report resumes - eric · report resumes. ed 012 173. cg 000 169 ... document is available as fs....
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REPORT RESUMESED 012 173 CG 000 169SCOPE OF PUPIL PERSONNEL SERVICES.OY ECKERSON, LOUISE OMWAKE SMITH, HYRUM M.OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C.REPORT NUMDER OE -23045 PUS DATE 66EDRS PRICE MF-$0.50 HC -$4.04 101P.
DESCRIPTORS-. *STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES, *SCHOOL SERVICES,*GUIDANCE SERVICES, *SOCIAL WORKERS, *PSYCHOLOGICAL SERVICES,ATTENDANCE OFFICERS, MEDICAL SERVICES, PSYCHIATRISTS, SPEECHTHERAPY, COUNSELING SERVICES, SECONDARY SCHOOLS, NATIONALINSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH, GUIDELINES, ESEA, DISTRICT OFCOLUMBIA, IRCOPPS
PART I OF THIS PAMFHLET DESCRIBES THE IMTERPROFESSIONALRESEARCH COMMISSION ON PUPIL PERSONNEL. SERVICES, WHICH WASSTARTED IN 1960 BY THE OFFICE OF EDUCATION AND FINANCED SYTHE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH FOR A 5 -YEAR PROGRAM.THE REST OF THE PAMPHLET DEALS WITH STATISTICS AND SPECIFICPUPIL PERSONNEL SERVICES. OF THE 60,000 FULL - TINE- EQUIVALENTPUPIL PERSONNEL SPECIALISTS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 27,180SECONDARY SCHOOL COUNSELORS ENGAGE IN PRIVATE COUNSELING'GROUP COUNSELING, CONSULTATION, PLACEMENT, AND EVALUATION.THE MAJOR ADVANTAGE HELD BY THE 2,254 SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKERSIS THEIR KNOWLEDGE OF, AND ENTRY INTO, THE COMMUNITY'S SOCIALRESOURCES. SEVENTY -SIX PERCENT OF THE SCHOOLS HAVE SPEECH ANDHEARING SERVICES TO AID THOSE CHILDREN (5 PERCENT) WITHCOMMUNICATION DISORDERS. OTHER SERVICES ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL,PSYCHIATRIC, NURSING, OTHER MEDICAL, AND ATTENDANCE. THEFORECAST FOR PUPIL PERSONNEL SERVICES IS THAT (I) THEY WILLDE IMPROVED WITH HIGHER STAWARDS FOR PERSONNEL, (2)UNIVERSITIES WILL EXTEND INTERDISCIPLINARY PROGRAMS, (3)CERTIFICATION WILL INCLUDE INTERNSHIP RATHER THAN TEACHINGEXPERIENCE, (4) AIDES WILL IE USED FOR SUDPROFESSIONALFUNCTIONS, AND (5) RESEARCH WILL OEINCREASINGLY USED. THISDOCUMENT IS AVAILABLE AS FS 5.223 -- 23045, FROM THESUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,WASHINGTON, D.C. 20402, FOR $0.35. (PR)
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CH
APT
ER
8. M
ED
ICA
L S
ER
VIC
ES,
Don
ald
A. D
ukel
ow, M
.D89
V
PA
RT
IO
VE
RV
IEW
The
Int
erpr
ofes
sion
al R
esea
rch
Com
mis
sion
on
Pupi
l Per
sonn
el S
ervi
ces
was
crea
ted
beca
use
lead
ers
in e
duca
tion
and
prof
essi
onal
dis
cipl
ines
env
isio
ned
colla
bora
tion
to im
prov
e se
rvic
e fo
rsc
hool
chi
ldre
n.T
hey
wer
e se
ekin
g to
seal
gap
s, to
rep
lace
com
petit
ion
with
coo
pera
tion,
and
to s
tret
ch li
mite
dpe
rson
nel t
o re
ach
the
max
imum
num
ber
of c
hild
ren.
As
the
firs
t cha
irm
anof
the
Com
mis
sion
, Dr.
Hoc
h le
dit
thro
ugh
its e
arly
str
uggl
es.
Four
re-
sear
ch c
ente
rsno
w b
ear
witn
ess
to h
is le
ader
ship
and
pro
fess
iona
lta
lent
s.
2
..k...
.-
FO
RE
WO
RD
CO
UN
SEL
ING
of
child
ren
and
cons
ulta
tion
with
teac
hers
and
pare
nts
are,
toso
me
exte
nt, f
unct
ions
of
guid
ance
cou
n-se
lors
, sch
ool s
ocia
l wor
kers
, sch
ool p
sych
olog
ists
, atte
ndan
cew
orke
rs, s
peec
h an
d he
arin
g cl
inic
ians
,nu
rses
, and
oth
erm
edic
al p
erso
nnel
.T
he o
verl
ap in
the
prep
arat
ion
and
role
sof
thes
e sp
ecia
lists
has
long
bee
n re
cogn
ized
.T
his
publ
ica-
tion
not o
nly
pres
ents
the
scop
e of
pup
il pe
rson
nel s
ervi
ces
asth
ey n
ow e
xist
, but
als
o th
e fo
rwar
d lo
ok o
f pr
ofes
sion
alco
n-ce
pts
and
som
e cr
eativ
e ap
proa
ches
to th
ese
serv
ices
.It
shou
ld s
erve
as
a ba
sis
to f
urth
er c
lari
fy s
peci
fic
func
tions
ofea
ch s
ervi
ce a
nd to
dev
elop
opt
imum
patte
rns
of s
enic
es in
both
ele
men
tary
and
sec
onda
ry s
choo
ls.
Thi
s bu
lletin
pro
vide
s in
form
atio
n w
hich
will
be
help
ful
to s
choo
l adm
inis
trat
ors
and
teac
hers
as w
ell a
s pu
pil p
er-
sonn
el s
peci
alis
ts.
It s
houl
d st
imul
ate
univ
ersi
ties
to c
riti-
cally
exa
min
e cu
rren
t pra
ctic
es in
gra
duat
epr
epar
atio
npr
ogra
ms,
and
hel
p di
rect
ors
of p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
s ga
infu
rthe
r in
sigh
t int
o th
e se
lf-i
mag
e of
eac
h pr
ofes
sion
, in
orde
rto
org
aniz
e co
llabo
rativ
e pr
ogra
ms
in th
eir
scho
olsy
stem
s.Pa
rt I
des
crib
es th
e In
terp
rofe
ssio
nal R
esea
rch
Com
mis
-si
on o
n Pu
pil P
erso
nnel
Ser
vice
s (I
RC
OPP
S) w
hich
iscu
r-
a.a.
1111
011H
INIIM
MIII
MIk
rent
ly e
ngag
ed in
a b
road
res
earc
hpr
ogra
m in
pup
il pe
r-so
nnel
ser
vice
s, f
unde
d by
a 5-
year
gra
nt f
rom
the
Nat
iona
lIn
stitu
te o
f M
enta
l Hea
lth.
Thi
s se
ctio
n al
so p
rese
nts
ast
atis
tical
ove
rvie
w o
f pu
pil p
erso
nnel
ser
vice
sas
cul
led
from
natio
nal s
urve
ys o
f th
e O
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
n an
d ot
her
sour
ces.
Part
II
is a
rev
iew
of
each
ser
vice
as s
een
by p
rom
inen
tre
pres
enta
tives
of
natio
nal a
ssoc
iatio
ns.
With
one
exc
eptio
n,al
l of
the
cont
ribu
tors
ser
ved
as o
ffic
ial d
eleg
ates
of
thei
rpr
ofes
sion
s on
IR
CO
PPS.
Eac
h w
rite
rpr
esen
ts h
is o
wn
poin
t of
view
, rec
ogni
zing
that
dif
fere
nces
exi
stin
pro
gram
sof
pre
p ra
tion
and
way
s in
whi
ch s
peci
alis
ts w
ork
in s
choo
ls.
The
evi
dent
ove
rlap
amon
g th
e se
rvic
es c
ontr
ibut
es to
the
urge
ncy
for
orga
nizi
ng p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
s in
to c
ol-
labo
rativ
e pr
ogra
ms.
App
reci
atio
n is
exp
ress
ed to
eac
h co
ntri
buto
r fo
r he
lpin
gto
cla
rify
pup
il pe
rson
nel s
ervi
ces
as th
ey e
xist
toda
y.
AR
TH
UR
L. H
AR
RIS
,A
ssoc
iate
Com
mis
sion
erfo
r E
lem
entw
y an
d Se
cori
aary
Edu
catio
n iii
PAR
T I
CH
APT
ER
1
TH
E B
IRT
H O
F A
CO
MM
ISS
ION
By
ER
AS
MU
SL
.H
OC
H,
Prof
esso
r of
Psy
chol
ogy,
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f M
ichi
gan
TH
E IN
TE
RP
F "
FE
SS
ION
AL
Res
earc
h C
omm
issi
on o
n Pu
pil
Pers
onne
l Set
, ice
s (I
RC
OPP
S), i
nitia
ted
and
fost
ered
byth
e O
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
n,w
as o
rgan
ized
in 1
962
to c
ondu
ct a
syst
emat
ic p
rogr
am o
f re
sear
ch a
nd d
emon
stra
tion
in p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
s.IR
CO
PPS
was
con
ceiv
ed b
ya
grou
p of
prof
essi
onal
and
edu
catio
nal a
ssoc
iatio
ns d
eepl
y co
ncer
ned
with
the
prov
isio
n an
d co
nduc
t of
pupi
l per
sonn
else
rvic
es.
Pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces
follo
wa
dive
rsity
of
patte
rns.
Tho
ugh
ther
e is
fai
r ag
reem
ent o
n w
hich
pro
fess
iona
l gro
ups
cons
titut
e th
e se
rvke
s, th
ere
is le
ssag
reem
ent o
n w
hat t
here
spec
tive
func
tions
of
each
grou
p ar
e, a
nd li
ttle
agre
emen
ton
whi
ch p
atte
rns
of o
rgan
izat
ion
are
mos
t eff
ectiv
e.T
hese
are
maj
or is
sues
whi
ch I
RC
OPP
S w
ill c
onsi
der
ina
larg
e-sc
ale
prog
ram
of
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y re
sear
ch.
The
Com
mis
sion
. fin
ance
d by
the
Nat
iona
lIn
stitu
te o
fM
enta
l Hea
lth, i
s co
mpo
sed
of 1
6 m
embe
ras
soci
atio
ns, 1
2of
whi
ch a
re c
hart
er m
embe
rs:
208-
676
0-66
---2
Am
eric
an A
ssoc
iatio
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Sch
ool A
dmin
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mer
ican
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eric
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urse
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ssoc
iatio
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mer
ican
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uida
nce
Ass
ocia
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Am
eric
an P
sych
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Ass
ocia
tion
Am
eric
an S
peec
h an
d H
eari
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ssoc
iatio
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r Su
perv
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n an
d C
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ool P
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ssoc
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il Pe
rson
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orke
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atio
nal A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Sec
onda
ry S
choo
l Pri
ncip
als
Nat
iona
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ocia
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Nat
iona
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Am
eric
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sych
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ssoc
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ool H
ealth
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-.44
4..1
44.6
1ciu
tria
t;.3"
Wra
grm
us.a
trill
izak
rai
3
Cou
ncil
for
Exc
eptio
nal C
hild
ren
On
July
10.
:962
, NIM
H g
rant
ed th
e C
omm
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on$1
,324
,326
inpo
ort o
f a
5-ye
ar p
rogr
am o
f re
sear
ch a
ndde
mon
stra
tion.
Con
sequ
ently
, fou
r re
gion
al r
esea
rch
and
dem
onst
ratio
n ce
nter
; wer
e es
tabl
ishe
d at
the
Uni
vers
ity o
fM
aryl
and
(the
cen
tral
off
ice
of I
BC
OPP
S), t
he U
nive
rsity
of M
ichi
gan,
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f T
exas
, and
the
Uni
vers
ity o
fC
alif
orni
a at
Los
Ang
eles
.G
ordo
n P.
Lid
dle
of th
e U
ni-
vers
ity o
f M
aryl
and
is g
ener
al d
irec
tor
of th
e C
omm
issi
on,
repl
acin
g W
alte
r B
. Wae
tjen
who
res
igne
d to
bec
ome
vice
-pr
esid
ent o
f th
e U
nive
rsity
.D
irec
tors
of
the
regi
onal
cen
-te
rs a
re J
ames
A. D
unn
of th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Mic
higa
n,R
icha
rd H
. Byr
ne o
f th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Mar
ylan
d, J
ohn
Pier
ce-J
ones
of
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f T
exas
, and
Mer
ville
C. S
haw
of th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Cal
ifor
nia
at L
os A
ngel
es.
The
res
pect
ive
aim
s of
the
Com
mis
sion
are
tc p
rom
ote
mor
e ef
fect
ive
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces-
1. b
y pr
ovid
ing
thro
ugh
rese
arch
a b
ody
of k
now
ledg
eth
at w
ill in
crea
se th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of a
ll pr
ofes
sion
san
d se
rvic
es c
olla
bora
ting
to p
rovi
de th
e to
tal l
earn
-
4
ing
expe
rien
ce,
2. b
y de
mon
stra
ting
effi
cien
t pro
gram
s of
pup
il pe
rson
-ne
l ser
vice
s fo
r va
riou
s si
zes
and
type
s of
com
mu-
nitie
s,3.
by
carr
ying
on
and
ztim
ulat
ing
rese
arch
on
prev
en-
tive
men
tal h
ygie
ne r
elat
ed to
the
scho
ols.
The
Com
mis
sion
, aw
are
of th
e nu
mer
ous
prob
lem
s w
hich
mus
t be
solv
ed, i
dent
ifie
s at
leas
t 10
area
s in
whi
ch it
s pr
o-gr
am o
f re
sear
ch m
ight
adv
ance
. Fol
low
ing
is a
rep
rese
nta-
tive
sam
ple
of s
ome
of th
e qu
estio
ns a
s co
ntai
ned
in th
eor
igin
al p
ropo
sal o
f th
e C
omm
issi
on.
Que
stio
ns in
sea
rch
of a
nsw
ers
Nee
d fo
r pu
pil p
erso
nnel
ser
vice
s
Wha
t is
the
caus
ality
of
need
s fo
r pu
pil p
erso
nnel
ser
vice
s? H
owca
n a
scho
ol s
yste
m a
nd a
com
mun
ity d
eter
min
e w
hat p
upil
pers
onne
lse
rvic
es a
re n
eede
d an
d in
wha
t pro
port
ions
?
Chi
ldre
n ne
edin
g se
rvic
es
Whi
ch c
hild
ren
who
bec
ome
prob
lem
s af
ter
the
thir
d gr
ade
cann
otbe
iden
tifie
d in
a s
cree
ning
at t
he f
irst
, sec
ond,
or
thir
d gr
ade
leve
l?W
hat k
inds
of
child
ren
see
them
selv
es n
egat
ivel
y bu
t are
see
n po
si-
tivel
y by
pee
rs a
nd te
ache
rs?
Eva
luat
ion
and
desc
ript
ion
of p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
s
Wha
t are
the
mea
sure
s of
eff
icie
ncy?
Wha
t are
the
uses
of
drop
out
rate
s, r
eat-
'7ng
dis
abili
ty d
ata,
teac
he' r
atin
gs, n
eer
perc
eptio
ns, I
Qch
ange
s, c
olle
ge e
ntra
nce
rate
s, e
tc.,
as v
alid
mea
sure
s of
the
im-
pact
of
pu: 1
per
sonn
el p
rogr
ams?
Wha
t are
the
crite
ria
by w
hich
pupi
l per
sonn
el p
rogr
ams
can
be e
valu
ated
as
part
of
the
tota
l sch
ool
prog
ram
? Sh
ould
the
crite
ria
invo
lve
decr
ease
in n
egat
ive
beha
vior
bore
dom
, dro
pout
s, u
nder
achi
evem
ent,
delin
quen
cyor
incr
ease
inpo
sitiv
e be
havi
orbr
oade
ning
of
inte
rest
s, a
wak
ensn
g of
cre
ativ
ity,
real
izat
ion
of p
oten
tials
--o
r bo
th?
Prev
entiv
e m
enta
l hea
lth p
ract
ices
Wha
t are
the
mos
t eff
ectiv
e pr
actic
es f
or s
cree
ning
and
ear
ly id
en-
tific
atio
n of
"vu
lner
able
" ch
ildre
n w
ho m
ay r
equi
re p
upil
pers
onne
lse
rvic
es?
Are
sta
ff c
onsu
ltativ
e fu
nctio
ns m
ore
proc
inct
ive
than
dire
ct c
onta
ct w
ith p
upils
in c
erta
in ty
pes
of c
ases
?
Func
tions
and
pro
gram
ing
of p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
s
Wha
t num
bers
of
pupi
l per
sonn
el w
orke
rs in
the
seve
ral p
rofe
s-si
ons
are
need
ed p
er th
ousa
nd p
upils
in v
ario
us k
inds
of
scho
ols
and
com
mur
ities
?T
o w
hat e
xten
t are
som
e pu
pil p
erso
nnel
fun
c-tio
ns m
ore
effe
ctiv
ely
serv
ed b
y gr
oup
cont
acts
than
by
indi
vidu
alco
ntac
t?
Rel
atio
n of
pup
il pe
rson
nel s
ervi
ces
to in
stru
ctio
nal p
rogr
am
Wha
t org
aniz
atio
nal p
atte
rns
prom
ote
max
imum
coo
pera
tion
and
mos
t eff
icie
nt c
olla
bora
tion
betw
een
inst
ruct
iona
l and
pup
il pe
rson
nel
staf
fs?
How
can
pup
il ne
eds
disc
over
ed th
roug
h pu
pil p
erso
nnel
ser
v-ic
es b
e fe
d ba
ck in
to p
rogr
am d
evel
opm
ent a
nd c
urri
culu
m c
hang
e?
Scho
ol a
nd c
omm
unity
rel
atio
ns
Wha
t are
goo
d pr
oced
ures
for
rel
atin
g th
e sc
hool
's p
upil
pers
onne
lse
rvic
es to
the
prac
ticin
g pr
ofes
sion
s se
rvin
g th
e sa
me
child
ren
in th
eco
mm
unity
?A
re s
ome
serv
ices
mor
e ef
fect
ive
if p
lace
d ou
tsid
e th
esc
hool
, e.g
., in
a c
omm
unity
clin
ic?
Org
aniz
atio
n an
d ad
min
istr
atio
n
Whe
re, w
hen,
and
how
are
exp
erim
enta
l inn
ovat
ions
in th
e pu
pil
pers
onne
l pro
gram
mos
t eff
ectiv
ely
intr
oduc
ed?
Wha
t are
the
ele-
men
ts o
f a
func
tiona
l rec
ord
syst
em to
ser
ve th
e en
tire
pupi
l per
sonn
elpr
ogra
m?
At w
hat p
oint
doe
s a
pupi
l per
sonn
el p
rogr
am b
ecom
e to
ola
rge
to b
e di
rect
ed e
ffec
tivel
y fr
om th
e ce
ntra
l off
ice?
Intr
apro
fess
iona
l pro
blem
s
Wha
t kin
ds o
f m
otiv
atio
n ar
e m
ost a
ppro
pria
te f
or e
ffec
tive
wor
kin
sch
ools
?W
hat a
reas
of
prep
arat
ion
are
and/
or s
houl
d be
com
mon
to th
e va
riou
s pr
ofes
sion
al p
erso
ns w
orki
ng in
pup
il pe
rson
nel s
erv-
ices
?W
hat a
re th
e re
lativ
e st
atus
leve
ls w
ithin
the
prof
essi
ons
ofpo
sitio
ns in
a s
choo
l set
ting
as c
ompa
red
with
oth
er p
rofe
ssio
nal
setti
ngs?
Inte
rpro
fess
iona
l rel
atio
nshi
ps
Doe
s th
e pu
pil p
erso
nnel
wor
ker
see
him
self
pri
mar
ily a
s a
mem
ber
of a
team
or
as a
n in
divi
dual
pra
ctiti
oner
? H
ow c
an th
e pr
ofes
sion
sin
volv
ed d
evel
op a
lang
uage
of
com
mun
icat
ion
that
wou
ld u
se c
om- 5
mon
term
s an
d av
oid
conf
lictin
g us
age
and
mis
unde
rsta
ndin
w.
The
pro
ject
ed f
ive-
year
prog
ram
of
rese
arch
and
dem
on-
stra
tion
incl
udes
the
follo
win
g:1.
A s
et o
f fi
eld
stud
y an
d de
mon
stra
tion
prog
ram
s of
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces
to f
it va
riou
sty
pes
and
size
sof
com
mun
ities
.2.
A n
atio
nal s
tudy
of
child
ren'
s ne
eds
for
pupi
l per
-so
nnel
ser
vice
s gi
ving
com
para
ble
data
conc
erni
ngva
riou
s re
gion
s an
d ty
pes
of c
omm
uniti
esas
wel
l as
vari
ous
type
s of
lear
ning
dif
ficu
lties
or h
andi
caps
.3.
A s
urve
y of
the
char
acte
rist
ics
ofth
e va
riou
s pu
pil
pers
onne
l spe
cial
ists
as w
ell a
s th
e di
ffer
ing
patte
rns
of o
rgan
izat
ion
unde
r w
hich
they
wor
k.4.
An
inte
nsiv
e st
udy
of c
erta
inex
empl
ary
pupi
l per
-so
nnel
ser
vice
prog
ram
s in
term
s of
type
s of
chi
ldre
nse
rved
, mea
sure
s of
eff
ectiv
enes
s, d
istr
ibut
ion
of r
e-so
urce
s, a
nd a
dmin
istr
atio
n of
the
prog
ram
s.In
an
exte
nsiv
e ba
ckgr
ound
pape
r pr
epar
ed f
or th
e C
om-
mis
sion
by
Rob
ert J
. Hav
ighu
rst,
Paul
H. B
owm
an, a
ndFr
ed C
. Pro
ff, t
here
isa
sect
ion
whi
ch e
xplo
re, t
he p
ossi
bilit
yof
sys
tem
atic
ally
eva
luat
ing
orga
niza
tiona
lm
odel
s. A
mon
gth
e se
vera
l mod
els
men
tione
dar
e:(a
) a
pupi
l per
sonn
elde
part
men
t hea
ded
bya
dire
ctor
of
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces;
6
a
(b)
a pr
ogra
m a
dmin
iste
red
bya
depa
rtm
ent o
f sp
ecia
led
ucat
ion;
(c)
con
trac
tual
con
sulta
tion
in w
hich
the
non-
inst
ruct
iona
l ser
vice
sar
e pr
ovid
ed o
n a
part
-tim
e ba
sis
bypr
ofes
sion
al c
onsu
ltant
s ou
tsid
e th
e sc
hool
syst
em;
( d)
an
"ana
rchi
cal"
sys
tem
with
littl
eor
no
form
al s
truc
ture
.T
he C
omm
issi
on r
ecog
nize
s th
e ne
edfo
r so
und
rese
arch
and
dem
onst
ratio
npr
ogra
ms.
The
se a
re m
ade
poss
ible
by
the
regi
onal
cen
ters
' inv
estig
ativ
efa
cilit
ies.
thei
r ne
twor
kof
rel
atio
ns w
ith s
choo
lsy
stem
s. a
nd li
aiso
n be
twee
n pu
pil
pers
onne
l spe
cial
ists
and
thei
r co
lleag
ues
in e
duca
tion.
