representation of labor and society in american work songs

7/23/2019 Representation of Labor and Society in American Work Songs

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Filozofski fakultet

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DIPLOMSKI !D

"e#ind t#e Musi$% e&resentation of Labor and So$iet' in!(eri$an

)ork SongsS(jer% Knji*evno+kulturološki ,a(erikanistika-

Kandidat% Martina .aš&ar

Mentor% dr/ s$/ 0elena 1esni23 izv/ &rof/

!k/ godina% 4567869/



Contents

Introduction.................................................................................................................................2

Classification of Work Songs......................................................................................................4

Recognition of American Work Songs as Cultural Heritage......................................................5

Pre-Industrial Work Songs..........................................................................................................7

Co!o" songs.........................................................................................................................7

Sailor songs.............................................................................................................................#

$um!er%ack songs.................................................................................................................&&

African American Work Songs.................................................................................................&2

Sla'e Songs and Hollers.......................................................................................................&2

C(ain )ang Songs.................................................................................................................&5Industrial Work Songs...............................................................................................................&7

Railroaders* Songs................................................................................................................&7

Coal +iners* Songs...............................................................................................................2,

)old Rus(.........................................................................................................................2

Songs of t(e $a!or +o'ement..............................................................................................2

Women and Work Songs.......................................................................................................25

(e +usic of Work in t(e /irst Half of t(e 2,t( Centur"......................................................27

Com0oser*s Collecti'e and Wood" )ut(rie.....................................................................27Almanac Singers...............................................................................................................2#

Peo0le*s Songs and (e Wea'ers......................................................................................,

Work +usic in t(e Post-Industrial Period.................................................................................2

Conclusion................................................................................................................................5

Works cited...............................................................................................................................7

A!stract.....................................................................................................................................42

&



Introduction

(e need to sing (ile orking and to sing a!out ork itself (as !een 0resent in t(e

American societ" from its 'er" !eginnings. Sung !" generations of settlers1 ork songt(roug( its re0resentation of intertined relations !eteen ork1 socio-economic status and

cultural identit" !ecame a 'i'id testimon" of t(e American a" of life. In a range of its

'ariations t(is musical form can !e traced among different occu0ational grou0s s(a0ing t(e

American societ" t(roug( its (istor" co!o"s1 farmers1 lum!er%acks1 sailors1 sla'es1 miners1

railroaders1 te3tile orkers1 industrial orkers and so on. (ese grou0s used ork songs for

'arious 0ur0oses1 suc( as t(e coordination of ork 0rocess1 alle'iation of 0ain folloing (ard

toil1 0rotest against 0oor ork conditions1 or in contrar"1 t(e glorification of ork.

(e" ere also sung in order to arn a!out 0otential dangers and to memorie dead

colleagues. Created and sung more or less directl" !" American orking 0eo0le1 ork songs

are com0rised of t(e 'oices (ic( (a'e not !een taken into t(e account (ile documenting

and riting mainstream (istor". +ade under no aut(oritarian notions1 t(e" de0ict common

0eo0le*s realities. Pro'iding different 0ers0ecti'es on dail" life and societ"1 ork songs can !e

used as 'alua!le sources of information contri!uting to t(e stud" and inter0retation of

American (istor". a'id 6. unaa" recognies t(is 0otential (en (e rites t(at l"rics of

songs ine'ita!l" e30ress t(e orld 'ie of t(eir aut(ors and singers. (is is 0articularl" true

for anon"mous orks1 (ic( often reflect a folk 8traditional9 or 0o0ular 8mass9

consciousness. Songs make u0 t(e unofficial culture of t(eir time1 t(oug( as documents t(e"

are generall" ignored !" sc(olars more comforta!le it( t(e 0rinted ord.: 8unaa" 2729

He also states t(at musical forms (a'e t(eir on identifia!le (istor"1 (ic( tells us t(e

origins and orld'ie of t(ose (o c(oose t(em as means of e3(ortation: 827291 adding t(at

t(e" re'eal communit" d"namics and (istor"1 0ro'iding a cultural in'entor" of a grou0.:

8279 (erefore it is not ungrounded to claim t(at American ork songs can !e seen as !ot(

0olitical and cultural artefacts1 reflecting differences !eteen 'arious grou0s t(e" ere sung

in and c(anges taking 0lace in t(e o'erall American societ" t(roug( time. In ot(er ords1 t(e"

can !e regarded as media 0ro'iding insig(t into t(e neglected 0arts of t(e ;nited States*

(istor".

<efore going an" furt(er1 it is im0ortant to clarif" in (ic( a" ork songs actuall"

relate to realit". =amel"1 it is not (ard to notice t(at t(e ma%orit" of t(ese songs are >uite

som!re in t(eir tone1 mostl" focusing on t(e negati'e as0ects of ork. Pointing to t(e

2



commemorati'e role and cautionar" note of ork songs1 =orm Co(en discusses t(is 0ro!lem

in t(e folloing ords?

Among t(e songs and !allads of co!o"s1 miners1 lum!er%acks1 and ot(ers1

recurring su!%ects are t(e 0otential t(reats t(at t(e orkers face? stam0edes

among co!o"s1 e30losions or ca'e-ins among miners1 log%ams among

lum!er%acks1 and so on. It ould !e rong to conclude from t(is t(at a mor!id

interest in deat( and traged" as suc( flouris(ed. Some of t(ese !allads and songs

(a'e a !asis in (istorical e'ents@ t(eir 0ur0ose as at least in 0art to memorialie

t(e dead and in%ured comrades. <ut ot(ers are com0letel" fictional1 suggesting

t(at 0er(a0s t(e singers and t(eir audiences felt t(at !" 'er!aliing t(eir fears

t(e" ould !e 0rotecting t(emsel'es against t(e dangers actuall" (a00ening

or1 at least1 distri!uting t(e fear among t(e communit" as a (ole. 8Co(en

333'ii9

Regardless of (et(er t(e" re0resent actual e'ents or t(e mere sentiment of t(e time1 t(ese

songs do 0ossess certain (istorical 'alue. +oreo'er1 toget(er it( ot(er folk song t"0es1 ork

songs are often t(e onl" sur'i'ing sources for t(e earliest American societies. Berome $.

Rodnitk" finds t(em 0articularl" im0ortant for stud"ing 0eriods (en 'er!al material as

scarce and 'isual re0resentations almost non-e3istent1 and for understanding t(e inarticulate

loer classes or regional cultures cut off from central mores.: 8Rodnitk" 5,49 In t(is manner

ork songs alone or com!ined it( ot(er a'aila!le (istoric sources (a'e t(e 0otential to

enric( t(e understanding of (istor".

W(ile dealing it( American ork songs it is also im0ortant to 0oint to t(e crucial

distinction !eteen t(eir earlier and later use. =amel"1 in t(e countr"*s earl" stages ork

songs ere mainl" sung during t(e ork 0rocess itself1 coordinating it1 de0icting its

immediate instances and draing orkers* attention from t(eir (ard toils. ue to t(e drastic

c(ange of ork conditions in t(e ;nited States during t(e second (alf of t(e &# t( centur"1 t(is

musical form graduall" !ecame less attac(ed to t(e 0("sical instances of ork1 focusing more

on its social and cultural as0ects. =amel"1 tec(nological ad'ancements and massi'e

industrialisation c(anged t(e 'er" structure of ork. =oise 0roduced !" ne mac(iner" made

it im0ossi!le to sing (ile orking. (e emergence of 0ri'ate enter0rises (ic( ere no

res0onsi!le for t(e ma%orit" of countr"*s orkers created ne attitude toards ork.

)roing e30loitation resulted in massi'e 0rotests1 and toget(er it( ot(er means to e30ress



t(eir dissatisfaction and re>uests1 orkers also used music. In t(is a" ork songs also

!ecame a tool for socio-0olitical 0rotest. 3actl" t(is 0rotest tone ould mark t(eir use during

t(e entire 2,t( centur"1 (en t(eir legac" sur'i'es due to to im0ortant factors. (e first one

is t(eir recognition as cultural and (istorical artefacts !" et(nomusicologists1 and t(e second

one t(e re'italisation of t(e musical form !" 0rofessional musicians.

(e 0eriod of ork songs* cultural recognition1 (ic( coincides it( t(e c(ange in t(eir

general use1 ill act as a starting 0oint for t(is stud". W(at sur'i'ing accounts re'eal is t(e

com0le3 0attern of t(eir distri!ution and use rat(er t(an one recognia!le genre stream. arl"

regional 'arieties sung !" co!o"s1 sailors1 lum!er%acks1 African American sla'es1 miners

and railroaders1 toget(er it( t(ose com0osed during la!or mo'ement and t(e ones sung !"

0rofessional musicians in t(e 2,t( centur" ill (o0efull" s(o t(at music can lend insig(t into

a 'i'id and com0le3 societ" (ic( e30ressed itself t(roug( it.

Classification of Work Songs

(e classification of ork songs in t(is t(esis is !ased on t(e com!ination of (istorical1

occu0ational1 regional1 racial and t(ematic determinants. Hoe'er1 since t(ere is no definite

a" to dra clear lines !eteen t(ose categories1 t(e" occasionall" o'erla0. (e (istorical

o'er'ie of ork songs is constructed1 as +arek 6orc"nski 0ro0oses1 around to ke" a3es?

(e first is t(e nature of t(e la!our 0rocess and t(e aural s0aces around it. (e second is t(e

nature of music 0roduction and consum0tion.: 86orc"nski &59 In t(e 0re industrial 0eriod˗

music and ork ere interconnected ork songs ere sung during t(e 0rocess of ork and

referred to its immediate instances. Regional1 occu0ational and racial determinants 0la"ed t(e

crucial role in t(eir 0roduction and distri!ution. Work songs of co!o"s1 sailors and

lum!er%acks can !e identified as se0arate traditions from t(is 0eriod. ue to t(eir immense

im0act on American culture and s0ecific origins and uses1 African American ork songs stand

as a distinct categor".

Work music of t(e industrial la!or 0eriod is less marked !" regional and racial

determinants1 and more !" t(ematic and ork0lace-conte3tual factors. ;nlike t(e 0re-

industrial ones1 t(ese songs are more or less data!le1 and in man" cases t(eir aut(ors(i0 can

!e tracked. Primaril" c(aracterised !" t(e notion of 0rotest1 t(ese songs mainl" focus on

orking conditions and la!or 0olitics1 (ic( is >uite e'ident from t(e e3am0les of miners*1

4



railroaders* and te3tile orkers* songs. (e strong im0act of t(e la!or mo'ement and

unionisation can !e recognied t(roug( t(is entire 0eriod.

A!out t(e relations(i0 of ork and music in 0ost-industrial 0eriod no definite statements

can !e made. ue to t(e fact t(at one can c(oose (is on music at ork1 6orc"nski states

t(at a orker can !e regarded as an autonomous B.: 8279 /urt(ermore1 in t(e ser'ice

sector music at ork0laces is 0rimaril" !eing directed toards customers and not orkers.

(is im0lies t(at t(ere is no music created !" orkers or directed e3clusi'el" toards t(em

an"more. Hoe'er1 (at is 0ossi!le to track in t(is 0eriod are indi'idual re0resentations of

la!or it(in t(e 0o0ular music domain.

Recognition of American Work Songs as Cultural Heritage

Academic interest in t(e ;nited States* folk songs originates from t(e Har'ard

e0artment of nglis( 0rofessor /rancis Bames C(ild. His monumental ork English and

Scottish Ballads1 com0rised of ,5 songs1 as 0u!lis(ed in ten 0arts !eteen &DD2 and &D#D.

In s0ite of its misleading title1 t(e !allads 0resented in t(is ork !elonged to a num!er of

different et(nic grou0s in t(e ;nited States. (e Child Ballads1 as t(e" (a'e collo>uiall" !een

called1 (a'e !een considered as a milestone of American !alladr" !" later sc(olars. W(ile

C(ild mostl" used contem0orar" nes0a0ers and c(ea0 0rint in order to collect !allads1 ne

generations of researc(ers turned to different met(ods.

=amel"1 due to t(e ongoing c(anges in American societ" t(e" felt t(at it as necessar"

to Ecatc(E folk songs in t(eir original form (ile it could still !e done. Scott <.S0encer

descri!es t(eir ork in t(e folloing ords? Fften called Gsongcatc(ers1* t(ese !ra'e souls

'entured in t(e areas of t(e continent knon to !e insular1 inaccessi!le1 and ar" of outsiders

it( t(e tools of t(e trade? 0en and 0a0er1 c"linder recorder1 0ersonalit"1 and 0erse'erance.

