

sugg

ests

that

two

pote

ntia

l lin

kage

s ar

e pa

rtic

ular

ly r

elev

ant:

(i)

trad

e lib

eral

izat

ion

lead

sto

hig

her

inco

me

leve

ls w

hich

aff

ect b

oth

the

aggr

egat

e le

vel o

f ov

eral

lec

onom

ic a

ctiv

ity, a

s w

ell a

s th

e m

ix o

f ec

onom

ic a

ctiv

ities

; (ii)

the

pote

ntia

l for

pol

lutio

n in

tens

ive

activ

ities

to m

igra

te to

Mex

ico

as a

resu

lt of

low

er ta

riff

s in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es a

nd C

anad

a co

unte

rbal

ance

dby

the

pote

ntia

l for

mar

ket r

efor

ms

in M

exic

o to

dis

cour

age

pollu

tion-

inte

nsiv

e ac

tiviti

es e

ither

dir

ectly

, or

indi

rect

ly.

Evi

denc

e on

Lin

kage

s be

twee

nT

rade

and

the

Env

iron

men

tA

s no

ted

abov

e, o

ne p

oten

tially

impo

rtan

t lin

kage

bet

wee

n tr

ade

liber

-al

izat

ion

and

the

envi

ronm

ent o

ccur

s th

roug

h th

e im

pact

of

high

erle

vels

of

econ

omic

act

ivity

. Spe

cifi

cally

, tra

de li

bera

lizat

ion

can

beex

pect

ed to

res

ult i

n a

fast

er e

xpan

sion

of

the

econ

omie

s of

the

free

trad

e

8O

bser

vers

hav

e no

ted

that

in m

any

deve

lopi

ng c

ount

ries

, in

part

icul

ar,

delib

erat

e "u

nder

pric

ing"

of

petr

oleu

m p

rodu

cts,

che

mic

al f

ertil

izer

s an

dth

e lik

e en

cour

ages

the

adop

tion

of e

nvir

onm

enta

lly in

tens

ive

prod

uctio

nte

chni

ques

. See

Kym

And

erso

n an

d R

icha

rd B

lack

hurs

t, "T

rade

, the

Env

iron

men

t and

Pub

lic P

olic

y,"

in K

ym A

nder

son

and

Ric

hard

Bla

ckhu

rst,

eds.

, The

Gre

enin

g of

Wor

ld T

rade

Iss

ues,

New

Yor

k: H

arve

ster

Whe

atsh

eaf,

199

2, p

p. 3

-22.

127

Tra

de L

iber

aliz

atio

n an

d th

e E

nvir

onm

ent

301

area

than

wou

ld o

ther

wis

e ta

kepl

ace.

As

a co

nseq

uenc

e, th

ere

will

be

an e

ven

grea

ter

dem

and

for

allf

acto

rs o

f pr

oduc

tion

incl

udin

g en

viro

n-

men

tal a

men

ities

.A

t the

sam

e tim

e, h

ighe

r re

al in

com

ele

vels

sho

uld

enco

urag

e, a

t

som

e po

int,

incr

ease

d pr

ivat

ean

d pu

blic

dem

and

for

grea

ter

envi

ron-

men

tal a

men

ities

, and

the

incr

ease

d w

ealth

asso

ciat

ed w

ith f

aste

r ec

o-

nom

ic g

row

th e

nhan

ces

the

fina

ncia

l cap

aciti

esof

soc

ietie

s to

inve

st in

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

tect

ion

and

rem

edie

s.T

he f

oreg

oing

sug

gest

s th

at th

e re

latio

nshi

pbe

twee

n re

al in

com

e

leve

ls a

nd e

nvir

onm

enta

l pol

lutio

n m

ay n

otbe

line

ar. T

hat i

s, o

ver

an

initi

al r

ange

, the

dom

inat

ing

infl

uenc

e is

the

over

all l

evel

of

econ

omic

activ

ity. B

ut b

eyon

d so

me

poin

t, th

e ch

angi

ngm

ix o

f ac

tiviti

es to

war

ds

less

pol

lutin

g on

es w

ill c

ome

to b

eth

e do

min

atin

g in

flue

nce.

The

"sw

itcho

ver

poin

t" is

ulti

mat

ely

an e

mpi

rica

lis

sue.

Ava

ilabl

e st

udie

s pr

ovid

e su

ppor

t for

the

hypo

thes

isth

at th

e de

-

man

d fo

r a

clea

ner

and

heal

thie

r en

viro

nmen

tis

stro

ngly

and

pos

itive

ly

rela

ted

to h

ighe

r re

al in

com

e le

vels

, at l

east

beyo

nd s

ome

thre

shol

d

inco

me

leve

l. Fo

r ex

ampl

e, G

ross

man

and

Kru

eger

cor

rela

ted

the

leve

l

of s

ulph

ur d

ioxi

de a

nd s

mok

e w

ith p

erca

pita

inco

me

and

foun

d th

at

the

leve

l of

pollu

tion

rise

s un

til in

com

ere

ache

d $5

,000

per

hea

d (i

n 19

88

dolla

rs)

and

then

sta

rts

to f

all.9

By

way

of

back

grou

nd, M

exic

o's

real

inco

me

leve

l per

cap

ita in

199

1, m

easu

red

as g

ross

dom

estic

pro

duct

per

capi

ta in

U.S

. dol

lars

, was

bel

ow th

is th

resh

old

at$2

,365

. Inc

ome

leve

ls

for

Can

ada

and

the

U.S

. wer

e w

ell a

bove

this

thre

shol

d.In

the

abse

nce

of p

reci

se e

stim

ates

of

the

impa

cts

of tr

ade

liber

aliz

a-

tion

on th

e th

ree

coun

trie

s, it

is im

poss

ible

toin

fer

the

net i

mpa

ct o

f th

e

NA

FTA

on

sulp

hur

diox

ide

emis

sion

s; h

owev

er,a

naly

sts

tend

to a

gree

that

the

maj

or e

cono

mic

impa

cts

of a

NA

FTA

will

be

real

ized

by

Mex

ico.

Hen

ce, i

t is

at le

ast p

laus

ible

to a

rgue

that

sul

phur

em

issi

ons

will

incr

ease

as

a re

sult

of th

e N

AFT

A, a

t lea

stin

the

shor

t run

. How

ever

, to

the

exte

nt th

at N

AFT

A a

ccel

erat

es th

e gr

owth

of th

e M

exic

an e

cono

my,

9Se

e G

ene

Gro

ssm

an a

nd A

lan

Kru

eger

, "E

nvir

onm

enta

lIm

pact

s of

a N

orth

Am

eric

an F

ree

Tra

de A

gree

men

t," P

aper

prep

ared

for

a c

onfe

renc

e on

the

U.S

.-M

exic

o Fr

ee T

rade

Agr

eem

ent,

Prin

ceto

nU

nive

rsity

Pre

ss, O

ctob

er

1991

.

128

Tra

de L

iber

aliz

atio

n an

d th

e E

nvir

onm

ent

303

302

Ass

essi

ng N

AFT

A

it w

ill le

ad to

less

sul

phur

dio

xide

pol

lutio

n in

the

long

run

, sin

ce it

will

shor

ten

the

time

it ta

kes

Mex

ico

to r

each

the

"cro

ssov

er"

inco

me

leve

l.It

mig

ht b

e no

ted

that

est

imat

es b

y th

e W

orld

Ban

k al

so in

dica

te a

curv

iline

ar r

elat

ions

hip

betw

een

the

aver

age

ambi

ent l

evel

of

sulp

hur

diox

ide

and

real

inco

me

per

capi

ta; h

owev

er, t

heW

orld

Ban

k pl

aces

the

switc

hove

r in

com

e le

vel a

t clo

ser

to $

2,50

0.10

Thi

s es

timat

e w

ould

sug

-ge

st th

at th

e ef

fect

s of

the

NA

FTA

are

like

ly to

be

beni

gnin

bot

h th

esh

ort a

nd lo

ng r

un, s

ince

Mex

ico

will

cros

s th

is in

com

e th

resh

old

in th

ene

ar f

utur

e w

ith o

r w

ithou

t a N

AFT

A in

pla

ce.

Som

e ad

ditio

nal e

vide

nce

on th

e re

latio

nshi

pbe

twee

n in

com

e le

v-el

s an

d en

viro

nmen

tal a

men

ities

is p

rovi

ded

ina

stud

y by

Wal

ter

and

Uge

low

." B

ased

on q

uest

ionn

aire

s se

nt to

nat

iona

l off

icia

ls in

dev

el-

oped

and

dev

elop

ing

coun

trie

s, th

ey f

ound

that

whi

le th

e st

rict

ness

of

envi

ronm

enta

l pol

icie

s va

ried

with

in e

ach

grou

p, th

e le

vel o

f st

rict

ness

was

non

ethe

less

hig

her,

on

aver

age,

in th

e de

velo

ped

coun

trie

s. T

his

find

ing

is a

lso

cons

iste

nt w

ith o

bser

vatio

ns th

atur

ban

sani

tatio

n te

nds

to b

e an

incr

easi

ng f

unct

ion

of in

com

e at

all

inco

me

leve

ls, w

hile

ambi

ent l

evel

s of

par

ticle

s te

nd to

be

a de

crea

sing

fun

ctio

n of

inco

me

over

vir

tual

ly a

ll in

com

e le

vels

." T

his

latte

r ob

serv

atio

n su

gges

ts th

atN

AFT

A w

ill u

nam

bigu

ousl

y re

duce

pol

lutio

n re

late

dto

sew

age

and

ambi

ent p

artic

les

to th

e ex

tent

that

it a

ccel

erat

esin

com

e gr

owth

inM

exic

o an

d, to

a le

sser

ext

ent,

in C

anad

a an

d th

eU

nite

d St

ates

.T

o be

sur

e, s

ome

form

s of

env

iron

men

tal p

ollu

tion

incr

ease

with

high

er n

atio

nal i

ncom

e le

vels

. For

exa

mpl

e, c

arbo

n-di

oxid

eem

issi

ons

tend

to in

crea

se f

airl

y un

ifor

mly

with

hig

her

inco

me

leve

ls, a

s do

es s

olid

was

te."

The

se o

bser

vatio

ns q

ualif

yan

una

mbi

guou

s co

nclu

sion

that

the

inco

me

effe

cts

of a

NA

FTA

will

eith

er b

e be

nign

or f

avou

rabl

e fo

ren

viro

nmen

tal a

men

ities

in N

orth

Am

eric

a. N

ever

thel

ess,

take

n on

bala

nce,

one

mus

t con

clud

e th

at th

e ec

onom

icgr

owth

stim

ulat

ed b

y a

10Se

e "T

he E

nvir

onm

ent:

Who

se W

orld

Is

It, A

nyw

ay?"

.T

he E

cono

mis

t, M

ay30

, 199

2, p

. 8.

IIIn

go W

alte

r an

d J.

Uge

low

, "E

nvir

onm

enta

l Atti

tude

sin

Dev

elop

ing

Cou

ntri

es,"

Res

ourc

es P

olic

y, V

ol. 4

, 197

8,pp

. 200

-209

.

12Se

e T

he E

cono

mis

t, op

. cit.

13T

he E

cono

mis

t, Q

p. c

it. 29

NA

FTA

may

wel

l be

posi

tive,

on

bala

nce,

for

the

envi

ronm

ent i

n te

rms

of r

educ

ing

the

utili

zatio

n of

env

iron

men

tal a

men

ities

. The

mai

nef

fect

here

is th

e in

crea

sed

dem

and

for

a cl

eane

r en

viro

nmen

t whi

ch is

ass

o-ci

ated

with

a s

hift

ing

away

fro

m p

ollu

tion-

inte

nsiv

eac

tiviti

es."

Ano

ther

impo

rtan

t em

piri

cal r

elat

ions

hip

rela

tes

to th

e en

viro

n-m

enta

l dum

ping

issu

e or

the

relo

catio

n of

pol

lutio

n in

tens

ive

activ

ities

to M

exic

o. A

s no

ted

earl

ier,

one

arg

umen

t hol

dsth

at a

red

uctio

n in

Can

adia

n an

d U

.S. t

arif

fs w

ill, o

n th

e m

argi

n, m

ake

it m

ore

attr

activ

efo

r po

llutin

g fi

rms

to r

eloc

ate

to M

exic

o in

ord

er to

ser

veth

e N

orth

Am

eric

an m

arke

t. A

rel

ated

con

cern

is th

at in

crea

sed

com

petit

ion

asso

-ci

ated

with

trad

e lib

eral

izat

ion

will

lead

dom

estic

pro

duce

rs to

"che

at"

with

res

pect

to o

beyi

ng e

nvir

onm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds o

r th

at it

will

lead

toin

crea

sed

and

effe

ctiv

e lo

bbyi

ng e

ffor

ts to

hav

e en

viro

nmen

tal s

tan-

dard

s re

laxe

d."