The
who
le o
f it
seem
sa
good
for
mal
aas
it m
ist h
ave
seem
ed to
the
Nat
iona
l Ins
titut
e of
Men
tal H
ealih
whe
n its
adv
isor
ypa
nel g
rant
ed th
e fi
nanc
ial
supp
ort w
hich
bro
ught
the
Com
-m
issi
on in
to e
xist
ence
.In
so
doin
g. f
ie L
istit
ute
wis
hed
neith
er to
cla
im th
e C
omm
issi
onas
its
own
nor
to d
isco
urag
eit
from
see
king
oth
er a
nd f
urth
er lo
ng-t
erm
supp
ort.
TH
E R
OA
D A
HE
AD
The
res
earc
h an
d de
mon
stra
tion
prog
ram
of
its r
egio
nal
cent
ers
is b
ut th
e fi
rst p
roje
ct o
f th
e C
omm
issi
on.
Its
over
-al
l mis
sion
ism
any
pron
ged
and,
with
fur
ther
sou
rces
of
supp
ort,
can
thru
st in
sev
eral
dir
ectio
ns.
Eve
n no
w it
isri
chly
end
owed
.It
has
the
cons
ulta
tive
tale
nts
of th
e se
vera
l
prof
essi
onal
ass
ocia
tions
.It
can
enl
ist t
hese
rvic
es o
f st
aff
of th
e U
.S. O
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
n an
d th
e N
atio
nal
Inst
itute
of
Men
tal H
ealth
.It
is in
a po
sitio
n to
spo
nsor
con
fere
nces
brin
ging
toge
ther
rese
arch
ers.
spe
cial
ists
,an
d ed
ucat
ors.
L't
can
arra
nge
to b
e he
ard
at n
atio
nal
conv
entio
ns a
;.d in
a
a
the
page
s of
the
prof
essi
onal
jour
nals
.T
he C
omm
issi
onst
ates
that
:
The
bas
icpu
rpos
e of
the
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces
is to
hel
p in
sure
for
ever
y ch
ildth
egi
fted
, the
nor
mal
, and
the
hand
icap
pedt
hem
axim
um o
ppor
tuni
ty f
ora
succ
essf
ul s
choo
l exp
erie
nce.
7
In r
epor
ting
stat
istic
sfo
r pu
pil p
erso
nnel
serv
ices
, ter
min
olog
yof
ten
clou
dsth
e pi
ctur
e.So
cial
wor
kers
are
calle
d vi
sitin
g te
ache
rs in
som
e sc
hool
sys
-te
ms,
whi
le te
ache
rs o
fho
meb
ound
stu
dent
sar
e de
sign
ated
as
visi
ting
teac
hers
in o
ther
syst
ems.
Cou
nsel
ors
at th
eel
emen
tary
sch
ool l
evel
in-
clud
e ps
ycho
logi
sts
and
soci
al w
orke
rs.
In d
iffe
rent
Sta
tes,
the
grad
uate
prep
arat
ion
of s
choo
l psy
chol
ogis
tsra
nges
fro
m 1
yea
r to
a do
ctor
al d
egre
e.A
ttend
ance
wor
kers
may
be
high
ly tr
aine
das
soc
ial w
orke
rsor
may
lack
spec
ializ
ed p
repa
ratio
nen
tirel
y.Si
mila
rly,
oth
er p
upil
pers
onne
l spe
cial
ists
repr
esen
t a r
ange
of
prep
arat
ion
to m
eet d
iffe
rent
Sta
tece
rtif
icat
ion
requ
ire-
men
ts to
wor
k in
pub
lic s
choo
ls.
8
FIG
UR
ES
AN
D F
OR
EC
AS
TS
By
LO
UIS
E O
MW
AK
E E
CK
ER
SON
,Sp
ecia
list,
Scho
ol P
erso
nnel
Ser
vice
s,an
d H
YR
UM
M. S
MIT
H, C
hief
,G
uida
nce
Proc
edur
esan
d T
echn
ique
s, U
.S. O
ffic
eof
Edu
catio
n
AN
EST
IMA
TE
D 6
0,00
0 fu
ll-tim
eeq
uiva
lent
s* w
ith p
rofe
ssio
nal
back
grou
nd o
ther
than
,or
in a
dditi
on to
, tea
chin
gno
w s
erve
as p
upil
pers
onne
l spe
cial
ists
in p
ublic
sch
ools
.T
hey
incl
ude
guid
ance
cou
nsel
ors,
sch
ool s
ocia
l wor
kers
, atte
ndan
ce w
ork-
ers,
sch
ool p
sych
olog
ists
, spe
ech
and
hear
ing
clin
icia
ns,
nurs
es a
nd o
ther
hea
lth s
peci
alis
ts.1
*Tw
o ha
lf-t
ime
spec
ialis
ts e
qual
one
full-
time
equi
vale
nt s
peci
alis
t.1
Num
bers
of
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
peci
alis
tsre
port
ed in
this
cha
pter
may
som
etim
es b
e at
var
ianc
e w
ith f
igur
esin
sub
sequ
ent c
hapt
ers.
Dis
-cr
epan
cies
may
be
expl
aine
d by
the
use
of e
stim
ates
in th
e ab
senc
e of
exac
t dat
a an
d by
the
diff
icul
ty o
f ga
ther
ing
data
on
a na
tiona
l sca
le.
Als
o, it
sho
uld
be r
emem
bere
d th
atal
l of
the
serv
ices
are
cuis
tant
lygr
owin
g, a
nd th
at th
ere
isa
timt,
lag
in th
e co
llect
ion
ant r
epor
ting
ofst
atis
tics.
MA
JOR
SO
UR
CE
S O
FD
AT
AO
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
nre
port
on
scho
ol p
erso
nnel
in19
61-6
2T
he O
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
npu
blis
hed
an a
nnua
lre
p'rt
on
num
bers
of
publ
ic s
choo
lpe
rson
nel e
mpl
oyed
in19
61-6
2.T
he d
ata
wer
e co
llect
ed f
rom
Sta
te d
epar
tmen
ts o
f edu
catio
n,w
ith th
e ex
cept
ion
of th
ose
in A
laba
ma,
Mar
ylan
d. M
isso
uri,
Ore
gon,
Sou
th D
akot
a, a
ndV
irgi
nia.
The
tota
l fig
ures
,th
eref
ore,
mus
t be
inte
rpre
ted
as r
epre
sent
ing
44 r
athe
r th
an50
Sta
tes.
Thi
s so
urce
of
data
will
be
refe
rred
to a
s th
ere
port
of
1961
-62.
U.S
. Dep
artm
ent o
f H
ealth
, Edu
catio
n,an
d W
elfa
re, O
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
n.St
atis
tics
of S
tate
Sch
ool S
yste
ms,
1961
-62.
OE
- 20
020-
62.
Was
hing
ton:
U.S
. Gov
ernm
ent P
rint
ing
Off
ice,
196
4.
9
Off
ice
ofE
duca
tion
surv
ey o
f pu
pil pe
rson
nel s
ervi
ces
in p
ublic
elem
enta
rysc
hool
s in
1962
-63
3T
he O
ffic
eof
Edu
catio
nsu
rvey
of
1962
-63
was
bas
edon
resp
onse
s of
prin
cipa
ls o
fpu
blic
elem
enta
rysc
hool
s w
ithen
rollm
ents
of 1
00or
mor
e pu
pils
.Su
rvey
ques
tions
re-
late
d to
pupi
l per
sonn
else
rvic
es a
vaila
ble
thro
ugh
the
scho
olsy
stem
or o
utsi
deag
ency
at
no c
ost t
opu
pils
. Ast
ratif
ied
sam
ple
of5,
504
scho
ols
was
use
d, d
raw
nfr
oma
univ
erse
of
appr
oxim
atel
y53
,500
pub
licel
emen
tary
scho
ols.
Thi
sso
urce
of
data
will
be
iden
tifie
das
the
surv
ey o
f 19
62-6
3.Si
nce
this
surv
ey d
id n
otre
port
num
bers
of p
upil
pers
onne
lsp
ecia
lists
per
se w
orki
ngin
the
scho
ols,
fig
ures
are
not c
om-
para
ble
to th
ose
ofth
e 19
61-6
2re
port
.C
olle
ctio
nof
gui
danc
eda
ta u
nder
the
Nat
iona
lD
e-fe
nse
Edu
catio
nA
ct in
1962
-63
4T
he O
ffic
eof
Edu
catio
nda
tape
rtai
ning
to h
igh
scho
ol*U
.S.
Dep
artm
ent o
fH
ealth
,E
duca
tion,
and
Wel
fare
, Off
ice
Edu
catio
n.G
uida
nce
Serv
ices
inE
lem
enta
rySc
hool
s: A
Nat
iona
lSu
rvey
.(O
E-
2504
5)W
ashi
ngto
n:U
.S. G
over
nmen
tPe
ptin
g O
ffic
e,19
66.
'U.S
.D
epar
tmen
t of
Hea
lth,
Edu
catio
n, a
ndW
elfa
re, O
ffic
eof
Edu
catio
n.C
omm
itmen
t to
You
th: A
Rep
ort
or F
ive
Yea
rsof
Pro
g-re
ss in
Gui
danc
e,C
ouns
elin
g, a
ndT
estin
g U
r ,..e
r T
itle
V, P
art
A, o
f10
coun
selo
rsin
pub
licsc
hool
sin
clud
ed a
llco
unse
lors
, reg
ard-
less
of
fina
ncia
lsu
ppor
t by
the
Nat
iona
lD
efen
seE
duca
tion
Act
.St
atis
tical
repo
rts
wer
e co
llect
edan
nual
ly f
rom
Stat
ede
part
men
ts o
f edu
catio
nbe
ginn
ing
in19
58.
Fore
cast
s wer
em
ade
for
elem
enta
rysc
hool
guid
ance
pers
onne
l.T
his
sour
ce o
f da
taw
ill b
e ca
lled
the
ND
EA
repo
rt.
FIG
UR
ES
RE
LA
TIN
GT
O P
UPI
LPE
RSO
NN
EL
SPE
CIA
LIS
TS
Sinc
e it
isne
cess
ary
to d
raw
upon
dif
fere
ntso
urce
s of
info
rmat
ion
inde
term
inin
gnu
mbe
rs d
pupi
l per
sonn
elsp
e-ci
alis
ts, t
here
ader
will
have
toev
alua
te th
ena
ture
of
the
data
(spe
cial
ists
and
serv
ices
),co
mpl
eten
ess
of r
espo
ndin
gag
enci
es(S
tate
s), r
ecen
cy o
f co
llect
ion
of d
ata,
and
repo
rt-
ing
ofac
tual
, inf
late
d,an
d pr
ojec
ted
num
bers
.Se
cond
ary
scho
olco
unse
lors
A c
ount
(ND
EA
rep
ort)
of s
econ
dary
scho
olco
unse
lors
in p
ublic
scho
ols
mad
efo
r th
esc
hool
yea-
196
2-63
gave
27,1
80co
unse
lors
(ful
l-tim
eeq
uiva
lent
s).
Of
this
num
ber,
17,9
28w
ere
full-
time
coun
selo
rs, a
n in
crea
se o
f14
3 pe
rcen
tth
e N
atio
nal
Def
ense
Edu
catio
n A
ct.
(OE
-250
39.)
Was
hing
ton:
U.S
. Gov
ernm
ent
Prim
ing
Off
ice,
1964
.
over
the
1958
(pr
e-N
DE
A)
figu
re.
The
tota
l num
ber
ofco
unse
lors
, bot
h fu
ll an
d pa
rt ti
me,
was
38,
150.
In 1
962-
63 th
e co
unse
lor-
stud
ert r
atio
(bas
ed o
n al
l sec
-on
dary
sch
ool s
tude
nts)
was
1 to
530
aga
inst
1 to
960
in19
58-5
9.T
he u
sual
rec
omm
ende
d ra
tio is
1co
unse
lor
to25
0-30
0 pu
pils
.If
this
rat
io is
use
tl, a
ppro
xim
atel
y60
,000
coun
selo
rs w
ill b
e ne
eded
by
1970
to s
erve
sec
onda
ry s
choo
lst
uden
ts.
Ele
men
tary
sch
ool g
uida
nce
cons
ulta
nts
The
sur
vey
of 1
962-
63 in
dica
ted
that
12;
800
elem
enta
rysc
hool
s (o
ver
100
pupi
ls ;r
had
the
serv
ic4;
for
at le
ast 1
day
per
wee
k, o
f a
"chi
ld d
evel
opm
ent c
onsu
ltant
" (f
orm
erte
ache
r w
ith p
repa
ratio
n in
gui
danc
e,ps
ycho
logi
st, o
r so
cial
wor
ker.
The
se n
onin
stru
ctio
nal s
ervi
ces
may
be
inte
rpre
ted
broa
dly
as g
uida
nce
serv
ices
.T
he p
erce
nts
of s
choo
ls in
four
geo
grap
hica
lar
eas
that
rec
eive
d th
ese
serv
ices
wer
edi
stri
bute
d as
fol
low
s:
Perc
ent
Nor
th A
tlant
ic31
Gre
at L
akes
and
Pla
ins_
25So
uthe
ast
11W
est a
nd S
outh
wes
t_30
208-
676
0-66
3
1110
1101
101.
1110
"4"1
"kai
rodw
...,..
_ .
Of
scho
ols
that
did
not h
ave
"gui
danc
e" s
ervi
ces
as d
efin
edab
ove,
75
perc
ent i
ndic
ated
that
such
ser
vice
sw
ere
need
ed.
The
des
ired
rat
io o
f gu
idan
ceco
nsul
tant
s to
ele
men
tary
scho
ol p
upils
is v
ario
usly
estim
ated
by
expe
rts
as 1
to30
0-60
0, d
epen
ding
upon
cha
ract
eris
tics
of th
e st
uden
t bod
yan
d th
e av
aila
bilit
y of
oth
erse
rvic
es.
Som
e sc
hool
sm
ayne
ed o
ne c
onsu
ltant
for
onl
y10
0 pu
pils
.H
owev
er, i
f th
era
tio o
f 1
to 6
00 is
use
d, 4
4,00
0gu
idan
ce c
onsu
ltant
sar
ene
eded
now
tose
rve
pupi
ls in
kin
derg
arte
n th
roug
h gr
ade
8in
ele
men
tary
sch
ools
and
54,
000
will
'he
need
ed in
197
0.O
f 15
4 un
iver
sitie
s w
hich
rep
orte
dth
at th
ey o
ffer
ed th
em
aste
r's d
egre
e in
ele
men
tary
sch
ool .
guid
ance
, mos
t did
not
have
pro
gram
s w
hich
wer
e es
sent
ially
dif
fere
nt f
rom
thos
epr
ovid
ed f
or s
econ
dary
sch
ool.
coun
selo
rs.
In a
196
4 su
rvey
,on
ly 4
5 gr
adua
tepr
ogra
ms
coul
d be
iden
tifie
d as
prog
ram
ssp
ecif
ical
ly o
rgan
ized
for
the
prep
arat
ion
of g
uida
nce
per-
sonn
el in
ele
men
tary
sch
ools
.5L
ikew
ise,
whe
re S
tate
cer
tific
atio
nex
ists
for
ele
men
tary
'Nitz
schk
e, D
ale
F., a
nd H
ill, G
eorg
e E
.T
he E
lem
enta
ry S
choo
lC
ouns
elor
: Pre
para
tion
and
Func
tions
, Ath
ens,
Ohi
o: C
ente
r fo
r E
du-
catio
nal R
esea
rch
and
Serv
ice,
Ohi
o U
nive
rsity
,19
64.
11
scho
ol g
uida
nce
pers
onne
l, th
ere
quir
emen
ts c
lose
lyre
sem
ble
thos
e fo
r se
cond
ary
scho
ol c
ouns
elor
s.Se
vera
l Sta
tes,
how
-ev
er, h
ave
alre
ady
set
up c
ertif
icat
ion
requ
irem
ents
afte
rst
udyi
ng th
e sp
ecia
l fun
ctio
ns o
f el
emen
tary
scho
ol g
uida
nce,
and
mos
t of
the
othe
r St
ates
are
curr
ently
wor
king
on p
lans
in th
e w
ake
ofre
cent
Fed
eral
legi
slat
ion.
Due
to th
ere
cogn
ition
that
gui
danc
ein
hig
h sc
hool
was
offe
red
too
late
to s
ave
drop
outs
and
mot
ivat
e un
dera
chie
vers
,th
e N
atio
nal
Def
ense
Edu
catio
nA
ct w
as a
men
ded
in 1
964
toin
clud
e el
emen
tary
scho
ols.
it nr
ovic
les
limite
d fu
nds
tosu
ppor
t gui
danc
epr
ogra
ms
in a
ll el
emen
tary
grad
es, a
nd to
cond
uct i
nstit
utes
to g
ive
prof
essi
onal
guid
ance
pre
para
tion
at th
is le
vel.
Thi
s le
gisl
atio
npr
omis
es to
stim
ulat
epr
ogra
ms
of g
uida
nce
in e
lem
enta
rysc
hool
sas
it h
as a
t the
.sec
onda
ryle
vel.
Scho
ol p
sych
olog
ists
The
196
1-62
Off
ice
of E
duca
tion
repo
rt f
ound
2,4
09ps
y-ch
olog
ists
(fu
ll-tim
eeq
uiva
lent
s) w
orki
ngin
pub
lic s
choo
ls.
The
196
2-63
surv
ey f
ound
62
perc
ent o
f el
emen
tary
scho
ols
(ove
r 10
0 pu
pils
)us
ing
psyc
holo
gica
lse
i vic
es.
Les
s th
anon
e -
four
th o
f th
e pr
inci
pals
in th
ese
scho
ols
repo
rted
that
s ic
h se
rvic
esw
ere
adeq
uate
.
12
Scho
ol s
ocia
l wor
kers
and
atte
ndan
cepe
rson
nel
Full-
time
soci
alw
orke
rsvi
sitin
g te
ache
rs)
num
bere
d2,
254
acco
rdin
gto
the
1961
-62
repo
rt.
In a
n in
crea
sing
num
ber
of s
choo
lsy
stem
s, a
ttend
ance
wor
kers
are
qual
ifie
dso
cial
wor
kers
or h
ave
som
e ba
ckgr
ound
in s
ocia
l wor
k.T
here
wer
e 5,
432
full-
and
part
-tim
eat
tend
ance
wor
kers
in19
61-6
2.T
he O
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
n su
rvey
indi
cate
dth
at in
196
2-63
,53
per
cent
of
publ
ic e
lem
enta
rysc
hool
s (w
ith e
nrol
lmen
tsve
r 10
0 pu
pils
) ha
d th
ese
rvic
es o
f so
cial
wor
kers
.O
nefo
urth
of
thes
ere
port
ed th
at th
ese
rvic
esw
ere
adeq
uate
.A
ttend
ance
ser
vice
sw
ere
prov
ided
in 7
8pe
rcen
t of
ele-
men
tary
sch
ools
and
wer
e re
port
ed a
dequ
ate
by th
em
ajor
ityof
thei
r pr
inci
pals
.
Scho
olnu
rses
The
re w
ere
13,2
28fu
ll- a
nd p
art-
time
nurs
es e
mpl
oyed
inpu
blic
sch
ools
in19
61-6
2, a
ccor
ding
to th
e re
port
.In
1962
-63,
73
perc
ent o
f el
emen
tary
se%
ools
(ove
r 10
0 pu
pils
)ha
d se
rvic
es o
fnu
rses
; in
thes
e sc
hool
s, 4
8pe
rcen
t of
the
prin
cipa
ls d
escr
ibed
the
serv
ices
as a
dequ
ate.
Phys
icia
ns a
nd p
sych
iatr
ists
Full-
and
par
t-tim
e ph
ysic
ians
and
psyc
hiat
rist
sem
ploy
ed
by p
i: si
t, sc
hool
s w
ere
grou
ped
toge
ther
in th
e19
61-6
2
repo
rt a
nd to
tale
d5,
540.
Onl
y 37
7 ch
ild p
sych
iatr
ists
now
are
cert
ifie
dby
the
Am
eric
an B
oard
of P
sych
iatr
y an
dN
euro
logy
and
344
mor
e ar
e in
trai
ning
.H
ence
, the
act
ual
num
ber
wor
king
in s
choo
ls a
sw
ell a
s th
e so
urce
of
supp
ly
are
extr
emel
ylim
ited,
but
a r
apid
gro
wth
isfo
reca
st.
The
sur
vey
of 1
962-
63 in
dica
ted
that
57
perc
ent o
f pu
blic
elem
enta
ry s
choo
ls (
over
100
pupi
ls)
rece
ived
ser
vice
s of
phys
icia
ns a
nd 3
7 pe
rcen
t rec
eive
dse
rvic
es o
f ps
ychi
atri
sts
at n
o co
st to
pup
ils.
Tho
ugh
39 p
erce
nt o
f pr
inci
pals
judg
ed
thei
r m
edic
al s
ervi
ces
asad
equa
te, o
nly
12 p
erce
ntra
ted
psyc
hiat
ric
serv
ices
as
adeq
uate
.M
edic
al a
nd p
sych
iatr
ic
serv
ices
lim
ited
to e
xam
inat
ion
orco
nsul
tatio
n w
ere
incl
uded
in th
e ab
ove
figu
res.
The
re is
no
way
, of
cour
se, t
oes
timat
e
serv
ices
don
ated
by
man
ym
embe
rs o
f th
e m
edic
alpr
ofes
sion
s
dire
ctly
to c
hild
ren
with
out
the
know
ledg
e of
sch
ool
staf
f.
Spee
ch a
nd h
eari
ng c
linic
ians
In th
e 19
62-6
3 su
rvey
, 76
perc
ent
of th
e pr
inci
pals
re-
port
ed th
at th
eir
elem
enta
rysc
hool
s (o
ver
100
pupi
ls)
re-
ceiv
ed s
ervi
ces
in s
peec
h an
dhe
arin
g. T
hese
ser
vice
s w
ere
cons
ider
ed a
dequ
ate
in a
lmos
t hal
fof
the
scho
ols.
Nex
t to
atte
ndan
ce s
ervi
ces,
hel
p in
spe
ech
and
hear
ing
was
the
pupi
l
pers
onne
l ser
vice
mos
t fre
quen
tlyof
fere
d in
pub
lic e
lem
en-
tary
sch
ools
.
VA
RIE
TY
AN
D C
OM
BIN
AT
ION
SO
F PU
PIL
PER
SON
NE
L S
ER
VIC
ES
In 1
962-
63, 8
7 pe
rcen
t ofp
rinc
ipal
s in
ele
men
tary
sch
ools
(ove
r 10
0 pu
pils
) st
ated
that
thre
e or
mor
e se
rvic
es w
ere
avai
labl
e at
no
cost
to th
eir
pupi
ls.
Eve
n th
ree
serv
ices
repr
esen
t the
nuc
leus
of a
coo
rdin
ated
pup
ilpe
rson
nel p
ro-
gram
. Abo
ut16
per
cent
of
elem
enta
rysc
hool
s in
the
surv
ey
had
all o
f th
e se
rvic
es li
sted
,whi
le 2
per
cent
rep
orte
d no
ne.