(e" did so to document a"s of life t(oug(t to !e >uickl" 'anis(ing it( t(e im0act of radio

and 0(onogra0(1 0rinted 0age and !roadcast media.: 8S0encer 29

o 0ut it differentl"1 in t(e 0eriod (en sc(olars started to do field recordings1 certain

folk songs ere alread" in decline due to t(e influence of c(anged social conditions and ne

forms of entertainment. (e ma%orit" of informants ere of a certain age1 residing in rural and

secluded areas (ere t(e modern im0act as not t(at strong. (e fact t(at a great num!er of

songs1 es0eciall" ork ones1 as recorded in 0rison farms com0letel" isolated from t(e outer

orld s0eaks for itself. +oreo'er1 $ead!ell"1 one of American folk icons1 as disco'ered in

5



Angola Prison /arm in $ouisiana. Researc(ers like orot(" Scar!oroug(1 Cecil S(ar01 Helen

Hartness /landers1 Carl Sand!urg1 Ro!ert )ordon1 and Bo(n $oma31 t(e most outstanding

folklorist of t(e time1 in t(eir ritings often em0(asied t(e contri!ution of t(eir ork to t(e

stud" of t(e ;nited States* (istor".

In t(e introduction to (is &#27 ant(olog" The American Songbag Carl Sand!urg

s0eciall" addresses t(is >ualit" of folk music material? It is so intensel" and 'itall" American

t(at some (o (a'e seen t(e !ook (a'e suggested t(at it s(ould !e collateral material it( t(e

stud" of (istor" and geogra0(" in sc(ools1 colleges1 and uni'ersities@ t(e 0u0ils or students

mig(t sing t(eir ansers at e3amination time.: 8'iii9 He as not t(e onl" one to suggest t(e

use of folk song for educational 0ur0oses. His colleague Ro!ert Winslo )ordon1 as =anc"

)roce rites1 con'inced Carl ngel1 t(e c(ief of t(e $i!rar" of Congress* +usic i'ision1

t(at grassroots traditions s(ould !e re0resented at t(e national li!rar". 8)roce1 0ar. 29 In &#2D

t(e Arc(i'e of American /olk-Song in t(e $i!rar" of Congress* +usic i'ision as

esta!lis(ed1 it( )ordon as its director. Bo(n $oma3 came to t(e Arc(i'e in &#1 gi'ing a

stronger !oost to its ork. In &# (is son Alan $oma3 !ecame t(e Arc(i'e*s first federall"

funded staff mem!er1 and during (is lifetime (e collected a great sco0e of material1 !ot( from

anon"mous informants and folk legends like $ead!ell"1 Aunt +oll" Backson1 +udd" Watters

and Wood" )ut(rie. W(ile recording music1 Alan $oma3 also insisted on t(e documentation

of materials* social and cultural !ackground. d 6a(n notices t(at in $oma3*s 'olumes man"

songs are introduced !" a transcri0tion of t(e informant*s t(oug(ts a!out t(e material.: 86a(n

9

$oma3*s assistant Pete Seeger is "et anot(er im0ortant name to mention. <eing a

0erformer (imself1 toget(er it( alread" mentioned )ut(rie1 (e contri!uted to 2,t( centur"˗

folk re'i'al. (anks to t(e !roadcast media de'elo0ment1 Arc(i'e*s acti'ities did not remain

it(in t(e e3clusi'e limits of sc(olarl" ork. =amel"1 Alan $oma3 succeeded to 0o0ularie

folk music t(roug( radio !roadcasts and li'e s(os. 6a(n rites t(at $oma3 0articularl"

em0(asied t(e im0ortance of sound recordings from c"linders on. He sa t(e im0act on a

ide range of orkers from t(e learned societies to t(e la"man. He felt t(at t(ese recordings

!ot( de'elo0ed an interest in t(e real t(ing in folklore for audiences and !roug(t a!out t(e

0o0ulariation of aut(entic material.: 86a(n 9 ue to t(is 0(enomenon1 t(e &#,s act as a

ke" decade for cultural s(ift regarding American folklore. (e interest for it as not an"more

confined to t(e domain of institutionalied sc(olarl" ork1 !ut it also a00eared among ide

audiences. /olk music as not regarded as a (istorical artefact onl"1 !ut also as a source of

ins0iration for t(e e30ression of contem0orar" social 0ro!lems. <ot( on sc(olarl" and



0erformati'e le'el folk re0ertoire remained 0resent in t(e American culture1 including a large

num!er of different ork songs 'arieties.

Pre-Industrial Work Songs

Cowboy songs

If /rancis Bames C(ild (as !een 0raised as t(e first one to recognie folk songs as

American cultural (eritage of a great 'alue1 t(an Bo(n $oma3 can !e considered t(e one to

actuall" gi'e life to t(e entire 0rocess of t(eir collecting and arc(i'ing. His &#&, ant(olog"

Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads marks t(e turning 0oint in t(e rece0tion of

American !alladr". (is t(ematicall" (omogeneous collection entirel" focuses on t(e life in

t(e far West. Its songs re'eal t(e motifs to go to t(e frontier1 fascination it( as ell as fear of

(uge o0en s0aces1 and t(e 0erils of life in t(e far West. In s(ort1 all as0ects of a co!o"

occu0ation. (e ma%orit" of co!o" songs1 like most of ork songs in general1 (a'e a som!re

tone. (e" ere often sung to melodies !roug(t from ot(er 0arts of America1 or e'en t(e

orld. Co!o"s1 like ot(er occu0ational grou0s in t(e States1 came from different social and

cultural !ackgrounds1 struggling to get a !etter life for t(emsel'es. W(en e s0eak a!out

co!o" ork songs1 one must notice t(at due to s0ecific orking conditions co!o"s did not

sing in order to coordinate ork 0rocess. rue1 t(ere are indications t(at t(e" used cattle calls1

!ut none of t(em (a'e actuall" !een sa'ed. ed )ioia e30lains t(e lack of coordinating ork

songs among co!o"s stating t(at +en standing at ork ill sing. +en sitting at ork ill

sing. 'en a alking man is likel" to carr" a tune. <ut once a man is mo'ing at ra0id 0ace on

a (orse or a steam engine1 or at a mac(ine1 t(e ork song !egins to lose its organic connection

to 0("sical la!or 89: 8)ioia &7D9 Co!o" songs ere t(erefore sung (en t(e ork as

alread" done1 memorising and de0icting t(eir dail" life instances.

Fne of t(e most famous 0ieces included in $oma3*s ant(olog" is The Buffalo Skinners.

It de0icts a man (o in t(e summer of &D7 decides to go estards after !eing a00roac(ed

!" a recruiter called Crego?

EItJs me !eing out of em0lo"ment1E t(is to Crego I did sa"1

E(is going out on t(e !uffalo range de0ends u0on t(e 0a".

<ut if "ou ill 0a" good ages and trans0ortation too1I t(ink1 sir1 I ill go it( "ou to t(e range of t(e !uffalo.E 8B. $oma31 &5D9

7



ri'en !" economic reasons1 t(e song*s 0rotagonist decides to taste (is luck on a !uffalo

range. Hoe'er1 soon enoug( (e realies t(at (is summer %o! is e'er"t(ing !ut 0romised?

Fur meat it as !uffalo (um0 and iron edge !read1

And all e (ad to slee0 on as a !uffalo ro!e for a !ed@

(e fleas and gra"-!acks orked on us1 F !o"s1 it as not slo1

I*ll tell "ou t(ere*s no orse (ell on eart( t(an t(e range of t(e !uffalo. 8&5D9

'entuall" t(e 0rotagonist toget(er it( t(e ot(er men in (is grou0 kills Crego for not 0a"ing

t(em off. (e song ends it( a strong recommendation to a'oid t(e !uffalo range? tell ot(ers

not to goK /or )od*s forsaken t(e !uffalo range and t(e damned old !uffalo.: 8&&9

Fccu0ational fatalit"1 a common motif in a num!er of American ork songs1 can also !e

found in co!o" re0ertoire. When the Works All !one This Fall de0icts one suc( tragic

occurrence. Here a 0rotagonist dies (ile tr"ing to calm t(e frig(tened cattle during a sudden

nig(t storm? His saddle (orse did stum!le and on (im did fall.K (e 0oor !o" on*t see (is

mot(er (en t(e ork*s all done t(is fall.: 8B. $oma31 549 (e motif of return to one*s mot(er

0resent in t(e song indicates t(e seasonal c(aracter of a co!o" %o!.

(e notion of isolation and loneliness as >uite a common motif1 !ut not as 0re'alent as

one mig(t get an im0ression from Holl"ood 0roduction. +oreo'er1 a significant num!er of

co!o" songs 0raise t(e West. W(at is t(e greatest legac" of co!o" songs is t(eir

s"m!olism1 t(e 0resentation of American 'irtue and t(e success of estard mo'ement

des0ite all its 0itfalls. "ome on the #ange$ alt(oug( not strictl" a ork song1 is t(erefore

ort( mentioning in t(is conte3t. =oada"s t(e official song of t(e state of 6ansas1 it

em!odies t(e fascination it( t(e West its o0en s0aces1 0ossi!ilities1 and untarnis(ed

nature?

F(1 gi'e me a (ome (ere t(e <uffalo roam

W(ere t(e eer and t(e Antelo0e 0la"@

W(ere ne'er is (eard a discouraging ord1

And t(e sk" is not clouded all da". 8B. $oma31 #9

D



At t(e moment (en $oma3 0u!lis(ed (is ant(olog"1 co!o"s ere alread" a disa00earing

occu0ational grou0. Wit( gradual ur!anisation coming to t(e West traditional co!o" life

ould e'entuall" 'anis(. (erefore t(ese songs (old e'en greater im0ortance.

Sailor songs

Fne of sea s(anties* (istorical and cultural 'alues is t(at t(e" act as a reminder t(at t(e

earliest (istor" of America its disco'er" and initial de'elo0ment as closel" connected to

its ater surfaces. (e Atlantic Fcean1 t(e +ississi00i1 t(e )reat $akes1 t(e erie Canal and

t(e Pacific (a'e !een America*s ke" traffic communications. Sailor songs1 also knon as sea

s(anties1 ere anot(er declining ork song grou0 at t(e end of t(e &# t( centur". Alread" in

&DD2 %ournalist William Alden in (is article Sailor Songs: notices t(at traditional sailor song

is disa00earing due to t(e increasing steam engine use. =amel"1 (e rites t(at (e JJs(ant"-

manE1 t(e c(orister of t(e old 0acket s(i0 (as left no successors. In t(e 0lace of a rousing

G0ulling song1* e no (ear t(e rattle of t(e steam-inc(@ and t(e modern indlass orked

!" steam1 or t(e modern steam-0um01 gi'es us t(e clatter of cog(eels and t(e (iss of steam

in 0lace of t(e ild c(oruses of ot(er da"s. Singing and steam are irreconcila!le.: 8Alden

2D&9 His ords indicate se'eral t(ings. S(i0s ere t(e 0laces full of sound and t(e termE0ulling songE 0oints to t(e use of music in order to coordinate ork. He also 0oints to (at

ould !ecome a common destin" of all music used for t(at 0ur0ose gradual decline due to

tec(nological ad'ancements.

Sea s(anties (ad1 %ust like t(e ma%orit" of ot(er songs used for grou0 ork coordination1

t(e so called call%res&onse format. $eader used to sing t(e line and t(e grou0 (auled during

c(oruses. A good e3am0le of t(e coordinating ork song is #euben #an'o1 dating from t(e

first (alf of t(e &#t( centur"?

$AR? F( Rano as no sailor.

CHFR;S? Rano1 !o"s1 RanoL

$AR? He as a <oston tailor.


$AR? S(ang(aied a!oard of a (aler.


$AR? (e" tried to make (im a sailor.

#



CHFR;S? Rano1 !o"s1 RanoL 8)ioia1 &2&9

Sailors sang it (ile raising and loering sails1 and t(e c(orus indicated t(e rig(t moment to

0ull. (is song as %ust one of man" similar ones s0read during t(e 0eriod (en t(e merc(ant

marine as an im0ortant economic and social factor in t(e ;nited States. )ioia states t(at t(e

large num!er of African American sailors orking in t(e marine 0ro!a!l" influenced t(e

songs (ic( ere sung1 and t(erefore it is not sur0rising t(at t(e" s(are some c(aracteristics

it( African American ork songs. 8)ioia &29

Some(at more de0icti'e l"rics of t(e ne3t e3am0le !elong to t(e song originating from

(e <ack <all $ine1 (ic( as t(e first 0acket trade line to o0erate regularl" !eteen =e

Mork and $i'er0ool. /ounded in &D&1 it usuall" took t(ree eeks for it to reac( its

destination. Since it as of t(e utmost im0ortance to meet t(e a'erage tra'elling time1 sailors

(ad to gi'e t(eir !est in order to maintain t(e necessar" s0eed. Seamans(i01 remuneration1

communication it( anot(er continent are notions (ic( can !e identified in t(is song?

In t(e <lack <all

$ine I ser'ed m" time1

"urrah for the Black Ball (ine)

Fnce t(ere as a <lack <all s(i0

(at fourteen knots an (our could cli0.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bust take a tri0 to $i'er0ool1

o $i'er0ool1 t(at Mankee sc(ool.