The

arg

umen

t tha

t fir

ms

faci

ng th

e co

mpe

titiv

e pr

essu

res

offr

ee

trad

e w

ill a

band

on e

nvir

onm

enta

l res

pons

ibili

tyan

d ig

nore

cod

ifie

d (o

r

unco

difi

ed)

stan

dard

s, i.

e. u

se il

lega

l, po

llutio

n-in

tens

ive

prod

uctio

nte

chni

ques

, beg

s th

e qu

estio

n: w

hy w

ould

they

not

als

o ch

eat p

rior

toth

e im

plem

enta

tion

of a

fre

e tr

ade

agre

emen

t if

they

thou

ghtt

hey

coul

ddo

so

with

impu

nity

? Pe

rhap

s th

e ri

sks

of g

ettin

g ca

ught

bec

ome

wor

th

taki

ng w

hen

a fi

rm is

fac

ed w

ith th

e im

min

ent p

rosp

ect o

f ba

nkru

ptcy

;ho

wev

er, w

ides

prea

d in

crea

ses

in r

isks

of

bank

rupt

cy c

anno

tbe

rea

lis-

tical

ly c

onte

mpl

ated

pur

ely

as a

con

sequ

ence

of

NA

FTA

.A

noth

er s

cena

rio

is th

at n

atio

nal g

over

nmen

ts w

ill b

e le

ss in

clin

edto

pas

s an

d en

forc

e en

viro

nmen

tal s

tand

ards

giv

enin

dust

rial

dis

loca

-

tions

and

any

sho

rt-t

erm

incr

ease

s in

une

mpl

oym

ent

asso

ciat

ed w

ithad

just

men

ts to

trad

e lib

eral

izat

ion.

Ind

eed,

gov

ernm

ents

mig

ht r

ely

upon

red

uced

reg

ulat

ion

of b

usin

ess

as a

form

of

"adj

ustm

ent a

ssis

-ta

nce"

for

dom

estic

indu

stri

es. E

quiv

alen

tly, g

over

nmen

tsm

ight

rel

ax

dom

estic

env

iron

men

tal s

tand

ards

in o

rder

to p

erm

it do

mes

ticfi

rms

to

Not

e th

at s

uch

shif

ting

can

refl

ect g

reat

er u

tiliz

atio

n of

pol

lutio

nab

atem

ent

equi

pmen

t or

prac

tices

in a

ctiv

ities

whi

ch h

ither

to w

ere

rela

tivel

ypo

llutio

n

inte

nsiv

e.

15Se

e Pe

ter

Em

erso

n an

d R

aym

ond

Mik

esel

l, N

orth

Am

eric

an F

ree

Tra

de: A

Surv

ey o

f E

nvir

onm

enta

l Con

cern

s, S

an F

ranc

isco

: Pac

ific

Res

earc

h In

stitu

tePo

licy

Bri

efin

g, m

imeo

, Dec

embe

r 19

91.

130

304

Ass

essi

ng N

AFT

A

com

pete

on

a "l

evel

pla

ying

fie

ld"

with

fir

ms

base

d in

cou

ntri

esw

ithw

eake

r en

viro

nmen

tal s

tand

ards

and

/or

enfo

rcem

ent p

ract

ices

.I6

Bot

h th

e en

viro

nmen

tal d

umpi

ng a

nd th

e st

anda

rds

rela

xatio

nar

gum

ents

are

ulti

mat

ely

empi

rica

l iss

ues.

In

both

case

s, e

mpi

rica

lev

iden

ce p

rovi

des

little

sup

port

for

the

argu

men

ts. S

ince

the

bulk

of

the

avai

labl

e ev

iden

ce r

elat

es to

the

envi

ronm

enta

l dum

ping

issu

e,w

e sh

all

revi

ew th

at e

vide

nce

firs

t.O

ne c

ompr

ehen

sive

rev

iew

of

the

envi

ronm

enta

l eco

nom

ics

liter

a-tu

re c

oncl

udes

that

dom

estic

env

iron

men

tal m

easu

res

have

not i

nduc

edin

dust

rial

flig

ht a

nd th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

pollu

tion

have

ns. T

hepr

imar

yre

ason

see

ms

to b

e th

at th

e co

sts

of p

ollu

tion

cont

rol h

ave

not,

in f

act,

loom

ed v

ery

larg

e ev

en in

hea

vily

pol

lutin

g in

dust

ries

(i.e

.on

the

orde

rof

onl

y 1

to 2

.5%

of

tota

l cos

ts in

mos

t pol

lutio

n-in

tens

ive

indu

stri

es).

Such

sm

all i

ncre

men

ts to

cos

ts a

re li

kely

to b

e sw

ampe

d in

thei

rim

pact

on in

tern

atio

nal t

rade

by

othe

r ef

fect

s su

ch a

s di

ffer

entia

ls in

labo

urco

st.° Sp

ecif

ic s

tudi

es c

an b

e ci

ted

to r

einf

orce

this

con

clus

ion.

For

exam

-pl

e, L

eona

rd f

ound

no

evid

ence

in o

vera

ll st

atis

tics

on f

orei

gn in

vest

-m

ents

by

U.S

. com

pani

es a

nd U

.S. i

mpo

rts

of m

anuf

actu

red

good

s th

atke

y hi

gh p

ollu

tion

indu

stri

es h

ave

shif

ted

mor

e pr

oduc

tion

faci

litie

sov

erse

as in

res

pons

e to

env

iron

men

tal r

egul

atio

ns. Y

et in

a f

ew h

igh

pollu

tion,

haz

ardo

us p

rodu

ctio

n in

dust

ries

, env

iron

men

tal r

egul

atio

nsan

d w

orkp

lace

-hea

lth s

tand

ards

hav

e be

com

ea

mor

e pr

omin

ent a

ndpo

ssib

ly d

ecis

ive

fact

or in

indu

stri

al lo

catio

n an

d ha

ve le

d U

.S. f

irm

sto

mov

e pr

oduc

tion

abro

ad. E

xam

ples

of

such

indu

stri

es a

rc th

ose

that

16A

n al

tern

ativ

e ve

rsio

n of

this

arg

umen

t mig

ht h

old

that

sta

ndar

ds in

the

U.S

. and

Can

ada

will

be

"har

mon

ized

dow

nwar

d" to

be

mad

e co

mpa

tible

with

sta

ndar

ds in

Mex

ico.

17Se

e M

aure

en L

. Cro

pper

and

Wal

lace

Oat

es, "

Env

iron

men

tal E

cono

mic

s:A

Sur

vey,

" T

he J

ourn

al o

f E

cono

mic

Lite

ratu

re, V

ol. X

XX

, Jun

e 19

92,

pp.

675-

740.

Ano

ther

mor

e fo

cuse

d lit

erat

ure

revi

ewco

mes

to th

e sa

me

conc

lusi

on, n

amel

y, th

ere

is n

o ev

iden

ce to

sup

port

the

hypo

thes

is th

atm

ore

stri

ngen

t reg

ulat

ions

in o

ne c

ount

ry w

illre

sult

inlo

ss o

fco

mpe

titiv

enes

s, a

nd p

erha

ps in

dust

rial

flig

ht a

nd th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

pollu

tion

have

ns. S

ee J

udith

M. D

ean,

"T

rade

and

the

Env

iron

men

t: A

Surv

ey o

f th

e L

itera

ture

," B

ackg

roun

d Pa

per,

Was

hing

ton,

D.C

.: T

heW

d B

ank,

199

2.

131

Tra

de L

iber

aliz

atio

n an

d lit

e E

nvir

onm

ent

305

prod

uce

high

ly to

xic,

dan

gero

us o

r ca

rcin

ogen

ic p

rodu

cts,

suc

h as

copp

er, z

inc

and

lead

. For

thes

e la

tter

indu

stri

es, e

nvir

onm

enta

l reg

u-la

tions

hav

e co

mbi

ned

with

oth

er c

hang

ing

loca

tion

ince

ntiv

es a

ndec

onom

ic p

robl

ems

to s

peed

inte

rnat

iona

l dis

pers

ion

of c

apac

ity.'"

In a

sim

ilar

vein

, Wal

ter

repo

rts

that

cer

tain

cop

per

smel

ters

, pet

ro-

leum

ref

iner

ies,

asb

esto

s pl

ants

and

fer

ro-a

lloy

plan

ts h

ave

repo

rted

lybe

en c

onst

ruct

ed a

broa

d ra

ther

than

in th

e U

.S. f

or e

nvir

onm

enta

lre

ason

s. M

oreo

ver,

som

e re

cent

Jap

anes

e po

llutio

n-in

tens

ive

indu

stri

esha

ve r

epor

tedl

y be

en c

hann

elle

d to

dev

elop

ing

coun

trie

s in

Sou

thea

stA

sia

and

Lat

in A

mer

ica;

how

ever

, the

re is

no

evid

ence

of

a "m

assi

ve"

envi

ronm

ent-

indu

ced

shif

t in

the

loca

tion

of p

rodu

ctio

n ca

paci

ty. M

ore-

over

, a s

igni

fica

nt a

mou

nt o

f th

e ob

serv

edge

ogra

phic

al m

obili

ty o

fpr

oduc

tion

invo

lves

cas

es w

here

maj

or p

roje

cts

wer

e ab

solu

tely

bar

red

for

envi

ronm

enta

l rea

sons

.°R

ubin

and

Gra

ham

con

clud

e th

at d

urin

g th

e de

cade

of

the

1970

s,du

ring

whi

ch c

ompl

ex e

nvir

onm

enta

l reg

ulat

ions

and

hig

h po

llutio

nco

sts

wer

e im

pose

d on

indu

stri

es, t

he o

vera

ll fo

reig

n in

vest

men

tan

dim

port

tren

ds o

f th

e m

iner

al p

roce

ssin

g, c

hem

ical

and

pul

p an

d pa

per

indu

stri

es d

id n

ot d

iffe

r fu

ndam

enta

lly f

rom

thos

e of

U.S

. man

ufac

tur-

ing

indu

stri

es in

gen

eral

. The

for

mer

indu

stri

es a

re a

rgua

bly

amon

gth

ose

that

sho

uld

have

bee

n m

ost a

dver

sely

aff

ecte

d by

env

iron

men

tal

legi

slat

ion

impl

emen

ted

in th

e U

.S. I

n fa

ct, o

nly

slig

ht s

hift

s at

the

mar

gin

coul

d .b

e de

tect

ed in

thes

e in

dust

ries

. Spe

cifi

cally

, onl

y a

few

U.S

. ind

ustr

ies

with

in b

ranc

hes

of th

e ch

emic

al m

anuf

actu

ring

sec

tor

have

incr

ease

d pr

oduc

tion

over

seas

as

a di

rect

or

indi

rect

res

ult o

fen

viro

nmen

tal r

egul

atio

ns."

18Se

e 11

. Jef

frey

Leo

nard

, Are

Env

iron

men

tal R

egul

atio

ns D

rivi

ng U

.S. I

ndus

trie

sO

Ver

seas

? W

ashi

ngto

n, D

.C.:

The

Con

serv

atio

n Fo

unda

tion,

198

4.

19Se

e In

go W

alte

r, "

Inte

rnat

iona

l Eco

nom

ic R

eper

cuss

ions

of

Env

iron

men

tal

Polic

y: A

n E

cono

mis

t's P

ersp

ectiv

e,"

in S

eym

our

Rub

in a

nd T

hom

as R

.G

raha

m, e

ds.,

Env

iron

men

t and

Tra

de, T

otaw

a, N

ew J

erse

y: A

llanh

eld,

Osm

un a

nd C

o., 1

982.

20Se

e Se

ymou

r R

ubin

and

Tho

mas

Gra

ham

, "E

nvir

onm

ent a

nd T

rade

" in

Rub

in a

nd G

raha

m, e

ds.,

Op.

cit.

132

306

Ass

essi

ng N

AFT

A

Staf

ford

exa

min

ed w

heth

er tr

aditi

onal

fact

ors

such

as

acce

ss to

mar

kets

and

dif

fere

nces

inco

sts

of la

bour

and

mat

eria

lsre

mai

ned

pred

omin

ant i

n m

anuf

actu

ring

-loc

atio

nde

cisi

on-m

akin

g, d

espi

te th

ead

ded

dim

ensi

ons

of e

nvir

onm

enta

l reg

ulat

ions

intr

oduc

ed u

nder

the

Nat

iona

l Env

iron

men

tal P

olic

y A

ct.2

1Pe

rson

al in

terv

iew

s an

d m

aile

dqu

estio

nnai

res

wer

e us

ed to

iden

tify

the

mos

t im

port

ant f

acto

rsin

the

loca

tion

of 1

62 n

ew b

ranc

h pl

ants

of U

.S. c

orpo

ratio

ns. F

or m

ost

of th

ede

cisi

ons

inve

stig

ated

, env

iron

men

tal r

egul

atio

ns d

id n

ot r

ank

amon

gth

e m

ost i

mpo

rtan

t fac

tors

con

side

red.