Gui
danc
e, p
sych
olog
ical
, and
soci
al w
ork
serv
ices
serv
-ic
es w
ith a
maj
or in
tere
st in
emot
iona
l pro
blem
s of
chi
ldre
n
wer
e av
aila
ble
in31
per
cent
of
elem
enta
rysc
hool
s; n
one
of
thes
e th
ree
serv
ices
was
off
ered
toch
ildre
n in
16
perc
ent o
f
scho
ols.
The
six
ser
vice
s m
ost
com
mon
ly in
clud
ed in
pup
il
pers
onne
l pro
gram
sgui
danc
e,ps
ycho
logi
cal,
soci
al w
ork,
nurs
ing,
spe
ech/
hear
ing,
atte
ndan
cew
ere
avai
labl
e to
chil-
dren
in 2
6 pe
rcen
t of
publ
icel
emen
tary
sch
ools
.
13
AG
EN
CIE
S PR
OV
IDIN
G P
UPI
L P
ER
SON
NE
LSE
RV
ICE
SPu
pil p
erso
nnel
ser
vice
s w
ere
prov
ided
in 1
962-
63 a
t no
cost
to p
upils
by
vari
ous
agen
cies
in a
dditi
on to
the
scho
olsy
stem
. The
fol
low
ing
tabl
e sh
ows
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch e
ach
serv
ice
(in
elem
enta
ry s
choo
ls w
ith o
ver
100
pupi
ls)
was
fina
nced
by
(1)
scho
ol s
yste
ms,
and
(2)
out
side
age
ncie
s,su
ch a
s so
cial
wel
fare
age
ncie
s, p
ublic
hea
lth d
epar
tmen
ts,
men
tal h
ealth
clin
ics,
and
chi
ld h
ealth
clin
ics.
Atte
ndan
ce, s
peec
h/he
arin
g, a
nd n
ursi
ng s
ervi
ces
wer
em
ost f
requ
ently
ava
ilabl
e to
sch
ool c
hild
ren;
psy
chia
tric
ser
v-ic
es w
hich
may
hav
e be
en li
mite
d to
con
sulta
tive
serv
ices
wer
ele
ast o
ften
pro
vide
d.O
utsi
de a
genc
ies
offe
red
soci
al w
ork
serv
ices
to a
bout
one
-fou
rth
of e
lem
enta
ry s
choo
ls, a
nd p
sy-
chia
tric
, med
ical
, and
nur
sing
ser
vice
s to
abo
ut o
ne-f
ifth
.
14
Perc
ent o
f pu
blic
ele
men
tary
sch
ools
rec
eivi
ng p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
s fr
om d
iffe
rent
age
ncie
s
Age
ncie
s pr
ovid
ing
serv
ices
Scho
ol s
yste
ms
Out
side
age
ncie
sB
oth
scho
ol s
yste
ms
and
outs
ide
agen
cies
3.1 0 0 40 3
Pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces
38 14 10
0 715 15 27 12
8 22 7
bD
2648
5471
2018
122
1110
Scho
ols
rece
ivin
g se
rvic
e50
Scho
ols
not r
ecei
ving
ser
v-ic
e50
62 38
53 47
37 63
5717
3
4312
7
7678
2422
ff
FRE
QU
EN
CY
OF
PUPI
L P
ER
SON
NE
L S
ER
VIC
ES
IN S
OC
IOE
CO
NO
MIC
AR
EA
S
Pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces
shou
ld b
e av
aila
ble
atno
cos
tto
all
scho
ol c
hild
ren
whe
n th
ey n
eed
them
.H
owev
er, i
t is
conc
eiva
ble
that
suc
h se
rvic
esar
e ne
eded
mos
t by
child
ren
infa
mili
es o
f lo
w s
ocio
econ
omic
stat
us.
The
fol
low
ing
tabl
egi
ves
the
perc
ents
of
elem
enta
ry s
choo
ls (
over
100
pupi
ls )
in s
peci
fied
soc
ioec
onom
icar
eas
(as
desc
ribe
d by
pri
ncip
als)
in w
hich
the
indi
vidu
al s
ervi
ces
wer
e av
aila
ble
in 1
962-
63.
In g
ener
al,
mor
e el
emen
tary
sch
ools
in e
xtre
me
soci
o-ec
onom
ic s
trat
a (a
dvan
tage
d an
ddi
sadv
anta
ged)
rec
eive
dpu
pil p
erso
nnel
ser
vice
s th
an s
choo
ls in
aver
age
soci
o-ec
onom
ic s
trat
a.G
uida
nce
and
psyc
holo
gica
l ser
vice
sw
ere
prov
ided
mos
t fre
quen
tly in
adv
anta
ged
area
s, w
hile
soc
ial
wor
k se
rvic
esw
ere
offe
red
mor
e of
ten
in d
isad
vant
aged
are
as.
Spee
ch a
nd h
eari
ng s
ervi
ces
wer
e av
a. a
ble
in n
ine-
tent
hs o
fel
emen
tary
sch
ools
in a
dvan
tage
d co
mm
uniti
es. N
o m
edic
alse
rvic
es w
ere
offe
red
topu
pils
in 3
6 pe
rcen
t of
scho
ols
indi
sadv
anta
ged
area
s.
Perc
ent o
f pu
pil e
lem
enta
ry s
choo
ls in
diff
eren
tso
cioe
cono
mic
are
as r
ecei
ving
pupi
l per
sonn
else
rvic
es
Soci
oeco
nom
ic s
tatu
s of
fam
ilies
Pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces
To 0
Adv
anta
ged
Abo
veav
erag
eA
vera
geB
elow
aver
age
Dis
adva
ntag
ed
60 55 49 47 53
8756
7659
6051
5551
6856
z
45 40 36 32 52
60 56 57 56 64
84 80 71 69 79
91 85 75 69 74
83 80 76 78 88 15
GE
OG
RA
PHIC
AL
DIS
TR
IBU
TIO
NPE
RSO
NN
EL
SE
RV
ICE
SO
F PU
PIL
.'
The
196
2-63
surv
ey o
f pu
blic
ele
men
tary
sch
ools
pro
vide
a ge
ogra
phic
al d
istr
ibut
ion
of p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
s.T
hefo
llow
ing
tabl
e sh
ows,
by
regi
on, t
hepe
rcen
t of
elem
enta
rysc
hool
s (o
ver
100
pupi
ls)
whi
ch r
ecei
ved
the
seve
ral s
ervi
ces
at n
o co
si to
pup
ils.
16
Geo
grph
ical
reg
ions
1
Pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces
73 -,z
New
Eng
land
Mid
east
Gre
at L
akes
Plai
nsSo
uthe
ast
Sout
hwes
tR
ocky
Mou
ntai
nsFa
r W
est
51 46 56 43 41 58 54 62
63 89 71 57 38 40 55 86
5247
6354
5341
5134
4826
4822
5840
5839
88 89 4779
4465
5250
4473
43'',
`1`2
498686
7579
9189
8979
81 7073 61
7570
7177
7190
75
1 Se
e ne
xtpa
ge.
AE
I
NO
RT
H A
TL
AN
TIC
New
Eng
land
:C
onne
ctic
utM
aine
Mas
sach
uset
tsN
ew H
amps
hire
Rho
de I
slan
dV
erm
ont
Mid
east
:D
elaw
are
Dis
tric
t of
Col
umbi
aM
aryl
and
New
Jer
sey
New
Yor
k
Penn
sylv
ania
GR
EA
T L
AK
ES
AN
D P
LA
INS
Gre
at L
akes
:Il
linoi
sIn
dian
aM
ichi
gan
Ohi
oW
isco
nsin
Plai
ns:
Iow
aK
ansa
sM
inne
sota
Mis
sour
iN
ebra
ska
Nor
th D
akot
aSo
uth
Dak
ota
SOU
TH
EA
STSo
uthe
ast:
Ala
bam
aA
rkan
sas
Flor
ida
Geo
rgia
Ken
tuck
yL
ouis
iana
Mis
siss
ippi
Nor
th C
arol
ina
Sout
h C
arol
ina
Ten
ness
eeV
irgi
nia
Wes
t Vir
gini
a
17
18
WE
ST A
ND
SO
UT
HW
EST
Sout
hwes
t:A
rizo
naN
ew M
exic
oO
klah
oma
Tex
asR
ocky
Mou
ntai
ns:
Col
orad
oId
aho
Mon
tana
Uta
hW
yom
ing
Far
Wes
t:C
alif
orni
aN
evad
aO
rego
nW
ashi
ngto
nA
lask
aH
awai
i
OE
RE
GIO
NS
Nor
th A
tlant
icG
reat
Lak
es a
nd P
lain
s
Sout
heas
tW
est a
nd S
outh
wes
t
OB
E R
EG
ION
SN
ew E
ngla
ndM
idea
stG
reat
Lak
esPl
ains
Sout
heas
tSo
uth%
est
Roc
ky M
ount
ains
Far
Wes
t
The
Sou
thea
st tr
aile
d be
hind
oth
er g
eogr
aphi
cal r
egio
nsin
the
freq
uenc
y of
gui
danc
e. p
sych
olog
ical
. nur
sing
, and
spee
ch a
nd h
eari
ng s
ervi
ces.
and
tied
with
the
Sout
hwes
t in
soci
al w
ork.
The
Mid
east
and
Far
Wes
t far
ed e
xcep
tiona
llyw
ell i
n ps
ycho
logi
cal s
ervi
ces;
the
Mid
east
and
New
Eng
land
in m
edic
al s
ervi
ces;
the
Mid
east
, New
Eng
land
, and
Far
Wes
tin
nur
sing
; and
the
Far
Wes
t and
Mid
east
in s
peec
h .in
dhe
arin
g.Ps
ychi
atri
c se
rvic
es w
ere
foun
d m
ost f
requ
ently
inth
e M
idea
st a
nd N
ew E
ngla
nd r
egio
ns.
STA
TE
CE
RT
IFIC
AT
ION
FO
R P
UPI
LPE
RSO
NN
EL
SPE
CIA
LIS
TS
As
of 1
963,
49
Stat
es a
nd te
rrito
ries
had
esta
blis
hed
cert
i-fi
catio
-a r
equi
rem
ents
for
sec
onda
ry s
choo
lco
unse
lors
.A
l-th
ougn
the
appr
opri
ate
prof
essi
onal
asso
ciat
ions
Am
eric
anSc
hool
Cou
nsel
or A
ssoc
iatio
n an
d th
eA
ssoc
iatio
n fo
r C
oun-
selo
r E
duca
tion
and
Supe
rvis
ion)
hav
ere
com
men
ded
2-ye
argr
adua
te p
rogr
ams
of p
repa
ratio
n fo
rco
unse
lors
, thi
s go
alis
far
fro
m a
ttain
men
t. A
1-y
ear m
a ;te
r's d
egre
e in
gui
danc
eis
the
usua
l req
uire
men
t for
Sta
tece
rtif
icat
ion.
but
som
eSt
ates
hav
e ye
t to
achi
eve
this
levA
.T
wen
ty-f
ive
Stat
es c
ertif
ied
scho
ol p
sych
olog
ists
,co
unse
l-in
g ps
ycho
logi
sts,
or p
sych
omet
rist
s in
196
3.Sc
hool
soc
ial
wor
kers
wer
e ce
rtif
ied
in s
ix S
tate
s, a
ndsc
hool
nur
ses
inth
ree
.G
The
tren
d is
tow
ard
Stat
ece
rtif
icat
ion
with
hig
her
re-
quir
emen
ts in
an
incr
easi
ng n
umbe
r of
spec
ializ
ed a
reas
.A
s ce
rtif
icat
ion
is e
xten
ded
to c
over
mor
e pu
pil p
erso
nnel
spec
ialis
ts, S
tate
dep
artm
ents
of
educ
atio
nar
e ad
ding
per
-so
nnel
to th
eir
staf
fs to
giv
e le
ader
ship
and
supe
rvis
ion
in th
e
`Cam
p, D
olph
. Gui
danc
e W
orke
rsC
ertie
icat
ion
Req
uire
men
ts.
OE
-250
05A
. Was
hing
ton:
U.S
. Gov
ernm
ent
Prin
ting
Off
ice,
196
3.
208-
676
0 66
--1
seve
ral p
rofe
ssio
nal
area
s.It
is e
nvis
ione
d th
at s
choo
lsof
the
futu
re w
ill h
ave
a fu
ll co
mpl
emen
t of
pupi
l per
sonn
elsp
ecia
lists
at t
he lo
cal,
Stat
e, a
nd N
atio
nal l
evel
s.
CO
OR
DIN
AT
ION
BY
PU
PIL
PE
RSO
NN
EL
DIR
EC
TO
RS
The
em
otio
nal s
tate
of
the
scho
olch
ildha
s be
en c
laim
edas
a s
ubje
ct o
f st
udy
by a
ll of
the
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
peci
alis
ts.
Whi
ch s
peci
alis
t fir
stse
es th
e yo
ungs
,er
with
em
otio
nal
prob
lem
s m
ay d
epen
dup
on th
e ov
ert m
anif
esta
tions
: phy
si-
cal s
ympt
om, s
peec
h di
sord
er, a
ggre
ssiv
ebe
havi
or, t
ruan
cy,
failu
re in
sch
ool,
etc.
The
sou
rce
of th
e ch
ild's
trou
ble
and
the
sym
ptom
s di
s-pl
ayed
may
be
of m
ajor
conc
ern
to s
ever
al p
upil
pers
onne
lsp
ecia
lists
.C
oope
ratio
n am
ong
thes
e sp
ecia
lists
, the
refo
re.
requ
ires
coo
rdin
atio
n by
one
pers
on, a
dir
ecto
r. w
ho g
ives
lead
ersh
ip to
a te
am o
f sp
ecia
lists
.U
sual
ly th
is d
irec
tor
of p
upil
pers
onne
lse
rvic
es h
as c
ome
dire
ctly
fro
m o
ne o
f th
e di
scip
lines
or f
rom
edu
catio
n.H
ow-
ever
, som
e un
iver
sitie
s ar
e no
w o
ffer
ing
grad
uate
prog
ram
sw
hich
are
org
aniz
ed to
giv
e br
oad
prep
arat
ion
to p
rosp
ectiv
eca
ndid
ates
.Su
ch p
rogr
ams
will
pro
babl
y in
crea
seas
sch
ool
19
syst
ems
sear
ch f
or d
irec
tors
to o
rgan
ize
and
adm
inis
ter
pupi
lpe
rson
nel s
ervi
ces.
The
Off
ice
of E
duca
tion
surv
ey o
f 19
62-6
3 in
dica
ted
that
43 p
erce
nt o
f el
emen
tary
sch
ools
wer
e in
sch
ool s
yste
ms
inw
hich
thre
eor
mor
e pr
ofes
sion
al s
ervi
ces
wer
e di
rect
ed b
yon
e pe
rson
. Suc
h be
ginn
ings
of
coor
dina
tion
may
wel
l lea
dto
a to
tal p
upil
pers
onne
l pro
gram
.Fr
eque
ntly
, sch
ool
syst
ems
have
sou
ght h
elp
in d
evel
opin
gpu
pil p
erso
nnel
ser
vice
s fr
omSt
ate
depa
rtm
ents
of
educ
a-tio
n; S
tate
per
sonn
elar
e be
ginn
ing
to p
rovi
de th
is le
ader
ship
.T
o ai
d St
ate
dire
ctor
s of
pup
ilpe
rson
nel s
ervi
ces,
the
Cou
ncil
of C
hief
Sta
te S
choo
l Off
icer
spu
blis
hed
a po
licy
stat
emen
tse
tting
for
th r
espo
nsib
ilitie
s w
hich
Stat
e pe
rson
nel s
houl
das
sum
e fo
r th
e m
axim
um d
evel
opm
ent o
fch
ildre
n.7
Now
, the
big
gest
thru
st o
f al
l has
com
e fr
oli p
rofe
ssio
nal
and
educ
atio
nal a
ssoc
iatio
nsre
spon
sibl
e fo
r su
pply
ing
and
usin
g no
nins
truc
tiona
l ser
vice
sfo
r sc
hool
chi
ldre
n.T
hus,
the
Inte
rpro
fess
iona
l Res
earc
hC
omm
issi
on o
n Pu
pil P
er-
sonn
el S
ervi
ces
is e
ngag
edin
res
earc
h, f
unde
d by
the
Fede
ral
Res
pons
iLlit
ies
of S
tate
Dep
artm
ents
of E
duca
tion
for
Pupi
l Per
-so
nnel
Ser
cice
s.12
01 1
6th
Stre
et N
W.,
Was
hing
ton:
Cou
ncil
of C
hief
Stat
e Sc
hool
Off
icer
s, 1
960.
20
Gov
ernm
ent,
to c
lari
fy a
ndsu
gges
t eff
ectiv
e w
ays
ofco
-or
dina
ting
and
adm
inis
teri
ng s
ervi
ces
for
child
ren.
FOR
EC
AST
Pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces
will
be
impr
oved
, ext
ende
d, a
ndco
ordi
nate
d. A
s pu
pil p
erso
nnel
spec
ialis
ts e
nter
sch
ools
inla
rger
num
bers
, mos
t of
them
will
be b
ette
r qu
alif
ied;
coun
-se
lors
and
soc
ial w
orke
rs w
ill h
ave
2 ye
ars
of g
radu
ate
wor
k,an
d at
tend
ance
wor
kers
will
be
trai
ned
in s
ocia
l wor
k. S
choo
lnu
rses
will
hav
e ba
ccal
aure
ate
degr
ees,
and
psy
chol
ogis
tsw
ill h
ave
doct
oral
deg
rees
.U
nive
rsiti
es w
ill im
plem
ent i
nter
disc
iplin
ary
prog
ram
s fo
rth
e pr
epar
atio
n of
pup
il pe
rson
nel,
espe
cial
ly c
ouns
el's
.St
aff
mem
bers
fro
m th
e de
part
men
tsof
edu
catio
n, p
sych
ol-
ogy,
soc
iolo
gy, a
nthr
opol
ogy,
eco
nom
ics,
and
hea
lthw
illco
oper
ate
in a
n ef
fort
to b
road
en th
e be
havi
oral
scie
nce
back
-gr
ound
of
spec
ialis
ts w
ho w
ill b
eco
ncer
ned
with
the
deve
lop-
men
t of
the
who
le c
hild
in m
oder
n so
ciet
y.St
ate
cert
ific
atio
n w
ill b
e re
vise
dto
incl
ude
inte
rnsh
ips
insc
hool
s, in
ii.0
of
teac
hing
expe
rien
ce, f
or c
ouns
elor
s an
dot
her
spec
ialis
ts. A
lso,
pro
visi
onw
ill b
e m
ade
for
orie
ntin
gpu
pil p
erso
nnel
spe
cial
ists
suc
has
nur
ses,
phy
sici
ans,
and
psyc
hiat
rist
s to
the
scho
ol s
ettin
g.
11,
dern
ifela
staM
iNgl
.
Aid
es w
ill b
e tr
aine
d to
exp
and
the
serv
ices
of
all p
upil
pers
onne
l.Ju
st a
s th
e nu
rsin
g pr
ofes
sion
pio
neer
ed in
trai
n-in
g pr
actic
al n
urse
s an
d nu
rses
' aid
es to
per
form
sub
prof
es-
sion
al d
utie
s in
hos
pita
ls, a
ll pr
ofes
sion
s w
ill in
nova
te in
the
sele
ctio
n, tr
aini
ng, a
nd s
uper
visi
on o
f ai
des
to h
elp
pupi
lpe
rson
nel s
peci
alis
ts in
the
scho
ols.
Whe
n ai
des
are
prov
ided
to r
elie
ve s
peci
alis
ts o
f ro
utin
e an
d su
bpro
fess
iona
lfun
ctio
ns,
the
role
of
wel
l-pr
epar
ed s
peci
alis
ts w
ill c
hang
e.In
gen
eral
,th
eir
new
rol
es w
ill p
erm
it m
ore
time
for
dire
ct s
ervi
ces
toch
ildre
n an
d th
eir
pare
nts,
and
con
sulta
tive
serv
ices
to th
.,sc
hool
sta
ff.
Thr
ough
pre
serv
ice
and
inse
rvic
e ed
ucat
ion,
mem
bers
of
each
pro
fess
ion
will
bec
ome
bette
r or
ient
ed to
oth
er d
isci
-pl
ines
, and
wi I
dev
elop
mut
ual r
espe
ct w
hich
is e
ssen
tial t
oco
llabo
ratio
n. T
hrou
gh c
olla
bora
tion,
spe
cial
ists
will
str
ive
to m
eet t
he d
evel
opm
enta
l nee
ds o
f al
l chi
ldre
n w
ithou
tdu
plic
atio
n of
eff
ort i
n be
half
of
som
e, a
nd n
egle
ct o
f ot
hers
.
Som
e se
rvic
es w
ill r
emai
n co
mm
unity
bas
ed, b
ut th
e tr
end
will
be
tow
ard
prov
isio
n of
pup
il pe
rson
nel s
ervi
ces
by th
esc
hool
sys
tem
. Und
er o
ne d
irec
tor,
the
vari
ous
mem
bers
of
the
pupi
l per
sonn
el te
am w
ill f
unct
ion
in a
coo
rdin
ated
man
-ne
r.D
irec
tors
will
be
form
er s
peci
alis
ts, u
sual
ly w
ith d
oc-
tora
l deg
rees
in p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
sR
esea
rch
will
ale
rt s
choo
l adm
inis
trat
ors
to r
ich
pote
ntia
lin
the
cont
ribu
tions
of
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
neci
alis
ts.
Als
o, r
e-se
arch
con
duct
ed b
y so
me
spec
ialis
ts m
ay r
evea
l neg
ativ
e as
wel
l as
posi
tive
effe
cts
stem
min
g fr
om tr
aditi
onal
pra
ctic
es, o
ras
soci
ated
with
inno
vatio
ns s
uch
as: e
arly
adm
issi
on, u
n-gr
aded
sch
ools
, gro
upin
g sy
stem
s, te
am te
achi
ng, n
ew r
eadi
ngte
chni
ques
, and
pro
gram
ed le
arni
ng, a
s w
ell a
s ex
peri
men
tal
or p
ilot p
roje
cts
envi
sion
ed in
sup
plem
enta
ryed
ucat
iona
lce
nter
s m
ade
poss
ible
by
the
Ele
men
tary
and
Sec
onda
ry E
du-
catio
n A
ct o
f 19
65.
Cre
ativ
e re
sear
ch, t
hen,
is th
e ke
y to
bette
r ed
ucat
ion
thro
ugh
the
max
imum
use
of
pupi
l per
sonn
else
rvic
es.
21
$
..,...
......
....1
11
PA
RT
IIR
EV
IEW
Gui
danc
e se
rvic
es h
ave
prog
ress
ed f
ar b
eyon
d th
eor
igin
al c
once
pt o
f he
lp-
ing
high
sch
ool s
tude
nts
choo
se v
ocat
ions
.In
add
ition
to v
ocat
iona
l gui
d-an
ce, t
hese
ser
vice
s no
w in
clud
e ed
ucat
iona
l and
per
sona
l gui
danc
ean
dex
tend
thro
ugho
ut a
ll ed
ucat
iona
l lev
els.
In th
eory
, gui
danc
e is
bei
ng v
iew
edas
a li
fetim
e se
rvic
e, f
rom
pre
scho
ol to
ret
irem
ent,
with
the
goal
of
incr
easi
ngea
ch in
divi
dual
's c
apac
ity f
or s
elf-
dir
ectio
n.