(e Mankee sailors "ou*ll see t(ere1

Wit( red-to0 !oots and s(ort-cut (air. 8B. $oma3 N A. $oma31 79

;nlike across t(e ocean1 sailing on inland atera"s re>uired some(at different

0rocedures. /or instance1 (omas S.Allen*s &#,5 song (ow Bridge refers to t(e time (en

!oats on erie canal ere dri'en !" mule 0oer1 and 0assengers on t(e (ig(er le'els (ad to

!o don (en t(e" ere 0assing !ridges on t(e a". Fn t(e +ississi00i it as necessar" to

c(eck t(e ri'er de0t( in order to allo s(i0s to na'igate. +oreo'er1 t(e l"rics of a ork song

de0icting t(at 0rocedure ere an ins0iration for 0ro!a!l" t(e most famous 0en name in

American literature +ark ain. As )ioia e30lains1 measuring t(e de0t( a leadsmen ould

utter strong cries? +ark t(reeL....+ark t(reeL....Ouarter less t(reeL....Half-tainL....Ouarter

&,



tainL....Ouarter tainL...+ark tainL: He also clarifies t(at t(e term signalled t(e de0t( of

tel'e feet1 t(e clearance needed to allo t(e 0assage of a !oat. 8)ioia &,9 Wit( Samuel

Clemens draing on its s"m!olical meaning1 t(e 0(rase from t(is sailor cr" !ecame muc(

more one of t(e landmarks of t(e entire American culture.

Lumberjack songs

Watera"s are closel" connected to "et anot(er occu0ational grou0 im0ortant for t(e

countr"*s earl" de'elo0ment. =amel"1 oodland areas near atera"s (ad to !e cleared it(

t(e raise of commerce. $ogging cam0s em0lo"ed a large num!er of lum!er%acks and folloed

t(e general estard migration. (e" ere first 0laced alongside t(e Atlantic coast1 and t(en

s0read to t(e area of t(e )reat $akes1 graduall" reac(ing t(e Pacific =ort(est. $um!er%ack

ork song e3am0les can !e tracked in all areas t(e" orked in1 and most of t(em s(are one

0eculiar c(aracteristic unlike ot(er occu0ations* ork songs1 t(e" ere >uite %oll" in t(eir

tone. As )ioia claims1 t(e general tone of gaiet" 0uts t(e lum!er cam0 songs almost in a

class !" t(emsel'es in t(e area of ork-related music.: 8&4&9 (e (oggers Boast taken from

Ronald Palmer )ra"*s &#25 Songs and Ballads of the *aine (umber+acks su00orts t(is claim?

W(en t(e (ite frost gilds t(e 'alle"s1

(e cold congeals t(e flood@

W(en man" men (a'e naug(t to do

to earn t(eir families !read@

W(en t(e sollen streams are froen1

and t(e (ills are clad it( sno1

,L e*ll range t(e ild oods o'er1

and a lum!ering ill go@

. . . . . . . . . .

W(en "ou 0ass t(roug( t(e dense cit"1

and 0it" all "ou meet1

o (ear t(eir teet( c(attering

as t(e" (urr" don t(e street@

In t(e red frost-0roof flannel

e*re incased from to0 to toe1

&&



W(ile e range t(e ild oods o'er1

and a lum!ering e goL 8)ra"1 &D9

(e securit" of lum!er%ack occu0ation1 as ell as its contrast to cit" life rus(1 are in t(is

e3am0le regarded as t(e main contri!utors to lum!er%acks* satisfaction. Hoe'er1 e'en in

%o"ful re0ertoire of lum!er%ack songs certain e3ce0tions can !e found. An e3am0le from

Ida(o tells t(e ot(er side of t(e stor". /ift" t(ousand lum!er%acks1 (ic( is also t(e song*s

title1 are de0icted li'ing in unsatisfactor" ("gienic conditions1 orking (ea'il" and not !eing

0ro0erl" 0aid? (e" seat and sear and strain1K )et not(in* !ut a cussin*K /rom t(e 0us(es

and t(e !rains.: 8Co(en1 2,,D1 5D79

(e reasons for suc( strikingl" different re0resentation of t(e same occu0ation can !e

found in different origins of t(ese to songs. =amel"1 t(e first one comes from mid &#˗

t(

centur" +aine1 (ile t(e latter one as collected in &#&7 Ida(o. (is s0atial and tem0oral

distance also lea'es 0ossi!ilit" for t(e c(ange !ot( in orking conditions and attitude toards

lum!er%ack occu0ation. it(er a"1 it 0ro'es t(at American ork songs are not a

(omogeneous t(ematic !od"1 !ut rat(er a re0resentation of 'arious 0(enomena occurring e'en

among t(e same occu0ational grou0.

African American Work Songs

Slae Songs and Hollers

$ittle of !eaut" (as America gi'en t(e orld sa'e t(e rude grandeur )od (imself

stam0ed on (er !osom@ t(e (uman s0irit in t(is ne orld (as e30ressed itself in

'igor and ingenuit" rat(er t(an in !eaut". And so !" fateful c(ance t(e =egro

folk-song t(e r("t(mic cr" of t(e sla'e stands to-da" not sim0l" as t(e sole

American music1 !ut as t(e most !eautiful e30ression of (uman e30erience !orn

t(is side t(e seas. It (as !een neglected1 it (as !een1 and is1 (alf des0ised1 and

a!o'e all it (as !een 0ersistentl" mistaken and misunderstood@ !ut

notit(standing1 it still remains as t(e singular s0iritual (eritage of t(e nation

and t(e greatest gift of t(e =egro 0eo0le. 8u<ois&79

&2



(ese u<ois* ords on t(e one (and 0oint to t(e tremendous cultural 'alue of African

American folk music1 and on t(e ot(er to t(e lack of its recognition as suc( in t(e !eginning

of t(e 2,t( centur". He sees it as a uni>uel" American cultural 0roduct t(roug( (ic( sla'er"1

an institution !ased on o00ression and e30loitation1 managed to create 0ure !eaut". +oreo'er1

sla'e song is regarded as t(e e30ression of t(e entire African American culture t(eir trou!les

and 0ains toget(er it( t(eir (o0es in a !etter future.

Alt(oug( t(e e30ression of 0oor life conditions and ne'er-ending 0ain is a constant

motif in African American sla'e songs1 it managed to go on unnoticed for a long time among

(ites. ue to African musical 0atterns (ic( ere com0letel" different from t(e uro0ean

ones1 music sung !" sla'es seemed unintelligi!le. As )ra(am and S(ane W(ite notice1 to

(ites used to clear melod" and narrati'e l"rics sla'e songs sounded like a 0atc(ork of

com0letel" different elements out of (ic( no meaning could !e dran. rue enoug(1 sla'e

songs actuall" ere com!inations of com0le3 r("t(mic 0atterns1 it( screams1 moans and

grunts folloing l"rics made out of 'arious motifs. 8). W(ite N S. W(ite 9 (e" also state

t(at t(e creators of a sla'e ork song dra a00arentl" indiscriminatel" on !i!lical te3ts1

lines from secular songs1 and contem0orar" references from e'er"da" life.: 879 Fne must

kee0 in mind t(at ork song l"rics ere 0rone to c(ange and t(at t(e 'arieties knon toda"

are t(e ones (ic( collectors came across1 or e'en arranged t(emsel'es. /urt(ermore1 in t(e

case of African American ork songs l"rics are not necessaril" t(ematicall" linked to t(eir

0ractical use. S0irituals ere >uite often used as ork songs (ile sla'er" itself as seen as a

(ard toil1 (ic( gi'es a (ole anot(er le'el of meaning to t(is ork song grou0.

In s0irituals t(e idea of esca0e is a reccurent motif. Writing a!out t(em1 Sterling <ron

notices t(at t(eir l"rics ere ne'er dealing it( sla'es* on realit". (e makers of t(e

s0irituals1 looking toard (ea'en1 found t(eir trium0(s t(ere. <ut t(e" did not !link t(eir e"es

to t(e trou!les (ere.:8<ron 479 $ater on (e adds t(at s0irituals ne'er tell of %o" in t(e Ggood

old da"s.* (e onl" %o" in t(e s0irituals is in dreams of esca0e.:8479 /or an indi'idual !orn in

sla'er" good old da"s: trul" is an unknon conce0t. orn a0art from t(eir communities1 and

e'en families1 often t(e onl" sense of !elonging sla'es 0ossessed1 if it can !e named t(at at

all1 as t(e one to t(eir master1 su00lemented it( t(e one to t(e o'erall sla'e communit".

(erefore it is no onder t(at sla'es used religion for identification. +ore 0recisel"1 t(e"

0articularl" used one as0ect of C(ristianit" t(e Fld estament. Strongl" identif"ing it( t(e

old Israelites1 t(e" dre 0arallels !eteen t(eir situations. As S(ane and )ra(am W(ite

notice1 o00ressi'e g"0t re0resented t(e sla'e s"stem1 and t(e sla'es ere in e30ectation of

t(eir on +oses like figure to lead t(em across t(e Ri'er Bordan 8t(e +asoni3on $ine91˗

&



into t(e land of Canaan1 t(e Promised $and1 or in t(e American terms1 t(e =ort(. 8&&9 ,o

!own *oses$ one of t(e most famous s0irituals1 is an em!odiment of sla'es* identification

it( !i!lical figures. Also used as a coded song for ;nderground Raila"1 it sent a strong

anti-sla'er" message?

=o more in !ondage s(all t(e" toil

$et m" 0eo0le go

$et t(em come out it( g"0t*s s0oil1

$et m" 0eo0le goL 8The Official Site of the -egro S&irituals9

(e dou!le meaning recognisa!le (ere as omni0resent in African American ork songs. It

as not onl" t(e means used for t(e e30ression of dissatisfaction1 !ut also t(e !asis for t(e

sla'es* internal communication. Fn t(e ot(er side1 t(e ina!ilit" 8or reluctance9 of (ites to

detect it1 toget(er it( t(e fact t(at sla'es ere constantl" singing at ork and (ome1 lead to

t(e misleading idea t(at t(ere as no 0olitical and social o00osition to sla'er" among t(em.

+oreo'er1 as W(ite rite1 t(e real or imagined G(a00"* singing of su00osedl"

contented sla'es confirmed in sla'e(olders t(eir !elief in t(e in(erent rig(tness of t(e s"stem1

t(eir sense t(at1 contrar" to t(e fer'id cries of a!olitionists1 t(is as t(e a" t(e orld as

meant to !e.: 8559 Proof t(at t(is notion could not !e furt(er aa" from t(e trut( can !e found

in more e30licit ork song e3am0les. (e dou!le meaning made !" using !i!lical motifs as1

after all1 not t(e onl" manner of e30ression among sla'es. 'er"da" life motifs also found

t(eir a" to t(eir music re0ertoire. issatisfaction it( sla'e(olders and t(eir attitude toards

sla'e ork is in no a" (idden in t(e folloing e3am0le?

We raise de (eat1

e" gi! us de corn@

We !ake de !read1

e" gi! us de cruss@

We sif de meal1

e" gi! us de (uss@

We 0eal de meat1

e" gi! us de skin1

And dat*s de a"

e" takes us in.

&4



We skim de 0ot1

e" gi! us t(e li>uor1

And sa" dat*s good enoug( for nigger. 8). W(ite N S. W(ite1 4#9

Hars( treatment1 as ell as t(e 0unis(ment in t(e case of not meeting one*s dail" norm of

0icked cotton1 is >uite directl" de0icted in Fie Fingers in the Boll. (e term E(undudE used

in t(e song refers to t(e minimum amount of cotton to !e 0icked 0er da"1 (ic( e>ualled

ninet" 0ounds.

Wa" don in t(e !ottom (a( t(e cotton !oll*s a rotten

Won*t get m" (undud all da".

<efo*e I*ll !e !eated !efo*e I*ll !e c(eated

I*ll lea'e fi'e fingu(s in t(e !oll. 8)ioia1 479

=orm Co(en 0oints to t(e common use of one 0articular line in man" African American ork

songs and earl" !lues tunes. I asked m" ca0tain for t(e time of da"K He said (e t(roed (is

atc( aa".: 8Co(en1 2,,51 333i9 In an almost ironic a" it reflects t(e relation !eteen

sla'e and (is su0er'isor. =amel"1 (ile t(e first one "earns for t(e end of a da"1 t(e second

one re0lies t(at it is not (is concern. In anot(er ords1 su0er'isors* aut(orit" and sla'e

e30loitation is not limited e'en !" natural determinants.

W(ile dealing it( African American ork songs it is im0ortant to mention t(e so called

(oller. A s(ort cr"1 usuall" sung !" a single 0erson1 e30resses a orker*s tiredness and

"earning for t(e end of a da". F(1 is( tomorro as Sunda":1 F(1 is( I could see m"

Hone":1 F(1 is( e'er" da" as Sunda": are some of t(e common ones. Interestingl"

enoug(1 sc(olar Ra" <.<rone claims t(at (ollers ere 0resent among all occu0ations (ere

orkers (ad to ork alone for a long 0eriod of time1 suc( as co!o"s and farmers. Hoe'er1

t(e onl" e3am0les 0reser'ed are t(e ones gi'en to $oma3es !" $ead!ell". 8<rone 79

C!ain "ang Songs

Prison farms ere !" earl" folklorists considered as great 0laces for gat(ering folk

music material. ue to t(eir isolation folklorists 0resumed t(at folk songs ere t(ere

&5



0reser'ed in t(eir aut(entic forms. In a a"1 0rison farms can !e regarded as t(e legal

0rolongation of American sla'e s"stem. =amel"1 folloing t(e a!olition sout(ern 0risons (ad

introduced a 0ractice of leasing con'icts out to 0ri'ate !usinesses for ork in farming1

mining1 railroad construction1 and ot(er demanding occu0ations1 it( little regard 0aid to

t(eir (ealt( and safet" or e'en to !asic needs for s(elter1 food and clot(ing.: 8)ioia 2,79

Isolated from t(e outer orld1 or more 0recisel"1 from t(e (ite orld since t(e ma%orit" of

con'icts ere !lacks1 t(e" (ad no o00ortunit" to !e influenced !" contem0orar" e'ents and

media. +oreo'er1 c(ain gang songs remain one of t(e most recognia!le ork song t"0es in

t(e entire American folk re0ertoire.