Whe

n su

ch r

egul

atio

nsw

ere

ofso

me

sign

ific

ance

, unc

erta

intie

s ab

out w

hen

the

nece

ssar

y pe

rmits

wou

ld b

e ob

tain

edw

ere

mor

e im

port

ant t

han

spat

ial v

aria

tions

indi

rect

cost

. Sta

ffor

d co

nclu

des

that

env

iron

men

tal

regu

latio

ns h

ave

had

noco

nsis

tent

eff

ect o

n th

e si

ze o

f th

ese

arch

are

a, th

e nu

mbe

r of

site

sco

nsid

ered

, the

siz

es o

f th

e fa

cilit

ies

built

, or

the

deci

sion

to e

xpan

dex

istin

g pl

ants

ver

sus

build

ing

new

pla

nts.

Bar

tik u

sed

a da

taba

se o

f new

man

ufac

turi

ng b

ranc

h pl

ants

ope

ned

by F

ortu

ne 5

00 c

ompa

nies

bet

wee

n19

72 a

nd 1

978

to d

eter

min

e if

busi

ness

loca

tion

deci

sion

sar

e af

fect

ed s

ubst

antia

lly b

y st

ate

envi

ron-

men

tal r

egul

atio

ns. T

wo

mea

sure

s of

sta

te w

ater

pol

lutio

n re

gula

tions

and

four

mea

sure

s of

sta

teai

r po

llutio

n re

gula

tions

wer

e us

ed a

sva

riab

les.

The

stu

dy d

id n

ot f

ind

any

stat

istic

ally

sig

nifi

cant

eff

ect o

fst

ate

envi

ronm

enta

l reg

ulat

ions

on th

e lo

catio

n of

new

bra

nch

plan

ts.

Eve

n si

zeab

le in

crea

ses

in th

e st

ring

ency

of s

tate

env

iron

men

tal r

egul

a-tio

ns w

ere

foun

d un

likel

y to

hav

ea

larg

e ef

fect

on

loca

tion

deci

sion

s fo

rth

e av

erag

e in

dust

ry; h

owev

er, f

orso

me

high

ly p

ollu

ting

indu

stri

es, t

here

sults

can

not r

ule

out t

he p

ossi

bilit

yof

eff

ects

of

envi

ronm

enta

lre

gu-

latio

n on

pla

nt lo

catio

n.22

Fina

lly, M

cCon

nell

and

Schw

abes

timat

ed a

sta

tistic

al m

odel

toin

vest

igat

e th

e im

pact

of

a va

riet

y of

cou

ntry

cha

ract

eris

tics

on th

elo

catio

ns o

f 50

new

bra

nch

plan

ts in

the

mot

or v

ehic

le in

dust

ry d

urin

gth

e pe

riod

197

3-19

82,

a pe

riod

whe

n th

ere

wer

e w

ide

vari

atio

nsin

21H

owar

d A

. Sta

ffor

d, "

Env

iron

men

tal

Prot

ectio

n an

d In

dust

rial

Loc

atio

n,"

Ann

als

of th

e A

ssoc

iatio

nof

Geo

grap

hers

, Vol

. 75,

198

5,pp

. 227

-240

.22

Tim

othy

Bar

tik, "

The

Eff

ects

of

Env

iron

men

tal

Reg

ulat

ion

on B

usin

ess

Loc

atio

n in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es,"

Gro

wth

and

Cha

nge,

Vol

. 19,

198

8,pp

. 22-

44.

Tra

de L

iber

aliz

atio

n an

d th

e E

nviro

nmen

t30

7

envi

ronm

enta

l reg

ulat

ions

am

ong

regi

ons.

Mos

t of

the

resu

lts in

dica

teth

at e

nvir

onm

enta

l reg

ulat

ions

do

not e

xert

an

impo

rtan

t inf

luen

ce o

nlo

catio

n de

cisi

ons.

At t

he m

argi

n, h

owev

er, t

here

is s

ome

evid

ence

that

firm

s m

ay b

e de

terr

ed f

rom

loca

ting

whe

re th

e oz

one

prob

lem

is s

ever

ean

d em

issi

on c

ontr

ols

are

corr

espo

ndin

gly

stri

ngen

t.23

In s

umm

ary,

the

evid

ence

is q

uite

per

suas

ive

that

geo

grap

hic

dif-

fere

nces

in e

nvir

onm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds a

nd e

nfor

cem

ent h

ave

a re

lativ

ely

smal

l im

pact

on

the

loca

tion

deci

sion

s of

fir

ms.

Ind

eed,

any

sig

nifi

cant

impa

cts

appe

ar to

be

conc

entr

ated

in r

esou

rce-

base

d se

ctor

s th

at a

rear

guab

ly r

eloc

atin

g fr

om th

e U

nite

d St

ates

for

oth

er r

easo

ns a

nyw

ay.

Mor

eove

r, th

ere

are

othe

r lo

catio

ns to

whi

ch th

ese

activ

ities

can

pot

en-

tially

rel

ocat

e w

ith e

nvir

onm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds a

nd e

nfor

cem

ent t

hat a

resu

bsta

ntia

lly w

eake

r th

an in

the

case

of

Mex

ico.

To

be s

ure,

cri

tics

mig

ht a

rgue

that

dif

fere

nces

in e

nvir

onm

enta

len

forc

emen

t bet

wee

n M

exic

o an

d th

e U

nite

d St

ates

are

muc

h m

ore

subs

tant

ial t

han

thos

e be

twee

n di

ffer

ent s

tate

s w

ithin

the

Uni

ted

Stat

esor

, for

that

mat

ter,

bet

wee

n di

ffer

ent d

evel

oped

cou

ntri

es. I

n th

is r

e-ga

rd, i

t sho

uld

be n

oted

that

a n

umbe

r of

the

stud

ies

cite

d ab

ove

cons

ider

pot

entia

l rel

ocat

ion

to o

ther

dev

elop

ing

coun

trie

s. M

oreo

ver,

a st

udy

by th

e U

.S. T

rade

Rep

rese

ntat

ive'

s O

ffic

e co

nclu

des

that

the

smal

l sha

re o

f co

sts

ascr

ibab

le to

pol

lutio

n ab

atem

ent a

nd th

e al

read

ylo

w le

vels

of

U.S

. tar

iffs

in in

dust

ries

fac

ing

high

pol

lutio

n ab

atem

ent

cost

s ar

gue

agai

nst M

exic

o be

ing

a di

ffer

ent c

ase

The

re is

less

dir

ect e

mpi

rica

l evi

denc

e to

app

eal t

o re

gard

ing

the

pote

ntia

l for

env

iron

men

tal s

tand

ards

or

the

enfo

rcem

ent o

f th

ese

stan

-da

rds

to b

e re

laxe

d in

the

deve

lope

d ec

onom

ies

as a

res

ult e

ither

of

incr

ease

d im

port

s fr

om o

ther

cou

ntri

es o

r of

for

mal

eff

orts

to h

arm

oniz

est

anda

rds.

It i

s ce

rtai

nly

rele

vant

to n

ote

that

incr

ease

d im

port

s fr

omde

velo

ping

cou

ntri

es in

Asi

a w

ith m

uch

wea

ker

envi

ronm

enta

l reg

ula-

23V

irgi

nia

McC

onne

ll an

d R

ober

t Sch

wab

, "T

he I

mpa

ct o

f E

nvir

onm

enta

lR

egul

atio

n on

Ind

ustr

y L

ocat

ion

Dec

isio

ns: T

he M

otor

Veh

icle

Ind

ustr

y,"

Lan

d E

cono

mic

s, V

ol. 6

6,19

90, p

p. 6

7-81

.

24O

ffic

e of

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es T

rade

Rep

rese

ntat

ive,

Rev

iew

of U

.S.-

Mex

ico

Env

ironm

enta

l Iss

ues,

Was

hing

ton,

D.C

.: M

imeo

, Oct

ober

199

1.

134

308

Ass

essi

ng N

AFT

A

Lio

ns th

an th

ose

in N

orth

Am

eric

a ha

ve n

ot p

rovo

ked

reve

rsal

s of

envi

ronm

enta

l leg

isla

tion

in th

e U

nite

d St

ates

to d

ate.

"T

he e

xper

ienc

e of

the

Eur

opea

n C

omm

unity

(E

C)

sugg

ests

that

whe

n en

viro

nmen

tal s

tand

ards

dif

fer

acro

ss c

ount

ries

, con

verg

ence

of

stan

dard

s w

ill u

ltim

atel

y ta

ke p

lace

in th

e di

rect

ion

of th

e m

ore

rest

ric-

tive

set o

f st

anda

rds.

By

mid

-199

1, th

e,E

C h

ad a

dopt

ed n

earl

y 30

0 ne

wdi

rect

ives

and

reg

ulat

ions

dea

ling

with

env

iron

men

tal m

atte

rs a

long

with

new

mea

sure

s ap

plyi

ng s

tric

t lia

bilit

y st

anda

rds

in c

ases

invo

lvin

gpo

llutio

n. W

hile

man

y m

embe

r co

untr

ies

argu

ably

hav

e no

t bee

n ag

-gr

essi

ve in

enf

orci

ng th

e E

C e

nvir

onm

enta

l rul

es, p

ress

ure

from

thos

eco

untr

ies

enfo

rcin

g th

e ru

les

and

adop

ting

(hei

r ow

n to

ughe

r an

tipol

-lu

tion

law

s is

app

aren

tly b

ring

ing

abou

t com

plia

nce

by a

ll m

embe

rs."

The

like

lihoo

d of

NA

FTA

trig

geri

ng a

rel

axat

ion

of e

nvir

onm

enta

lst

anda

rds

in th

e U

nite

d St

ates

and

Can

ada

is r

educ

ed b

y th

e fa

cts

that

Mex

ican

impo

rts

are

a re

lativ

ely

smal

l par

t of

tota

l im

port

s an

d, f

urth

er,

that

env

iron

men

tal c

osts

are

a s

mal

l sha

re o

f al

l cos

ts in

vir

tual

ly a

llin

dust

ries

. Fur

ther

mor

e, c

urre

nt p

ress

ures

in th

e U

nite

d St

ates

to r

educ

eth

e bu

rden

of

envi

ronm

enta

l reg

ulat

ions

on

com

pani

es is

cle

arly

dri

ven

by b

road

er m

acro

econ

omic

wea

knes

ses

in th

e U

.S. e

cono

my

rath

er th

anby

impo

rt p

ress

ures

in s

peci

fic

indu

stri

es o

r fr

om s

peci

fic

coun

trie

s.

Ove

rall

Ass

essm

ent o

f N

AFT

A a

ndth

e E

nvir

onm

ent

The

pre

cedi

ng s

ectio

ns s

ugge

st th

at e

xist

ing

argu

men

ts a

bout

NA

FTA

nece

ssar

ily c

ontr

ibut

ing

dire

ctly

or

indi

rect

ly to

a f

urth

er d

egra

datio

nof

env

iron

men

tal a

men

ities

are

bot

h si

mpl

istic

and

arg

uabl

y in

corr

ect.

25A

theo

retic

al m

odel

dev

elop

ed b

y R

ausc

her

conc

lude

s th

at th

e im

plic

atio

nsof

a c

omm

on m

arke

t for

env

iron

men

tal p

olic

y ar

e un

cert

ain.

Whi

le th

ere

will

like

ly b

e a

relo

catio

n of

em

issi

ons

from

one

cou

ntry

to th

e ot

her,

tota

lem

issi

ons

may

be

high

er o

r lo

wer

than

in th

e in

itial

sta

te, i

.e. p

rior

topr

oduc

tion

fact

ors

bein

g m

obile

. See

Mic

hael

Rau

sche

r, "

Nat

iona

lE

nvir

onm

enta

l Pol

icie

s an

d th

e E

ffec

ts o

f E

cono

mic

Int

egra

tion,

" E

urop

ean

Jour

nal o

f Po

litic

al E

cono

my,

Vol

. 7,1

991,

pp.

313

-329

.

26Se

e R

udy

Port

ari,

"Tou

ghen

ed E

nvir

onm

enta

l Reg

ulat

ion

Loo

ms

in th

eE

C,"

Nat

iona

l Und

erw

rite

r, V

ol. 9

5, 1

991,

pp.