24
.ver
wal
goos
osas
saili
PAR
T I
1CH
APT
ER
1
GU
IDA
NC
E S
ER
VIC
ES
By
RO
BE
RT
0. S
TR
IPL
ING
, Pro
fess
or o
f E
duca
tion,
and
DA
VID
LA
NE
,Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
ssor
of
Edu
catio
n, U
nive
rsity
of
Flor
ida
WH
ILE
IT
Is
now
gen
eral
ly a
ckno
wle
dged
that
gui
danc
ese
rvic
es a
re in
disp
ensa
ble
at a
ll le
vels
of
educ
atio
n, th
eir
impl
emen
tatio
n be
gan
as a
res
pons
e to
the
need
s of
sec
onda
rysc
hool
you
th a
nd th
ose
ente
ring
the
labo
r m
arke
t. B
y th
etu
rn o
f th
e ce
ntur
y th
e te
chno
logi
cal a
dvan
ces
whi
ch o
rigi
-na
ted
in th
e in
dust
rial
rev
olut
ion
had
resu
lted
in a
deg
ree
of c
ompl
exity
in th
e w
orld
of
wor
k th
at m
ade
occu
patio
nal
choi
ce a
nd p
lann
ing
diff
icul
t and
con
fusi
ng.
Voc
atio
nal g
uida
nce
Voc
atio
nal g
uida
nce
as a
sys
tem
atic
pro
cess
beg
an in
190
8,w
ith th
e fo
undi
ng o
f th
e V
ocat
ion
Bur
eau
in B
osto
n by
Fran
k Pa
rson
s.D
urin
g th
e ea
rly
year
s, g
uida
nce
prac
ti-tio
ners
wer
e co
ncer
ned
with
ass
istin
g yo
ung
men
to o
btai
nin
itial
em
ploy
men
t or
to a
dvan
ce f
rom
a p
artic
ular
job
to a
mor
e pr
omis
ing
one.
Gra
dual
ly, t
hese
pio
neer
cou
nsel
ors
real
ized
that
thei
r co
unse
lees
had
nee
ds w
hich
dem
ande
d
broa
der
defi
nitio
n, a
nd th
at c
aree
r co
unse
ling
coul
d be
effe
ctiv
e on
ly w
hen
atte
ntio
n w
as p
aid
to a
ll as
pect
s of
the
indi
vidu
al's
life
. Voc
atio
nal g
uida
nce
over
the
year
s be
cam
e,in
Sup
er's
wor
ds:
the
proc
ess
of h
elpi
ng a
per
son
to d
evel
op a
nd a
ccep
tan
inte
grat
edan
dad
equa
tepi
ctur
eof
him
self
and
of h
is r
ole
in th
e w
orld
of
wor
k, to
test
this
con
cept
agai
nst r
ealit
y, a
nd to
con
vert
it in
to a
rea
lity,
witi
-sa
tisfa
ctio
n to
him
self
and
ben
efit
to s
ocie
ty.1
Tes
ting
Pres
ent d
ay g
uida
nce
serv
ices
trac
e th
eir
orig
ins
to s
ever
alde
velo
pmen
ts in
mod
ern
hist
ory.
The
se s
ervi
ces
have
bee
nfa
cilit
ated
and
gre
atly
infl
uenc
ed b
y th
e em
erge
nce
cfst
anda
rdiz
ed te
stin
g as
an
inct
.asi
ngly
sig
nifi
cant
fac
tor
in
Supe
r, D
onal
d E
. "V
ocat
iona
l Adj
ustm
ent:
Impl
emen
ting
a Si
d-C
once
pt."
Occ
upat
ions
, vol
. 30,
Nov
embe
r 19
51, p
p. 8
3-92
.
25
mod
ern
soci
ety.
In th
e la
tter
half
of
the
19th
cen
tury
, Sir
Fran
cis
Gal
ton
in E
ngla
ndan
d ot
her
scie
ntis
ts in
Eur
ope
and
Am
eric
a be
gan
to e
xper
imen
t with
the
scie
ntif
icm
easu
re-
men
t of
hum
an c
hara
cter
istic
s.A
t fir
st th
ese
effo
rts
wer
ela
rgel
y co
nfin
edto
sim
ple
psyc
hom
otor
acts
.J.
Mc
Kee
nC
atte
ll se
ems
to h
ave
been
the
firs
t to
use
the
term
"m
enta
lte
st,"
in 1
890.
How
ever
, it
was
Alf
red
Bin
et a
nd h
is c
ol-
leag
ues,
in F
ranc
e, w
hola
unch
ed th
e m
oder
ner
a of
test
ing.
Ger
beri
ch e
t. al
., ob
serv
eth
at a
s ea
rly
as 1
895
Bin
et a
nd H
enri
des
crib
edte
sts
of m
emor
y, im
agin
atio
n,at
tent
ion,
com
preh
ensi
on,
sugg
estib
ility
. and
aes
thet
icap
prec
iatio
n th
atw
ere
fore
runn
ers
of th
e B
inet
-Sim
onsc
ales
of
the
Tw
entie
thC
entu
ry.c
Bin
et a
nd S
imon
pro
duce
dth
eir
firs
t int
ellig
ence
scal
e in
1905
.D
urin
g W
orld
War
I th
e fi
rst
grou
p in
telli
genc
esc
ales
em
erge
d, in
resp
onse
to th
e ne
ed f
or a
n ef
fici
ent m
etho
dof
cla
ssif
ying
dra
ftee
s.T
hese
dev
elop
men
tsw
ere
follo
wed
duri
ng s
ucce
edin
g de
cade
sby
a f
orm
idab
le p
rolif
erat
ion
ofst
anda
rdiz
ed te
stin
gin
stru
men
ts.
The
cha
ract
eris
tics
tow
hich
test
mak
ers
dire
cted
thei
r at
tent
ion
incl
uded
not o
nly
Ger
beri
ch, J
. Ray
mon
d; G
reen
, Har
ry A
.; an
d Jo
rgen
sen,
Alb
ert N
.M
easu
rem
ent a
nd E
valu
atio
nin
the
Mod
ern
Scho
ol. N
ewY
ork,
Dav
id M
cKay
, 196
2.
26
inte
llige
nce
but a
chie
vem
ent,
spec
ial a
ptitu
des,
inte
rest
s,va
lues
. atti
tude
s, a
ndte
mpe
ram
enta
l ten
denc
ies.
The
rap
id d
evel
opm
ent o
fte
stin
g co
ntri
bute
d si
gnif
ican
tlyto
the
guid
ance
mov
emen
t in
our
fast
-gro
win
g pu
blic
sch
ool
syst
em.
Tea
cher
s an
d co
unse
lors
wer
e pr
ovid
ed w
ith m
ore
prec
ise
info
rmat
ion
than
had
prev
ious
ly b
een
avai
labl
e. to
assi
st th
em in
und
erst
andi
ngch
ildre
n's
capa
citie
s an
dne
eds.
Thu
s, it
bec
ame
poss
ible
to p
lan
educ
atio
nal e
xper
ienc
esw
ith m
ore
sens
itivi
tyto
indi
vidu
al d
iffe
renc
es th
anha
d ee
ntr
ue in
the
past
. How
ever
, the
pers
pect
ive
of o
ur a
ccum
ulat
edex
peri
ence
with
this
vast
arr
ay o
f te
sts,
sca
les,
ques
tionn
a' r
es,
and
inve
ntor
ies
sugg
ests
that
thes
e de
vice
s pr
omis
edm
ore
than
they
hav
e su
bseq
uent
lybe
en a
ble
to f
ulfi
ll.St
anda
rd-
ized
test
ing
has,
for
seve
ral y
ears
, bee
n un
derg
oing
a cr
itica
lre
appr
aisa
l, an
d co
unse
lors
are
beco
min
g m
ore
keen
lyaw
are
of th
e lim
itatio
ns o
f the
se in
stru
men
tsas
aid
s to
the
guid
ance
func
tion.
Men
tal h
ealth
mov
emen
tT
he tr
emen
dous
bre
akth
roug
hin
und
erst
andi
ng b
ehav
ior,
whi
ch s
tem
med
fro
m th
eem
erge
nce
of m
oder
n ps
ychi
atry
and
clin
ical
psy
chol
ogy,
has
been
fun
dam
enta
lly s
igni
fica
ntto
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f m
oder
n gu
idan
cean
d ot
her
pupi
l per
sonn
el
serv
ices
.T
he in
sigh
ts in
to th
e dy
nam
ics
of b
ehav
ior,
attr
ib-
utab
le to
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f ps
ycho
anal
ysis
as a
tech
niqu
efo
r st
udyi
ng b
ehav
ior
and
as a
met
hcd
for
trea
ting
emot
iona
ldi
sord
ers,
hav
e sp
read
far
bey
ond
the
cons
ultin
gro
om.
In-
deed
, man
y of
the
tech
nica
l ter
ms
of p
sych
oana
lysi
s ha
ve b
e-co
me
embe
dded
in o
ur la
ngua
ge.
Sinc
e th
e ea
rly
impa
ct o
f Fr
eud'
s w
ork,
the
unde
rsta
ndin
gof
beh
avio
r ha
s be
en d
eepe
ned
and
exte
nded
by
man
y ps
y-ch
olog
ists
, esp
ecia
lly b
y th
ose
who
hav
e em
phas
ized
the
cen-
tral
rol
e of
the
indi
vidu
al's
per
cept
ions
as th
e pr
inci
pal b
asis
for
his
beha
vior
.' T
he w
ork
of th
ese
psyc
holo
gist
s ha
s be
enbr
oade
ned
by s
ocio
logi
sts,
ant
hrop
olog
ists
. and
soc
ial
psy-
chia
tris
ts w
ho h
ave
stud
ied
the
infl
uenc
e of
env
iron
men
tal
fact
ors
on m
enta
l hea
lth. O
ut o
f th
ese
rese
arch
es a
nd th
eore
t-ic
al e
xplo
ratio
ns h
as e
mer
ged
a va
riet
y of
impo
rtan
t tec
h-ni
ques
for
stu
dyin
g st
uden
ts, i
nclu
ding
sta
ndar
dize
dgr
oup
and
clin
ical
test
s, c
ase
hist
ory
tech
niqu
es. a
neci
lata
l rec
ords
.ho
me
visi
t pro
cedu
res,
and
soc
iom
etri
c m
etho
ds.
GU
IDA
NC
E T
EC
HN
IQU
ES
The
con
cept
of
guid
ance
has
evo
lved
fro
m th
at o
fa
serv
-3
Com
bs, A
rthu
r W
., an
d Sn
ygg,
Don
ald.
Ind
ivid
ual B
ehav
ior.
New
Yor
k, H
arpe
r &
Bro
ther
s, 1
959.
208-
676
0-66
--5
a
ice
to b
e re
nder
ed a
t cru
cial
poi
nts
in c
hild
ren'
s gr
owth
to a
view
that
gui
danc
e is
a c
ontin
uous
, dev
elop
men
tal
proc
ess.
Ove
r th
e ye
ars
the
scho
ol h
asco
me
to b
e ac
know
ledg
ed a
s th
ece
ntra
l and
coo
rdin
atin
g ag
ency
in th
e gu
idan
cepr
ogra
m.
The
incr
ease
d re
cogn
ition
of
the
need
for
org
aniz
edpr
ogra
ms
at th
e el
emen
tary
leve
l has
led
the
elem
enta
ry s
choo
l to
shar
eth
e gu
idan
ce r
ole
form
erly
ass
umed
by
the
seco
ndar
y sc
hool
.
Cou
nsel
ing
The
cen
tral
ser
vice
of
the
guid
ance
prog
ram
, esp
ecia
lly a
tth
e se
cond
ary
scho
ol le
vel,
is c
ouns
elin
g.C
ouns
elin
g is
aki
nd o
f he
lpin
g re
latio
nshi
p in
whi
ch tw
o pe
ople
com
mun
icat
eab
out p
lans
, dec
isio
ns, f
eelin
gs, a
nd a
ttitu
des.
One
of
the
part
icip
ants
, the
cou
nsel
ee, i
s pe
rson
ally
invo
lved
. The
oth
er.
the
coun
selo
r, p
uts
asid
e hi
s ow
n pr
oble
ms
for
the
time
be-
ing
and
brin
gs h
is r
esou
rces
to b
ear
on th
e co
ncer
ns o
f th
eco
unse
lee,
who
is e
ncou
rage
d to
enj
oy th
e lu
xury
of
payi
ngfu
ll at
tent
ion
to h
imse
lf.
Thi
s en
cour
agem
ent i
s no
t off
ered
in a
n at
tem
pt to
dev
elop
sel
f-ce
nter
edne
ss, b
ut r
athe
r in
the
belie
f th
at f
ull a
nd f
ree
self
-exp
ress
ion
is th
e ba
sis
for
self
-un
ders
tand
ing
and
heal
thy
beha
vior
. Whe
nan
indi
vidu
alha
s co
me
to u
nder
stan
d hi
sow
n ne
eds
and
his
own
natu
re,
he is
fre
ed o
f th
e ne
cess
ity to
enga
ge in
fru
itles
s an
d ex
cess
ive
27
intr
ospe
ctio
n.W
hile
the
coun
selo
r is
neve
r in
diff
eren
t to
a co
unse
lee'
sim
med
iate
task
s an
d ch
oice
s, s
uch
as s
elec
ting
a co
llege
or
ajo
b, h
e is
non
ethe
less
pri
mar
ily c
once
rned
with
assi
stin
g th
eco
unse
lee
tow
ard
incr
ease
d se
lf-
unde
rsta
ndin
g an
d m
atur
ity.
One
of
the
axio
ms
of c
ouns
elin
g is
that
its
impa
ct is
inte
nded
tc in
crea
se th
e in
divi
dual
's c
apac
ity f
or s
elf-
dire
ctio
n.T
heco
unse
lor
stri
ves
to w
ork
him
self
out o
f a
job
with
eac
hpa
rtic
ular
cou
nsel
ee.
Smal
l gro
up c
ouns
elin
g an
dgr
oup
proc
edur
esO
ne o
f th
e ex
citin
g cu
rren
t tre
nds
in g
uida
nce
is s
mal
lgr
oup
coun
selin
g, a
n ap
proa
ch w
hich
hol
ds p
rom
ise
ofen
-ab
ling
coun
selo
rs to
ach
ieve
som
e ob
ject
ives
mor
e ef
fect
ivel
yth
an th
roug
h in
divi
dual
cou
nsel
ing.
A s
mal
lgr
oup
setti
ngso
met
imes
ena
bles
a c
ouns
elor
to r
each
a st
uden
t who
has
not r
espo
nded
to in
divi
dual
cou
nsel
ing;
the
pres
ence
of
othe
rsaf
ford
s th
e st
uden
tan
opp
ortu
nity
to m
ake
the
help
ful d
is-
cove
ry th
at h
is p
robl
em is
not
uni
que,
that
oth
ers
have
sim
ilar
prob
lem
s.Sm
all g
roup
s pr
ovid
ean
aut
hent
ic s
ituat
ion
in w
hich
stu
-de
nts
can
lear
n by
exp
erie
nce
new
insi
ghts
and
new
way
s of
28
copi
ng w
ith o
ther
peo
ple.
Sinc
e m
ost o
f ou
r di
ffic
ultie
s,co
nflic
ts, o
ppor
tuni
ties,
and
cha
lleng
esoc
cur
in r
elat
ion-
ship
s w
ith o
ther
peo
ple,
it is
no w
onde
r th
at g
roup
situ
atio
ns,
supe
rvis
ed b
y a
sens
itive
and
com
pete
nt le
ader
,pr
ovid
e fo
rsi
gnif
ican
t gro
wth
in in
terp
erso
nal e
ffec
tiven
ess.
Som
e of
the
func
tions
of
the
guid
ance
prog
ram
whi
ch m
ost
clea
rly
lend
them
selv
es to
grou
p pr
oced
ures
incl
ude
orie
nta-
tion
of n
ew p
upils
fro
m f
eede
r sc
hool
sto
juni
or o
r se
nior
high
sch
ools
; exp
lora
tion
ofco
mm
on d
evel
opm
enta
l ex-
peri
ence
s, s
uch
as b
oy-g
irl r
elat
ions
hips
; and
expl
orat
ion
ofsp
ecia
l pro
blem
s w
hich
a pa
rtic
ular
seg
men
t of
the
stud
ent
body
may
be
faci
ng a
ta
give
n tim
e, s
uch
as u
nder
achi
eve-
men
t and
tem
ptat
ion
to d
rop
out o
f sc
hool
.G
roup
pro
cedu
res
have
hel
dan
attr
actio
n fo
r m
any
coun
selo
rs a
nd a
dmin
istr
ator
s be
caus
e of
the
pere
nnia
l hop
eth
at f
ewer
sta
ff m
embe
rs m
ight
serv
e a
larg
er n
umbe
r of
stud
ents
than
is p
ossi
ble
with
indi
vidu
alco
unse
ling.
Ex-
peri
ence
has
sho
wn
that
grou
p m
etho
ds d
o no
t act
ually
mak
e po
ssib
le a
mor
e ec
onom
ical
cou
nsel
or-s
tude
nt r
atio
.H
owev
er, t
here
is e
vide
nce
that
a co
mbi
natio
n of
the
two
met
hods
is m
ore
effe
ctiv
e th
an e
ither
one
alon
e.M
any
effo
rts
to p
rovi
degr
oup
guid
ance
hav
e fa
iled
beca
use
the
sess
ions
wer
e us
ed to
for
ce p
oint
s of
vie
w o
f th
e ad
min
istr
a-
tion
or f
acul
ty o
n st
uden
ts.
Stud
ents
mus
t fee
l fre
e to
ex-
plor
e id
eas
that
are
of
conc
ern
and
inte
rest
to th
em; t
hey
mus
t fee
l fre
e to
exp
ress
thei
r op
inio
ns w
ithou
t bei
ng c
hal-
leng
ed b
y pe
rson
s in
aut
hori
ty.
The
lead
er m
ust b
e ab
leto
fac
ilita
te a
nd n
ot d
omin
ate
grou
p di
scus
sion
s.
Con
sulta
tion
with
Par
ents
and
Tea
cher
sO
ne o
f th
e m
ost e
ffec
tive
way
s av
aila
ble
to c
ouns
elor
s fo
rac
com
plis
hing
gui
danc
e ob
ject
ives
isco
nsul
tatio
n w
ithpa
rent
s, te
ache
rs (
espe
cial
ly o
f el
emen
tary
sch
ool p
upils
),an
d ot
her
adul
ts w
ho a
re c
oope
rativ
ely
conc
erne
d w
ithch
ildre
n's
grow
th.
How
ever
, the
fun
ctio
n of
con
sulta
tion
in g
uida
nce
has
begu
n to
rec
eive
sys
tem
atic
atte
ntio
n on
ly in
rece
nt y
ears
.It
is in
crea
sing
ly b
eing
con
side
red
a co
mpl
exan
d ch
alle
ngin
g pr
ofes
sion
al s
kill
with
uni
que
feat
ures
whi
chca
ll fo
r sp
ecia
l em
phas
is in
cou
nsel
or e
duca
tion,
pra
ctic
e, a
ndre
sear
ch.
The
dea
rth
of a
vaila
ble
prof
essi
onal
lite
ratu
re o
n w
ork
with
par
ents
indi
cate
s th
at, i
n pr
actic
e, c
ouns
elor
s ha
ve r
ela-
tivel
y ne
glec
ted
this
are
aper
haps
bec
ause
of
an u
ncer
tain
tyco
ncer
ning
the
adeq
uacy
of
thei
r sk
ills
for
the
task
.O
n th
e ot
her
hand
, it i
s so
met
imes
ass
umed
that
con
ferr
ing
with
par
ents
invo
lves
mer
ely
an e
xten
sion
of
the
proc
ess
of
coun
selin
g, th
at th
e pr
oced
ures
the
coun
selo
r us
es in
his
enco
unte
rs w
ith s
tude
nts
can
be a
pplie
d w
ithou
t mod
ific
atio
nin
inte
rvie
ws
with
par
ents
.E
xper
ienc
e so
met
imes
see
ms
tosu
bsta
ntia
te th
is a
ssum
ptio
n, s
ince
a p
aren
t occ
asio
nally
wel
com
es a
n op
port
unity
to o
btai
n co
unse
ling
help
for
his
own
prob
lem
s.Fa
r m
ore
ofte
n, h
owev
er, t
he p
aren
t qui
te r
ight
ly s
ees
him
self
as
a co
lleag
ue o
f th
e te
ache
r an
d co
unse
lor
in th
epr
oces
s of
hel
ping
the
child
or
adol
esce
nt g
row
upi
ndee
d,as
the
cent
ral a
dult
in th
is h
elpi
ng p
roce
ss.
If b
oth
part
ies
to a
par
ent-
coun
selo
r co
nfer
ence
pro
ceed
on
this
ass
umpt
ion,
it pr
ovid
es th
e ba
sis
for
a fr
uitf
ul c
onsu
ltatio
n.T
he b
ehav
ior
of th
e st
uden
t bec
omes
the
focu
s of
the
conf
eren
ce, a
nd th
eco
nsul
tant
(co
unse
lor)
and
con
sulte
e (p
aren
t) w
ork
toge
ther
to u
nder
stan
d th
e st
uden
t's b
ehav
ior
and
to m
ake
plan
s fo
rpr
ovid
ing
nece
ssar
y gu
idan
ce.
The
cou
nsel
or a
ssis
ts th
epa
rent
to g
ain
insi
ght w
hich
will
ena
ble
him
to d
eal m
ore
effe
ctiv
ely
with
his
chi
ld in
the
futu
re.
Cou
nsel
ors
may
wor
k w
ith p
aren
ts in
a v
arie
ty o
f w
ays
and
for
a va
riet
y of
pur
pose
s.C
onfe
renc
es m
ay ta
ke p
lace
at th
e sc
hool
or
at th
e pa
rent
's h
ome.
The
occ
asio
n m
ay b
ein
res
pons
e to
an
imm
edia
te p
robl
em, d
eadl
ine,
or
cris
is, o
rit
may
be
a sc
hedu
led
part
of
a pl
anne
d de
velo
pmen
tal a
p- 29
proa
ch in
whi
ch p
erio
dic
conf
eren
ces
are
arra
nged
bet
wee
nco
unse
lor
and
pare
nts
thro
ugho
ut th
e sc
hool
year
s.T
each
ers,
par
ticul
arly
thos
e w
ho w
ork
with
youn
ger
chil-
dren
, hav
e lo
ngac
know
ledg
ed th
at th
ey o
ften
wag
e an
uph
illfi
ght a
gain
st h
ome
infl
uenc
es w
hich
may
be
at c
ross
-pur
pose
sto
the
effo
rts
of th
e sc
hool
.C
ouns
elor
s w
ho h
ave
deve
lope
dco
nsul
ting
skill
sm
ay f
ind
that
con
fere
nces
with
pare
nts
are
a si
gnif
ican
t way
of
brea
king
thro
ugh
this
bar
rier
.T
his
guid
ance
ser
vice
seem
s es
peci
ally
pro
mis
ing
at th
e el
emen
tary
leve
l, si
nce
it is
dur
ing
thes
e ye
ars
that
chi
ldre
nar
e m
ost
deep
ly a
nd w
idel
yin
flue
nced
by
thei
r fa
mili
es.
It is
hig
hly
prob
able
that
con
sulta
tion
with
teac
hers
will
occu
py a
larg
er p
ropo
rtio
n of
the
scho
ol c
ouns
elor
's ti
me
and
atte
ntio
n in
the
year
s ah
ead.