Sout(ern c(ain gang songs are 0erformed it( a leader singing t(e stanas1 (ile ot(ers

re0l". R("t(m indicates (en t(e (oes (a'e to strike t(e ground1 or (en t(e (ammer (as to

ring. #osie$ a num!er collected in t(e +ississi00i state farm de0icts t(e trou!les of its t"0ical

0risoner? incarceration1 oman aiting at (ome1 (ard ork and des0air?

Ain* !ut de one t(ing I done rong1

Ain* !ut de one t(ing I done rong1

Sta"ed in +is*si00i %es* a da" too long1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Come an* git me an* a-take me (ome1

ese lifetime de'ils1 de" on* let me *lone.

Well1 I come in (ere id a (undred "ears1

ree fall on me1 I don* !it mo* keer.

A3es a-alkin*1 c(i0ses a-talkin*1

All da" long1 (one"1 all da" long.

F Rosie1 o(o1

F Rosie1 o(1 $ad1 gal. 8B. $oma3 N A. $oma31 D9

'en t(oug( t(e !od" of African American ork songs in its great 0art com0rises sla'e

songs1 one must kee0 in mind t(at t(e to are not s"non"mous. It (as alread" !een clarified

t(at c(ain gangs s(ould not !e ascri!ed to sla'er". /urt(ermore1 African American influences

can !e traced1 as 6i0 $ornell argues1 in a num!er of ork song su!t"0es sailor songs1

railroaders*1 coal miners* and e'en some co!o" ones. 8&729 +oreo'er1 t(e most famous

e3am0le of railroaders* song1 and 0ossi!l" American ork song in general1 /ohn "enry$

!elongs to African American tradition. Hoard Fdum1 t(e aut(or of -egro Workaday Songs1

&



reminds t(at t(e genre of !lues1 (ic( !asicall" e'ol'ed from t(e earlier African American

musical traditions including ork songs1 contains a 'ast num!er of songs referring to ork.

+oreo'er1 (e descri!es t(e genre as t(e more formal em!odiment of t(e =egro*s orkada"

sorro songs.: 8Fdum 9 Hoe'er1 t(e com0le3it" and ric( (istor" of !lues goes ell !e"ond

t(e sco0e of t(is t(esis.

Industrial Work Songs

Railroaders# Songs

Railroad is definitel" one of t(e most 0rominent s"m!ols in American folk culture. Its

omni0resence is not sur0rising due to t(e immense effect it (ad on t(e countr"*s culture1

es0eciall" in t(e second (alf of t(e &#t( centur" (en t(e largest grot( of American raila"

s"stem took 0lace. It entered into folk culture !ot( for its !eing one of t(e largest ork0laces

in t(e ;.S. and its role in t(e countr"*s incor0oration.

Railroad ork songs (a'e a tofold origin. Arc(ie )reen notices t(at on t(e one (and

t(e" ere created out of t(e direct orkers* e30eriences1 and on t(e ot(er !" numerous

0rofessional musicians (ic( (ad little or not(ing to do it( t(e actual ork on t(e railroad.8)reen 29 (e same 0(enomenon occurs among miners* ork songs. +oreo'er1 t(e music of

t(e mines1: as )ioia states1 more t(an almost an" ot(er t"0e of la!or song1 as often

com0osed and disseminated !" outsiders !" musicians (o (ad ne'er !een don a s(aft.:

8)ioia &#,9 (e ides0read use of t(is 0ractice among t(ese to occu0ations can !e regarded

as a conse>uence of t(eir socio-cultural im0act. After all1 t(e to e0itomied t(e struggles of

a t"0ical American orker at t(e turn of t(e centur".

Railroad ne'ert(eless did not enter into t(e 0ant(eon of American folk song as a

t(ematic motif onl"1 !ut it also influenced its sound. As folklorist Arc(ie )reen notices1 not

onl" did Americans create songs a!out t(e construction of t(e railroad and a!out t(e uses to

(ic( it could !e 0ut1 !ut instrumentalists im0ro'ised train imitations in (ic( t(e 0erformer

(imself !ecame t(e clicking1 0ulsating %uggernaut.: 8)reen 29

(e song /ohn "enry1 as it (as 0re'iousl" !een stated1 is 0ro!a!l" t(e most famous

American ork song. It tells t(e legend of a man fig(ting t(e mac(ine1 more 0recisel"1 t(e

mac(ine used for t(e 0rocess of drilling (ile constructing railroad tunnels. Hoard Fdum

descri!es Bo(n Henr" as an ideal of t(e =egro orker:1 and a no!le e30onent of sturd"

&7



courage and rig(teous struggle: 8Fdum &,9. In t(e era (en tec(nological im0ro'ements

%eo0ardise t(e 'alue and efficienc" of manual ork Bo(n Henr" 0ro'es t(at (uman ill and

determination can still out0erform t(e mac(ine?

Bo(n Henr" started on de rig(t (and1

e steam drill started on de lef*

<efore I*d let dis steam drill !eat me don1

I*d (ammer m" fool self to deat(1

$ad1 $ad1 I*d (ammer m" fool self to deat(.:

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

e man dat in'ented de steam drill1

(oug(t (e as mig(t" fine.

Bo(n Henr" dro'e (is fifteen feet1

An* de steam drill onl" made nine1

$ad1 $ad1 an* de steam drill onl" made nine. 8B. $oma3 N A. $oma31 2D9

Hoe'er1 one must onder if Bo(n Henr"*s deat( signifies t(at t(e tec(nolog" is !ound to

e'entuall" take o'er in s0ite of t(e fact t(at (e ins t(is 0articular !attle. =e'ert(eless1 /ohn

"enry acts as an idiom of American folk !ecause (is destin" recalls t(e destinies of numerous

anon"mous 0eo0le. (e line a man is %ust a man:1 (ic( a00ears in a num!er of its 'arieties1

0oints to all t(ose (o %ust like t(is folk (ero (el0ed to !uild t(e ;nited States it( t(eir on

(ands1 man" losing t(eir li'es tr"ing to do so.

W(ile t(e Bo(n Henr" legend cannot !e definitel" traced1 t(e real life origin of one ot(er

folk (ero is more t(an e'ident. Bames W. +ood" c(aracterises Case" Bones as a railroad

engineer knon for (is (a!it to run on time1 and e'en more for (is tragic and (eroic deat(. Fn

A0ril ,1 &#,, Bones as t(e onl" casualt" of a train cras( (ic( occurred due to

organisational o'ersig(t on t(e line from +em0(is to Canton1 +S. 8+ood" 9 Bones managed

to slo don t(e train as muc( as 0ossi!le !efore clas(ing it( anot(er one stalled on t(e

tracks1 sa'ing e'er"one a!oard e3ce0t (imself?

Around t(e cur'e and don t(e dum01

o locomoti'es as a !ound to %um01

/ireman (ollered1 Case"1 it*s %ust a(ead1

We mig(t %um0 and make it !ut e*ll all !e dead.:

&D



Around t(e cur'e comes a 0assenger train1

Case" !los t(e (istle1 tells t(e fireman1 Ring t(e !ellK

/ireman %um0s and sa"s )ood-!"1

Case" Bones1 Mou*re !ound to die.: 8Sand!urg1 79

(e tragic e'ent as first sung !" Case"*s friend and co-orker Wallace Saunders to later on

enter into 'aude'ille re0ertoire.& Pro!a!l" t(e most famous 'ariet" of t(is song as ritten !"

Boe Hill1 (o introduced a notion of union into it. +oreo'er1 (is te3t acts as a 0arod" of

Case" Bones1 (ose tragic end is seen as a conse>uence of !ot( (is ignoring of co-orkers*

call for a strike and 0oor conditions 0ro'ided !" a railroad com0an".

#oll on Buddy is an e3am0le of a railroad (ammer song1 used !" orkers for

coordination. Wit( t(e introduction of !an%o and fiddle to its 0erformance1 it e'entuall"

entered (ill!ill" and !luegrass re0ertoire. Its l"rics de0ict t(e incongruence !eteen t(e

demanding nature of la!or and its remuneration1 (ic( is determined !" a 0erson acting in t(e

name of a com0an".

I !een a orkin* ten "ears on t(e $. N =. Railroad @˗

I can*t make enoug( mone" for to 0a" m" !oard.

I ent to t(e !oss1 I asked (im for m" time.

F(1 (at do "ou t(ink (e told me1 I oed (im one dime.

A(1 roll on1 !udd"1 and make u0 "our time@

I*m so eak and (ungr" I can*t make mine. 8)reen1 59

&Qaude'ille is a farce it( music. In t(e ;nited States t(e term connotes a lig(t entertainment

0o0ular from t(e mid-&D#,s until t(e earl" &#,s t(at consisted of &, to &5 indi'idual

unrelated acts1 featuring magicians1 acro!ats1 comedians1 trained animals1 %ugglers1 singers1

and dancers. 8 Encyclo&aedia Britannica9 Bames B. )eller rites t(at Casey /ones as first

lunc(ed in its 'aude'ille rendition in &#,# in $os Angeles1 fe "ears after 'aude'illians .

$arence Sei!ert and dard =eton (eard it (ile 0assing t(roug( =e Frleans and

agreed t(at t(e song could easil" !e re-'am0ed into a comed" num!er.: 8>td. in =. Co(en1&#71 7#9

&#



Railroad t(eme can !e recognied in one ot(er 'aude'ille e3am0le. Oh$ 0m a /olly 0rishman

Winding on the Train !rings a stereot"0ed 0ortrait of an Iris( orker at t(e end of t(e &# t(

centur"?

F(1 I*m a %oll" Iris( lad1 an* F*S(auness" is me name1

I (ired out in section t(ree to go inding on t(e train.

F(1 t(e" sent me out to num!er ten1 Gtas t(ere m"

duties did !egin1

<ut (ere in t(e di'il t(e" all come in1 it nearl"

recked m" !rain. 8)reen1 9

)reen rites t(at during 0ost-Ci'il War decades t(e Iris( la!orer as a stock figure on t(e

'ariet" and 'aude'ille stage. =o matter (et(er (e as 0ortra"ed as an ine0t or ine!riated

(odcarrier1 teamster1 ste'edore1 or gand"-dancer1 (e ala"s managed to get t(roug( (is

orkda" and as sometime s rearded !" an id"llic return to old rinJs s(ore.: 8)reen 9

Alt(oug( a 0arodic e3am0le1 t(is num!er 0oints to anot(er 0(enomenon noticea!le in

American ork songs. =on-standard 'arieties of nglis( are >uite a common feature. <roug(t

form ot(er 0arts of t(e orld1 foreign accents and languages entered folk forms like t(is one.

+oreo'er1 folk forms act as a sur'i'ing account of t(e s0eec( in t(e 0ast1 (ic( is 0articularl"

noticea!le in African American ork songs. /urt(ermore1 a 'ast num!er of ork songs ere

actuall" sung in foreign languages1 !ut due to gradual assimilation and initial lack of sc(olarl"

interest1 t(e" are noada"s mostl" untracked or com0letel" lost.

Coal $iners# Songs

(e ork songs of mine industr" !elong to a ric( re0ertoire it(in t(e realm of !ot(folk and 0o0ular music. +oreo'er1 songs suc( as $oretta $"nn*s Coal *iners !aughter and

+erle ra'is* Si1teen Tons and !ark as a !ungeon ould 0ro!a!l" !e t(e first ones to cross

one*s mind (en t(inking a!out music de0icting a t"0ical miner*s life. (ese e3am0les are

(ea'il" influenced !" traditional coal mining songs. (e" also 0oint to t(e fact t(at t(ere are

no clear !orders !eteen folk and 0o0ular music1 (ic( is 0articularl" noticea!le among

genres (ic( directl" e'ol'ed from earlier musical traditions1 suc( as !lues1 countr" and folk

re'i'al music. W(at 0rimaril" distinguis(es 0o0ular music forms from t(e folk ones is t(emo'ement from traditional material to commercial 0roduct and from regional to national

2,



markets1: as it is suggested in American Folklore2 An Encyclo&aedia. 84#9 (is s(ift does

not necessaril" affect t(e t(ematic as0ect of songs. +oreo'er1 !" clinging to familiar motifs

t(e sense of aut(enticit" is !roug(t to 0o0ular music. In countr" music1 for instance1 suc(

motifs are t(e Wild West1 rural s0aces1 railroads and mines. Acting as cultural arc(et"0es1 t(e"

!ring t(e sense of connection it( genuinel" American images and its 0ast1 (ic( often

results in t(e identification of t(e genre it( conser'ati'e 0olitical 'alues and middle-

America.