52-

53.

135

Tra

de L

iber

aliz

atio

n an

d th

e E

nvir

onm

ent

309

Incr

ease

d po

llutio

n al

ong

the

bord

er b

etw

een

Mex

ico

and

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es is

fre

quen

tly p

oint

ed to

as

a ne

cess

ary

cons

eque

nce

of in

crea

sed

cros

s-bo

rder

com

mer

ce!'

How

ever

, it c

anbe

arg

ued

in th

is r

egar

d th

at

ihe

econ

omic

act

ivity

gen

erat

ed b

y N

AFT

Aw

ill a

ctua

lly e

ncou

rage

less

pollu

tion

alon

g th

e bo

rder

. Thi

s is

bec

ause

the

ince

ntiv

es th

at m

aqui

la

plan

ts n

ow h

ave

to c

ongr

egat

eal

ong

the

bord

er w

ill b

e bl

unte

d by

a

NA

FTA

whi

ch w

ill m

ake

all M

exic

anex

port

s, a

nd n

ot ju

st th

ose

from

maq

uila

pla

nts,

elig

ible

for

tari

ffre

lief

on th

eir

Nor

th A

mer

ican

con

tent

.

Und

oubt

edly

, the

hig

h de

gree

of

cong

estio

nal

ong

the

bord

er h

as

exac

erba

ted

pollu

tion

prob

lem

s(g

iven

lim

itatio

ns o

n th

e ab

ility

of

the

natu

ral e

nvir

onm

ent t

o ab

sorb

pol

lutio

n),w

hile

lim

ited

enfo

rcem

ent o

f

pollu

tion

stan

dard

s, p

artic

ular

ly b

yM

exic

o, h

as c

ontr

ibut

ed to

bor

der-

area

pro

blem

shi

ghlig

hted

by

NA

FTA

cri

tics.

How

ever

,th

e re

leva

nt

issu

e is

whe

ther

NA

FTA

will

exac

erba

te o

r m

itiga

te e

xist

ing

envi

ron-

men

tal d

egra

datio

n.A

s no

ted

abov

e, th

e N

AFT

Ash

ould

miti

gate

env

iron

men

tal c

on-

gest

ion

prob

lem

s at

the

bord

er b

yen

cour

agin

g th

e di

sper

sal o

f ec

o-

nom

ic a

ctiv

ity a

way

fro

m th

e bo

rder

regi

on. A

lso,

tari

ffs

on p

ollu

tion

abat

emen

t equ

ipm

ent w

ill b

e el

imin

ated

ove

rtim

e m

akin

g th

is e

quip

-

men

t sub

stan

tially

che

aper

inM

exic

o. A

s a

resu

lt, it

will

be

chea

perf

or

Mex

ican

fir

ms

to m

eet e

nvir

onm

enta

lsta

ndar

ds, a

lthou

gh w

heth

er th

ey

choo

se to

buy

and

inst

all m

ore

equi

pmen

tw

ill d

epen

d, in

par

t, on

the

effo

rts

of th

e M

exic

an a

utho

ritie

s to

enfo

rce

exis

ting

stan

dard

s. T

he f

reer

mov

emen

t of

prof

essi

onal

s in

the

envi

ronm

enta

l eng

inee

ring

are

aun

der

the

NA

FTA

sho

uld

assi

st th

eM

exic

an g

over

nmen

t in

its e

nfor

ce-

men

t eff

orts

giv

en s

hort

ages

of s

uch

expe

rtis

e in

Mex

ico.

"

Fina

lly, p

rovi

sion

s in

the

NA

FTA

liber

aliz

ing

cros

s-bo

rder

truc

king

rest

rict

ions

mig

ht in

dire

ctly

enc

oura

ge a

redu

ctio

n in

veh

icle

pol

lutio

n

at m

ajor

bor

der

cros

sing

sta

tions

.Fo

r ex

ampl

e, v

ehic

les

regi

ster

ed in

27T

here

are

num

erou

s di

scus

sion

s in

the

med

ia d

ocum

entin

g he

alth

and

wor

ker

safe

typr

oble

ms

asso

ciat

edpr

imar

ilyw

ithM

aqui

lado

ra

prod

uctio

n al

ong

the

Mex

ico-

U.S

. bor

der.

See,

for

exa

mpl

e, J

oel S

imon

,

"Will

Tiju

ana

be a

fre

e tr

ade

tinde

rbox

?"T

he G

lobe

and

Mai

l, D

ecem

ber

19,

1992

, D3.

28T

he N

AFT

A in

clud

es p

rovi

sion

s ex

pedi

ting

the

visa

pro

cess

for

man

ager

s

and

man

y pr

ofes

sion

als

incl

udin

g en

gine

ers. 13

6

310

Ass

essi

ng N

AFT

A

mos

t sta

tes

curr

ently

fac

e tig

hter

em

issi

ons

cont

rol p

roce

dure

sfo

rlic

ensi

ng th

an d

o th

ose

regi

ster

ed in

Mex

ico.

Hen

ce,

to th

e ex

tent

that

U.S

.-ow

ned

vehi

cles

dis

plac

e M

exic

an v

ehic

les

in h

aulin

gtr

affi

c w

ithin

the

Mex

ican

bor

der,

em

issi

on s

tand

ards

in M

exic

o w

illin

dire

ctly

ris

e.O

n th

e ot

her

hand

, Mex

ican

veh

icle

s en

teri

ng th

e U

.S. w

ill p

resu

mab

lyha

ve to

mee

t the

sam

e em

issi

on s

tand

ards

fac

ing

U.S

.-re

gist

ered

vehi

-cl

es. T

he o

ppor

tuni

ty to

car

ry m

ore

traf

fic

with

in th

e U

nite

dSt

ates

mig

ht th

eref

ore

enco

urag

e M

exic

an f

leet

owne

rs to

red

uce

pollu

tion

from

thei

r ve

hicl

es.

The

se la

tter

cons

ider

atio

ns a

dd f

urth

er w

eigh

t to

an a

rgum

ent t

hat

NA

FTA

will

lead

to im

prov

emen

ts in

env

iron

men

tal a

men

ities

rath

erth

an f

urth

er d

eter

iora

tion,

eve

n if

the

rele

vant

sta

ndar

ds s

ubco

mm

ittee

sfa

il to

har

mon

ize

emis

sion

and

oth

er e

nvir

onm

enta

l pol

lutio

n le

vels

.N

ever

thel

ess,

it m

ight

be

argu

ed th

at N

AFT

A is

a pr

omis

ing

vehi

cle

for

"lev

erag

ing"

gre

ater

eff

orts

fro

m M

exic

o to

dea

l with

dom

estic

pollu

-tio

n pr

oble

ms,

as

wel

l as

grea

ter

effo

rts

on th

e pa

rt o

f al

l thr

eeco

untr

ies

to d

eal w

ith tr

ans-

bord

er p

ollu

tion

prob

lem

s. h

i eff

ect,

one

mig

ht a

rgue

that

trila

tera

l tra

de li

bera

lizat

ion

nego

tiatio

ns s

houl

d be

use

dto

dir

ectly

stre

ngth

en e

xist

ing

legi

slat

ion

and

enfo

rcem

ent o

f en

viro

nmen

tal s

tan-

dard

s on

a N

orth

Am

eric

an-w

ide

basi

s.O

ne a

rgum

ent f

or d

irec

tly li

nkin

g tr

ade

liber

atila

tion

to e

nvir

on-

men

tal p

rote

ctio

n m

easu

res

is p

rem

ised

on

the

view

that

thre

ats

oftr

ade

reta

liatio

n on

the

part

of

trad

ing

part

ners

eff

ectiv

ely

mot

ivat

ea

coun

try

to m

eet t

he e

nvir

onm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds d

eman

ded

by th

ose

trad

ing

part

-ne

rs?"

In

this

reg

ard,

som

e ob

serv

ers

argu

e th

at r

ecen

t inc

reas

es in

Mex

ican

bud

gets

for

env

iron

men

tal i

nfra

stru

ctur

e an

d en

forc

emen

t of

envi

ronm

enta

l law

s an

d re

gula

tions

wou

ld p

roba

bly

not h

ave

com

eab

out i

f N

AFT

A n

egot

iatio

ns h

ad n

ot p

rovi

ded

the

impe

tus.

"A

noth

er a

rgum

ent f

or a

n ex

plic

it an

d co

mpr

ehen

sive

link

age

is th

atgo

vern

men

ts in

hig

h en

forc

emen

t cou

ntri

es c

an a

nd w

ill in

voke

trad

ere

med

y la

ws,

par

ticul

arly

cou

nter

vaili

ng d

utie

s, a

gain

stex

port

ers

inw

eak

enfo

rcem

ent c

ount

ries

. In

this

cas

e, it

mig

ht b

em

ore

effe

ctiv

e to

29E

quiv

alen

tly, o

ne c

an ta

lk a

bout

the

use

of th

e "c

arro

t" o

f tr

ade

liber

aliz

atio

n as

the

mot

ivat

ing

infl

uenc

e.

30T

his

poin

t is

mad

e by

Wei

ntra

ub in

his

cha

pter

for

this

vol

ume.

137

Tra

de L

iber

aliz

atio

n an

d fl

it E

nvir

onm

ent

:311

.

have

exp

licit

agre

emen

ts s

truc

k th

an to

tole

rate

sig

nifi

cant

ly h

ighe

rri

sks

of tr

ade

war

s tie

d to

esc

alat

ing

reta

liatio

n fo

r sp

ecif

ic e

nvir

onm

en-

tal p

ract

ices

?'A

cou

nter

-arg

umen

t aga

inst

dir

ectly

link

ing

trad

e an

d en

viro

nmen

-ta

l mea

sure

s is

that

it is

unl

ikel

y to

be

wel

fare

max

imiz

ing

for

all

coun

trie

s to

ado

pt id

entic

al e

nvir

onm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds o

r en

viro

nmen

tal

cost

con

trol

s gi

ven

that

the

poin

t at w

hich

the

mar

gina

l soc

ial

bene

fit o

fab

atem

ent e

qual

s th

e m

argi

nal s

ocia

l cos

t of

abat

emen

t will

var

y fr

omco

untr

y to

cou

ntry

dep

endi

ng u

pon

fact

ors

such

as

topo

grap

hy,

cli-

mat

e, d

emog

raph

y an

d so

for

th.3

2 A

noth

er is

that

it is

rare

ly w

elfa

reim

prov

ing

for

coun

trie

s to

impo

se tr

ade

rest

rict

ions

in r

espo

nse

to th

eir

bein

g "p

ollu

ted

upon

" by

ano

ther

cou

ntry

's p

rodu

cers

(or

con

sum

-er

s).3

3 N

ever

thel

ess,

a th

eore

tical

cas

e ca

n be

mad

e fo

rth

e "v

ictim

"co

untr

y to

use

tari

ffs

agai

nst t

he p

ollu

ting

coun

try

as a

seco

nd b

est

polic

y pr

ovid

ing

the

impo

rtin

g co

untr

y is

larg

e in

wor

ldm

arke

ts;

how

ever

, the

fir

st b

est a

ppro

ach

is th

e im

posi

tion

of a

coo

rdin

ated

"glo

bally

opt

imal

" ta

x on

tran

s-bo

rder

pol

lutio

n.T

he la

tter

obse

rvat

ion,

com

bine

d w

ith th

e re

cogn

ition

that

lobb

ygr

oups

will

use

env

iron

men

tal i

ssue

s to

ext

ract

prot

ectio

n ag

ains

t im

-po

rts

sugg

ests

the

wis

dom

, on

bala

nce,

of

sepa

ratin

g th

e tr

eatm

ento

f

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

blem

s fr

om th

e tr

eatm

ent o

f tr

ade

issu

es. T

he e

xis-

31T

hat t

his

conc

ern

is b

ecom

ing

incr

easi

ngly

rel

evan

t is

sugg

este

d by

a r

epor

tth

at S

enat

or M

ax B

aucu

s he

ld h

eari

ngs

in D

ecem

ber

1991

to d

iscu

sspo

ssib

le tr

ade

legi

slat

ion

requ

irin

g co

unte

rvai

ling

dutie

s on

impo

rts

from

coun

trie

s w

ith le

ss s

tric

t pol

lutio

n ru

les

than

the

U.S

. to

prev

ent

envi

ronm

enta

l dum

ping

. See

Pet

er F

uhrm

an, "

Stra

nge

Bed

fel

low

s,"

Forb

es,

Dec

embe

r 9,

1991

. Con

cern

abo

ut th

is p

ossi

bilit

y is

als

oexp

ress

ed in

GA

TT

,Pr

ess

Rel

ease

: Exp

andi

ng T

rade

Can

I le

lp S

olve

Env

iron

men

tal P

robl

ems,

Gen

eva:

Mim

eo, F

ebru

ary

3, 1

992.