Con
sulta
tion
may
ext
end
the
coun
selo
r'sin
flue
nce
by in
-cr
easi
ng th
e ca
pabi
lity
of th
e te
ache
r to
perf
orm
his
gui
danc
ero
le.
The
pur
pose
of
cons
ulta
tion
is n
otto
mak
e th
e te
ache
rin
to a
cou
nsel
or b
utto
hel
p hi
m in
crea
se th
e in
sigh
t and
ski
llsw
hich
are
an in
tegr
al p
art o
f hi
s te
achi
ngre
spon
sibi
lity.
The
pro
cess
of
cons
ulta
tion
is a
ppro
pria
te to
any
guid
ance
func
tion
to w
hich
teac
hers
can
mak
e a
cont
ribu
tion.
The
coun
selo
r ca
n as
sist
teac
hers
with
inte
rpre
tatio
nof
test
dat
a
30
4IN
MIN
I
and
othe
r ba
ckgr
ound
info
rmat
ion,
with
indi
vidu
alco
unse
l-in
g pr
oble
ms,
with
the
use
of o
ccup
atio
nal i
nfor
mat
ion,
and
with
gro
up p
roce
dure
s.C
ouns
elor
s w
ill a
lso
find
occa
sion
to s
erve
as
cons
ulta
nts
to a
dmin
istr
ator
s an
dto
oth
er s
pe-
cial
ists
on
the
scho
olst
aff,
suc
has
libr
arit.
fis
and
nurs
es.
SUPP
LE
ME
NT
AR
Y S
ER
VIC
ES
Tho
ugh
coun
selin
g,gr
oup
proc
edur
es, a
nd c
onsu
ltatio
nar
eth
e pr
imar
y gu
idan
cefu
nctio
ns w
hich
invo
lve
dire
ct, s
kille
d,pr
ofes
sion
ally
gro
unde
din
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n th
eco
unse
lor
and
othe
r pe
ople
,se
vera
l im
port
ant
guid
ance
ser
vice
ssu
p-pl
emen
t and
sup
port
them
.
App
rais
alA
n im
port
ant f
ound
atio
nof
the
guid
ance
prog
ram
con
sist
sof
bac
kgro
und
info
rmat
ion
whi
ch is
acc
umul
ated
abou
t eac
hpu
pil a
nd m
ade
avai
labl
efo
r us
e in
cou
nsel
ing
as w
ell a
sin
cer
tain
oth
erse
rvic
es, s
uch
as p
lace
men
t and
res
earc
h.M
ost o
f th
e w
ork
invo
lved
in c
olle
ctin
g, r
ecor
ding
, and
fili
ngth
ese
data
can
and
shou
ld b
e ha
ndle
d by
cle
rica
lpe
rson
nel,
thou
gh th
e co
unse
lor
dete
rmin
es w
hat d
ata
are
to b
e co
llect
edan
d by
wha
t met
hods
, and
als
o st
udie
s th
e da
tafo
r us
e in
the
coun
selin
gpr
oces
s.
The
cou
nsel
or is
usu
ally
dele
gate
d le
ader
ship
res
pons
ibili
tyin
dev
elop
ing
a te
stin
g pr
ogra
m, i
n co
oper
atio
n w
ithth
e ad
-m
inis
trat
ion
and
the
teac
hing
staf
f, s
o th
at a
ppro
pria
tete
sts
may
be
adm
inis
tere
d at
str
ateg
icst
eps
in th
e de
velo
pmen
4 of
child
ren
thro
ugh
the
scho
olye
ars.
For
exam
ple,
mea
sure
sof
aca
dem
ic a
ptitu
dean
d ac
hiev
emen
t are
oft
en a
dmin
iste
red
at ti
mes
whe
n im
port
ant d
ecis
ions
or c
urri
cula
r ar
rang
emen
tsar
e ab
out t
o be
mad
e. M
easu
res
ofac
adem
ic c
apac
itym
ay b
ead
min
iste
red
just
pri
orto
the
firs
t gra
de i
read
ing
read
ines
s)th
e fo
urth
gra
de(
begi
nnin
g of
the
inte
rme
-iat
eye
ars)
.th
ese
vent
h gr
ade
(in
prep
arat
ion
for
expl
orin
gva
riou
s cu
rric
-ul
ar tr
acks
in ju
nior
high
sch
ool)
, and
the
nint
h gr
ade
(whe
n im
port
ant c
urri
cula
rde
cisi
ons,
bot
h ge
nera
l and
spe-
cifi
c, m
ust b
e m
ade)
.T
he c
ouns
elor
sho
uld
avoi
d as
sum
ing
unila
tera
lco
ntro
lov
er th
e pl
anni
ng a
nd a
dmin
istr
atio
nof
the
test
ing
prog
ram
.A
ll to
o of
ten
it be
com
esth
e "c
ouns
elor
's te
stin
gpr
ogra
m."
Tea
cher
s sh
ould
take
an a
ctiv
e pa
rt in
sel
ectin
gte
sts
and
usin
g te
st r
esul
tsso
that
thes
e de
vice
sca
n se
rve
thei
r es
-se
ntia
l pur
pose
in th
eto
tal e
duca
tiona
lpr
oces
s.H
ere,
the
coun
selo
r ca
n be
st m
ake
his
cont
ribu
tion
as a
coo
rdin
ator
and
cons
ulta
nt.
The
cou
nsel
or a
lso
serv
es a
s co
ordi
nato
r an
d co
nsul
tant
in
such
app
rais
al p
roce
dure
sas
mak
ing
anec
dota
l rec
ords
and
usin
g ra
ting
scal
es.
auto
biog
rapi
des.
suc
iogr
ams,
and
othe
rde
vice
s fo
r ch
ild s
tudy
.Fo
r ex
ampl
e, a
necd
otal
reco
rds
and
soci
omet
ric
data
can
assi
st th
e co
unse
lor
in s
elec
ting
stud
ents
whe
n pl
anni
ngfo
r gr
oup
proc
edur
e&
Plac
emen
t*T
he tr
end
in p
lace
men
t,or
hel
ping
hig
h sc
hool
gra
duat
esan
d ea
rly
scho
olle
aver
s ob
tain
em
ploy
men
t,is
tow
ard
ajo
int e
ffor
t with
the
loca
l off
ice
of th
eSt
ate
empl
oym
ent
serv
ice.
Plac
emen
t may
invo
lve
cons
ulta
tion
with
teac
hers
.es
peci
ally
thos
e w
ho te
ach
voca
tiona
lly o
rien
ted
cour
ses,
as
wel
l as
coun
selin
gst
uden
ts c
once
rnin
gso
urce
s of
info
rma-
tion,
job
choi
ce, a
nd jo
bin
terv
iew
ski
lls.
In a
dditi
on, t
heco
unse
lor
part
icip
ates
in b
ring
ing
empl
oyer
s an
dap
plic
ants
toge
ther
.
*In
the
elem
enta
ry s
choo
l,"p
lace
men
t" r
efer
s to
the
assi
gnm
ent
of a
chi
ld to
an
appr
opri
ate
abili
ty g
roup
, gra
de le
vel,
or s
peci
al c
lass
.T
he c
ouns
elor
is f
requ
ently
part
of
a te
am th
at c
onsi
ders
mul
tiple
char
acte
rist
ics
of a
chi
ld b
efor
ede
term
inin
g th
e gr
oup
in w
hich
he
will
mak
e th
e m
o'',
prog
ress
.A
t the
sec
onda
ry le
vel,
plac
emen
t may
rela
te to
ful
l- o
r pa
rt-t
ime
jobs
, gro
upin
g in
prog
ram
s or
trac
ks, o
rad
mis
sion
to c
olle
ge.
" -
4:01
Eva
luat
ion
Eva
luat
ion
is a
met
hod
of o
btai
ning
peri
odic
che
cks
onth
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of a
ll th
e gu
idan
cese
rvic
es.
Eva
luat
ion
som
etim
es ta
kes
the
form
of
follo
wup
sur
veys
of
grad
uate
san
d ea
rly
scho
ol le
aver
s.Su
ch d
ata
ofte
n he
lpsu
gges
t gap
sin
the
guid
ance
prog
ram
.O
ther
eva
luat
ion
proc
edur
esm
aybe
bas
ed o
n an
alys
es o
f re
cord
sof
ear
ly le
aver
s, th
era
te o
fac
adem
ic f
ailu
res,
the
num
ber
ofsc
hola
rshi
p w
inne
rs, r
efer
-ra
ls to
age
ncie
s ou
tsid
e th
e sc
hool
,an
d si
mila
r da
ta.
PRO
FESS
ION
AL
AC
TIV
ITIE
SSi
nce
1958
, lea
ders
in v
ario
uspa
rts
of th
e U
nite
d St
ates
have
bee
n cr
itica
lly e
xam
inin
gth
e ro
le a
nd p
repa
ratio
n of
the
scho
ol c
ouns
elor
.Se
vera
l stu
dies
hav
e st
imul
ated
cont
rove
rsy
and
actio
n at
the
loca
las
wel
l as
the
natio
nal l
evel
.Pe
rhap
s no
em
ergi
ng p
rofe
ssio
nha
s ev
er b
een
shak
enso
dras
tical
ly a
t its
roo
ts in
so s
hort
a p
erio
d of
tim
e.4
By
1964
, pol
icy
stat
emen
ts r
elat
ing
to th
e pr
epar
atio
n of
sec
ond-
ary
scho
ol c
ouns
elor
s ha
d be
en is
sued
aft
erpr
olon
ged
and
4Lou
ghar
y, J
ohn
W.;
Stri
plin
g,R
ober
t 0.;
Fitz
gera
ld, P
aul W
.,ed
itors
.C
ouns
elin
g: A
Gro
win
g Pr
ofes
sion
.W
ashi
ngto
n,D
.C.,
Am
eric
an P
erso
nnel
and
Gui
danc
eA
ssoc
iatio
n, 1
965.
32
sear
chin
g st
udy
by f
our
prof
essi
onal
asso
ciat
ions
:1.
Am
eric
anPe
rson
nel
and
Gui
danc
eA
ssoc
iatio
n(A
PGA
).2.
Am
eric
an S
choo
l Cou
nsel
orA
ssoc
iatio
n i d
ivis
ion
ofA
PGA
.
3. A
ssoc
iatio
n fo
r C
ouns
elor
Edu
catio
nan
d Su
perv
isio
n(d
ivis
ion
of A
PGA
) .4.
Cou
nsel
ing
Psyc
holo
gy(
divi
sion
of
the
Am
eric
anPs
ycho
logi
cal A
ssoc
iatio
n).
Thi
s co
ncen
trat
ed a
ctiv
ity b
ypr
ofes
sion
al a
ssoc
iatio
nsw
asai
med
at i
mpr
ovin
g th
e qu
ality
of c
ouns
elor
pre
para
tion
and
the
serv
ices
of
coun
selo
rsto
hig
h sc
hool
stu
dent
s.T
he o
f-fi
cial
sta
tem
ents
car
ried
rec
omm
enda
tions
addr
esse
d to
inst
i-tu
tions
that
off
erpr
ogra
ms
in c
ourq
elo
educ
atio
n, a
nd to
publ
ic s
econ
dary
sch
ools
inw
hich
cou
nsel
ors
wor
k.D
urin
g th
e ea
rly
1960
's A
PGA
took
off
icia
l not
e of
the
grow
ing
num
ber
of g
uida
nce
prog
ram
s in
ele
men
tary
sch
ools
and
initi
ated
a st
udy
of th
e m
ovem
ent a
cros
s th
e N
atio
n vi
aqu
estio
nnai
re a
nd c
onfe
renc
es.
The
sub
sequ
ent s
tate
men
t,D
imen
sion
s in
Ele
men
tary
Sch
ool
Gui
danc
e, w
as d
evel
oped
as a
"co
nsen
sus"
rep
ort u
pon
whi
ch to
bas
e fu
rthe
rst
udy.
Soon
ASC
A a
nd A
CE
S, th
etw
o di
visi
ons
of A
PGA
con-
cern
ed w
ith e
lem
enta
ry s
choo
lgu
idan
ce, c
olla
bora
ted
on a
polic
y st
atem
ent w
ith r
efer
ence
to th
e ro
le a
nd p
repa
ratio
n of
elem
enta
ry s
choo
l cou
nsel
ors.
Gia
nt s
teps
wer
e th
us ta
ken
to p
lace
ele
men
tary
sch
ool g
uida
nce
on a
fir
m f
ound
atio
nw
hich
wou
ld p
erm
it fl
exib
ility
ingr
o ..t
h in
line
with
res
earc
hde
velo
pmen
ts.
TR
EN
DS
IN T
HE
PR
EPA
RA
TIO
N O
F E
LE
ME
NT
AR
YA
ND
SE
CO
ND
AR
Y S
CH
OO
L C
OU
NSE
LO
RS
Stud
ies
duri
ng th
e la
st f
ewye
ars
indi
cate
a w
idel
y ac
know
l-ed
ged
core
of
prfe
ssio
nal p
repa
ratio
n fo
r bo
th e
lem
enta
ryan
d se
cond
ary
scho
ol c
ouns
elor
s.T
his
core
incl
udes
wor
kin
suc
h fi
elds
of
silli
lyas
hum
an g
row
th a
nd d
evel
opm
ent,
in-
clud
ing
pers
onal
ity d
ynam
ics
and
lear
ning
; sta
tistic
s,m
eas-
urem
ent t
heor
y, a
nd m
easu
rem
ent p
ract
ice;
an in
trod
uctio
nto
dat
a pr
oces
sing
and
pro
gram
ing
tech
niqu
es; c
ouns
elin
gth
eory
and
pra
ctic
e; a
nd v
ocat
iona
l dev
elop
men
tth
eory
.T
here
is a
lso
a tr
end
tow
ard
broa
deni
ng th
eba
se o
f pr
ep-
arat
ion
in th
e be
havi
oral
sci
ence
s fo
r th
e sc
hool
coun
selo
rbe
caus
e gr
adua
te le
vel p
repa
ratio
n in
bas
icps
ycho
logy
and
coun
selo
r ed
ucat
ion
is n
ot c
onsi
dere
d su
ffic
ient
."Su
ch a
reas
as c
ultu
ral a
nthr
opol
ogy,
soc
iolo
gy, c
ompa
rativ
e re
ligio
n,ph
iloso
phy,
eco
nom
ics
(inc
ludi
ng la
bor m
anag
emen
t tre
nds)
,
and
polit
ical
sci
ence
hav
e m
uch
to c
ontr
ibut
eto
the
prep
ara-
tion
of th
e sc
hool
cou
nsel
or. T
here
is a
lso
grow
ing
awar
enes
sof
the
need
for
em
phas
ison
labo
rato
ry e
xper
ienc
es a
nd s
uper
-vi
sed
prac
tice
in c
ouns
elin
g an
d sm
all
grou
p w
ork.
Prog
ram
s of
gra
duat
e pr
epar
atio
n sh
ould
be
offe
red
only
in in
stitu
tions
of
high
er le
arni
ng w
hich
hav
est
rong
gra
duat
epr
ogra
ms
in r
elat
ed a
reas
, and
can
ser
ve e
noug
h st
uden
ts to
offe
r a
year
-rou
ndpr
ogra
m in
cou
nsel
or e
duca
tion,
sta
ffer
'by
pro
fess
iona
lly q
ualif
ied,
ful
l-tim
e fa
culty
mem
bers
who
sem
ajor
res
pons
ibili
ty is
the
educ
atio
n of
cou
nsel
ors.
Such
inst
itutio
ns s
houl
d al
so h
ave
clos
e co
oper
ativ
e w
orki
ngre
-la
tions
hips
with
ele
men
tary
and
sec
onda
ry s
choo
ls w
here
coun
selin
g ca
ndid
ates
can
par
ticip
ate
in in
tern
ship
exp
eri
ence
s un
der
the
supe
rvis
ion
of q
ualif
ied
staf
f m
embe
rs.
Tho
ugh
coun
selin
g se
rvic
es in
ele
men
tary
and
sec
onda
rysc
hool
s sh
ould
be
avai
labl
e to
all
child
ren
and
yout
h, th
esc
hool
cou
nsel
or s
houl
d de
velo
p un
ders
tand
ings
and
ski
llsw
hich
will
ass
ist h
im in
wor
king
with
var
ious
iden
tifia
ble
subg
roup
s of
the
scho
ol p
opul
atio
n. S
ome
of th
ese
grou
ps
Llo
yd-J
ones
, E.,
and
Wes
terv
elt,
E. M
., ed
itors
.B
ehav
iora
l Sci
-en
ce a
nd G
uida
nce.
New
Yor
k, B
urea
u of
Pub
licat
ions
, Tea
cher
sC
olle
ge, C
olum
bia
Uni
vers
ity, 1
963.
33
are
the
cultu
rally
dis
adva
ntag
ed,6
pot
entia
lea
rly
scho
olle
aver
s,' i
ntel
lect
ually
gif
ted
stud
ents
who
are
unde
rach
iev-
ing,
' and
sch
ool y
outh
who
desi
re o
ppor
tuni
ties
in te
chni
cal
and
voca
tiona
l edu
catio
n,'
as w
ell a
s th
e pa
rent
s of
thes
ech
ildre
n.
SUPE
RV
ISIO
N O
F G
UID
AN
CE
SER
VIC
ES
As
the
natu
re o
f th
e ro
le o
f con
sulta
tion
has
beco
me
mor
ecl
earl
y de
fine
d, th
ere
has
been
a tr
end
tow
ard
view
ing
supe
r-vi
sory
per
sonn
el in
sch
ool
coun
selin
g as
con
sulta
nts,
rat
her
than
as
supe
rvis
ors.
Als
o, th
ere
has
been
a tr
end
tow
ard
Ber
nard
, Har
old
W.,
"Soc
io-e
cono
mic
Cla
ss a
nd th
e Sc
hool
Cou
nsel
or."
The
ory
Into
Pra
ctic
e, v
ol. 2
,Fe
brua
ry 1
963,
pp.
17-
23.
Stri
plin
g, R
ober
t 0.,
"Pro
fess
iona
lPr
epar
atio
n of
Cou
nsel
ors:
Impl
icat
ions
in R
egar
dto
Sch
ool D
ropo
uts.
" G
uida
nce
and
the
Scho
ol D
ropo
ut. W
ashi
ngto
n,D
.C.,
Nat
iona
l Edu
catio
n A
ssoc
iatio
nan
d th
e A
mer
ican
Per
sonn
elan
d G
uida
nce
Ass
ocia
tion,
196
4.*
Mill
er, L
eona
rd M
., ed
itor.
Gui
danc
e fo
r th
e U
nder
achi
ever
with
Supe
rior
Abi
lity.
U.S
. Off
ice
of E
duca
tion
Bul
letin
1961
, No.
25,
0E-2
5021
. Was
hing
ton,
D.C
., U
.S.
Gov
ernm
ent P
rint
ing
Off
ice,
196
1.V
enn,
Gra
nt. M
an, E
duca
tion
and
Wor
k: P
ost S
econ
dary
Voc
a-tio
nal a
nd T
echn
ical
Edu
catio
n.W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C. A
mer
ican
Cou
ncil
on E
duca
tion,
196
4.B
orow
, Hen
ry, e
dito
r. M
an in
o W
orld
at W
ork.
Bos
ton,
the
Riv
ersi
de P
ress
, 196
4.
34
shar
ing
the
cons
ultin
gro
le a
mon
g St
ate
depa
rtm
ents
of e
duca
-tio
n an
d lo
cal s
choo
l per
sonn
el.
Stat
e de
part
men
ts o
f edu
ca-
tion
have
exp
ande
dsu
perv
isor
y se
rvic
es in
the
area
s of
elem
enta
ry a
nd s
econ
dary
scho
ol c
ouns
elin
g an
dgu
idan
cefr
om 6
9 (f
ull-
time
equi
vale
nt p
erso
nnel
) in
195
8-59
to 3
00in
196
3-64
. Thi
sin
crea
se h
as b
een
para
llele
d1
the
in-
crea
se o
f co
nsul
tant
s at
the
syst
emw
ide
leve
l.T
he c
oord
ina-
tion
of c
ouns
elin
g an
dgu
idan
ce s
ervi
ces
with
inth
e fr
ame-
wor
k of
pup
il pe
rson
nel
serv
ices
is n
eede
dat
the
loca
l sch
ool
leve
l.In
crea
sing
ly, i
t is
reco
gniz
edth
at a
coo
rdin
ator
of
guid
ance
ser
vice
s sh
ould
have
an
earn
ed d
octo
r'sde
gree
with
a m
ajor
in c
ouns
elor
educ
atio
n.
CE
RT
IFIC
AT
ION
OF
SCH
OO
L C
OU
NSE
LO
RS
At p
rese
nt, 4
7 St
ates
offe
r ce
rtif
icat
ion
for
scho
ol c
oun-
selo
rs, w
ith r
equi
rem
ents
vary
ing
wid
ely
from
sev
eral
grad
uate
cre
dit h
ours
to a
mas
ter's
deg
ree.
The
re h
asbe
ena
tend
ency
aw
ay f
rom
list
ing
spec
ific
cour
ses
tow
ard
requ
ir-
ing
mor
e ge
nera
lar
eas
of c
ompe
tenc
y fo
r th
e sc
hool
coun
-se
lor.
Als
o, th
ere
has
been
a tr
end
tow
ard
insi
stin
g th
atin
stitu
tions
of
high
er le
arni
ngas
sum
e gr
eate
r re
pons
ibili
tyfo
r th
e en
dors
emen
t of
appl
ican
ts f
or S
tate
cer
tific
atio
nin
a410
6.11
116
scho
ol c
ouns
elin
g an
d gu
idan
ce.
Cla
ssro
om te
achi
ng e
xper
ienc
e ha
s be
com
e le
ss im
port
ant
as a
req
uire
m.t
for
cert
ific
atio
n in
sch
oo. c
ouns
elin
g. W
hile
the
idea
is s
ound
that
the
scho
ol c
ouns
elor
sho
uld
unde
rsta
ndth
e pr
oces
ses
of e
duca
tion
and
the
scho
olpr
ogra
m, t
here
are
diff
eren
ces
of o
pini
onas
to h
ow s
uch
unde
rsta
ndin
gs c
an b
esa
tisfa
ctor
ily a
chie
ved.
Som
e ha
ve s
ugge
sted
that
ther
em
aybe
a m
ore
effi
cien
tw
ay o
f or
ient
ing
the
scho
ol c
ouns
elor
toth
e to
tal s
choo
l set
ting
than
req
uiri
ng h
imto
spe
nd 1
or
mor
eye
ars
in a
ctua
l tea
chin
g. F
or e
xam
ple,
the
Stat
e of
Flo
rida
requ
ires
the
cert
ifie
d sc
hool
cou
nsel
or to
hav
e ha
d 3
year
sof
teac
hing
, and
und
ergr
adua
te in
tern
ship
in te
achi
ng, o
r an
inte
rnsh
ip in
sch
ool c
ouns
elin
g, o
f w
hich
a m
inim
um o
f on
e-ha
lf m
ay b
e in
a c
linic
al s
ettin
g."
Ano
ther
tren
d re
late
sto
"Flo
rida
Sta
te D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
n, R
equi
rem
ents
for
Tea
cher
Cer
tific
atio
n.T
alla
hass
ee, F
la.,
The
Dep
artm
ent,
Mar
. 10,
196
4.