Poor ages1 disconnection from one*s famil"1 diseases caused !" dust1 and most of all1

constant dangers and tragedies at ork are all common motifs in coal miners* songs. In t(e

num!er That (ittle (um& of Coal t(e dail" 0resence of e3istential uncertaint" in a t"0ical

miner*s life is de0icted in t(e folloing a"?

F(1 (e eats a (ast" !reakfast1

/ills u0 (is car!ide flask1

Picks u0 (is lam0 and !ucket

And (e*s read" for (is task.

Sa"s good!"e to ife and !a!"1

Sto0s to kiss t(em at t(e door@

He doesn*t kno if (e*ll see t(em

In (is life an"more. 86orson1 9

W(ile doing (is fieldork folklorist )eorge 6orson came across )eorge Siemore1 a miner

from West Qirginia1 (o rote songs a!out (is on e30eriences. 86orson #9 Fne of t(em is a

first-(and testimon" of suffering from miners* occu0ational disease silicosis or t(e so called

miners* ast(ma.: ?

Rock dust (as almost killed me1

It*s turned me out in t(e rain@

/or dust (as settled on m" lungs1

And causes me constant 0ain. 86orson1 #9

In t(e closing lines of t(e song Siemore does not forget to em0(asise t(at (e is %ust one

among man" miners suffering from t(e disese. +oreo'er1 it is seen as t(e ine'ita!le destin" of

(is co-orkers?

2&



I*m t(inking of 0oor drill men1

Aa" don t(e mine1

W(o from eating dust ill end u0

Wit( a fate %ust like mine. 8#9

escri0tion of 0articular e'ents (as !een a idel" s0read 0ractice among coal miners*

songs. $ooking !ack on tragedies (ad a tofold 0ur0ose? to commemorate t(e dead and to

arn a!out t(e (idden dangers of miner*s occu0ation. (ose dangers ere not ala"s caused

!" 0oor ork conditions onl"1 !ut also !" conflicts occurring !eteen orkers and mine

com0anies1 sometimes e'en resulting in 0olice inter'entions and (uman casualties. o suc(

e'ents ere descri!ed in Wood" )ut(rie*s songs 3435 *assacre and (udlow *assacre. In t(e

first one )ut(rie goes !ack to Calumet1 referring to it as t(e co00er countr".: 8)ut(rie1

&#& +assacre:9 Fn &#& C(ristmas 'e t(e so called Italian Hall disaster: took 0lace.

=amel"1 during t(e striking miners* and t(eir families* C(ristmas 0art"1 mine com0an"

re0resentati'es allegedl" s(outed E/ireLE e'en t(oug( t(ere as none. Backson states t(at t(e

out!reak of stam0ede don t(e stee0 staira" folloed1 e'entuall" killing 7 0eo0le most of

(om ere c(ildren. 8Backson &&59 (udlow *assacre descri!es a some(at similar e'ent

taking 0lace in Colorado in &#&41 (en & 0eo0le died in t(e conflict !eteen striking miners

and t(e =ational )uard. 8Backson &&79 (e cause of t(eir deat( as t(e fire sneakil" set !"

t(e )uard1 (ic( )ut(rie descri!es in t(e folloing lines?

(at 'er" nig(t "our soldiers aited1

;ntil all us miners ere aslee01

Mou snuck around our little tent ton1

Soaked our tents it( "our kerosene. 8)ut(rie1 $udlo +assacre:9

Pro!a!l" t(e most famous song de0icting coal mine orker*s e30loitation is +erle

ra'is* Si1teen Tons. (e song as first 0u!lis(ed on ra'is* &#47 al!um Folk Songs of The

"ills1 (ic( featured !ot( traditional songs and (is on ones mainl" focusing on t(e as0ects

of railroaders* and miners* li'es. Back o"le states t(at ra'is !ased Si1teen Tons on t(e

e30eriences of (is fat(er (o as a miner in +u(len!erg Count"1 6entuck". 8o"le1 0ar.29

Mou load si3teen tons and (at do "ou get

22



Anot(er da" older and dee0er in de!t.

Saint Peter1 don*t "ou call me Gcause I can*t go1

I oe m" soul to t(e com0an" store. 8ra'is1 Si3teen ons:9

(e ironic e30ression at t(e end of t(is 'erse refers to t(e de!t ra'is* fat(er oed to t(e

com0an" store. =amel"1 t(e older ra'is regularl" used to1 as o"le rites1 go to a coal

com0an" indo and dra little !rass tokens against (is account.: 8o"le1 0ar. 29 Since t(e"

could !e s0ent in t(e coal com0an"*s store onl"1 one*s entire life as !asicall" de0endent on

it.

"old Rus!

(e stor" of American miners ould !e incom0lete it(out t(e e30eriences of t(ose

looking out for gold. W(en t(e gold as disco'ered in California and Alaska1 it triggered a

large migration of miners to t(e far West and =ort(est. An account of migration to

California1 (ic( as !ack t(en easiest to reac( tra'elling !" sea1 can also !e found in ork

songs1 suc( as t(e one called The Fools of 672

W(en )old as found in G4D1 t(e 0eo0le said t*as gas1And some ere fools enoug( to t(ing t(e lum0s ere onl" !rass@

<ut soon t(e" all ere satisfied1 and started off to mine1

(e" !roug(t t(eir s(i0s1 came round t(e Horn1 in t(e fall of G4#. 8Stone1 79

Alaskan gold rus( started after its 0urc(ase from Russia in &D71 reac(ing its 0eak after t(e

disco'er" of gold on t(e !eac(es of =ome at t(e end of t(e centur". Contrar" to t(eir initial

(o0es1 a great num!er of gold seekers left Alaska disa00ointed. Fne suc( testimon" is left in

t(e song The (ament of Old Sour !ough? We found t(ere !road !eac(es of ru!"K And

mountains it( 0lacers and leads1 K <ut all sa'e t(e sk" as 0re-em0tedK !" salt ater sailors˗

and Sedes.: 8un(am1 49 'en t(oug( t(e 0rotagonists of t(is song reac(ed t(e rig(t 0lace1

t(e" came too late. (eir e30erience 0oints to t(e crucial role of t(e factor of luck in )old

Rus(.

Songs of t!e Labor $oement

2



'en t(oug( t(e notion of 0rotest as a c(aracteristic 0resent in earlier ork songs1

onl" in t(e second (alf of t(e &#t( centur" did music itself !ecome t(e means of 0olitical

0rotest and social fig(t. +assi'e industrialisation a'e s0reading all o'er t(e countr" !rings

one of t(e !iggest social and cultural c(anges in t(e ;nited States* (istor". Work is no longer

it(in t(e domain of indi'idual or small enter0rises onl". (e ra0id grot( of large

cor0orations takes 0lace. /urt(ermore1 American orking class as (ea'il" influenced !"

la!or mo'ements in /rance and ngland. )ioia suggests t(at using music to e30ress orkers*

dissatisfaction and demands as one of t(e mo'ement*s features taken from t(e uro0ean

models. 8)ioia 229 =amel"1 Arc(ie )reen rites t(at t(e c(ants of William +orris1 gat(ered

in 0am0(let Chants for Socialists originall" 0u!lis(ed in $ondon in &DD51 >uickl" a00eared in

t(e ;nited States in 6nig(ts of $a!or*s and ot(er radical organisations* 0u!lications. He also

adds t(at t(e 0am0(let called Socialist Song as 0u!lis(ed in C(icago in &#,, !" C(arles

6err. 8)reen1 &##&1 #9 (e 0otential of music to s0read t(e 0o0ularit" of t(e la!or mo'ement

as t(erefore recognised earl" on !" its leading organisations. /urt(ermore1 music as used

in order to educate orkers a!out t(e mo'ement*s goals and to s0read solidarit". In order to

ac(ie'e t(e greatest 0ossi!le circulation of ne ork songs ne l"rics ere ritten to

familiar tunes. As (erese +.Qolk rites1 t(eir melodies ere1 in nearl" all cases1 t(ose of

t(e folk or 0o0ular songs of t(e da" or ere ("mn tunes.: 8Qolk D9 H"mn tunes ere

0articularl" 0o0ular !ecause t(e" e'oked t(e 0romise in a !etter future1 a notion (ic( as

not t(at common among earlier ork songs.

W(at is also ne in la!or mo'ement songs is t(e strong feeling of class !elonging !eing

e30ressed. Work class and em0lo"ers are 0resented as if t(e" (ad not(ing in common1 and t(e

e3isting 0olitical s"stem is regarded as t(e mec(anism (ic( kee0s t(at di'ision clear. (e

use of suc( agenda in ork songs as most 0rominent in t(e case of t(e Industrial Workers of

t(e World1 !etter knon as Wo!!lies.: /ounded in C(icago in &#,51 t(e" soon recognied

t(e 0oer of songs for t(e mo!iliation of t(eir s"m0at(isers. In &#,# t(e" 0u!lis(ed t(e

collection of D songs1 t(e so called (ittle #ed Songbook . Its 0ur0ose is stated on its co'er

rig(t !elo t(e title to fan t(e flames of discontent.: 8IWW1 co'er9 Fne of its outstanding

num!ers1 Theres a 8ower in the 9nion1 sung to t(e melod" of a ("mn Theres a 8ower in the

Blood 8Qolk 4,91 em0(asies t(e im0ortance of orkers* organiing into unions. Written !"

Boe Hill1 a songriting icon of t(e la!or mo'ement1 and first a00earing in &#& edition1 its

l"rics are directed to an a'erage American orker?

If "ou like sluggers to !eat off "our (ead1

24



(en don*t organie1 all unions des0ise.

If "ou ant not(ing !efore "ou are dead1

S(ake (ands it( "our !oss and look Wise.

(ere is 0o*r t(ere is 0o*r in a !and of orkingmen1

W(en t(e" stand (and in (and1

(at*s a 0o*r1 t(at*s a 0o*r

(at must rule in e'er" land

Fne Industrial ;nion )rand. 8IWW1 229

W(at is some(at e'ident in t(e c(orus of t(is song is t(e international dri'e of t(e IWW.

Since t(e" ere >uite radical1 t(eir final goal as not to increase ages and orking

conditions1 !ut to com0letel" a!olis( t(e age s"stem and ca0italism in general. In t(e matter

of fact1 t(e organisation*s re'olutionar" r(etoric 0oses t(e >uestion (et(er its songs can also

!e descri!ed as re'olutionar" and anarc(istic. (is 0ro!lem ill onl" dee0en during t(e 2,t(

centur" it( t(e riting of ne ork music.

Women and Work Songs

Among t(e re0ertoire of 0rotest and la!or mo'ement ork songs a large collection of

t(ose !ringing in t(e notion of orking omen can !e tracked. +ost certainl" omen sang

a!out t(eir occu0ations as muc( as men did1 (oe'er1 t(eir ork songs in general (a'e not

!een t(at ell documented. If one recalls t(at t(e ma%orit" of ork songs ere collected in

0laces suc( as 0risons1 railroads1 and mines1 all !elonging to e3clusi'el" male

0re occu0ations1 t(is does not come as a sur0rise. /urt(ermore1 since omen ere mostl"˗

confined to domestic en'ironments1 it is reasona!le to assume t(at t(eir l"rics ere mainl"

focused on domesticit". <eing confined to (ouse(old surrounding also means t(at t(e

s0reading 0otential of t(eir ork songs as limited com0ared to t(e ones made and sung at

larger and more d"namic ork en'ironments. Hoe'er1 t(e e3ce0tions to t(is general rule do

e3ist and t(e" can 0rimaril" !e found among te3tile orkers. 'en t(oug( t(eir songs can !e

traced alread" from t(e late &Dt( and earl" &#t( centur"1 t(eir real !oom (a00ened during t(e

la!or mo'ement at t(e turn of t(e &# t( to 2,t( centur". In fact1 Bo(n )reena" states t(at it(

t(e single e3ce0tion of t(e miners1 no organied la!or grou0 (as 0roduced more songs of

25



social and economic 0rotest t(an t(e te3tile orkers.: 8&2&9 ue to some(at earlier

moderniation of te3tile industr" com0ared to t(e ot(er ones1 dissatisfaction it( em0lo"ers

can !e tracked in t(ese songs as earl" as t(e first (alf of t(e &# t( centur". (owell Factory ,irl$

(ic( most 0ro!a!l" dates !ack to t(e &D,s1 e30resses t(e feeling1: as )reena" rites1

(ic( 0redominated in t(e mills during t(e earl" decades of t(e nineteent( centur":

8)reena" &229 ?

=o more I*ll dra t(ese t(reads

All t(roug( t(e (arness* e"e@

=o more I*ll sa" to m" o'erseer

F(L dear me1 I s(all dieL

. . . . . . . . . .