32Fo

r a

deta

iled

disc

ussi

on o

f th

ese

fact

ors,

see

Cha

rles

S. P

ears

on,

"Env

iron

men

tal S

tand

ards

, Ind

ustr

ial L

ocat

ion

and

Pollu

tion

Hav

ens,

" in

C.S

. Pea

rson

, ed.

, Mul

tinat

iona

l Cor

pora

tions

, Env

iron

men

t and

the

Thi

rdW

orld

: Bus

ines

s M

atte

rs, D

urha

m: D

uke

Uni

vers

ity P

ress

, 198

7, p

p. 1

13-1

28.

33Fo

r a

full

disc

ussi

on o

f th

is p

oint

, see

Pet

er J

. Llo

yd, "

The

Pro

blem

of

Opt

imal

Env

iron

men

tal C

hoic

e,"

in K

ym A

nder

son

and

Ric

hard

Bla

ckhu

rst,

eds.

, The

Gre

enin

g of

Wor

ld T

rade

Iss

ues,

New

Yor

k: H

arve

ster

Whe

atsh

eaf,

199

2, p

p. 4

9-92

.13

8

312

Ass

essi

ng N

AFT

A

tenc

e of

dis

pute

res

olut

ion

pane

ls in

the

NA

FTA

pro

mis

esto

miti

gate

som

e of

the

mor

e gr

ievo

us a

buse

s of

env

iron

men

tal s

tand

ards

to b

lock

-ad

e im

port

s; h

owev

er, t

his

does

not

gai

nsay

a ge

nera

l arg

umen

t tha

t the

mor

e th

e tr

ade

liber

aliz

atio

n pr

oces

s is

mad

e co

ntin

gent

upon

sat

isfy

ing

impl

icit

or e

xplic

it en

viro

nmen

tal c

ondi

tions

, the

mor

e lik

ely

is tr

ade

prot

ectio

nism

.In

the

last

ana

lysi

s, th

e le

vel o

f in

ter-

gove

rnm

enta

l coo

pera

tion

toad

dres

s bo

rder

pol

lutio

n pr

oble

ms

is th

e si

ngle

mos

t im

port

ant f

acto

raf

fect

ing

envi

ronm

enta

l con

ditio

ns in

the

mem

ber

coun

trie

s.34

It is

usef

ul to

rep

eat i

n th

is r

egar

d th

at e

limin

atin

g ex

plic

itan

d im

plic

itgo

vern

men

t sub

sidi

es, p

artic

ular

ly to

ene

rgy

use,

wou

ld a

lso

mak

e a

sign

ific

ant c

ontr

ibut

ion

to r

educ

ing

cert

ain

emis

sion

s.In

deed

, mar

ket

proc

esse

s ca

n as

sist

in r

atio

naliz

ing

the

harm

oniz

atio

n of

env

iron

men

-ta

l sta

ndar

ds. A

cas

e in

poi

nt is

the

infa

mou

s A

mer

ican

dolp

hin-

prot

ec-

tion

law

s w

hich

hig

hlig

hted

the

issu

e of

trad

e re

talia

tion

onen

viro

nmen

tal g

roun

ds a

t the

GA

TT

leve

l. In

one

part

of

the

east

ern

Paci

fic,

her

ds o

f do

lphi

n on

the

sea'

s su

rfac

e si

gnal

the

pres

ence

of

scho

ols

of tu

na f

arth

er d

own.

Enc

ircl

ing

the

dolp

hins

with

purs

e-se

ine

nets

is o

ne w

ay o

f ca

tchi

ng th

e de

eper

tuna

, but

at

a hi

gh c

ost i

n do

lphi

nde

aths

.T

he m

ost r

ecen

t ver

sion

of

Am

eric

a's

Mar

ine

Mam

mal

Prot

ectio

nA

ct p

reve

nts

Am

eric

an f

leet

s fr

om u

sing

this

met

hod

oftu

na f

ishi

ng.

Sint

e 19

90 th

e la

w h

as in

sist

ed th

at im

port

ed tu

nam

ust n

ot b

e fi

shed

by m

etho

ds th

at in

volv

e ki

lling

mor

e th

an o

ne-q

uart

er m

ore

dolp

hin

than

are

kill

ed b

y th

e A

mer

ican

fis

hing

fle

et. M

exic

o is

one

of th

ree

coun

trie

s th

at f

aile

d to

mee

t thi

s ta

rget

. A p

rote

st a

gain

stan

Am

eric

anba

n on

impo

rts

of tu

na f

rom

Mex

ico

led

toa

GA

TT

rul

ing

agai

nst t

heba

n 3s

34Se

e O

ffic

e of

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es T

rade

Rep

rese

ntat

ive,

op. c

it. A

num

ber

ofst

udie

s co

nclu

de th

at th

e us

e of

trad

e re

late

dm

easu

res

will

hav

e at

bes

t am

odes

t im

pact

on

natu

ral r

esou

rce

activ

ity w

hich

isa

maj

or s

ourc

e of

envi

ronm

enta

l pro

blem

s. S

ee P

eter

A.G

. van

Ber

geijk

, "In

tern

atio

nal T

rade

and

the

Env

iron

men

tal C

halle

nge,

" Jo

urna

l of

Wor

ld T

rade

, Vol

. 6, 1

991,

pp.

105-

115.

35"G

AT

Ter

y v.

Gre

ener

y,"

The

Eco

nom

ist,

May

30-

June

5, 1

992,

pp. 1

2-15

.

Tra

de L

iber

aliz

atio

n an

d th

e E

nvir

onm

ent

313

The

GA

TT

dec

isio

n th

row

s in

to d

oubt

env

iron

men

tal l

aws

that

impo

se r

estr

ictio

ns o

r pe

nalti

es o

n fo

reig

n co

untr

ies

whi

ch m

ay c

on-

stra

in in

a s

ubst

antia

l way

the

trea

tmen

t of

sim

ilar

prot

ests

bro

ught

for

disp

ute

reso

lutio

n un

der

the

NA

FTA

. A p

oint

whi

ch m

ight

be

mad

e is

that

with

suf

fici

ent i

nfor

mat

ion,

Am

eric

an c

onsu

mer

s m

ight

hav

e en

-co

urag

ed a

red

uctio

n in

the

dolp

hin

kill.

Spe

cifi

cally

, con

sum

ers

coul

dex

erci

se th

eir

envi

ronm

enta

l pre

fere

nces

by

buyi

ng m

ore

"Am

eric

an"

tuna

and

less

"M

exic

an"

tuna

. If

cons

umer

s fe

lt st

rong

lyen

ough

abo

utth

is is

sue,

it w

ould

pay

Am

eric

an p

rodu

cers

to a

dver

tise

thei

r "d

olph

insa

fe"

met

hods

of

fish

ing.

Cer

tain

ly th

ere

are

an in

crea

sing

num

ber

ofbu

sine

sses

that

trad

e on

a r

eput

atio

n of

bei

ng "

envi

ronm

enta

lly r

espo

n-si

ble"

ent

ities

. Whe

re in

divi

dual

con

sum

ptio

n or

pro

duct

ion

deci

sion

sim

pose

no

subs

tant

ial t

hird

-par

ty e

xter

nalit

ies,

ther

e is

no

com

pelli

ngef

fici

ency

arg

umen

t for

gov

ernm

ent i

nter

vent

ion,

par

ticul

arly

giv

en th

eri

sk th

at s

uch

inte

rven

tion

will

be

mot

ivat

ed b

y de

sire

s of

dom

estic

prod

ucer

s fo

r pr

otec

tion

and

will

like

ly le

ad to

ret

alia

tion

by o

ther

coun

trie

s.A

con

tent

ious

inte

rnat

iona

l tra

de e

nvir

onm

ent i

s un

likel

y to

pro

-m

ote

an a

tmos

pher

e of

coo

pera

tion

for

inte

r-go

vern

men

tal a

gree

men

tsto

add

ress

cro

ss-b

orde

r po

llutio

n in

clud

ing

the

harm

oniz

atio

nof

sta

n-

dard

s an

d th

e im

plem

enta

tion

of "

glob

ally

-bas

ed, m

arke

t-ty

pe"

mec

h-an

ism

s to

add

ress

pol

lutio

n ex

tern

aliti

es.3

6 Fu

rthe

rmor

e, th

e ex

pert

ise

need

ed to

add

ress

trad

e is

sues

doe

s no

t nec

essa

rily

ove

rlap

the

expe

rtis

ene

eded

to n

egot

iate

inte

rnat

iona

l env

iron

men

tal a

gree

men

ts.

In s

umm

ary,

it s

eem

s w

ise

to s

epar

ate

trad

e lib

eral

izat

ion

trea

ties

from

neg

otia

tions

to c

reat

e in

tern

atio

nal e

nvir

onm

enta

l agr

eem

ents

whi

ch w

as e

ssen

tially

the

proc

edur

e ad

opte

d by

NA

FTA

neg

otia

tors

.In

a s

imila

r ve

in, i

t wou

ld a

rgua

bly

be a

mis

take

to m

ake

trad

e lib

eral

-iz

atio

n co

ntin

gent

upo

n th

e tr

adin

g pa

rtne

rs r

esol

ving

'all

maj

or c

ross

-bo

rder

env

iron

men

tal p

robl

ems.

The

NA

FTA

as

it cu

rren

tly s

tand

sad

opts

bas

ic G

AT

T p

rovi

sion

s al

low

ing

coun

trie

s to

exe

rcis

e so

ver-

eign

ty in

cho

osin

g en

viro

nmen

tal,

heal

th a

nd s

afet

y st

anda

rds

aslo

ng

as n

atio

nal t

reat

men

t is

exte

nded

to f

orei

gnpr

oduc

ers,

and

the

stan

-

36va

n B

erge

ijk, o

p. c

it. b

rief

ly d

iscu

sses

the

use

of in

tern

atio

nally

trad

eabl

eem

issi

on p

erm

its.

140

139

314

Ass

essi

ng N

AFT

A

dard

s ar

e no

t def

ined

and

impl

emen

ted

ina

way

that

is tr

ansp

aren

tlypr

otec

tioni

stic

. In

this

res

pect

, the

NA

FTA

rec

ogni

zes

the

likel

ihoo

d th

at"o

ptim

al"

envi

ronm

enta

l sta

ndar

ds w

ill d

iffe

r fr

omco

untr

y to

cou

ntry

,w

hile

at t

he s

ame

time

reco

gniz

ing

that

lim

its m

ust b

epl

aced

on

the

arbi

trar

y us

e of

dom

estic

env

iron

men

tal l

egis

latio

nto

dis

adva

ntag

efo

reig

n pr

oduc

ers.

In s

hort

, one

can

con

clud

e th

at th

e N

AFT

A a

dopt

sa

rela

tivel

yef

fect

ive

posi

tion

on e

nvir

onm

enta

l mat

ters

and

that

effo

rts

to"s

tren

gthe

n" th

e en

viro

nmen

tal p

rovi

sion

s w

ill im

pose

soc

ial c

osts

that

likel

y ou

twei

gh a

ny a

ssoc

iate

d so

cial

ben

efits

.37

Of c

ours

e, th

is is

not

tosa

y th

at in

ter-

gove

rnm

enta

l neg

otia

tions

to r

esol

ve tr

ans-

bord

er e

nvi-

ronm

enta

l iss

ues

shou

ld b

e di

scon

tinue

d,or

that

eff

orts

to h

arm

oniz

est

anda

rds

whi

ch a

re im

pact

ing

trad

e re

latio

nshi

ps s

houl

dno

t be

enth

u-si

astic

ally

pur

sued

. On

the

cont

rary

, the

suc

cess

ful i

mpl

emen

tatio

nof

the

NA

FTA

will

arg

uabl

y fa

cilit

ate

succ

essf

Ul n

egot

iatio

nsin

the

envi

-ro

nmen

tal a

rea

in a

set

ting

whe

re th

e so

vere

ignt

y of

the

indi

vidu

alm

embe

r co

untr

ies

has

been

for

mal

ly a

ckno

wle

dged

.

37T

his

cave

at a

lso

appl

ies

to th

e pr

ovis

ion

in th

e N

AFT

A w

hich

pros

crib

es a

wea

keni

ng o

f en

viro

nmen

tal s

tand

ards

to a

ttrac

t new

inve

stm

ent.