208-
676
0-66
-6
cert
ific
atio
n at
the
end
of 1
yea
r of
gra
duat
e w
ork
inco
un-
selo
r ed
ucat
ion
as p
rovi
sion
al, w
here
as c
ertif
icat
ion
as a
pro
-fe
ssio
nal c
ouns
elor
wou
ld b
e ac
know
ledg
edat
the
end
of 2
year
s of
gra
duat
e w
ork.
Indi
vidu
als
and
prof
essi
onal
grou
ps h
ave
expr
esse
d co
ncer
nov
er th
e re
lativ
ely
low
sta
ndar
ds o
f ce
rtif
icat
ion
for
scho
olco
unse
lors
in m
any
Stat
es. O
ne o
bjec
tive
of S
tate
cer
tific
a-tio
n sh
ould
be
to p
rote
ct b
oth
stud
ents
and
pare
nts
agai
nst
inad
equa
tely
pre
pare
d sc
hool
cou
nsel
ors.
The
rep
ort f
rom
the
Div
isio
n of
Cou
nsel
ing
Psyc
holo
gy "
incl
udes
the
follo
w-
ing
stat
emen
t:St
ates
nee
d to
be
cour
ageo
us e
noug
h to
set s
tand
ards
whi
ch e
mph
asiz
e qu
ality
,ev
en if
suc
h st
anda
rds
may
, for
a w
hile
, res
ult i
n a
shor
tage
of
cert
ifie
d pe
ople
.
" D
ivis
ion
of C
ouns
elin
g Ps
ycho
logy
. The
Sco
pe a
nd S
tand
ards
of
Prep
arat
ion
in P
sych
olog
y fo
r Sc
hool
Cou
nsel
ors.
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.,A
mer
ican
Psy
chol
ogic
al A
ssoc
iatio
n, 6
p.
35
Scho
ol s
ocia
l wor
kers
, oft
en c
alle
d "v
isiti
ng te
ache
rs,"
are
conc
erne
d w
ithth
e w
hole
ran
ge o
f so
cial
, eco
nom
ic, a
nd in
telle
ctua
l dif
fere
nces
amon
g ch
il-dr
en.
The
y m
ay w
ork
with
dis
adva
ntag
ed y
oung
ster
s fr
om v
ario
us e
thni
cgr
oups
, as
wel
l as
with
chi
ldre
n w
ho s
uffe
r fr
om a
cade
mic
pre
ssur
es p
lace
d on
them
in s
ubur
ban
scho
ols
and
hom
es.
PAR
T I
I--C
HA
PTE
R 2
SO
CIA
L W
OR
K S
ER
VIC
ES
By
JER
RY
L. K
EL
LE
Y, A
ssis
tant
Dea
n, S
choo
l of
Soci
al W
ork,
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
ashi
ngto
n
SCH
OO
L S
OC
IAL
wor
k be
gan
abou
t 60
year
sag
o in
the
Eas
tern
part
of
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es.
As
poin
ted
out b
y L
ide,
this
ser
v-ic
e or
igin
ated
fro
m a
mut
ual n
eed
face
d by
bot
h so
cial
wor
k-er
s an
d ed
ucat
ors.
Scho
ols
bega
n em
ploy
ing
"vis
iting
teac
hers
" to
wor
k w
ith tr
uant
chi
ldre
n, a
nd s
ocia
l wor
kers
bega
n in
volv
ing
the
scho
ols
in e
ffor
ts to
hel
p de
priv
edch
ildre
n.1
Tho
ugh
scho
ol s
ocia
l wor
kers
, at t
hat t
ime,
wer
e co
ncer
ned
prim
arily
with
the
cultu
rally
dep
rive
d, th
ey n
ow d
eal w
ithth
e en
tire
rang
e of
indi
vidu
al 'd
iffe
renc
es in
chi
ldre
n.In
high
ly e
ndow
ed s
choo
ls. s
ocia
l wor
kers
are
mor
e of
ten
en-
gage
d in
inte
nsiv
e co
unse
ling
with
teen
ager
s w
ho r
efle
ct th
est
ress
es o
f hi
gh s
ocia
l and
aca
dem
ic e
xpec
tatio
nsth
ose
chil-
1 L
ide,
Pau
line.
"Det
erm
inin
g th
e Pr
esen
t Fun
ctio
n of
the
Scho
olSo
cial
Wor
ker.
" H
elpi
ng th
e T
roub
led
Chi
ld. N
ew Y
ork,
Nat
iona
lA
ssoc
iatio
n of
Soc
ial W
orke
rs.
1959
.
dren
who
dev
elop
inte
rnal
ly d
irec
ted
rath
er th
an o
vert
patte
rns
of m
alad
just
men
t,2In
any
sch
ool,
rega
rdle
ss o
f gr
ade
leve
l, th
ere
are
child
ren
with
pro
blem
s th
at r
efle
ct c
omm
uniti
es w
ith p
robl
ems.
Ove
rth
e ye
ars,
vis
iting
teac
hers
hav
e re
ache
d ou
t for
spe
cial
ized
know
ledg
e an
d sk
ills
in o
rder
to b
ette
r he
lp s
choo
l chi
ldre
nad
just
and
suc
ceed
.R
ealiz
ing
the
nef.
.ess
ity o
f su
ch k
now
l-ed
ge a
nd s
kills
, man
y St
ates
now
req
uire
or
reco
mm
end
that
peop
le f
illin
g th
ese
posi
tions
hol
d th
e m
aste
r of
soc
ial w
ork
degr
ee.
The
Nat
iona
l Ass
ocia
tion
of S
ocia
l Wor
kers
, in
ast
atem
ent t
itled
, "Pr
ofes
sion
al Q
ualif
icat
ions
for
Sch
ool
Soci
al W
orke
rs,"
str
esse
s th
at h
olde
rs o
f th
e de
gree
mus
t be
orie
nted
to a
nd k
now
ledg
eabl
e ab
out t
he s
choo
las
a s
ocia
lin
stitu
tion.
Scho
ols
of s
ocia
l wor
k ar
e fa
cilit
atin
g th
is d
ual
Kel
ley,
Jer
ry L
.C
hild
ren
with
Pro
blem
s. W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.,
Nat
iona
l Ass
ocia
tion
Jour
nal.
Janu
ary
1962
.
37
emph
asis
.C
urre
ntly
, the
rear
e an
est
imat
ed 1
50 to
200
grad
uate
s ea
chye
ar w
ho h
ave
had
at le
ast 1
sch
ool
year
of
fiel
d tr
aini
ng in
pub
licsc
hool
s.In
add
ition
,m
any
othe
rso
cial
wor
kers
are
recr
uite
d in
to th
e sc
hool
set
ting
and
mak
eth
e ne
cess
ary
adap
tatio
nth
roug
h in
serv
ice
trai
ning
or a
ddi-
tiona
l edu
catio
n.T
he s
choo
l soc
ial w
orke
r has
fou
r m
ajor
area
s of
fun
ctio
nac
cord
ing
to S
mith
3 a
ndK
elle
y.4
He
isa
case
wor
ker
who
coun
sels
with
stu
dent
s an
dth
eir
pare
nts.
He
isa
colla
bora
-to
r w
ho w
orks
coo
pera
tivel
yw
ith o
ther
mem
bers
of
the
scho
ol s
taff
.H
e is
a c
oord
inat
or w
hose
rves
as
an a
gent
tobr
ing
scho
ol a
nd h
ome,
and
scho
ol a
nd c
omm
unity
into
bette
r w
orki
ng r
elat
ions
hips
.H
e is
a c
onsu
ltant
who
isav
aila
ble
to c
onfe
r w
ithot
her
staf
f m
embe
rsev
en th
ough
he
may
not
be
dire
ctly
invo
lved
with
stu
dent
sor
thei
r im
med
iate
prob
lem
s.T
he c
asew
ork
met
hod
of c
ouns
elin
g is
hig
hly
deve
lope
dby
the
soci
al w
orke
rsi
nce
soci
al w
ork
educ
atio
nan
d pr
ac-
tices
pla
cem
ore
emph
asis
on
coun
selin
g th
an is
tree
of
mos
t
a Sm
ith, H
yrum
M.
"Pup
il Pe
rson
nel S
ervi
ces.
"Sc
hool
Soc
ial
Wor
kA S
ervi
ce o
f Sc
hool
s,U
.S. O
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
nB
ulle
tin 1
964,
No.
15,
0E
- 31
007,
1964
, pp.
16-
25.
Op.
cit.
, p. 1
.
38
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
peci
aliz
atio
ns.
In c
ouns
elin
g, th
e so
cial
wor
ker's
foc
uson
str
engt
hs (
grow
th p
oten
tial)
isem
inen
tlyco
mpa
tible
with
edu
catio
nal
goal
s.H
e ha
s a
prof
essi
onal
optim
ism
whi
ch is
con
sist
ent
with
the
gene
ral p
erce
ptio
nof
the
scho
ol e
xper
ienc
eas
an
oppo
rtun
ity to
fin
d an
d de
velo
ppo
tent
ial,
rath
er th
an e
radi
cate
dise
ase.
The
soc
ial w
orke
r'str
aditi
onal
vie
w o
fa
clie
nt's
tota
l sit-
uatio
n le
d to
em
phas
ison
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y co
llabo
ratio
nlo
ng b
efor
e th
e "t
eam
"co
ncep
t bec
ame
popu
lar.
The
soc
ial
wor
ker
expe
cts
to s
hare
conc
ern
and
resp
onsi
bilit
y w
ithot
hers
and
is s
kille
dat
hel
ping
to c
lari
fy th
e re
spec
tive
role
s.T
he to
tal p
ersp
ectiv
e of
the
soci
al w
orke
r is
valu
able
inco
nsul
tatio
n se
rvic
es.
His
kno
wle
dge
of h
uman
deve
lop-
men
t and
met
hods
of
help
ing
child
ren
enab
le h
imto
aid
teac
hers
in th
eir
rela
tions
hip
with
stu
dent
s.Pe
rhap
s th
e so
cial
wor
ker's
mos
t cle
arly
see
n ad
vant
age
is h
is k
now
ledg
e of
and
entr
y in
to th
e m
yria
d of
org
aniz
edso
cial
res
ourc
es o
f th
eco
mm
unity
. He
know
s th
esy
stem
and
ofttn
is in
the
mos
t adv
anta
geou
s po
sitio
nto
see
k he
lpfr
om o
ther
pro
fess
iona
lsin
ref
erra
l, co
llabo
ratio
n,or
con
-su
ltatio
n.O
ften
he
can
be d
irec
tlyhe
lpfu
l to
the
scho
olad
min
istr
ator
in r
espe
ctto
inte
rrel
atio
nshp
s of
sch
ool a
ndag
ency
.Fi
nally
, the
re is
a hi
ghly
pre
dict
able
com
pete
nce
whi
ch th
e sc
hool
soc
ial w
orke
r re
pres
ents
: his
gra
duat
e tr
ain-
ing
is s
tand
ardi
zed
and
equi
vale
nt f
rom
sch
ool
to s
choo
l,an
d fr
om S
tate
to S
tate
.
TH
E E
DU
CA
TIO
N O
F T
HE
SC
HO
OL
SOC
IAL
WO
RK
ER
The
sta
ndar
d ed
ucat
ion
for a
sch
ool s
ocia
l wor
ker
is g
rad-
uatio
n fr
om a
n ac
cred
ited
scho
ol o
f so
cial
wor
k,a
2-ye
argr
adua
te c
ours
e of
stu
dy. T
here
isno
pre
prof
essi
onal
cur
ric-
ulum
in s
ocia
l wor
k th
at is
req
uire
d fo
r ad
mis
sion
.G
en-
eral
ly s
peak
ing,
sch
ools
of
soci
al w
ork
look
for
stu
dent
sw
itha
broa
d lib
eral
art
s ba
ckgr
ound
and
qua
lity
of a
cade
mic
per-
form
ance
or
pote
ntia
l.In
add
ition
, the
y sc
reen
all
appl
i-ca
nts
care
fully
to a
sses
s pe
rson
al s
uita
bilit
y fo
r th
epr
o-fe
ssio
n.
Supp
lem
enta
ry to
the
mas
ter
of s
ocia
l wor
k de
gree
is a
nor
ient
atio
n to
and
kno
wle
dge
of th
e pu
blic
sch
ool.
Thi
sba
ckgr
ound
pre
para
tion
may
be
vari
ousl
y ac
quir
ed th
roug
hin
serv
ice
trai
ning
dur
ing
empl
oym
ent i
na
scho
ol, f
ield
wor
kin
a s
choo
l as
part
of
the
grad
uate
prog
ram
, or
cour
se in
educ
atio
n.
The
mas
ters
deg
ree
prog
ram
spe
cifi
es th
ree
curr
icul
arar
eas:
soc
ial w
elfa
re p
olic
y an
d se
rvic
es, h
uman
beh
avio
ran
d th
e so
cial
env
iron
men
t, an
d m
etho
ds o
f soc
ial w
ork
prac
-tic
e.In
add
ition
, the
soc
ial w
ork
grad
uate
is r
equi
red
tosp
end
at le
ast 1
,000
hou
rs in
fie
ld tr
aini
ng w
hich
plac
es e
m-
phas
is o
n:1.
Use
of
self
as
the
near
ly e
xclu
sive
inst
rum
ent
of h
elp
(no
test
s, h
ealth
exa
min
atio
ns, e
tc.)
.2.
Rel
ianc
e up
on th
e pr
ofes
sion
al r
elat
ions
hip
as th
ees
sent
ial m
eans
of
effe
ctin
g ch
ange
.3.
Foc
us u
pon
the
supp
ort o
f st
reng
th (
rath
er th
anco
r-re
ctin
g de
fect
s).
4. P
ersp
ectiv
e of
the
tota
l situ
atio
n (t
reat
ing
the
who
lech
ild).
5. S
elec
tive
refe
rral
(to
scho
olan
dco
mm
unity
agen
cies
) .
TH
E P
OT
EN
TIA
L O
F T
HE
SC
HO
OL
SOC
IAL
WO
RK
ER
Tra
ditio
nally
, sch
ool s
ocia
l wor
k se
rvic
es h
ave
focu
sed
prim
arily
on
case
wor
k an
d th
ere
isno
rea
son
to e
xpec
t tha
tth
e ne
ed f
or s
uch
indi
vidu
aliz
ed h
elp
will
dim
inis
h.H
ow-
ever
, cur
rent
tren
ds in
bot
h ed
ucat
ion
and
soci
al w
elfa
re
augu
r an
d al
mos
t dem
and
mor
e ex
tens
ive
and
crea
tive
use
of s
ocia
l wor
kers
by
the
scho
ols
in in
divi
dual
and
grou
pco
unse
ling
serv
ices
and
join
t sch
ool-
com
mun
ity in
volv
emen
t.
Indi
vidu
al c
ouns
elin
gse
rvic
esT
he p
ush
for
acad
emic
exce
llenc
e, th
epr
essu
re o
f gr
eate
rpu
pil p
opul
atio
n, a
ndth
e de
sire
for
pre
vent
ion
of p
robl
ems
have
mov
ed s
choo
lsto
ext
end
thei
r co
unse
ling
serv
ices
both
late
rally
and
ver
tical
ly.
As
mor
e an
dm
ore
scho
ols
empl
oyel
emen
tary
sch
ool c
ouns
elor
s,a
typi
cal s
ocia
l wor
ker
may
ask,
"W
hy s
ubst
itute
coun
selo
rs f
or s
ocia
l wor
kers
?"O
ne a
nsw
er li
es in
the
reco
gniti
on th
at e
lem
enta
ry s
choo
lco
unse
lors
are
pot
entia
lal
liesa
dditi
ons,
not
sub
stitu
tions
.T
here
are
cou
nsel
ing
task
s re
late
d to
edu
catio
nal
read
ines
san
d pr
ogre
ss, f
or e
xam
ple,
whi
ch d
o no
t req
uire
the
part
icu-
lar
skill
s of
the
soci
alw
orke
r.In
fac
t, th
eym
ay b
e be
tter
perf
orm
ed b
yso
meo
ne m
ore
fam
iliar
with
teac
hing
, tes
ting
proc
edur
es, a
nd o
ther
gui
danc
ete
chni
ques
. As
is p
rese
ntly
true
in m
any
high
sch
ools
,th
e co
unse
lors
them
selv
esm
aybe
com
e th
e ch
ief
sour
ces
for
refe
rral
of
stud
ents
to s
ocia
lw
orke
rs.
In a
dditi
on, t
hew
ise
adm
inis
trat
or w
illw
elco
me
the
oppo
rtun
ityto
impr
ove
coun
selin
gse
rvic
es in
gen
eral
thro
ugh
the
use
of s
ocia
l wor
kers
in in
serv
ice
trai
ning
pro
-
40
gram
s fo
r bo
th te
ache
rs a
nd c
ouns
elor
s.
Gro
up c
ouns
elin
gse
rvic
esT
each
ers
are
mas
ters
of
the
grou
p in
stru
ctio
nal
proc
ess,
whi
le s
ocia
lgr
oup
wor
kers
are
mas
ters
of
the
grou
p in
ter-
actio
nal p
roce
ss. T
hesc
hool
, unl
ike
othe
rin
stitu
tions
, em
-bo
dies
for
mal
and
info
rmal
grou
ping
s of
you
ngst
ers,
yet t
hesk
ill o
f th
e so
cial
grou
p w
orke
r in
pro
mot
ing
soci
al g
row
thha
s ha
d on
ly th
em
ost t
enta
tive
test
ing
in th
e sc
hool
:5In
grou
p w
ork,
ther
e is
a w
hole
vis
ta o
fpo
tent
ial f
or r
each
ing
som
e ha
rd-t
o-re
ach
stud
ents
, and
for
reac
hing
mor
e st
uden
tsw
ho n
eed
soci
al h
elp.
The
em
ploy
men
t of
trai
ned
grou
pw
orke
rs b
y sc
hool
s w
illal
mos
t ine
vita
bly
occu
r.A
ll so
cial
wor
kers
hav
eso
me
skill
with
gro
ups;
hen
ce, e
ven
thos
e w
hose
grea
test
ski
ll is
in c
asew
ork
can
begi
n to
ext
end
serv
ices
togr
oups
.
Scho
ol-c
omm
unity
invo
lvem
ent
Thi
s is
the
area
with
per
haps
the
mos
t exc
iting
pote
ntia
lof
all.
The
wid
espr
ead
conc
ern
abou
t juv
enile
del
inqu
ents
,
5 V
intn
er, R
ober
t D.,
and
Sarr
i,R
osem
ary
C. G
roup
Wor
k in
the
Publ
ic S
choo
l. A
Res
earc
hR
epor
t. Pa
per
pres
ente
dat
the
Nat
iona
lC
onfe
renc
e on
Soc
ial W
elfa
re, M
ay19
64. M
imeo
grap
hed.
drop
outs
, cul
tura
lly d
epri
ved,
and
unem
ploy
ed y
outh
has
led
to a
wav
e of
new
pro
gram
s,cu
lmin
atin
g fo
r th
e m
omen
t,
in th
e an
tipov
erty
mea
sure
s.In
the
com
mon
sea
rch
for
reso
lutio
ns to
thes
e pr
oble
ms,
colla
bora
tion
betw
een
the
file
ds o
fso
cial
wor
k an
d ed
uca-
tion
is a
ccel
erat
ing.
The
re is
mut
ual n
eed
and
reci
proc
al
gain
. Soo
n, if
it h
as n
ot a
lrea
dyoc
curr
ed, s
ocia
l wor
k sp
e-
cial
ists
in c
omm
unity
org
aniz
atio
nw
ill b
e em
ploy
ed b
ysc
hool
s to
max
imiz
e th
is d
ual r
elat
ions
hip.
The
old
and
hono
rabl
e fu
nctio
n of
the
scho
ol s
ocia
l wor
ker
asth
e lia
ison
betw
een
the
scho
ol a
nd th
e tr
oubl
edch
ild w
ill b
e en
larg
edto
incl
ude
all c
hild
ren
and
the
who
le c
omm
unity
.
41
42
Com
puls
ory
scho
ol a
ttten
danc
e pr
otec
ts th
e ri
ght o
f th
e in
divi
dual
toan
educ
atio
n de
spite
the
negl
ect o
r ap
athy
of
his
pare
nts
or th
e im
pact
of
nega
-tiv
e fa
ctor
s w
ithin
him
self
, or
in h
is h
ome,
sch
ool,
or c
omm
unity
. The
em-
phas
is o
f at
tend
anct
, ser
vice
s ha
s m
oved
fro
m th
e ex
erci
se o
f le
gal a
utho
rity
to th
e pr
even
tion
of p
robl
ems
whi
ch c
ause
chi
ldre
n to
sta
y ou
t of
scho
ol.
PAR
T I
ICH
APT
ER
3
AT
TE
ND
AN
CE
SE
RV
ICE
S
By
AL
ICE
C. S
HE
LD
ON
, Dir
ecto
r, D
epar
tmen
t of
Scho
ol A
ttend
ance
and
Wor
k Pe
rmits
, Pub
lic S
choo
ls o
f th
e D
istr
ict
of C
olum
bia
TH
E F
IRST
com
puls
ory
scho
ol a
ttend
ance
law
was
pas
sed
inM
assa
chus
etts
in 1
852.
Its
aim
was
to k
eep
youn
g ch
ildre
nou
t of
the
New
Eng
land
fac
tori
es b
y m
akin
g sc
hool
atte
nd-
ance
com
puls
ory
for
child
ren
up to
14
year
s of
age
. Oth
erSt
d, s
s,o
n fo
llow
ed w
ith e
nact
men
t of
sirn
i7^
lay'
s.H
ow-
ever
, the
re w
as m
uch
child
labo
r ab
use,
and
pitb
lic o
pini
onw
as s
till m
ixed
as
to th
e va
lue
of e
duca
tion
to' a
ll ch
ildre
n.In
man
y in
stan
ces,
sch
ools
lack
ed m
etho
ds o
fac
cura
te c
hild
acco
untin
g an
d th
e ne
cess
ary
pers
onne
l to
enfo
rce
law
s,ev
enw
hen
they
wer
e ad
equa
te.
By
1918
, all
the
Stat
es h
ad p
asse
d co
mpu
lsor
y sc
hool
at-
tend
ance
law
s an
d th
e st
atut
e bo
oks
thro
ugho
ut th
e U
nite
dSt
ates
pro
clai
med
the
belie
f of
its
peop
le th
at e
ach
child
not o
nly
had
the
righ
t to
bene
fit f
rom
an
educ
atio
n bu
t als
o
208-
67G
the
oblip
tion
to s
ecur
e th
is a
dvan
tage
.'It
was
not
unt
il th
e m
iddl
e 19
30's
that
mos
t of
the
Stat
esha
d ad
equa
te le
gal p
rovi
sion
for
sou
nd a
ttend
ance
enfo
rce-
men
t pro
cedu
res.
The
se la
ws
cont
aine
d th
ree
nece
ssar
y el
e-m
ents
: com
puls
ory
scho
ol a
ttend
ance
unt
il at
leas
tag
e 14
,le
gal r
equi
rem
ent f
ora
cens
us tc
hild
acc
ount
ing)
, and
pro
-vi
sion
to p
ay p
er.o
nnei
to w
ork
espe
cial
ly w
ithch
ildre
nha
ving
sch
ool a
ttend
ance
pro
blem
s.C
onfl
icts
and
pro
blem
s w
hich
inev
itabl
yar
ose
led
to th
eap
poin
tmen
t of
atte
ndan
ce ..
orke
rsto
enf
orce
the
atte
ndan
ce
1 St
ate
Leg
isla
tion
on S
choo
l Atte
ndan
ce. C
ircu
lar
No.