(en since t(e"*'e cut m" ages don

o nine s(illings 0er eek1

If I cannot !etter ages make1

Some ot(er 0lace I*ll seek. 8)reena"1 &29

/or its re0resentation of female orkers* e30loitation and discrimination t(is num!er !ears an

im0ortant testimon" to t(e American la!or (istor". =amel"1 t(eir s(ifts lasted !eteen ele'en

and fourteen (ours and t(eir ages ere smaller t(an in industries em0lo"ing men onl". lla

+a" Wiggins1 a 0rominent union leader and songriter (o as killed during t(e $ora" +ill

strike in =ort( Carolina in &#2#1 rote a song descri!ing t(e 0ro!lematics of matc(ing (ard

factor" ork it( t(e demands of mot(er(ood? W(ile e sla'e for t(e !osses1K Fur c(ildren

scream and cr": 8Hu!er1 &,,9. /urt(ermore1 t(e (ard ork (ic( 0arts t(em from t(eir

c(ildren is not 0aid enoug( to take a 0ro0er care of t(eir families?

Ho it grie'es t(e (eart of a mot(er1

Mou e'er" one must kno1

<ut e can*t !u" for our c(ildren1

Fur ages are too lo. 8Hu!er1 &,,9

Wiggins sees t(e onl" a" out in t(e union acti'ism1 and calls ot(er fello orkers and

mot(ers to %oin it not onl" for t(eir on sake1 !ut for t(e sake of t(eir c(ildren too. W(at is

indicati'e in Wiggin*s case is (er a!ilit" to 0ut 0ersonal e30eriences into a song1 and in t(at

2



manner call u0on (er fello orkers to solidarie it( (er. Her life made (er a (ero1 and (er

tragic deat( t(e mart"r of t(e orking class. Her 0ersona is rele'ant e'en noada"s1 as

Patrick Hu!er discusses1 stating t(at industrial ork0lace issues suc( as afforda!le c(ildcare1

union re0resentation and c(ronicall" lo ages continue to 0lague sout(ern orking

mot(ers.: 8Hu!er &,9 ue to a relati'el" slo c(ange concerning omen*s ork rig(ts1

identification it( *ill *others (ament t(erefore still (as not ceased.

%!e $usic of Work in t!e &irst Half of t!e '( t! Century

uring t(e 2,t( centur" ork song encounters an am!i'alent destin". W(ile its

traditional form dies out due to !ot( c(anged ork conditions and t(e !roadcast media

emergence1 nel" com0osed music of ork mostl" leans on t(e tradition started !" la!or

mo'ement. /urt(ermore1 t(e notion of ork also enters t(e realm of 0o0ular music1

sometimes making it 0articularl" (ard to dra clear lines !eteen folk and 0o0ular music

forms. raditional and mass consciousness constantl" merge toget(er. W(at is trul" ne is t(e

fact t(at t(e 2,t( centur" ork songs are in most cases created !" 0rofessional musicians

rat(er t(an actual orkers. Working class is no in a 0osition of a target audience. (e music

as used as a tool for 0olitical enlig(tenment of t(e orking class1 es0eciall" in t(e first (alf of t(e centur".

Com)oser#s Collectie and Woody "ut!rie

Recognition of ork song as a 'alua!le American cultural asset !" folklorists like

$oma3 and Sand!urg1 alongside it( union songs (ic( ere still 'er" 'i'id in t(e first (alf

of t(e 2,t( centur"1 ins0ired ne generations of musicians to com0ose music (ic( ould in

its c(aracter !e genuinel" American. William ). Ro" rites t(at t(e first grou0 of

0rofessional musicians to take o'er t(e task of com0osing music for t(e orking class

e3clusi'el" as t(e Com0osers Collecti'e founded in &#2. 8Ro" #,9 =ota!le mem!ers of t(e

grou0 ere Aaron Co0land1 Henr" Coell and C(arles Seeger. Hoe'er1 due to musical

com0le3it" t(eir com0ositions did not gain ide 0o0ularit". C(arles Seeger (imself e30lains

it in t(e folloing ords? (ere as 'er" little t(oug(t in t(e Collecti'e of 0eo0le singing

our songs. (e em0(asis as on riting t(ings for t(em to listen to ... We didn*t (a'e muc(

t(e" could sing t(emsel'es1 e3ce0t songs it( 0iano accom0animent1 and t(ere ere lots of

27



t(ose.: 8>td. in unaa"1 &#D,1 &9 Fne of suc( com0ositions is t(e song attacking Henr"

/ord?

Henr" /ord and a (undred t(ousand men

<argained u0 a (ill and don again.

Henr" got t(e mone" and t(e men did t(e ork. 8unaa"1 &9

Fnce again1 t(e em0(asis is on t(e discre0anc" !eteen t(e u00er and t(e orking class. In

s0ite of t(eir musicalit" 8or !ecause of it91 Collecti'e did not manage to trul" s0eak for t(e

orking class. W(at as necessar" for t(e success of an" suc( organisation as t(e Boe Hill

alike figure1 (o could in sim0le and understanda!le terms s0eak a!out t(e 0ro!lems of a

orking man. Suc( figure a00eared in t(e 0ersona of Wood" )ut(rie. As )ioia notices1

)ut(rie as neit(er a singing orker nor a union organier1: !ut (e deser'es mention if

onl" for (is s"m!olic role as t(e musical s0okesman for a large 0ro0ortion of t(e American

orking class during t(e middle decades of t(e tentiet( centur".: 8)ioia 2#9 ue to (is

tra'els and constant mo'ements1 )ut(rie managed to get ac>uainted it( all t"0es of

American orking 0eo0le and transcri!e t(eir e30eriences into a song. Fne of )ut(rie*s

earliest songs refers to t(e trou!les encountered !" (is fello Fkies: and ot(er ust <ol

migrants to California. In t(e !allad !o#e*i (e arns t(em a!out conditions in California1

(ic( due to t(e large influ3 of 0eo0le (as no more %o!s to offer? =o1 t(e 0olice at t(e 0ort

of entr" sa"1K Mou*re num!er fourteen t(ousand for toda".: 8)ut(rie1 oRe+i:9 uring (is

time in California1 )ut(rie gets familiaried it( 0olitical 0rograms of t(e Socialist

mo'ement and t(e Communist Part". 'en t(oug( (e ne'er officiall" %oined t(e latter1 its

agenda as often used in (is songs. His !elief in t(e 0oer of t(e union is 0resent in a great

deal of (is music. In 9nion *aid 1 released on Almanac Singers* &#4& al!um1 )ut(rie

em0(asies t(e im0ortance of solidarit" and organiing?

(is union maid as ise to t(e tricks of com0an" s0ies1

S(e couldn*t !e fooled !" a com0an" stool1 s(e*d ala"s organie t(e gu"s.

S(e ala"s got (er a" (en s(e struck for !etter 0a". 8Almanac Singers1 ;nion

+aid:9

A striking feature of )ut(rie*s songriting is t(e c(oice of motifs used in songs. ;nions1

CIF1 communism1 and !i!lical stories are intertined. Aut(or +ark Allan Backson notices

2D



t(at )ut(rie (as o'erla00ed C(ristianit"1 unionism1 and communism it( little real

differentiation !eing made !eteen t(em. In (is estimation1 eac( !ecomes a force for %ustice

and e>ualit".: 8Backson 2&D9 W(ile listening to )ut(rie*s songs ric( it( Cristian motifs1 it is

not (ard to notice t(at (is 'ision of C(ristianit" differs from t(e one 0ro0osed !" t(e

American ric(. W(ile t(e" see t(e contem0orar" ca0italist s"stem as )od*s ill1 )ut(rie

considers t(em as t(e ones !etra"ing t(e 0rinci0les of religion1 (ic( is 'isi!le in t(e song

entitled /esus Christ2

W(en Besus come to ton1 all t(e orking folks around

<elie'ed (at (e did sa"

<ut t(e !ankers and t(e 0reac(ers1 t(e" nailed Him on t(e cross1

And t(e" laid Besus C(rist in (is gra'e. 8)ut(rie1 Besus C(rist:9

According to )ut(rie1 true C(ristianit" does not go (and in (and it( large material fortune1

es0eciall" not it( t(e one gained !" t(e (ards(i0s of t(e 0oor. (e !rot(er(ood of man is

t(erefore regarded not onl" as t(e a" to fig(t class differences1 !ut also as a life 0rinci0le in

accordance it( religion. ;nion is seen as t(e means of accom0lis(ing it. Backson states t(at

)ut(rie*s riting of union oriented songs furt(er intensified after a 'isit (e 0aid toget(er it(˗

Pete Seeger in &#4, to t(e Hig(lander /olk Sc(ool1 an institution in ennessee (ic(

en(anced rural union leaders to use songs in order to unite orkers. 8Backson 229

Almanac Singers

At a!out t(e same time1 Pete Seeger and Wood" )ut(rie got toget(er it( $ee Ha"s and

+illard $am0ell1 also folk songriters1 and formed t(e grou0 knon as Almanac Singers. It

as Alan $oma3 (o initiall" connected t(em1 as (e desired a grou0 (ic( ould 0erform

folk and to0ical songs. (eir target audience ere unions1 and most of t(eir 0erformances

ere (eld for t(em and ot(er 0rogressi'e organisations. Ro" rites t(at t(e Almanacs did not

de'elo0 t(e idea of 0ursuing mass audiences since t(e" felt t(at t(e mass media as

controlled !" ca0italists. 8Ro" &2&9 Ff course1 t(at does not mean t(at t(e Almanacs

com0letel" a'oided 0o0ular media1 !ut t(e" ere sim0l" not t(eir 0rimar" means of reac(ing

t(eir audience. Ro" in t(is act recognies t(e fig(t against ca0italism !ot( t(roug( t(e content

and t(e form of t(e music. W(at t(e grou0 anted as to create orking-class culture and to

facilitate t(ose orkers* de'elo0ment of t(eir on culture.: 8Ro" &279

2#



It is not (ard to see t(at t(e grou0 (ad a strong 0olitical agenda. <" en(ancing orkers*

on culture and using it as a tool for t(eir education and social fig(t1 t(e" anted t(em to

ac(ie'e a greater le'el of inde0endenc" from t(e e3isting 0olitical s"stem. +oreo'er1 t(eir

music1 %ust like t(e one of t(e la!or mo'ements from t(e turn of t(e centur"1 em0(asied t(at

t(ere is no suc( t(ing as su00orting !ot( unions and ric( ca0italists. (eir goals ere seen as

mutuall" e3clusi'e. In Which Side Are :ou On$ featured on t(eir &#4& al!um Talking 9nion

and ritten a decade earlier !" /lorence Reese1 t(ese o00osing 0ositions are 0articularl"

em0(asied?

F(1 orkers can "ou stand it

F(1 tell me (o "ou can

Will "ou !e a lous" sca!

Fr ill "ou !e a man 8Almanac Singers1 W(ic( Side Are Mou Fn:9

<eside songs directed to orking-class 0o0ulation1 Almanacs ere also nota!le for t(eir anti-

ar songs (ic( criticised t(e 0resident and t(e ;.S.* inter'ention in WWII. Hoe'er1 it also

caused t(e !and*s disintegration in &#42K41 for it gained t(em negati'e 0u!licit" and t(e

status of a national enem". Interestingl" enoug(1 once t(at (e acce0ted t(e ;.S.* ar

in'ol'ement1 )ut(rie rote and 0erformed songs a!out union forces defeating t(e =ais. All

:ou Fascists o00oses t(e fascism and 0raises organised men*s unit". +oreo'er1 lines I*m

going into t(is !attleK And take m" union gunK We*ll end t(is orld of sla'er": 8)ut(rie1 All

Mou /ascists:9 indicate t(at (is 'ision of fascists as >uite similar to (is 'ision of greed"

ca0italists eac( of t(em su!ordinating and using 0eo0le for t(eir on economic 0ros0ect.

Peo)le#s Songs and %!e Weaers

After WW21 t(e tradition of left-ing music as continued !" Peo0le*s Songs. )ioia

rites t(at t(is organisation as esta!lis(ed on ecem!er & st1 &#45 it( t(e goal of creating

0oliticall" 0rogressi'e music1 focusing on orkers1 la!or conditions1 ci'il li!erties and

0eace.: 8)ioia 24&9 (e 0ro%ect as started !" Pete Seeger1 and it as acti'e from &#4 to

&#4#. uring t(is 0eriod t(e organisation1 as Ro" rites1 !" 0u!lis(ing !ooks and

magaines1 s0onsoring e'ents1 creating forums for interaction1 and linking to ot(er 0roducers

and distri!utors of left-ing music1 ga'e folk music a greater 0resence !ot( in t(e media

and in t(e mo'ement at large.: 8Ro" &2#9 He adds t(at t(e success of organisation as t(e

,



result of to t(ings? alt(oug( it as centred in =e Mork1 it (ad !ranc(es all across t(e

countr"1 and it as not as radical as t(e Almanacs ere. 8&9 Fnce again1 Alan $oma3 as

t(e 0erson (o connected t(em all1 !elie'ing t(at t(e" could continue t(e tradition of trul"

American music.