Whi

le it

is u

ncle

ar h

ow th

is p

rovi

sion

will

be

impl

emen

ted,

ther

e is

a gr

ave

risk

of

mis

chie

vous

inte

rven

tions

on

the

part

of

gove

rnm

ents

that

are

driv

ing

away

inve

stm

ent t

hrou

gh p

olic

ies

that

wea

ken

the

effi

cien

cy o

f m

arke

ts.

The

re is

als

o a

risk

that

gov

ernm

ents

may

not

be

able

to r

esci

nden

viro

nmen

tal l

aws

that

are

inef

fici

ent o

r ev

en in

effe

ctiv

e.

I.1

Helvarg, David. 1996. The big green spin machine. The Amicus Journal 18,2 (Summer): 13-21.Reprinted with the permission of the Natural Resources Defense Council.

The big green spin machine

Corporations and environmental PR

by David Helvarg

We turn to corporations to trans-form our thoughts into goods andservices. In this sense, corporationsare the agents of our desires. How docorporations respond to the environ-mental concerns of consumers andregulators? One way to respond is tocreate "green advertising."

Journal of Advertising, 1995

young girl runs her handover a row. of Douglas firseedlings. "When I'm agrandmother, there'll still belots of trees," she smiles,"because people like my

dad, who loves trees, will alwaysplant them?'

al! -la

111111=1V/

-...1111111(

Below a photograph of a nuclearpower plant on the edge of a forest-ed river, a cut line dedares in boldtype: "Trees aren't the only plantsthat are good for the atmosphere."

A young woman in cap and gownis graduating from college, her proudparents looking on. Dissolve to a lab-oratory. The woman, now wearing awhite lab coat, is checking a. glassbeaker. "When I was growing up,Mom and Dad taught me that we'veonly got one planet and we'd bettertake care of it," she says in voiceover."Now I'm about to join a companythat's committed itself to helpingpeople preserve our wildlife ... andto protect the earth?'

If you have never seen these ad-vertisements for International Paper,the U.S. Council for Energy Aware-

aka

ness, or Dow Chemical, you haveprobably seen similar "image ads" forPhillips Petroleum, GM, Mobil, Wey-erhaeuser, Georgia-Pacific, Chrysler,Mitsubishi, the Cattlemen's Associa-tion, Freeport Minerals, and others.

And if those ads have not con-vinced you of corporate America'scommitment to a clean and healthyenvironment, there are hundreds ofindustry-backed "third-party advo-cacy" institutes, research centers,think tanks, professional organizersof "Astroturf" (synthetic grass-roots), and public relations cam-

David Helvarg, author of The WarAgainst the Greens (Sierra ClubBooks, 1994), writes frequently forThe Nation.

paigners who are eager to try. Thismassive advertising and publicity ef-fort, whose costs to industry havebeen estimated at about a billiondollars a year, has been labeled"greenwashing" by its detractors.

"I see greenwashing as part of anoverall strategy by corporations todefeat and marginalize environmen-tal activism, and to a large degree it'ssucceeding," says John Stauber, pub-lisher of PR Watchand co-author of arecent book on thepublic relations in-dustry, Toxic Sludgeis Good for You.The strategy be-hind greenwashing,Stauber argues, is agood cop/bad copapproach to the en-vironment. A cor-poration or tradeassociation can lob-by in Congress togut environmentallaws and support"Wise Use" groups,on the one hand,and, on the other,earn environmentalpoints with thepublic through corporate, ad cam-paigns and high-profile "partner-ships" with environmental groups.

Public relations executives counterthat industry is simply trying to getcredit where credit is due. "When yousee corporate America doing greenadvertising, it's because they get hitso hard so often by the environmen-tal community. So you have to let thepublic know what good you're do-ing," argues Hal Dash, president ofCerrell Associates, a Los Angeles-based.PR firm that numbers oil andauto interests among its clients.

"The auto industry is doing morethan anyone to promote cleaner air,"adds Kathleen Ashby, until recentlyhead of Cerrell's environmental divi-sion. "California air is 96 percentcleaner than ten years ago because ofthe auto industry. Environmentaliststell you that's because of pressure, butI don't agree. I think industry under-stands it has an obligation to its cus-

VL

S.

14 The Amicus Journal

tomers and is making these changesbecause it's the right thing to do."

Yet Cerrell Associates recentlyhelped the auto industry to kill a Cal-ifornia mandate requiring that, by1998, a certain percentage of all carssold in the state have zero tailpipeemissions. That fact is one reasonwhy Stauber and others share thesense that in the era of the 104thCongresswhen legislators are try-

)

cided to camouflage it by painting theexposed earth green.

Another early example of green-washing came in the wake of the firstEarth Day. In 1971, a group calledKeep America Beautiful (KAB) beganrunning public service ads featuring aNative American actor, Iron EyesCody, with a tear running down hischeek at the sight of roadside litterand garbage in waterways. These cel-

ebrated ads, whichwere co-produced

C.

k

ing to roll back the basic environ-mental laws of the nationmuchgreen advertising has a pointed polit-ical agenda: to persuade the publicthat strict environmental laws are nolonger needed, because America's en-vironmental problems have beensolved and the only thing left to fear isregulation itself.

Greenwashing has a longand illustrious history inthe United States. One ofthe earliest and most lit-

eral examples, according to TomAthanasiou, author of Divided PlanetThe Ecology of Rich and Poor, goesback to 1969, when the Pacific Gas &Electric Company built a nuclearpower plant at Diablo Canyon on thecoast of central California. As a pris-tine hillside was scraped away for theconstruction site, the raw gash in themarine terrace became visible topassing boats and planes. PG&E de-

1 4 4

3

by the Ad Council,moved a generationto stop throwinggarbage out car win-dows. But they alsosent the messagethat individual con-sumers are the onesmost responsiblefor pollutionanidea consistent withthe self-interest ofthe many membersof the bottle and canindustry on KAB'sboard. The ads toldthe public to "putlitter in its place";yet KAB has repeat-edly taken positions

against mandatory recycling and bot-tle deposit laws.

In recent years, green advertisinghas seen an upsurge. "One of thethings that spurred it was Bhopal [siteof a 1984 Union Carbide gas leak thatkilled 3,000] and the Exxon Valdez,"admits Hal Dash. Contemporarywith those disasters came the rapidgrowth of an environmental ethicamong the American public, whichreached a crescendo when millionsparticipated in rallies, protests, andcelebrations for the twentieth an-niversary of Earth Day in April 1990.

Some responded to these develop-ments with vitriol. The National Re-view, Pat Buchanan's newsletter, andothers on the political right attackedenvironmentalism: "If Marxism hasa successor," wrote one contributor toa Heritage Foundation symposium,"it is the new ideology of the Greens!"But others saw opportunity in thenew climate. Fortune magazine as-

sured readers that in the future, envi-ronmentalism would be "more coop-erative than confrontationalandwith business at the center."O'Dwyer's PR Services Report, a re-spected trade publication, observedthat leading business and PR execu-tives saw the environment as "the life-and-death PR battle of the 1990s."

"There was an explosion of inter-est among PR firms to set up greendivisions," recalls O'Dwyer's editorKevin McCauley. "Spending. wentthrough the roof" Today all the majorPR firmsBurson-Marsteller, RuderFinn, Hill & Knowlton, Shandwick,Edelman, and dozens of others---,-.maintain "environmental specialty"divisions for their corporate clients.In 1994, these divisions generatedmore than $86 million in fees.

No PR firm would be likely toagree with John Stauber that itswork serves to defeat or marginalizeenvironmental activism. Many in-sist publicly on their environmentalcommitment. But in case after case,corporate public relations cam-paigns have served to deflect atten-tion from deeper environmentalproblemsor to thwart environ-mental initiatives altogether.

Every.poll you see says the publicis more willing to trust environmen-tal groups than corporations, whichis ironic since the most importantenvironmental actions are done bycorporations.

David Meeker, 1995 Chair,Environmental Section, Public

Relations Society of America

As an animated dove fliesfrom factory smokestackto factory smokestack,each stack emits a puffy

white loud into a sky of robin's-eggblue. "When one chemical compa-ny starts cleaning up its act, that'sgood. When two chemical compa-nies do it that's better," says the nar-rator, over the sound of chirpingbirds and a jazz combo. "And when200 companies get together, theycan make a real difference."

Some corporate lobbying groups "try tofudge about their goals," says a PR exec."They want a patina of good - gayness."

The ad, by the trade consortiumknown as the Chemical Manufactur-ers Association (CMA), is one of a se-ries extolling the recycling ofpollutants and conversion of "toxicchemical waste" into energy. Theyrun under the logo of ResponsibleCare, CMA's voluntary standardsprogram, in which each companyevaluates its own environmental per-formance. The program was recom-mended to CMA by its PublicPerception Committee following theBhopal disaster and a leak at UnionCarbide's Institute, West Virginia,plant the following year. AlthoughCMA can in theory revoke the mem-bership of a company that fails tomeet its Responsible Care environ-mental standards, to date it never has."We're not the government," explainsa lobbyist for a CMA member group.Asked whether member companiesare complying, he smiles and says,"Look, if your dad didn't tell you tocome home by midnight, would youcome home by midnight?"

While promoting ResponsibleCare as an example of its commit-ment to "sustainable development,"CMA is hard at work on Capitol Hill,doing what is considered by manyenvironmentalists to be some of themost egregiously anti-environmentallobbying in the 104th Congress.

CMA is fighting to throw out theCommunity Right-to-Know Act, alow-cost law that requires its mem-bers to tell the public what they areup to. It has backed legislation, and issuing the Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA), to reduce or eliminatethe Toxic Release Inventory that is thekeystone of that lawa public data-base of companies' reports on whichand how much of 650 toxic chemi-cals they are releasing into surround-ing communities. CMA has alsobacked the so-called "regulatory re-form" legislation that would imposean impossibly complicated, twenty-six-step cost-benefit analysis on al-most all environmental and safety

145

standards; a "Superfund Reform" billthat would exempt companies fromretroactive liability for toxic sites; anda Clean Water Act rewrite so damag-ing that President Clinton calls it the"Dirty Water Act."

Moreover, according to the Asso-ciated Press, an arm of CMA calledthe Chlorine Chemistry Council hasbeen lobbying for changes to the SafeDrinking Water Act that would pre-vent EPA from imposing new rulesaimed at reducing carcinogenic com-pounds in drinking water. As part ofits "public education" campaign, theChlorine Council did a mailing tomunicipal water managers after ob-taining an unauthorized copy of theAmerican Water Works Associationmailing list. It also ran a phone-bankoperation, targeting AIDS groups, tospread the claim that the new ruleswould put their lives at risk

"The effect of the ads is grosslymisleading," says Greg Wetstone,NRDC legislative director. "CMAruns green acts, but at the same timeit is one of the most aggressive pro-ponents for rolling back environ-mental protections in Congress." Likeother environmental advocates inD.C., Wetstone has been rudely sur-prised by the degree to which evencorporations that have invested inpollution reduction have bought intothe anti-green backlash of the 104thCongress. "Throughout 1995, notone of the Fortune 500 raised its headto say no to these rollbacks," he says."It's become a case of greed conquersall, no matter how much they've in-vested in a green image."

Greenwashing is really a so-phisticated form of denial,telling us there's no prob-lem because they're taking

care of itwhich they aren't," saysenvironmental stalwart David Brow-er. He recalls a meeting he participat-ed in at Stanford University severalyears ago entitled "Making a Differ-ence." At one point Joan Martin

Summer 1996.15

Brown, representing the UN Envi-.ronment Program, turned to KenDerr, CEO of Chevron, and said, "I'llbe glad when Chevron moves its con-cern for the environment from PublicRelations to Operations."

Sometimes, the distance betweenoperations and public relationsbetween reality and greenWashedappearancecan be substantial.

"You have to tell the truth and re-spect the intelligence of people,"claims David Soblin of the J. WalterThompson agency. His beautifullyshot TV spots show Chevron em-ployees protecting natural habitat forfoxes, grizzly bears, egrets, and othercreatures (while the narrator rumi-nates, "Do people keep an eye on lit-tle things so we don't lose sight of thebig picture? People Do! "). "You can'tuse corporate-speak or platitudes tobe effective," Soblin says. "You mere-ly show examples of what you're do-ing:' Polls testify to his, effectiveness:

Chevron is considered far and awaythe most environmentally sound oilcompany in the areas where the adsare run, he says.

Yet at least one of those ads, orig-inally filmed in the mid-1980s, ismisleading at best. It showed an en-dangered San Joaquin kit fox escap-ing a coyote by ducking into anartificial den of buried pipe, built bypeople "because they care." Howev-er, says Linda Spiegel, a CaliforniaEnergy Commission biologist whohas studied the kit fox for years, "Ingeneral, artificial dens don't do muchfor foxes. If a coyote chases them,they're more likely to run to wheretheir old den was." The cost of con-structing an artificial den is less than$3,000; though Chevron declines todivulge figures, the Earth Island Jour-nal has estimated the cost of the"People Do" campaign that year at$5-6 million.