57"
, Was
h-in
gton
, D.C
.: O
ffic
e of
Edu
catio
n, D
epar
tmen
t of
Hea
lth, F
4ucc
ion,
ane
Wel
fare
, Jan
uary
195
9.
93
law
s. T
hus,
it w
as r
ecog
nize
d th
at a
chi
ld i.
dep
ende
nt u
pon
his
pare
nts
and
the
auth
oriz
ed a
gent
s of
the
com
mun
ity f
orth
e fu
lfill
men
t of
his
pote
ntia
l by
atte
ndin
g sc
hool
. Whe
reth
e pa
rent
fai
ls, t
here
mus
t be
a su
bstit
ute
com
mun
ity a
gent
,or
the
child
is a
utom
atic
ally
exc
lude
d fr
om th
e be
nefi
ts to
whi
ch th
e St
ate
entig
es h
im b
ecau
Ee
of h
is v
ery
exis
tenc
e.T
here
als
o m
ust b
e, f
or a
n in
crea
sing
num
ber
of c
hild
ren.
an a
gent
who
can
hel
p th
e C
hild
ove
rcom
e ob
stac
les
and
free
him
to a
ccep
t edu
catio
nal o
ppor
tuni
ties.
Unl
ess
ther
e is
agu
aran
tee
of in
terv
entio
n fo
r ea
ch c
hild
, the
re is
no
real
univ
ersa
l edu
catio
n.
CA
USE
S O
F SC
HO
OL
AB
SEN
CE
Scho
ol a
bsen
ce is
not
a s
impl
e m
atte
r of
illn
ess
or tr
uanc
y,bu
t a c
ompl
ex p
robl
em w
ith n
umer
ous
dim
ensi
ons.
It r
e-fl
ects
mai
-ty
subt
le f
acet
s of
hum
an b
ehav
ior,
and
the
ad-
vant
ages
and
dis
adva
ntag
es o
f en
viro
nmen
t and
cul
tura
lco
nflic
ts.
It a
lso
invo
lves
aca
dem
ic f
ailu
re.
Atte
ndan
ce s
ervi
ces,
in v
iew
of
the
fore
goin
g, c
anno
t be
conc
erne
d on
ly w
ith th
e ph
ysic
al r
etur
n of
the
abse
ntee
toth
e sc
hool
.T
o be
eff
ectiv
e. th
ey m
ust b
e ge
ared
to m
otiv
ate
and
enha
nce
the
aspi
ratio
ns o
f th
e ab
sent
ee, a
nd o
verc
ome
a va
st a
rray
of
hum
an a
nd e
i.vir
onm
enta
l pro
blem
s w
hich
44
inte
rfer
e w
ith r
egul
ar s
choo
l atte
ndan
ce.
Atte
ndan
ce s
erv-
ices
mus
t fre
quen
tly e
stab
lish
a se
nse
of e
duca
tiona
l val
uean
d de
velo
p in
divi
dual
res
pons
ibili
ty.
FUN
CT
ION
S O
F A
TT
EN
DA
NC
E W
OR
KE
RS
Atte
ndan
ce p
rogr
ams
offe
r a
wid
e ra
nge
of s
ervi
ces.
The
yus
ually
var
y, h
owev
er, b
y si
ze o
f sc
hool
dis
tric
t and
by
loca
-tio
n in
an
urba
n, s
ubur
ban,
or
rura
l are
a.
Shor
t-te
rm s
ervi
cePa
rent
s an
d ch
ildre
n ar
e in
terv
iew
ed in
thei
r ho
me,
and
if n
eces
sary
, hel
p is
pro
vide
d on
a s
hort
-ter
m b
asis
.Sc
hool
sar
e in
form
ed o
f th
e fi
ndin
gs, a
nd r
ecom
men
datio
ns a
re m
ade
by th
e at
tend
ance
wor
ker
to s
choo
l per
sonn
el.
Con
tinue
d se
rvic
eT
he a
ttend
ance
wor
ker
iden
tifie
s ab
sent
ees
who
nee
d m
ore
inte
nsiv
e as
sist
ance
. The
coo
pera
tion
of c
omm
unity
age
ncie
sis
enl
iste
d or
the
atte
ndan
ce w
orke
r re
solv
es th
e pr
oble
mth
roug
h th
e re
sour
ces
of h
is o
wn
agen
cy o
r th
roug
h sp
ecia
lpr
ogra
ms
of th
e sc
hool
sys
tem
and
the
com
mun
ity.
Cas
ewor
k se
rvic
eT
he a
ttend
ance
wor
ker
who
has
pro
fess
iona
l tra
inin
g in
soci
al w
ork
prov
ides
an
int'm
sive
ser
vice
for
chr
onic
ab-
sent
ees
I an
d th
eir
fam
ilies
with
sev
ere
prob
lem
s.T
heca
selo
ad I
usu
ally
mor
e lim
ited
than
that
of
the
regu
lar
at-
tend
anct
, wor
ker',
con
sist
s la
rgel
y of
mul
tipro
blem
fam
ilies
and
thos
e fa
niV
iles
who
hav
e no
t bee
n ac
cept
edby
or
who
have
ref
used
to a
ccep
tas
ssta
nce
from
com
mun
ity a
genc
ies
for
the
bene
fit o
f th
eir
child
ren.
Mob
ile g
roup
ser
vice
One
or
two
atte
ndan
ce w
orke
rsm
ove
abou
t the
com
mu-
nity
dur
ing
scho
ol h
ours
, pro
vidi
ng im
med
iate
serv
ice
topu
pils
who
are
on
the
stre
etor
in p
ublic
pla
ces.
Juve
nile
cou
rt s
ervi
ceC
hron
ic a
bsen
tees
who
fai
lto
res
pond
to r
egul
ar a
ttend
-an
ce s
ervi
ces
are
refe
rred
to th
e ju
veni
le c
ourt
by
atte
ndan
cepe
rson
nel.
The
hel
p of
the
ceur
t is
soug
ht in
1-i
otec
ting
the
child
's r
;-ht
toan
edu
catio
n.A
ttend
ance
per
sonn
else
rve
a.:ic
ons
betw
een
the
juve
nile
cou
rt a
nd th
e sc
hool
syst
em in
cas
es w
here
chi
ldre
n ha
ve b
een
delin
quen
t out
side
of s
che
ol.
Con
sulta
nt s
ervi
ceIn
som
e sc
hool
sys
tem
s, a
ttend
ance
wor
kers
are
assi
gned
as c
onsu
ltant
s to
ass
ist p
rinc
ipal
s an
d ot
her
scho
ol p
erso
nnel
in s
ettin
g up
and
mai
ntai
ning
s^h
ool
prog
ram
s th
at w
ill p
re-
vent
abs
ence
, arl
d al
so p
rovi
de s
peci
al a
ssis
tanc
e to
abs
ente
esin
the
scho
ol s
ettin
g.
Serv
ice
to u
nmar
ried
pare
nts
Atte
ndan
ce p
erso
nnel
ref
er u
nmar
ried
pare
nts
of s
choo
lag
e fo
r sp
ecia
l cdu
cc li
on p
rogr
ams,
and
in s
ome
citie
s, p
ro-
vide
cas
ewor
k se
rvic
e.G
ener
ally
, thi
s is
don
e in
coop
era-
tion
with
oth
er s
choo
l per
sonn
el a
nd w
ith d
epar
tmen
ts o
fhe
dith
and
wel
fare
, hos
pita
ls, a
nd p
olic
e.
Scho
ol d
ropo
utpr
ogra
ms
In m
ost s
choo
l sys
tem
s, a
ttend
ance
wor
kers
coop
erat
e w
ithgu
idan
ce c
ouns
elor
s an
d ot
her
scho
ol p
erso
nnel
in id
entif
y-in
g an
d he
lpin
g po
tert
ial d
ropo
uts.
Chi
ld a
ccou
ntin
gA
ttend
ance
per
sonn
elar
e us
ually
res
pons
ible
for
rec
ords 45
and
file
s w
hich
list a
dmis
sion
s,tr
ansf
ers,
and
disc
harg
es,
as w
ell a
s fo
llow
up s
ervi
ces
rela
ted
to th
isre
spon
sibi
lity.
Em
ploy
men
t cer
tific
atio
nFr
eque
ntly
, the
atte
ndan
ce d
epar
tmen
tis
sues
em
ploy
-m
ent c
ertif
icat
es to
chi
ldre
nw
hc, w
ish
to w
ork
and
who
mee
tth
e re
quir
emen
tsof
the
Stat
e an
dFe
dera
l chi
ld la
bor
law
s.
Mis
cella
neou
sse
rvic
esA
ttend
ance
dep
artm
ents
may
off
er s
ervi
ces
rela
ting
totu
ition
inve
stig
atio
ns,
phys
ical
lyor
men
tally
han
dica
pped
child
ren,
em
otio
nally
or c
ultu
rally
han
dica
pped
child
ren.
child
ren
with
out l
egal
settl
emen
t and
chi
ldre
nsu
spen
ded
from
scho
ol.
In s
ome
scho
olsy
stem
s, a
ttend
ance
pers
onne
lse
rve
in a
gui
danc
eor
cou
nsel
ing
capa
city
.T
he C
ounc
il of
Chi
ef S
tate
Sch
ool
Off
icer
s lis
ts th
efu
nc-
tions
of
scho
ol s
ocia
lw
orke
rs a
nd a
ttend
ance
wor
kers
sepa
-ra
tely
.2H
owev
er, a
ttend
ance
wor
kers
who
are
educ
ated
to
Res
pons
ibili
ties
of S
tate
Dep
artm
ent o
f E
duca
tion
for
Pupi
l Per
-so
nnel
Ser
vice
s, 1
201
16th
Str
eet N
W.,
Vva
shin
gton
, D.C
.: C
ounc
ilof
Chi
ef S
tate
Sch
ool O
ffic
ers,
196
0,p.
18.
46
the
prof
essi
onal
leve
lpo
sses
s so
cial
wor
k sk
ills,
and
man
ype
rfor
m s
choo
l soc
ial
wor
k se
rvic
es u
nder
vari
ous
title
s.T
he c
ounc
il lis
tsth
e fo
llow
ing
prof
essi
onal
ser
vice
sfo
rw
hich
atte
ndan
cepe
rson
nel s
houl
d be
resp
onsi
ble:
1. L
eade
rshi
p in
a pr
ogra
m to
pro
mot
epo
sitiv
e pu
pil
and
pare
nt a
ttitu
des
tow
ard
regu
lar
scho
olat
tend
-an
ce.
2. A
ssis
tanc
eto
teac
hers
in th
e ea
rly
iden
tific
atio
n of
patte
rns
of n
onat
tend
ance
indi
cativ
e of
inad
equa
tepu
pil a
djus
tmen
t.3.
Ear
ly p
rofe
ssio
nal
actio
n on
pro
blem
s of
nor-
atte
nd-
ance
, inv
olvi
ng a
cas
ewor
kap
proa
ch to
the
pupi
l'spr
oble
ms;
par
ent
cont
acts
; and
coo
pera
tion
with
teac
hers
, oth
er p
upil
pers
onne
l wor
kers
, and
appr
o-pr
iate
com
mun
ityag
enci
es.
4. S
uper
visi
on o
f the
sch
ool's
prog
ram
of
child
-acc
ount
-in
g, in
clud
ing
the
scho
olce
nsus
, iss
uanc
e of
em
ploy
-m
ent c
ertif
icat
es. a
ndre
gist
ers
of a
ttend
ance
.5.
Con
stru
ctiv
eus
e of
aut
hori
ty p
erta
inin
gto
the
en-
forc
emen
t of
the
scho
olat
tend
ance
law
s of
the
Stat
e 3
Ibid
., p.
11.
.111
1111
1111
1111
.1.1
1.--
----
CE
RT
IFIC
AT
ION
OF
AT
TE
ND
AN
CE
WO
RK
ER
S
By
1950
, nea
rly
all S
tate
cer
tific
ates
to d
isch
arge
the
re-
spon
sibi
lity
of a
n at
tend
ance
wor
ker
requ
ired
a m
inim
umof
an
A.B
. deg
ree.
How
ever
, with
the
grow
th o
f pr
ofes
-si
onal
ism
and
the
reco
gniti
on o
f sk
ills
nece
ssar
y to
wor
kef
fect
ivel
y w
ith c
hild
ren,
ther
e ha
s be
enan
incr
easi
ng in
tere
stin
add
ing
grad
uate
cour
ses
in s
ocia
l wor
k to
the
licen
sepr
ovis
ion
for
atte
ndan
ce w
orke
rs.
For
som
e tim
e to
2om
e th
ere
prob
ably
will
be
no c
lear
cut
patte
rn o
ver
the
coun
try
for
a ce
rtif
icat
e in
atte
ndan
ce w
ork,
prim
arily
bec
ause
atte
ndan
ce is
a m
atte
r of
Sta
te o
r lo
cal
cont
rol.
CA
SEL
OA
DS
The
ade
quac
y of
atte
ndan
ce s
ervi
ces
is r
elat
ed to
the
case
-lo
ad f
acto
r as
wel
las
to th
e pr
ofes
sion
al c
ompe
tenc
e of
wor
kers
.A
!! s
tudi
es o
f pu
pil-
wor
ker
ratio
sha
ve b
een
af-
fect
ed b
y th
e la
ck o
f un
ifor
mity
inre
port
ing
the
num
ber
ofpu
pils
ser
ved.
Man
y st
udie
s ha
ve s
impl
yco
mpa
red
the
num
-be
r of
atte
ndan
ce w
orke
rsto
the
tota
l sch
ool p
opul
atio
n.W
hen
such
tota
l enr
ollm
ent f
igur
es in
clud
eki
nder
gart
en o
ra
city
juni
or c
olle
ge, t
he a
ctua
l rat
io o
f at
tend
ance
wor
kers
to p
upils
is in
accu
rate
.U
ntil
ther
e ar
e fe
wer
var
iabl
es in
the
stat
istic
s us
ed, c
asel
oad
stud
ies
will
hav
eto
be
eval
uate
dw
ith c
autio
n.A
noth
er f
acto
r af
fect
ing
the
ratio
in a
ttend
ance
serv
ices
isth
e le
ngth
of
the
wor
kday
of
atte
ndan
cepe
rson
nel,
whi
chva
ries
wid
ely.
Freq
uent
ly, a
ttend
ance
wor
kers
, hom
e an
dsc
hool
vis
itors
, vis
iting
teac
hers
,or
sch
ool s
ocia
l wor
kers
enga
ged
in a
ttend
ance
wor
k ha
ve th
esa
me
wor
kday
s as
teac
hers
; lon
ger
wor
kday
sar
e re
quir
ed in
man
y ci
ties
and
Stat
es.
The
re is
evi
denc
e of
a tr
end
to in
crea
se th
e w
orkd
ayan
d w
orky
ear
for
atte
ndan
ce w
orke
rs, e
nabl
ing
them
to s
erve
fam
ilies
aft
er th
e cl
ose
of th
e sc
hool
day
and
duen
g th
esu
mm
er.
TIT
LE
S FO
R A
TT
EN
DA
NC
E W
OR
KE
RS
The
title
s of
per
sonn
elen
fIn
sch
ool a
ttend
ance
en-
forc
emen
t pro
gram
sva
ry g
reat
ly, b
ut th
ere
has
been
a m
arke
dtr
end
tow
ard
usin
g th
e tit
le "
scho
ol s
ocia
l wor
ker"
in r
eccr
tye
ars.
Form
erly
, the
mos
t com
mon
title
for
this
ser
vice
"vis
iting
teac
her.
" T
he e
xten
sive
rang
e of
title
s an
d th
epr
edom
inan
ce o
f sc
ho a
l soc
ial w
orke
r an
dvi
sitin
g te
ache
rar
e no
ted
in a
stu
dy b
y D
r. R
ober
t B. R
owen
, dir
ecto
r of
Scho
ol S
ocia
l Wor
k in
the
New
Jer
sey
Stat
eD
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
n:
47
Titl
eFr
eque
ncy
Scho
ol s
ocia
l wor
ker
58V
isiti
ng te
ache
r41
Vis
iting
cou
nsel
or_
4Sc
hool
adj
ustm
ent c
ouns
elor
4G
uida
nce
coun
selo
r3
'Hom
e an
d sc
hool
vis
itor
3Sc
hool
cou
irei
oi3
Chi
ld w
elfa
re c
ouns
elor
2E
lem
enta
ry s
choo
l soc
ial w
orke
r2
Scho
ol w
elfa
re c
ouns
elor
1E
lem
enta
ry s
choo
l cou
nsel
or1
Ele
men
tary
cou
nsel
or1
Wel
fare
cou
nsel
or1
Scho
olco
urt l
iais
on w
orke
r1
Pupi
l per
sonn
el w
orke
r1
Publ
ic w
elfa
re w
orke
r1
Cas
ewor
ker
1C
ouri
-elo
r1
Vis
iting
teac
her
soci
al w
orke
r1
Scho
ol c
ouns
elin
g co
nsul
tant
1So
cial
wor
ker
1G
uida
nce
cons
ulta
nt1
Scho
ol s
ocia
l wor
ker
cons
ulta
nt1
Adj
ustm
ent t
each
er1
Psyc
hiat
ric
soci
-:. w
orke
r1
Wel
fare
wor
ker
1A
ttend
ance
off
icer
_1
48
Titl
eFr
eque
ncy
Cou
nsel
or te
ache
r1
Tea
cher
of
juve
nile
adj
ustm
ent
1
Tot
al14
0
In g
ener
al, w
hen
ther
e is
a sc
hool
soc
ial w
orke
r an
d no
oth
erat
tend
ance
wor
ker,
the
scho
ol s
ocia
l wor
ker
is r
espo
nsib
lefo
r at
tend
ance
enf
orce
men
t. C
onve
rsel
y, w
hen
a sc
hool
syb
-te
rn h
as o
nly
atte
ndan
ce w
orke
rs u
nder
dif
fere
nt ti
tles,
the
atte
ndan
ce w
orke
r fu
nctio
nsas
the
scho
ol s
ocia
l wor
ker.
TH
E I
NT
ER
NA
TIO
NA
L A
SSO
CIA
TIO
N O
FPU
PIL
PE
RSO
NN
EL
WO
RK
ER
ST
he I
nter
natio
na A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Pup
il Pe
rson
nel W
orke
rsw
as f
ound
ed in
191
1 as
the
Nat
iona
l Lea
gue
of C
ompu
lsor
yE
duca
tion
Off
icia
ls. T
hena
me
of th
e or
gani
zatio
n w
as s
ub-
sequ
ently
cha
nged
to th
e N
atio
nal L
eagu
eto
Pro
mot
e Sc
hool
Atte
ndan
ce. T
his
r am
e re
veal
ed th
e ch
ief
inte
rest
s an
d co
n-ce
rns
of th
e m
embe
rshi
p w
ho w
ere
dire
ctly
invo
lved
with
all
aspe
cts
of th
e pr
oble
m o
f sc
hool
atte
ndan
mA
s a
resu
lt of
the
grow
irg
prof
essi
onal
ism
of
wor
kers
-an
dth
e ge
ogra
phic
al e
xten
sion
of
its in
embe
rshi
p,a
new
nam
e,In
tern
atio
nal A
ssoc
iatio
n of
pup
il Pe
rson
nel
Wor
kers
, was
adop
ted
in 1
956.
It is
bel
ieve
d th
at th
isna
me
refl
ects
mor
e
accu
rate
ly th
e pr
ofes
sion
al c
once
rns
of th
e m
embe
rs, r
ecog
-ni
zing
that
chi
ldre
n w
ithpr
oble
ms
of s
choo
l atte
ndan
cew
ill
cont
inue
to b
e th
e pr
imar
y fo
cus
of th
e as
soci
atio
n. H
ow-
ever
, it i
s no
ton
ly th
e ch
ild w
ho is
phy
sica
llyab
sent
that
need
s at
tent
ion,
by
L a
lso
the
devi
antc
hild
with
spe
cial
nee
ds.
He,
too,
com
es u
nder
the
new
lyde
fine
d re
spon
sibi
lity
of th
epr
ofes
sion
al a
ttend
ance
wor
ker
orsc
hool
soc
ial w
orke
r. T
hero
le o
f le
gal a
utho
rity
is n
ow v
iew
ed a
s a
ther
apeu
tic to
ol to
be u
sed
with
car
e an
d re
late
d to
the
broa
d ne
eds
of th
e ch
ild
with
pro
blem
s.
40
50
Psyc
holo
gist
s ar
e al
mos
tun
iver
sally
acc
epte
d to
day
by s
choo
l sys
tem
sas
im-
port
ant s
peci
alis
ts u
sed
ina
clin
ical
cap
acity
.H
owev
er, t
heir
pro
fess
iona
lpr
epar
atio
n en
able
s th
emto
off
er a
bro
ader
ser
vice
.A
pply
ing
rese
arch
con-
duct
ed b
y ps
ycho
logi
sts
may
incr
ease
und
erst
andi
ng o
f ho
wch
ildre
n le
arn,
and
also
bui
ld b
ette
rm
enta
l hea
lth in
chi
ldre
nan
d sc
hool
sta
ff.
1111
1111
1111
1111
11M
INU
MIN
PAR
T I
ICH
APT
ER
4
PS
YC
HO
LOG
ICA
L S
ER
VIC
ES
By
FRA
NC
ES
A. M
UL
LE
N, A
ssis
tant
Supe
rint
ende
nt o
f Sc
hool
s, C
hica
goC
ity S
choo
ls, C
hica
go, I
ll_
SCH
OO
L P
SYC
HO
LO
GY
has
ave
nera
ble
and
dist
ingu
ishe
dhi
stor
y, u
sual
ly d
ated
fro
m th
eps
ycho
logi
cal c
linic
fou
nded
by L
ight
ner
Witm
er in
189
6 at
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Pe
nnsy
l-va
nia,
and
the
Bur
eau
of C
hild
Stu
dyes
tabl
ishe
d in
the
Chi
-
cago
pub
lic s
choo
ls in
1899
.Si
nce
then
, on
a gr
adua
llyex
pand
ing
basi
s, p
sych
olog
ists
hav
ew
orke
d da
y by
day
insc
hool
sys
tem
s, g
rapp
ling
in a
dow
n-to
-ear
th f
ashi
on w
ithpr
oble
ms
face
d by
teac
hers
.B
ut u
ntil
afte
r th
e Se
cond
Wor
ld W
ar, p
rogr
ams
rem
aine
dco
nfin
ed to
larg
e ci
ties
and
a fe
w w
ealth
ysu
burb
an d
istr
icts
.T
wen
ty y
ears
ago
, mos
t tea
cher
s an
dad
min
istr
ator
s kn
ew
little
of
the
serv
ices
psy
chol
ogis
ts c
ould
rend
er, t
he p
ublic
far
less
.Ps
ycho
logy
was
too
ofte
n pe
rcei
ved
as a
nes
oter
ic
disc
iplin
e. T
he im
age
of p
sych
olog
y a,
am
agic
wan
d fo
r
the
cure
of
all p
erso
nalit
y di
ffic
ultie
sm
ight
be
attr
activ
e,
but t
he c
orol
lary
of
a m
agic
key
toun
lock
clo
sed
door
s an
dpr
ovid
e un
ders
tand
ing
of p
eopl
e(p
erha
ps m
ore
intim
atel
yth
an th
ey w
ante
d to
be
unde
rsto
od)
was
fear
som
e.Su
ch
imag
es h
ave
alm
ost d
isap
pear
ed a
sth
e ra
pid
expa
nsio
n of
psyc
holo
gica
l ser
vice
s in
pos
twar
yea
rsha
s br
ough
t a r
ealis
tic
pict
ure
of th
e po
tent
ial c
ontr
ibut
ions
and
the
limita
tions
of
psyc
holo
gy in
sch
o.-A
s.In
a s
urve
y of
all
50 S
tate
s an
dth
e D
istr
ict o
f C
olum
bia,
the
num
ber
of s
choo
l psy
chol
ogis
ts w
asre
port
ed to
hav
ein
crea
sed
from
520
in 1
950,
to 2
,724
in 1
960,
or
mor
e th
an50
0 pe
rcen
t. In
195
0, 2
2 St
ates
repo
rted
no
scho
ol p
sych
ol-
ogis
ts; i
n 19
60, o
nly
four
.'