W(at e'entuall" destro"ed t(e organisation as its su00ort of Henr" Wallace*s

0residential cam0aign. It did not onl" mean t(e loss of t(eir finances1 !ut also of t(e unions

(ic( ere t(eir 0rimar" audience. =amel"1 Ro" rites t(at Peo0le*s Songs !" su00orting t(e

cam0aign also signalled t(eir affiance to intellectual1 radical middle class ad(erents more t(an

to unions1 (ic( ere in t(at moment actuall" retreating from t(e communistic influence.

8&49

After organisation*s dissolution1 a num!er of its 0re'ious mem!ers and associates

!ecame targets of +cCart("ism1 la!elling t(em as communist and anti-American. (is 0oses

t(e >uestion of t(e degree in (ic( t(ose musicians and t(eir grou0s ere actuall" influenced

!" t(e Communist Part". 'en t(oug( most of t(eir mem!ers ere s"m0at(iers and e'en

mem!ers of t(e CP;SA1 t(e 0art" (ad no real interest in 0roducing music for 0olitical

0ur0oses. Ric(ard Reuss rites t(at alt(oug( at times t(e 0art" contri!uted to1 e'en directl"

su00orted1 'arious front organiations of riters1 0la"rig(ts1 musicians1 and ot(er cultural

artists1 it refused to su!sidie folk 0erformers or associated organiations.: 8Reuss ##9 In s0ite

of t(at1 !elonging or s(oing s"m0at(ies for Communist 0art" as enoug( to 0ut someone*s

name on t(e entertainment industr" !lacklist and in t(at manner damage one*s career. Ronald

. Co(en states t(at Pete Seeger1 +illard $am0ell1 Aaron Co0land and Alan $oma3 found

t(emsel'es singled out. 8R. Co(en 2#9 (e effects of !lacklisting ere strong in all cases1

it( $oma3 lea'ing t(e ;nited States and Seeger losing media s0ace and la!el contracts for

(is ne grou01 t(e Wea'ers. In s0ite of t(is1 t(e influence of Seeger*s grou0 ould onl" gro.

(e Wea'ers marked t(e start of a commercial folk !oom and o0ened t(e s0ace for t(e

0rotest singers of t(e &#,s rel"ing on folk tradition1 suc( as Boan <ae1 <o! "lan and Peter1

Paul and +ar". (e grou0 managed to 0o0ularie t(e old ork song 8ay *e *y *oney

!own1 (ile Seeger*s 0f 0 "ad a "ammer !ecame a ("mn of t(e generation. Wit( its

com!ination of motifs of ork1 music and solidarit"1 it e30resses t(e (o0e in a !etter future?

If I (ad a (ammer1

I*d (ammer in t(e morning

I*d (ammer in t(e e'ening1

All o'er t(is land.

&



. . . . . . . .

I*d ring out danger1

I*d ring out a arning

I*d ring out lo'e !eteen m" !rot(ers and m" sisters1

All o'er t(is land.

. . . . . . . .

It*s t(e (ammer of Bustice1

It*s t(e !ell of /reedom1

It*s t(e song a!out $o'e !eteen m" !rot(ers and m" sisters1

All o'er t(is land. 8Seeger1 If I Had a Hammer:9

0f 0 "ad a "ammer uses t(e motifs from t"0ical ork songs in order to e30ress socio-0olitical

0rotest. (is 0iece of music is not directed toards unions !ut rat(er toards t(e entire

American 0o0ulation. )radual decline in t(e usage of references to actual ork and

orientation toards current social 0ro!lems ould lead to t(e esta!lis(ment of t(e &#,s folk

mo'ement1 (ose songs mostl" focus on t(e sloness of t(e social c(ange.

Work $usic in t!e Post-Industrial Period

/ragmentation and decentralisation of music 0roduction and consum0tion in t(e 0ost-

industrial 0eriod makes it difficult to state an" definite relations !eteen music and ork.

ec(nological ad'ancements (a'e ena!led orkers to c(oose t(eir on music at ork (ic(

led to t(e com0lete indi'idualisation of t(is social segment. W(at is com0letel" a!sent is1 as

6orc"nski argues1 t(e role of music in t(e ordering of social interaction at ork.: 82D9 In

terms of a distinct social grou0 orkers are not regarded as a target audience an"more.

+oreo'er1 in t(e ser'ice sector music at ork0laces is 0rimaril" !eing directed toards

customers1 and not orkers. )ioia notices t(at t(e 'er" acts of !u"ing and selling (a'e

em!raced music it( a 0ersistence and 'igor t(at no force tec(nological1 cultural1 or

0olitical (as !een a!le to eradicate or e'en diminis(. 82449 As a result1 musical references to

t(e notion of ork in t(is 0eriod must 0rimaril" !e looked for in 0o0ular music1 (ic( is a

sella!le commodit" itself.

Hoe'er1 an e3ce0tion to t(is trend can !e found in t(e songs of t(e C(icano Ci'il

Rig(ts +o'ement. aking 0lace !eteen &#5 and &#751 t(e mo'ement1 as =eil /ole" rites1

2



!roug(t national attention to one of t(e nation*s least understood and fastest-groing

0o0ulations.: 8/ole" &4D9 =amel"1 t(roug(out t(e Sout(est and California +e3ican-

American 0o0ulation foug(t against segregation and discrimination. Protests against une>ual

educational rig(ts1 lo ages and 0oor orking conditions1 0rimaril" in agricultural !usiness1

ere massi'el" staged. +anuel )onales states t(at t(e ke" organisation re0resenting

+e3ican-American orkers* 0ers0ecti'e as t(e ;nited /arm Workers led !" Csar C(T'e

and olores Huerta. +oreo'er1 (e considers t(e organisation*s &#5 strike launc(ed in

California*s San Boa>uin Qalle" as t(e most am!itious unionisation attem0t to date.:

8)onales &##9 Among ot(er means of e30ression1 t(e C(icano +o'ement used music in

order to state its goals. (is music as defined !" to constants1 as Ste'an Acona argues?

t(e first one !eing an almost e3clusi'e use of S0anis( language l"rics and t(e second t(e

C(icano-!ased !road definition of t(e 0rotest song1 defined along to 'ectors? a

0redominance of +e3ican song genres and1 more im0ortantl"1 0oliticall" e30licit l"rics.:

8Acona &2#9 eli!eratel" using S0anis( language and +e3ican music genres1 t(e mo'ement

aimed to raise +e3ican Americans* collecti'e consciousness it(in t(e ;.S.* 0olitical and

socio-cultural conte3t. (e introduction of 0oliticall" e30licit l"rics to folk music is a feature

in(erited from t(e earlier la!or organisations1 suc( as t(e IWW. (e ada0tation and

a00ro0riation of alread" e3isting songs as used on a large scale. Interestingl" enoug(1 !eside

traditional +e3ican songs1 a num!er of t(ose originating from t(e American la!or mo'ement

ere also ada0ted. In t(is manner t(e IWW standards Solidarity Foreer and We Shall -ot Be

*oed !ecame Solidaridad &a siem&re and -o nos moer;n$ (ile t(e Ci'il Rig(ts

+o'ement*s ant(em We Shall Oercome as translated into -osotros enceremos. 8Acona

#59 'en t(oug( suc( translations ere not necessaril" literal1 t(e" mirrored t(e s0irit of t(eir

role models* social and 0olitical fig(t.

It (as alread" !een mentioned t(at t(e motif of ork and ork song itself in t(e 2, t(

centur" finds its a" to 0o0ular music genres1 suc( as countr"1 0o0 and rock. 'en in its

some(at altered musical form1 ork song still acts as an e30ression of t(e American a" of

life. (is is 0articularl" true for t(e music of Bo(nn" Cas( and <ruce S0ringsteen. 'en

t(oug( t(e" ere not t(e onl" ones to sing a!out ork in t(e second (alf of t(e 2, t( centur"1

t(e 0redominance of motifs connected to it in t(eir o'erall re0ertoires makes t(em ort( of

mention in t(is conte3t. ac( one in (is on a" ga'e a ne life to t(e idiom of ork song.

According to Armstrong and )reider1 Cas( mentions %o!s in &&5 out of D4 songs (e

recorded. 8Armstrong N )reider1 2&9 His re0ertoire includes a large num!er of traditional

ork songs1 suc( as alread" mentioned Casey /ones and /ohn "enry1 and a significant



num!er of nel" ritten ones1 mostl" dealing it( t(e 0ro!lems of industrial orkers. It is

also im0ortant to notice t(at 0rison songs1 (ic( are t(e most dominant ones in (is oeu're1 in

t(is case cannot ala"s !e identified as ork songs too1 since t(e" deal it( social in%ustice

and 0rison conditions rat(er t(an actual ork.

Cas(*s ork songs de0ict numerous occu0ations from co!o"s1 miners and farmers to

food ser'ers1 dri'ers and factor" orkers. (e necessit" of occu0ational c(ange is a recurring

motif in (is songs1 resulting in a c(anged 0ersonal and cultural identification. In a s0oken

introduction (e added to !etroit City1 a song ritten !" ill and illis1 Cas( s0ecifies t(e

cause of migration from t(e Sout(? Well t(e cotton land 0la"ed out e'er" "earK And e ent

nort( to t(e !ig car factor" u0 nort(: and adds t(e notion of &#5& car models: 8Cas(1

etroit Cit":9 to make t(e 0rotagonist more familiar to t(e audience. Industrial la!or is in

t(is e3am0le seen as an American 0resent1 o00osed to agricultural la!or dominating in t(e

0ast.

S0eaking of industrial la!or in t(e second (alf of t(e 2, t( centur"1 it is im0ortant to 0oint

to t(e songs referring to t(e automo!ile industr". In Wednesday Car 1 Cas( (olds orkers*

moti'ation as an im0ortant factor for t(e 0roduct*s >ualit"1 and t(erefore ad'ises customers to

!u" cars made on Wednesda"s. One 8iece at a Time1 ritten !" Wa"ne 6em01 0ro!lematies

t(e discre0anc" !eteen t(e 'alue of la!or and its commercial 0roduct. =amel"1 it is a stor"

of an automo!ile industr" orker (o cannot afford a Cadillac1 regarded as an American

status s"m!ol1 and t(erefore decides to steal 0arts o'er a long s0an of time in order to make

(imself one? I*'e ne'er considered m"self a t(ief1K <ut )+ ouldn*t miss %ust one little

0iece1K s0eciall" if I strung it out o'er se'eral "ears.: 8Cas(1 Fne Piece at a ime:9 He ends

u0 it( t(e &#4# to &#7, automo!ile model. W(at is im0ortant to 0oint out (en s0eaking of

Bo(nn" Cas( is t(e fact t(at e'en t(oug( (e mostl" sung a!out middle class 0eo0le1 (e ne'er

used t(e r(etoric of class solidarit". As Armstrong and )reider 0ut it1 (e sta"ed it(in t(e

!road !oundaries of countr".: 82279 ;nderstanding t(at (is 0atriotism and concern for

ine>ualit" ma" seem contradictor"1 (e refrained from e30ressing a clear 0olitical stand in (is

songs and used it as t(e means of identification it( (is audience. Primaril" regional and

occu0ational frameork it(in t(e countr" music1 com0lemented it( its tendenc" to use

legends and stories from t(e 0ast1 ena!led suc( a0olitical e30ression of contem0orar" social

concerns. <" doing so1 e'en t(oug( (e !ased (is e30ression on folk tradition1 Cas( did not

directl" rel" on t(e ork of )ut(rie and Seeger. (eir influences can rat(er !e recognised in

t(e re0ertoire of anot(er 0o0ular music (ero <ruce S0ringsteen.

4



In S0ringsteen*s music t(e notion of ork is (ea'il" affected !" contem0orar"

0ro!lems. It is intertined it( social order and groing 0ersonal isolationism. =amel"1

S0ringsteen*s idea of ork is (ereditar"1 t(at is 0reconcei'ed as !elonging to a social class.

/or instance1 in The #ier t(e 0rotagonist starts off (is stor" !" telling t(at t(e" !ring "ou u0

to do like "our dadd" done: 8S0ringsteen1 (e Ri'er:91 and in Adam #aised a Cain (e states

t(at Mou*re !orn into t(is life 0a"ing for t(e sins of some!od" else*s 0astK Well add"

orked (is (ole life for not(ing !ut t(e 0ain.: 8S0ringsteen1 Adam:9 <eside t(e

im0ossi!ilit" of u0ard social mo'ement1 one ot(er notion is >uite 0resent in (is re0ertoire

t(e 0ro!lematics of 0ost-em0lo"ment.

W(ile ork songs mostl" used to refer to (ards(i0s of ork and lo ages1 no t(e"

focus on t(e lack of ork itself. +ore t(an an"!od" else1 <ruce S0ringsteen ga'e t(e 'oice to

t(e generation (o (ad to deal it( it. /ohnny 441 t(e stor" of an autoorker (o after t(e

loss of (is %o! turns to crime1 is 0artl" !ased on t(e real life e'ent. =amel"1 in t(e earl" &#D,s

more t(an 25,1,,, autoorkers lost t(eir %o!s1 and )arman states t(at t(e s(utdon of t(e

0lant in +a(a(1 =e Berse"1 as t(e one (ic( ins0ired t(is song. 8D49? Well t(e" closed

don t(e auto 0lant in +a(a( late t(at mont(K Ral0( ent out lookin* for a %o! !ut (e

couldn*t find none.:8S0ringsteen1 Bo(nn" ##:9 ;nem0lo"ment is seen as t(e cause of t(e

0rotagonist*s 0ersonalit" disintegration. Com!ined it( financial 0ro!lems and state

re0ressi'e mec(anisms1 it acts as a 0re'ailing factor of an indi'idual*s destin"1 (ic( can !e

recognied in Bo(nn"*s a00eal to t(e court during (is trial?