Moreover, Chevron did not un-

t a meeting: of the Puhlie Relations Society of Arnerica a fewyears ago, Writes environmental activist Bill Walker, a PR:::manager for a company called ChemLawn complained that

people in, their headqUarters town hated the company. The problem:::was -she uses, yOu know, chemicals. But what" can, you dor..

Thinge the name:" replied her colleagues, in unison:::Ina backhanded compliment to the popularity of environmental-7'.

isin.(and the foresight of George Orwell), many anti-green groupshave adopted green-:sciunding names. Certainly it would be hard for:.someone Unfainiliar With activist groups to distinguish the. Natural .

Reionrces Defense COUncil, say, from the Alliance for Environment,:and fiesourCei; the National Wetlands Coalition, Citizens for the En-vironinent, or the Abundant Wildlife Society. These groups Support,

clearcutting in National Forests; wetlands development;, eliminating federal environmental laws; and continued trapping andshootirig of Coyotes, mountain lions, and otherpredators.,:4:::-.

1.0reenWashing has recent years extended to name changes for shipsand COrporationl. After the Exxon Valdez oil Spill,the tanker was sent toa San. Diego shipyard; where it was repaired, repainted, and rechristenedthe Exxon Mediterranean. Following a series of financial and environsmental scandals,the nation's largest solid waste company, Waste Man-agement, Inc.; gave itself a higher-tech image with a name change toWMX. Nuclear: Engineering, Inc., became US Ecology And the Nation-..al AgricultUral chemiCals Association has renamed itself the AmericanCrop"Protection Association and foimded its own pro-pesticideadvoca-cy group, RISE (Responsible Industry for a Sound Environment).

Why the sensitivity. to semantics? Said one PR executive, quoted inThe New York Times, "People try to fudge a little bit about what theirgoals are. They want to create a patina of good-guyness."

16 The Amicus Journal 146

dertake the project merely because it"cared:' Den construction (whetherit benefits the foxes or not) is a stan-dard practice for oil companies oper-ating in the kit fox area. Like otherprojects featured in Chevron's habi-tat protection ads, it is the kind ofmeasure any industry has to committo before it will be permitted to op-erate in endangered-species habitat.

Nor do Chevron's ads mentionthat, through its membership in theAmerican Petroleum Institute, it issupporting an active lobbying effortin Congress to gut some of the verylaws that require such projects. "Theads celebrate something theirlawyers fight tooth and nail to pre-vent. It creates the illusion they cando it themselves and don't needregulationthat they thought thisup on their own," charges HerbChao Gunther, president Of thePublic Media Center, a non-profitPR firm that produces ad copy forpublic interest groups. "Those adsare a vile form of propaganda."

People think PR agencies areturning out news releases. I've writ-ten two releases in three years. Wedo campaigns to educate the public,we have a lobbying effort, we puttogether grassroots groups.

Jeff Raleigh, Hill & Knowlton

Give them the money. You stopdefending yourselves, let them do it,and you get the hell out of the way.Because citizens' groups have credi-bility and industries don't.

"Wise Use" leader RonArnold, explaining the need to

create pro-industry "grassroots"in a speech to Canadian timber

company MacMillan Bloedel

arly in 1995, the trade pub-lication PR News ran acover story promoting theloose anti-green network

calling itself "Wise Use," under the ti-tle, "New Environmental Grass RootsSprouting." It suggested, delicately,that Wise Use "presents an opportu-nity for PR executives at corporations

and firms to play the advo-cate role not for environ-mental activist groups orcorporate environmental-ism, but for a view that callsfor consideration of eco-nomic impacts and proper-ty rights in environmentaldebates."

But PR News was yearsbehind the curve. PR firmsranging from giants likeHill & Knowlton, Burson-Marsteller, and Edelman tolesser-known operationslike the Jefferson Group("Greenspeak. We're flu-ent.") have long been pro-moting groups and ac-tivities in the Wise Usevein. Last summer's annu-al Alliance for America"Fly-In For Freedom," forexample, brought 300to 400 loggers, miners,small-town developers, andindustry employees toWashington, D.C., to lobbyagainst the EndangeredSpecies Act. Publicity andsecurity for the Fly-In werehandled by Edelman. Twoof Edelman's clients, theCalifornia Forestry Associationand the Western States Coalition, alsosponsored the event.

And when no grassroots coalitionis at hand, many agencies will happi-ly create one. The term now currentfor this practice, "Astroturf lobbying,"was coined by former Senator andTreasury Secretary Lloyd Bentsen. Bynow, PR firms offer a wide range offaux grassroots products.

nuclear power? I justdon't get it."

I ask him if Hill &Knowlton helped orga-nize the Wise Usepro-logging rallies andcounter-demonstrationsI covered during thetense Redwood Sum-mer of 1990, when envi-ronmentalist protestersand industry supportersfaced off. Although hiscompany representedPacific Lumber and waspart of the CaliforniaForestry Association,Raleigh tells me, it wasthe Association that or-chestrated events. Yet, atthe time, Hill & Knowl-ton was passing, outphotocopies of a sup-posed Earth First! fliercalling for violence. Itwas later shown that theflier was a fake. An in-ternal memo later re-leased as part of alawsuit revealed thatsome Pacific Lumberexecutives, at least, wereaware at the time the

flier was distributed to themedia that it was very likely notfrom Earth First! at all. (Raleigh sayshe has no specific recollection of theincident.)

Like Dr. Frankenstein's monster,Astroturf can sometimes get out ofcontrol. During Redwood Summer,hundreds of riot police had to becalled out to separate the two sides.A more recent example is the threatsof violence being directed againstfederal land managers by "countymovement" activists who want localcontrol over federal lands. On at leasttwo occasions, threats have escalatedinto armed confrontation.

Such incidents raise the questionof whether resource industries shouldshoulder some of the moral responsi-bility for the violent extremism thathas come to be associated with manyWise Use causes. For more than eightyears, representatives of the timber,mining, cattle, and many other

on Arnold and Alan Gott-lieb's anti-enviro tome,Trashing the Economy, sitson Jeff Raleigh's bookshelf

in the comfortably utilitarian SanFrancisco offices of Hill & Knowlton."I talk to Ron Arnold about once aquarter, just to say hello, because ofour involvement in mining issues,"Raleigh says. "We work with miners,and of course the mining industryuses the Wise Use movement. BobReveles was head of public relations

forHome-

stake [a miningcompany and one of Hill & Knowl-ton's clients], and now works for Peo-ple for the West [an industry-fundedWise Use group established to defendthe 1872 mining law]."

A big, bluff, friendly man,Raleigh has a number of corporateclients, and some interesting thingsto say about them. About PacificLumber, he comments, "Clearcut-ting is the most environmentallysensitive way to take down a tree."On Pacific Bell, which has been crit-icized for using British Columbianrainforest pulp in its phone books:"Old growth is whoever defineswhat old growth is." On US Ecology,a company that wants to open a nu-clear waste dump in California'sWard Valley: "Can you explain tome why environmentalists oppose

Summer 1996.17

147

industries have shared Wise Use plat-forms, conferences, and strategieswith strident anti-environmentalists,as well as John Birchers, Moonies,anti-Indian activists, county activists,and followers of Lyndon LaRouche.However limited their intentions,however sincerely they believe theyare controlling the agenda, industriesthat promote Wise Use in effect lendcredibility to extremism.

hile corporations wereworking with the politi-cal hard right to createWise Use, specialized

"grassroots" lobbying contractorswere sprouting up inside the Wash-ington beltway. Among the betterknown is Jack Bonner & Associates,which uses phone banks, direct mail,and computer-assisted tracking of cit-izen "white hats" to generate letters,faxes, and phone calls to legislatorson issues of concernof concern,that is, to GM, Exxon, U.S. Tobacco,and other Bonner clients. Along with"grassroots," Jack Bonner also goesafter "grasstops." According to theNational Journal, B&A charges $350to $500 for each letter or call gener-ated from a community leader. Actu-al meetings between communityleaders and legislators run Bonner'sclients between $5,000 and $9,000.

In Who Will Tell the People: TheBetrayal of American Democracy,William Greider writes that Bonner'sbiggest success to date was the mobi-lization of authentic grassrootsgroups, including the Georgia Bap-tist Convention, Easter Seal Society ofSouth Dakota, and Delaware Para-lyzed Veterans Association, on behalfof the auto industry's fight againsttougher fuel efficiency standards.B&A did mass mailings to farmers,seniors, organizations of the handi-capped, and others, without beingclear about whom they represented.The mailings warned that if the stan-dards passed, Detroit would be forcedto stop producing vans, church buses,and farm trucks. B&A is said to havereceived between $500,000 and $1million for its "organizing" effort.

Of course, Washington politiciansunderstand that much of the anti-environmental "citizen input" theyreceive is greenwash. But for politi-cians about to vote 'against broadlypopular environmental protections,it is easier to say they are respondingto their constituents than to majorcontributors in the timber or chem-ical industries. "You target Senatorsinclined to go your way but whoneed some additional cover. Theyneed to be able to say they've heardfrom people back home on this

a :case stu

51911; an organization called ICE was formed.to''"rePOSjtiOirtlebal warming as a theory (nOtiafaa)f.s.F threepages_of internal ICE docur

...ments,-suPPlied by an anonyniOus source, shine aparnal Hint revealing light on the making of a green =:

washmg cainPaign.Run by.the D.C.'-;bised PR firm Bracy Williams & -

Co.;ICE,iPiat financed by the coal mining and utilitYl-companiei ihat Make up the $400 million WesternFuels Association. The PR advantage of ICE as anacronyinfor a gronpoppoSing global warming legis-- .

. agreed on at the start of the campaign. Butit took; extensive ocusrgroup testing and poking to .decide which of four:7potential program names" ICEwould stand for. The firit step was a survey of 1,500citizens, which shoWed that "technical (scientific)sources receive the highest overall credibility ratings,followed closely by (citizen) activist sources:' Indus-

issue," is Bonner's explanation, asquoted in Greider's book.

Political greenwashing has focusedon state and local as well as nationalissues. In 1994, the Western States Pe-troleum Association (WSPA) wantedto oppose a California plan to let util-ities invest in infrastructure for ser-vicing electric cars. Rather than workopenly against the bill, WSPA's PRfirm, Woodward & McDowell, orga-nized "Californians Against UtilityCompany Abuse." They formed acoalition with a utility customers'group and sent hundreds of thou-sands of letters to taxpayers attackingthe "profit-making ventures" of theutilitieswithout identifying WSPAas the source of their funding. (In thewake of the numerous campaignsthat oil and auto companies havewaged in the past few years againstCalifornia's move toward electric cars,the federal Justice Department hasopened an investigation into possible"anti-competitive conduct" againstthe electric car industry.)

In November 1995, WashingtonState residents voted overwhelm-ingly to reject Initiative 640, a bal-lot measure that would have bannedthe use of commercial gillnets in or-der, its backers claimed, to reduceoverfishing and "save our sealife."The public turned against the

sources received ',lower credibility ra.",iigs.on tlese findings; ICE's PR strategists decided to

iChooshig theifitleInforinatiOn;COunCil-on',...F..nVii:Onnient' over InformedCiti#nsfOr the',

since the first name `1Sperceivedat'echniCal source while [the second]- carries both'te"6:11:aiad activist connOtations:'..ICE's goal was to move people; from advOca

"extreme positions on global *aniline!. (that is, leislation) to "less 'extreme positions" (that is, further.StidY). Realizing that "members of the public` feel:more' comfortable expressing Opinions on others'.motivations and tactics than they do expressingopinions on scientific issueS; ICE decided to atta"the motivation and vested interests" of thoSe.re-.porting on the danger. . _

''''.if`Some members of the media seare'the public :-about. global warming to increase their audience andtheir influence: People who respond most favorablyto such statements are older, less-educated males ...who are not typically active information-seekers,"

18 The Amicus Journal 148BEST COPY AVAILABLE

When no grassroots coalition is at handto lobby against environmental legislation,many agencies will happily create one."green" initiative when they learnedthat its main supporters were hy-droelectric, aluminum, and timbercompanies on the Columbia River.Its backers hoped 640 would cripplethe state's salmon fishing industry,which, in alliance with local enviros,has become an nutspoken opponentof dams, clearcutting, and otherthreats to upstream salmon habitat.Undeterred by their defeat on 640,the companies went on to found"Northwesterners for More Fish."This $2.6 million operation advo-cated continued barging of fisharound dams, a technique that has-failed to halt the salmon's spiral to-wards extinction in the region.