=o %udge I (ad de!ts no (onest man could 0a"

(e !ank as (oldin* m" mortgage and t(e" ere gonna take m" (ouse aa"

=o I ain*t sa"in* t(at makes me an innocent man

<ut it as more Gn all t(is t(at 0ut t(at gun in m" (and. 8S0ringsteen1 Bo(nn" ##:9

In s0ite of t(e fact t(at t(e song is !ased on a s0ecific ork en'ironment1 it re0resents muc(

more t(an t(at. As )arman notices1 it is a re0resentational (istor" of class relation in t(e

;nited States (ic( illustrates t(e cost of t(ese relations in (uman terms.: 8)arman DD9 <"

focusing on indi'idual destinies1 S0ringsteen 0oints to t(e actual conse>uences of t(e ;.S.

go'ernment*s 0olic" in t(e earl" &#D,s1 0rimaril" concerning t(e 0ro!lems of de-

industrialisation and (ig( unem0lo"ment rates. As dard ;. +ur0(" notices1 S0ringsteen

!" asking (ard >uestions1 offers not ansers 0er se1 !ut (uman stories t(at re'eal t(e

contradictions !eteen American ideals and American realit".: 8+ur0(" &D&9 His music is

5



contem0oraneous it( socio-economic 0ro!lems (ic( ould onl" later !ecome a to0ic of

(istor" and sociolog". In t(is manner S0ringsteen !ears more resem!lance to )ut(rie t(an to

(is 0redecessors from t(e genre of rock. In different time 0eriods !ot( musicians did t(e same

e30ressed t(e ;nited States* 0ro!lems in t(e language of its on 0eo0le1 focusing on t(e

ne'er-ending discre0anc" !eteen realit" and t(e 0romised ideal.

Conclusion

Work song as a 0roduct of American folklore is muc( more t(an a musical form. It

re'eals t(e structure of t(e societ" !e(ind it1 more 0recisel" t(e intertined relations !eteen

ork1 socio-economic status and cultural identit". <eing created and !ased on t(e actuale30eriences of American 0eo0le rat(er t(an on 0olitical and ideological agendas1 ork song

acts as a ric( re0resentation of t(e American a" of life. In all its differences and similarities

it 0oints to s0atial and tem0oral determinants of t(e nation*s de'elo0ment from t(e

0ers0ecti'e of common 0eo0le. o0icall" grounded on an e'er"da" as0ect of life1 it !rings to

surface some often forgotten as0ects of (istor". Work song goes into t(e domain of !ot(

0ersonal and grou0 struggles of economic1 social and cultural nature.

Wit( its 'arious 0ur0oses memorising and commemorating e'ents1 arning of

dangers1 coordinating ork1 0rotesting1 gi'ing (o0e in a !etter future and occasionall" finding

0ride in (at one does for li'ing it re'eals not onl" t(e attitude toards ork1 !ut also

toards life in general. 'en t(oug( ork songs more often t(an not focus on ork*s negati'e

as0ects1 and t(erefore mig(t seem o'ertl" su!%ecti'e and som!re1 t(e" still are a trustort("

testimon" to t(e attitude to ork of t(eir time. As a folklore form1 t(e" offer >uite a ide

0ers0ecti'e on societ". (erefore it is no sur0rise t(at folklorists recognised t(em1 toget(er

it( ot(er folk forms1 as trul" American cultural 0roducts.

Alan $oma3 sees t(e cause of sta"ing 0oer of folklore in its ca0acit" to re%ect

aut(oritarian notions and to act as a simultaneous e30ression of indi'idual creati'it" and

communit" sentiment. 8A. $oma3 #9 Work songs trul" 0ro'e t(emsel'es in t(is regard. Fn

t(e one (and t(e" tell t(e com0le3 stor" of t(e nation*s geogra0(ical and social incor0oration

t(roug( t(e 0ers0ecti'e of sailors1 lum!er%acks1 co!o"s1 sla'es1 miners1 railroaders and

industrial orkers1 and on t(e ot(er t(e" 0oint to t(e t(ings t(at ent rong. Social

insensiti'it" and in%ustice1 0oor ork conditions1 lo ages1 t(e lack of orker*s rig(ts and



groing class differences are %ust some of t(em. (is 'oice addressing orking men*s

0ro!lems continues to !e strong e'en after it declines in t(e folk use and finds ne life it(in

t(e 0o0ular music domain. After all1 ork song (as among ot(er t(ings ala"s !een a form of

entertainment too an entertainment (ose content !ears (istor" in its aut(entic form. In

order to recognise it1 one must trul" listen. Sometimes t(ere reall" is somet(ing !e(ind t(e

music.

Works cited

Primary sources*

Almanac Singers. <" Wood" )ut(rie. ;nion +aid.: Talking 9nion. 6e"note1 &#4&. +P.

Almanac Singers. <" /lorence Reese. W(ic( Side are Mou Fn: Talking 9nion. 6e"note1

&#4&. +P.

Cas(1 Bo(nn". <" Wa"ne 6em0. Fne Piece at a ime.: One 8iece at a Time. Colum!ia1

&#7. +P.

Cas(1 Bo(nn". <" +el illis N ann" ill. etroit Cit".: /ohnny Cash Show. Colum!ia1

&#7,. +P.

un(am1 Sam C. The ,oldsmith of -ome. Was(ington1 .C.? (e =eale Pu!lis(ing Co. &#,&.

We!.

)o on1 +oses.: The Official Site of the -egro S&irituals. S0iritual Works(o0. We!. 2,

+a" 2,&5.

)ra"1 Roland Palmer. Songs and Ballads of the *aine (umber+acks. Cam!ridge1 +A?

Har'ard ;ni'ersit" Press. &#25. Print.

)reen1 Arc(ie. Railroad Songs and <allads? /rom t(e Arc(i'e of /olk Song.: (ibrary of

Congress Catalog R7-&7# 8&#D9? &-&7. (oc.go. We!. 2, A0ril 2,&5.

)reena"1 Bo(n. American Folksongs of 8rotest. P(iladel0(ia? ;ni'ersit" of Penns"l'ania

Press. &#5. We!.

7



)ut(rie1 Wood". &#& +assacre.: Rec. &#4&. +oses Asc(. The Official Woody ,uthrie

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)ut(rie1 Wood". All Mou /ascists.: Rec. &#44. ecca Records. The Official Woody ,uthrie


)ut(rie1 Wood". oRe+i.: Rec. &#4,. !ust Bowl Ballads. RCA Qictor. The Official Woody

,uthrie Website. We!. 5 Bune 2,&5.

)ut(rie1 Wood". Besus C(rist.: Rec. &#4,. $i!rar" of Congress. The Official Woody ,uthrie


)ut(rie1 Wood". $udlo +assacre.: Rec. &#4#. "ard Traelin<2 The Asch #ecordings$ =ol.

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(ibrary of Congress Catalog R5-522 8&#59? &-&. (oc.go. We!. 2& A0ril 2,&5.

Sand!urg1 Carl. The American Songbag. =e Mork? Harcourt1 <race N Com0an". &#27. We!.

Seeger1 Pete. <" $ee Ha"s. If I Had a Hammer.: Essential 8ete Seeger. Son" <+)1 2,,5.

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S0ringsteen1 <ruce. Adam Raised a Cain.: !arkness on the Edge of Town. Colum!ia1 &#7D.

C.

S0ringsteen1 <ruce. Bo(nn" ##.: -ebraska. Colum!ia1 &#D2. C.

S0ringsteen1 <ruce. (e Ri'er.: The #ier. Colum!ia1 &#D,. C.

Stone1 Bo(n A. 8ut<s Original California Songster2 ,iing in a Few Words What Would

Occu&y =olumes$ !etailing the "o&es$ Trials and /oys of a *iner<s (ife. San /rancisco? ..

A00leton N Co. &DD. We!.

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D



Armstrong1 dard ). and Paul $.)reider. (e Presentation of Identit" in t(e Work Songs

of Bo(nn" Cas(.: 8o&ular *usic and Society .2 82,&9? 2&2. EBSCOhost. We!. 5 Bune

2,&5.

Acona1 Ste'an Cesar. +o'ements in C(icano +usic? Performing Culture1 Performing

Politics1 &#5-&#7#.: iss. (e ;ni'ersit" of e3as at Austin1 2,,D. e3as Sc(olar Works1

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<ron1 Sterling. =egro /olk 30ression? S0irituals1 Seculars1 <allads and Work Songs.:

8hylon ?346@%34 &4.& 8&#59? 45-&. /STO#. We!. 2 A0ril 2,&5.

<rone1 Ra" <. Some =otes on t(e Sout(ern EHollerE.: The /ournal of American Folklore

7.2 8&#549? 7-77. /STO#. We!. 4 A0ril 2,&5.

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Co(en1 Ronald . +illard $am0ell? <lacklisted.: American Communist "istory #. 82,&,9?

2#-&. Taylor D Francis Online. We!. 5 Bune 2,&5.

Countr" +usic.: American Folk2 An Encyclo&aedia. d. Ban Harold <run'and. =e Mork?

)arland Pu!lis(ing1&##. Print.

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u <ois1 W..<. The Souls of Black Folk. =e Mork? F3ford ;ni'ersit" Press. 2,,7. Print.

unaa"1 a'id 6. C(arles Seeger and Carl Sands? (e Com0osersJ Collecti'e Mears.:

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/ole"1 =eil. (e C(icano +o'ement.: *e1icans in the *aking of America. Har'ard ;ni'ersit"

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;ni'ersit" Press of +ississi00i. 2,,7. Print.

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+ur0("1 dard ;. (e Countr" We Carr" in Fur Hearts Is Waiting:? <ruce S0ringsteen

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4&



Abstract

(is t(esis argues t(at American ork songs can !e used as 'alua!le sources of information

contri!uting to t(e stud" and inter0retation of American la!or (istor". Created from and !ased

on t(e actual e30eriences of American orking 0eo0le rat(er t(an on 0olitical and ideological

agendas1 ork songs can !e regarded as media 0ro'iding insig(t into t(e neglected 0arts of

t(e ;nited States* (istor". (e" are !ot( 0olitical and cultural artefacts1 reflecting differences

!eteen 'arious grou0s t(e" ere sung in and c(anges taking 0lace in t(e o'erall American

societ" t(roug( time. (is >ualit" !roug(t t(em into t(e focus of generations of American

et(nomusicologists1 it( Bo(n and Alan $oma3 !eing t(e most 0rominent ones. Work songs

it( t(eir 'arious 0ur0oses memorising and commemorating e'ents1 arning of dangers1

coordinating ork1 0rotesting1 gi'ing (o0e in a !etter future and occasionall" finding 0ride in

(at one does for li'ing re'eal not onl" t(e attitude toards ork1 !ut also toards life in

general. Fn t(e one (and t(e" tell t(e com0le3 stor" of t(e nation*s geogra0(ical and social

incor0oration t(roug( t(e 0ers0ecti'e of sailors1 lum!er%acks1 co!o"s1 sla'es1 miners1

railroaders and industrial orkers1 and on t(e ot(er t(e" 0oint to t(e t(ings t(at ent rong.

Social insensiti'it"1 0oor ork conditions1 lo ages1 t(e lack of orker*s rig(ts and groing

class differences are %ust some of t(em. In t(is t(esis ork songs are classified in categories

!ased on t(e com!ination of (istorical1 occu0ational1 regional1 racial and t(ematic

determinants. W(ile 0re-industrial ork songs s(o a strong connection to t(e 0rocess of

ork itself1 coordinating it and de0icting its immediate instances1 ork songs of industrial

0eriod focus more on t(e attitude toards ork and ork conditions1 often acting as a tool for

socio-0olitical 0rotest. A distinct 0osition in American music (istor" is taken !" African

American ork songs1 (ic( 0ro'ide a s0ecific account of sla'er" relations !eteen sla'es

and t(eir masters1 "earnings for freedom and cultural identification it( !i!lical figures.

uring t(e 2,t( centur" ork songs graduall" s(ift from t(e domain of folk to t(e 0o0ular

music one. "0ical orkers* concerns are 'oiced !" 0rofessional musicians like Wood")ut(rie1 Pete Seeger and <ruce S0ringsteen1 (o 0articularl" focuses on t(e 0ro!lem of 0ost-

42



em0lo"ment. Alt(oug( ork songs in 0ost-industrial age can !e regarded as commercial

0roducts t(emsel'es1 t(eir message remains strong. After all1 ork songs (a'e ala"s among

ot(er t(ings !een a form of entertainment too an entertainment (ose content !ears (istor"

in its aut(entic form.

+ey words* ork songs1 American folklore1 la!or (istor"1 0o0ular music

representation of labor and society in american work songs

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