Another tactic some cor-porate image specialistsrecommend is formingpartnerships with envi-

ronmental groups. According to abook by E. Bruce Harrison, a pio-neer of greenwashing, "It's smart ontwo levels: It avoids some legalproblems, and it widens your op-tions." In the 1993 book, GoingGreen: How to Communicate Your

Company's Environmental Commit-ment, Harrison recommends thatcompanies meet with citizens whocriticize them, listen but reveal littleinformation, and research their op-ponents, even to the point of hiringprivate detectives. (A number ofpublic interest groups have had vis-its and requests for informationfrom peciple they later had reason tobelieve were employed by Mon-goven, Biscoe & Duchin, Burson-Marsteller, or other PR firms.Wackenhut, a security firm, hasbeen investigated more than oncefor spying on environmentalists andgovernment officials.)

One of the best-known corporate-environmental partnerships was the1992 waste reduction program Mc-Donald's worked out with the Envi-ronmental Defense Fund (EDF). "Inthe late 1980s, the company slippedinto its worst sales slump everandthe anti-McDonald's drive of [anti -toxics] green activists was at leastpartly blamed," Harrison writes. Butthe plan EDF designed to reduce thecompany's packaging waste stream"established a landmark precedent

eu nficterc reported. "They are good targetsreportedAnother possible target seg-

hundreds greenwash experiments, lastedproduct m three cites. u

that may alter the way environmen-tal protection is achieved, movingaway from regulation and command-and-control toward partnering?'

Many environmentalists defendthe concrete benefits that can comefrom helping large polluting corpo-rations to reduce the environmen-tal damage they do. But someobservers are not convinced thatsuch partnerships benefit both sidesequally. "The ads these corporationsrun linking themselves with theseorganizations can make them lookgreener than they are. The publicperception becomes, 'Oh, they mustbe responsible,'" says Mark Dowie,author of Losing Ground: AmericanEnvironmentalism at the Close of theTwentieth Century. "If these dealsare supposed to counterbalance[rather than correct] other mistakesand abuses, then they're a form ofgreenwashing."

In some cases, the partnershipstake the form of contributions to-ward an environmental group orone of its projects. "Companiesneed the environmental movement,and environmental groups take a lotof money from companies," saysHal Dash. "What they want is ac-cess, cooperation, and why not? It'slike if a company moves into a townand wants to pay for a school, [to]

ts for r4- inYesteB-t the group, only one

E d $525,000 to "test-matke

dio advertisements**women, papers among

received better input, weser lowerm9Pme

7eT:theYissarwarththeIlk g, and to think the Prth-'

Ivan Brandon, the Bracy executiveIihca°t-ed-

opths. Had we recei

believe the. -

they are also likely to soften"The issu. Wias

continuemerifis Y94ng likely to be 'green consumers, just six innational campaign;uld haVe looked at a

Williams,themeirissuiper1;°oils7yf' ollaigfecieveraier",.1gisygtipThn

afterese whoearm:garnee7,,a?nvearthseaas were a little too simp e,

toom

sledgehammer than a Subtle effect."Since dumping ICE, the Western Fuels AsSocia-

tion has gone on to, fund World Climate Report, aweekly science-oriented publication that attacks:

oimatiOn on Obi.' Nyariningood targets for magazine adv m

he illustratetd magazine ads for ICE included:SOrne entitled "Who told you the earth waswarming .. Chicken Little?"; "Some say the mainstream theOries on global warming. Western

arch Warming. Some also said the earth was flat"; Fuels alio funded a $250,000 video, "The Greening ofand "If the earth. is getting warmer, why is Min- Planet Earth," which was distributed by the Globalneapolis getting-colder?" (The Minneapolis line

:Would seem to contradict climate data that showed1990 to be Minneapolis's fourth warmest year and1991 also above average. "It certainly did not showcooling," said a state climatologist quoted in the in-ternal documents.)

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ClimatO Coalition to over 1,000 U.S. journalists, theWhite House, and various oil states in the MiddleEast. The video argues that. because industrial Carbondioxide buildup in the atmosphere acts as a kind ofairborne nutrient, global warming could be the solu-tion to world hunger.

149 Summer 1996 19

buy the support of the community,both sides have a lot to gain."

Following McDonald's lead,Anheuser-Busch and GM have runa series of ads touting their contri-butions to the Nature Conservancy;Canon is advertising its $1.2 millioncontribution to the National ParkFoundation; and Exxon has con-tributed $5 million to captive zoobreeding programs and other effortsto "help save endangered tigers?'

Once again, however, manycompanies that advertise their con-tributions to environmental groupsand their dedication to environ-mental causes also fund and sup-port Wise Use groups. Honda andother manufacturers of Sports Util-ity Vehicles (SUVs), for instance,have joined forces in a project called"Tread Lightly," which is advertisedas an environmental conservationprogram. SUVs are now the fastest-growing sector of the auto industry(a phenomenon not unrelated tothe fact that industry lobbyists havesucceeded in keeping these vehiclesexempt from fuel-efficiency stan-dards that apply to other cars).Tread Lightly sponsors rallies andwarns off-road vehicle users thatmillions of acres of public land are

being closed to their 4x4s becauseof "potential and real damage"from their failure to "Drive respon-sibly." Yet Honda has also fundedthe Blue Ribbon Coalition, a WiseUse group fighting to open up morepublic lands to off-road vehicles,logging, and mining.

Burson-Marsteller's effort to defeatthe Btu tax on behalf of the Ameri-can Energy Alliance was credited[sic] by former Treasury SecretaryLloyd Bentsen.

0'Dwyer's PR Services Report

. Bruce Harrison, the PRveteran who wrote GoingGreen, made his reputa-tion coordinating indus-

try's attacks on Rachel Carson afterthe publication of Silent Spring in1962. Harrison and colleagues fromMonsanto, Dow, and other chemi-cal companies created the templatefor today's greenwashing cam-paigns. They established frontgroups and a media outreach pro-gram. They conducted hostile mail-ings and public forums for

"third-party ex-perts," includingdoctors and sci-entists willing toattack Carson'spersonal and pro-fessional credi-bility while de-fending the use ofDDT and othertoxic compounds.

Attempts weremade to intimi-date Carson's pub-lisher into notprinting the book.When that failed,John Stauber ofPR Watch haswritten, the Na-tional AgriculturalChemical Associa-tion doubled itsPR budget and be-gan distributing its

20 The Amicus Journal

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130

own attack reviews. Monsanto pub-lished 5,000 copies of a parody calledThe Desolate Year, in which a plagueof insects (unchecked by pesticides)devastates the United States. Thecampaign had some initial mediasuccess when The New York Timesquestioned Carson's credibility.

As with Silent Spring, some issuesare so big that industry is willing topull out all the stops. Today, thechemical industry is conducting amajor campaign against Our StolenFuture, a book linking syntheticchemicals to reproductive problemsin humans and wildlife.

Months before its publication, acopy of the book's galleys cameinto the possession of the Ameri-can Council on Science and Health(ACSH), a food, drug, and chemi-cal industry-funded group thatportrays itself as an objectivesource for scientific informationon food, drugs, and agro-chemicals. With its unauthorizedcopy of the manuscript, ACSH wasable to prepare a report attackingStolen Future before it hit thebookstores. Simultaneously, theCompetitive Enterprise Institute(CEI), a conservative Washingtonthink tank, published two reportsattacking. "the hypothetical risksto human health" reported on inthe book. Consumer Alert, a"free-market" organization, putout a press release on the sameday labeling the book "a scare-mongering tract."

The following day, the Advance-ment of Sound Science Coalition(TASSC) called a press conferencewith ten scientists, five of themfrom the board of ACSH, who at-tacked the book as "science fic-tion." (TASSC is a recently createdgroup run out of the offices ofAPCO Associates, a PR firm thatspecializes in environmental lob-bying. Its supporters include exec-utives of GM, Chevron, Dow, W.R.Grace, and others.) This apparent-ly well-coordinated campaign maybe having some initial success, asthe first New York Times reviewquestioned the credibility of theauthors' work.

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Another issue that is consistently amajor greenwashing target is globalwarming. At an October 1995 panelon greenwashing at the Society ofEnvironmental Journalists' annualconference, writer Bill McKibbenpointed to the increasing scientificcertainty on global warming. AskingE. Bruce Harrison, who was on thepanel, to assume he was representingthe coal industry, McKibben said,"What's a good fallback position forthem, once you're past the point ofbeing able to say climate change isnot a problem?"

"The climate change debate hasto do with science, economics, ter-ribly complicated," Harrison re-sponded, going into automatic spincontrol. "What we are advising ourclients .... is to keep the debateopen, keep it honest, draw out sci-entific experts, talk about the eco-nomics, talk about the impacts, andlet's see where this all comes out."

Actually, Harrison does indeedrepresent the coal industry,through one of his clients, theGlobal Climate Coalition (GCC).Founded in 1989 by forty-six ener-gy corporations and associations,GCC is dedicated to countering the"myth of global warming." Andjust as Harrison advises, so far theefforts of GCC and the many otherPR firms working on climatechange have served to obfuscate theissues enough to help kill nationaland international efforts for strongglobal warming policies.

For instance, GCC and otherssuccessfully lobbied to weaken boththe 1992 UN Earth Summit treatyon climate change and a House en-ergy bill that would have requiredindustry cuts in carbon dioxideemissions. Another effort helpedshoot down the Clinton Adminis-tration's 1993 proposal for a deficit-cutting energy tax (to be levied perBTU, or British Thermal Unit, of en-ergy consumed). The BTU tax wasdefeated in part by computer-driven"grassroots" letter and phone-incampaigns run by the National As-sociation of Manufacturers and byBurson-Marsteller, the world'slargest public relations firm.

While environmentalgroups large and smalldebate the relativemerits of working with

or against corporations, and tryto imagine the right balance ofregulation, enforcement, and mar-ket incentives that could ensureenvironmental quality of life andopportunity in the future, manyleaders of industry and their spindoctors insist we have already ac-complished most of what needs tobe done.

"The environmental movementhelped us clean up and think abouthow we use resources," says Hill &Knowlton's Jeff Raleigh. "I make theanalogy to the labor movementin the twenties and thirties. Weneeded unions back then. They

healthy environment, green PR mayhelp to strengthen environmental val-ues among the public The 1971 KeepAmerica Beautiful ads, for instance,have proven unforgettable to many inthe generation that has since put en-vironmental issues on the national

. political agenda.But by investing in advertising

and lobbying designed to createthe illusion that environmentallydestructive practices are environ-mentally beneficial, greenwashingcompanies are also disseminatingapathy. They are undermining thecore of informed citizenry that isthe cornerstone of democraticdecision-making. And when theymove beyond that to the creationof Astroturf groups, protestdemonstrations, and social move-

"Regulations have done their job andought to be let out to pastureor put outif they won't go'peaceably."

achieved most of their objectives,and then became.self-perpetuatingorganizations and now fight fornonsensical things. The environ-mental movement has done thesame thing."

E. Bruce Harrison concurs, writ-ing, "To many, its dear that ... reg-ulation[s] have done their job andought to be let out to pastureorput out if they won't go peaceably."

Too many U.S. companies evi-dently agree. Those that choose togreenwash their images rather thangreen their basic operations ignorethe advice proffired recently in an ed-itorial in O'Dwyer's PR Services Re-port. "It has been shown thatcorporations with good environmen-tal track records enjoy healthier bot-tom lines than those viewed aspolluters." Moreover, companies .that do greenwashing without mak-ing real environmental improve-ments may be making it still moredifficult for themselves in thefuturebecause greenwashing canbe a sword that cuts both ways. Bydisseminating persuasive images andsentiments about the need for a

1,51

ments for hire, they cross a criticalthreshold of respect for. the basicdemocratic institutions on whichour society is supposed to bebased: Even once they are exposedto the light of day, campaigns likethese are poiSonous to the publicdebate. They engender profoundpublic cynicism about the politicalprocess; they reduce citizens' will-ingness to participate in a politicalsystem that is apparently hopeless-ly compromised.by corporate spe-cial interests. .

And more than anything, green-washing disseminates ignorance.The Public Media Center's HerbChao Gunther recalls, "I'll neverforget my mother calling me onEarth. Day because she saw a bigpicture of the earth run by. theChemical Manufacturers Associa-tion with the line, 'We're in this to-gether.' She asked me, 'Why areyou nasty to those people? Theylike it too'

"When my mother calls andwonders why I bash CMA because .they do nice ads, I know greenwash-ing is working." .

Summer 1996 21

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