Mag
ary,
Jam
es F
., an
d M
each
am, M
erle
L"T
he G
row
th o
f Sc
hool
Psyc
holo
gy in
the
Las
t Dec
ade,
" Jo
urna
lof
Sch
ool P
sych
olog
y, I
, Jan
.
1963
, p. 5
-13.
51
TH
E C
LIN
ICA
LFU
NC
TIO
NT
oday
, the
clin
ical
func
tion
rem
ains
the
pred
omin
ant
rea-
son
for
the
empl
oym
ent o
fsc
hool
psy
chol
ogis
ts.
The
gre
atm
ajor
ity o
f th
emde
vote
mas
t of
thei
rtim
e to
indi
vidu
alca
sest
udie
s of
chi
ldre
nre
ferr
ed b
ecau
se o
fle
arni
ng p
robl
ems,
and
to w
ork
with
=dr
ool s
taff
,pa
rent
s, c
omm
unity
age
ncie
s,an
d pu
pils
.A
clin
ical
case
s:u
dy is
not
rou
tine
psyc
hom
etri
cs, b
uta
prof
essi
onal
task
wiii
rth
is ti
me
cons
umin
g,va
ried
, and
whi
chca
lls f
or th
eap
plic
atio
n of
bas
icth
eory
and
the
insi
ght o
fex
peri
ence
in th
e in
to.p
reta
tion
of d
ata.
An
indi
vidu
alte
stof
inte
llige
nce
to v
erif
y or
corr
ect t
he le
ss v
alid
data
of
grou
p te
sts
.or
teac
her
judg
men
t is
a fr
eque
nt-
ingr
edie
nt,
bid
only
as p
art o
f an
yca
se s
tudy
. Suc
ha
test
mus
t be
care
-fu
lly s
elec
ted
byth
e ps
ycho
logi
siac
cord
ing
to th
eag
e, d
is-
abili
ties,
and
nee
dsof
the
child
.In
add
ition
, the
psyc
holo
-gi
st o
bser
ves
the
child
in li
fesi
tuat
ions
: in
conv
ersa
tion,
inpl
ay, i
n th
e ha
llway
s,on
the
play
grou
nd, a
ndin
the
clas
s-ro
om. H
e co
llect
s da
ta f
rom
and
shar
es d
ata
with
the
child
'ste
ache
rs, p
hysi
cian
, pare
nts,
and
oth
ers
who
may
be
able
tohe
lp. H
e st
udie
sth
e de
velo
pmen
tof
the
child
,se
curi
ngas
muc
h da
taas
he
can
on th
e he
alth
hist
ory
begi
nnin
gw
ith52
pren
atal
day
s, th
ede
velo
pmen
tal h
isto
ryin
pre
scho
ol d
ays,
the
scho
ol h
isto
ry,
the
patte
rn o
f fr
iend
s,an
d re
latio
ns w
ithad
ults
and
peer
s.H
e us
es f
urth
erps
ycho
logi
cal i
nstr
u-m
ents
to g
ain
insi
ghts
on s
peci
al a
ptitu
des,
inte
rest
s,an
dpe
rson
ality
cha
ract
eris
tics.
He
is c
once
rned
abo
utph
ysic
alco
ordi
natio
n; h
e lo
oks
for
evid
ence
of
sens
ory
defe
cts,
or
clue
s to
a p
ossi
ble
perc
eptu
al h
andi
cap.
Als
o, h
e co
nsid
ers
the
child
's c
ultu
ral b
ackg
roun
d.A
fter
the
info
rmat
ion
is g
athe
red,
it is
inte
rpre
ted,
not
by
the
psyc
holo
gist
alon
e, b
ut in
disc
ussi
on a
nd c
onfe
renc
ew
ith th
ose
mos
t con
cern
ed.
In s
ome
case
s, th
e te
ache
r, a
d-m
inis
trat
or, s
choo
lnu
rse,
sch
ool s
ocia
l wor
ker,
guid
ance
coun
selo
r, a
ttend
ance
,ork
er, e
t al.,
may
sit
dow
n to
a f
orm
alst
aff
conf
eren
ce w
ithth
e ps
ycho
logi
st,
the
pare
nt, a
ndco
n-ce
rned
com
mun
i4w
orke
rs in
ord
erto
arr
ive
ata
synt
hesi
sof
und
erst
andi
ngan
d re
com
men
datio
ns.
Mor
e of
ten,
how
-ev
er, t
he p
sych
olog
ist a
ccom
plis
hes
as m
uch
of th
is c
onsu
lta-
tion
as h
eca
n, le
ss f
orm
ally
, in
two-
way
con
vers
atio
ns a
ndin
terv
iew
s, in
pho
neca
lls, o
r in
sm
all
grou
p m
eetin
gs.
One
of
the
mos
t com
mon
ref
erra
lsto
the
scho
ol p
sych
o-lo
girt
is th
e ch
ildbe
ing
cons
ider
edfo
r pl
acem
ent i
na
spec
ial
clas
s fo
r th
em
enta
lly h
andi
capp
ed,
gift
ed, e
mot
iona
llydi
s-tu
rbed
, bra
inin
jure
d,or
oth
er ty
pes
of e
xcep
tiona
lch
ildre
n.00
A c
lass
for
the
men
tally
han
dica
pped
, for
inst
ance
, is
a go
odle
arni
ng e
nvir
onm
ent f
or th
e ch
ild w
ho is
bas
ical
lym
enta
llyha
ndic
appe
d an
d w
ill n
ot p
rogr
ess
bevo
i, d
a gi
ven
leve
lof
acad
emic
ach
ieve
men
t.H
owev
er, i
t is
the
wro
ng p
lace
for
a ch
ild w
hose
pre
sent
reta
rdat
ion
in s
choo
l sub
ject
s is
due
to c
ultu
ral d
epri
vatio
n.H
e ne
eds,
pri
mar
ily, t
o ha
ve h
iscu
rios
ities
stim
ulat
ed, h
is e
xper
ienc
es b
road
ened
, his
mot
iva-
tion
tow
ard
achi
evem
ent h
eigh
tene
d, a
nd r
emed
ial i
nstr
uc-
tion
prov
ided
.L
ikew
ise,
it is
the
wro
ng p
lace
for
a c
hild
who
se p
oten
tial i
s te
mpo
rari
ly o
bscu
red
by e
mot
iona
l pro
b-le
ms,
per
cept
ual o
r ot
her
spec
ific
han
dica
ps, o
r m
aske
d by
petit
mal
sei
zure
s or
dru
g th
erap
ies.
The
dif
fere
ntia
l dia
g-no
ses
invo
lved
are
not
sim
ple.
Em
otio
nal d
istu
rban
ce c
anea
sily
mas
quer
ade
as a
men
tal h
andi
cap.
The
mig
rant
slu
mch
ild w
hose
bri
ef e
xper
ienc
es in
a v
arie
ty o
f sc
hool
s ha
vele
ft h
im c
onvi
nced
of
his
own
stup
idity
can
pre
sent
a r
athe
rco
nvin
cing
pic
ture
of
men
tal r
etar
datio
n if
pro
bing
s fo
r th
eun
used
cap
aciti
es a
re n
ot m
ade.
Not
hing
less
than
a c
om-
plet
e ca
se s
tudy
can
just
ify
a se
riou
s de
cisi
on c
once
rnin
g a
child
"s e
duca
tiona
l car
eer.
Ree
valu
atio
ns e
very
few
yea
rsar
e eq
ually
impo
rtan
t to
insu
re f
airn
ess
to th
e m
atur
ing
child
.So
me
child
ren
have
to b
e ex
cuse
d fr
om s
choo
l atte
ndan
ce
beca
use
of m
enta
l im
mat
urity
or
a co
mpl
ex o
f fa
ctor
s w
hich
mak
e it
impo
ssib
le f
or th
e sc
hool
to s
erve
the
child
.H
ere,
too,
is a
cru
cial
dec
isio
n, n
ot o
ne th
at th
eps
ycho
logi
st m
akes
alon
e, b
ut o
ne to
whi
ch h
e ha
s m
uch
to c
ontr
ibut
e. A
thor
ough
cas
e st
udy
may
rex
0,1
1 re
med
iabl
e co
nditi
ons,
ma3
help
the
pare
nt to
gui
de th
e ch
ild to
bet
ter
deve
lopm
ent,
orm
ay s
ugge
st w
ays
not p
revi
ousl
yco
nsid
ered
by
whi
ch th
esc
hool
can
ser
ve th
e ch
ild.
Freq
uent
ref
erra
ls a
re m
ade
of c
hild
ren
know
n to
hav
ego
od in
telli
genc
e, b
ut w
ho p
rese
nt g
ener
al o
r sp
ecif
ic le
arni
ngpr
oble
ms.
The
chi
ld w
ho d
oes
not r
espo
nd to
inst
ruct
ion
in r
eadi
ng p
rofi
ts f
rom
a d
iagn
ostic
rea
ding
eva
luat
ion
and
a co
mpl
ete
case
wor
kup;
the
child
who
se im
mat
ure,
halti
ng,
or in
dist
inct
spe
ech
does
not
res
pond
toth
e at
tent
ion
of th
ecl
assr
oom
teac
her
or s
peec
h th
erap
ist n
eeds
stu
dy; s
o do
esth
e ch
ild w
ho is
goo
d in
all
subj
ects
exc
ept s
pelli
ng o
r ar
ith-
met
ic, o
r w
ho h
as s
ome
othe
r sp
ecif
ic b
lock
.A
lso.
a s
tudy
is in
dica
ted
for
the
child
who
did
goo
d w
ork
last
yea
r an
dno
w s
lides
by
at a
min
imal
ly a
ccep
tabl
eac
adem
ic r
ate,
per
-ha
ps d
aydr
eam
ing,
or
havi
ng o
ccas
iona
l spe
lls o
f su
llenn
ess
or a
nger
.T
he c
hild
who
is c
hron
ical
ly tr
uant
, who
dem
ands
exce
ssiv
e at
tent
ion,
who
is d
elib
erat
ely
aggr
avat
ing
to te
ache
ror
cla
ssm
ates
, or
who
is e
xces
sive
lysh
y or
anx
ious
may
be
53
refe
rred
.T
he c
hild
who
neve
r ge
ts h
is w
ork
done
bec
ause
of a
- co
mpu
lsiv
e de
man
dfo
r pe
rfec
tion
nerd
s di
agno
sis
asm
uch
as th
e ch
ild w
hose
wor
kis
exc
essi
vely
slip
shod
and
care
less
.
No
scho
ol s
yste
m h
as e
noug
hps
ycho
logi
sts
to d
oa
thor
-ou
gh p
rofe
ssio
nal
case
stu
dy o
f al
l chi
ldre
n w
hopr
esen
tpr
oble
ms
in th
e sc
hool
set
ting.
Eac
h sc
hool
mus
t set
its
own
prio
ritie
s, d
epen
ding
upon
nee
ds, p
sych
olog
ical
ser
vice
sav
aila
ble,
oth
er p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
s av
aila
ble,
and
spe
cial
abili
ties
and
aptit
udes
of
the
staf
f.
Wor
k w
ith te
ache
rsT
o be
eff
ectiv
e, th
e ps
ycho
logi
stm
ust i
nvol
ve th
e te
ache
rth
roug
hout
the
case
stu
dy.
The
psy
chol
ogis
t hel
pssc
hool
staf
f to
des
crib
e pu
pil
beha
vior
in o
pera
tiona
l rat
her
than
judg
men
tal t
erm
s, to
for
mul
ate
the
prob
lem
cle
arly
as s
een
in th
e cl
assr
oom
,to
be
mor
e di
scer
ning
in d
iscr
imin
atin
gse
riou
s sy
mpt
oms
from
the
less
ser
ious
.A
s da
ta f
rom
vari
ous
sour
ces
are
accu
mul
ated
, the
teac
her
shou
ld h
ave
anop
port
unity
to r
eact
and
to a
ssis
t in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n.T
hegr
eate
r th
e in
volv
emen
t of
the
teac
her
in th
epr
oces
s of
for
-m
ulat
ing
reco
mm
enda
tions
,th
e m
ore
likel
y th
ose
reco
m-
men
datio
ns w
ill b
e ca
rrie
dou
t eff
ectiv
ely.
Idea
lly, t
here
54
shou
ld b
e tw
o or
mor
e ca
se c
onfe
renc
eson
e ea
rly
in th
eca
se s
tudy
and
one
late
in th
e pr
oces
satte
nded
by a
sel
ecte
dgr
oup
of th
e pe
ople
mos
t con
cern
ed, p
artic
ular
lyth
e te
ache
ran
d th
e ad
min
istr
ator
.Fr
ankl
y, th
is is
sel
dom
pos
sibl
e.T
he p
sych
olog
ist i
saw
are
of p
ossi
ble
nega
tive
as w
ell
aspo
sitiv
e re
actio
nsto
his
inqu
irie
s an
d hi
s im
plic
atio
ns.
He
is a
war
e of
dif
fere
nces
inth
e re
adin
ess
of b
oth
teac
hers
and
pare
nts
to a
ccep
t a n
ew p
oint
of
view
. He
know
s th
atso
me
teac
hers
hav
e pr
ofes
sion
altr
aini
ng in
men
tal h
ealth
and
that
othe
rs. t
houg
h no
t ski
lled
in th
e la
test
psy
chol
ogic
allin
go,
have
acq
uire
da
real
insi
ght i
nto
child
dev
elop
men
t and
chi
ldne
eds.
How
ever
, he
hope
s th
atas
he
and
the
staf
f w
ork
toge
ther
tow
ard
the
solu
tion
of th
e pr
oble
ms
ofon
e ch
ild,
man
y te
ache
rs w
ill g
row
in a
bilit
yto
und
erst
and
and
hand
leot
her
child
ren.
Wor
k w
ithpa
rent
sT
he d
iagn
ostic
and
trea
tmen
t asp
ects
of
the
psyc
holo
gist
'sw
ork
may
bec
ome
mor
e en
twin
ed a
s he
mov
es f
rom
the
teac
her
to th
e pa
rent
.Fr
om th
e pa
rent
, the
psy
chol
ogis
tga
ins
insi
ght i
nto
the
cultu
ral
leve
l of
the
hom
e, th
e la
ngua
ge,
and
expe
rien
tial h
andi
caps
the
child
may
hav
e su
ffer
ed,
the
pres
sure
s on
one
chi
ld f
or a
chie
vem
ent,
or th
e de
spai
r an
d
hope
less
ness
that
hol
ds o
ut n
o re
al g
oals
to a
noth
er.
The
par
ent o
f a
child
with
a p
robl
em s
eeks
hel
p w
heth
erhe
adm
its it
or
mas
ks it
by
over
t hos
tility
or
indi
ffer
ence
.E
ven
thou
gh h
e is
ass
ured
that
an
initi
al c
onfe
renc
e is
ex-
plor
ator
y on
ly. a
nd th
at n
o re
com
men
datio
ns h
aw b
een
mad
e, h
e go
es a
way
fro
m th
e se
ssio
n m
ore
or le
ss a
ble
toco
pe w
ith h
is p
robl
emss
eldo
m, i
ndee
d, w
ith n
o ch
ange
.A
s th
e ca
se s
tudy
pro
ceed
s to
war
d pl
an f
orm
ulat
ion.
the
mor
eth
e pa
rent
can
be
a I
art o
f th
e pr
oces
s. th
e m
ore
likel
y he
will
be
able
to c
oope
rate
with
the
scho
ol a
nd to
mod
ify
his
own
actio
ns o
r at
titud
es. i
f ne
cess
ary.
Litt
le is
acc
om-
plis
hed
by a
nnou
ncin
g de
cisi
ons
to th
e pa
rent
; som
eone
mus
the
lp h
im w
crk
thro
ugh
the
prob
lem
.Fr
eque
ntly
. thi
s is
the
task
of
the
psyc
holo
gist
.
Wor
k w
ith p
upils
Som
e co
unse
ling,
eve
n so
me
psyc
hoth
erap
y, is
inex
tri-
cabl
y bo
und
up in
the
proc
ess
of th
e co
mpl
ete
case
stu
dy..
To
obta
in u
sefu
l dia
gnos
tic in
forr
iatio
n ab
out t
he p
upil.
the
psyc
holo
gist
has
to g
ain
his
conf
iden
ce b
y es
tabl
ishi
nga
war
m, f
rien
dly
rela
tions
hip.
As
the
pupi
l tal
ks a
bout
his
prob
lem
and
his
pre
viou
s sc
hool
and
com
mun
ity e
xper
ien
ces,
or
as th
e yo
ung
child
pla
ys f
reel
y in
the
clin
ic p
lay-
room
in th
e pr
esen
ce o
f an
acc
eptin
g an
d sy
mpa
thet
ic a
dult.
he is
exp
erie
ncin
g th
erap
y,T
he p
upil
is e
ntitl
ed to
an
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
the
resu
lts o
f th
eva
riou
s te
sts
and
exam
inat
ions
to th
e ex
tent
that
lit!
is a
ble
to u
nder
stan
d th
em. T
he o
lder
chi
ld a
nd s
outh
par
ticip
ate
in m
akin
g pl
ans.
Eve
n in
situ
atio
nsA
Nhe
re th
e ps
ycho
logi
stdo
es n
ot p
lan
to s
ee th
e ch
ild a
gain
aft
er th
e ca
se s
tudy
. or
until
a r
eeva
luat
ion
is p
lann
ed o
r re
ques
ted,
he
is a
war
e of
the
ther
apeu
tic a
spec
ts o
f hi
s ra
ther
pro
long
ed r
elat
ions
hip
with
the
pupi
l dur
ing
the
case
stu
ds.
The
psy
chol
ogis
t'str
aini
ng in
cou
nsel
ing
and
psyc
hoth
erap
y is
use
d fr
om th
ebe
ginn
ing.
In g
ener
al. t
he s
choo
l is
not t
he p
rope
r se
tting
for
ext
ende
dps
ycho
ther
apy.
A p
rope
r cl
imat
e is
mor
e lik
ely
atta
ined
ina
clin
ical
set
ting
outs
ide
of th
e sc
hool
. How
ever
, muc
h co
un-
selin
g th
at c
ould
wel
l com
e w
ithin
the
defi
nitio
n of
psy
cho.
ther
apy
is a
nd n
eces
sari
ly m
ust b
e do
ne in
the
scho
ols
by a
vari
ety
of p
erso
nsth
e te
ache
r. th
e gu
idan
ce c
ouns
elor
, the
prin
cipa
l. or
who
ever
est
ablis
hes
a co
nfid
entia
l rel
atio
n-sh
ip w
ith th
e ch
ild.
The
psy
chol
ogis
t has
trai
ning
:n th
isar
ea, a
nd b
ecau
se o
f th
e st
art m
ade
duri
ng th
e ca
se s
tudy
proc
ess,
he
can.
and
fre
quen
tly d
oes.
car
ry o
n br
ief
and
info
rmal
con
tact
s th
at p
rovi
de s
uppo
rt a
nd c
onfi
denc
e fo
r
55
the
child
.
Alth
ough
info
rmal
cou
nsel
ing
is th
e m
ost f
requ
ent p
atte
rn,
ther
e ar
e sc
hool
bas
ed c
linic
sin
sev
eral
sch
ool s
yste
ms
whe
rem
ore
form
al c
ontin
ued
ther
apy
is c
arri
edon
by
one
or m
ore
of th
e ch
ild g
uida
nce
team
.T
here
art
inst
ance
s of
pla
yth
erap
y gr
oups
for
dis
turb
edyo
ung
child
ren.
of
ther
apeu
ticcl
ubs
for
grou
p w
ork
with
adol
esce
nts.
and
of
regu
larl
ysc
hedu
led
trea
tmen
tco
nfer
ence
s.In
som
e sc
hool
s, th
eps
y-ch
olog
ical
ste
ff is
exp
ecte
dto
dev
ote
a co
nsid
erab
le p
ortio
nof
its
time
to th
erap
eutic
coun
selin
g w
ith p
upils
, tho
ugh
this
rem
ains
the
exce
ptio
n.E
ven
if s
choo
ls b
elie
veth
at th
eysh
ould
off
er th
erap
y, f
ewha
ve s
uffi
cien
t psy
chol
ogic
alst
aff
todo
so.
If c
ontin
uing
cou
nsel
ing
is to
be
give
n to
a ch
ild in
scho
ol, s
taff
tim
e m
ust b
esp
ecif
ical
ly a
llote
d fo
r th
ispu
rpos
e.W
ork
with
oth
er s
taff
pers
onne
lIn
here
nt in
wha
t has
bee
nsa
id is
the
nece
ssity
for
clos
ew
orki
ng r
elat
ions
hips
, for
face
-to-
face
com
mun
icat
ion
to th
em
axim
um e
xten
t pos
sibl
eam
ong
all t
he s
taff
invo
lved
with
agi
ven
child
. The
sch
ool c
ouns
elor
, atte
ndan
ce w
orke
r,nu
rse,
soci
al w
orke
r, s
peec
hco
rrec
tioni
st, r
emed
ial r
eadi
ngte
ache
r.lib
rari
an, p
hysi
cal e
duca
tion
teac
her
or c
oach
, the
sch
ool
or f
amily
phy
sici
an a
ndps
ychi
atri
stw
hoev
er is
or s
houl
d
56
be p
layi
nga
role
in th
e ch
ild's
sch
ool l
ifem
ust b
ein
volv
ed.
The
psy
chol
ogis
t pla
nsea
ch c
onfe
renc
eso
that
it w
ill n
oton
ly b
enef
it th
e ch
ild, b
utco
ntri
bute
to th
e gr
owin
g in
sigh
tof
all
k.,li
cern
ed, i
nclu
ding
him
self
.
Wor
k w
ith c
omm
unity
agen
cies
Man
y of
the
prob
lem
sc
lari
fied
1)r
a c
ase
stud
y ca
nnot
be
solv
ed e
ither
by
the
scho
ol o
r th
e ho
me.
Oth
erco
mm
unity
agen
cies
I cl
inic
s, c
ourt
s. r
ecre
at'ln
agen
cies
, em
ploy
men
tan
d re
habi
litat
ion
agen
cies
.po
lice
and
prob
atio
nag
enci
es.
fost
er h
ome
and
fam
ilyw
elfa
re a
genc
ies.
chu
rche
s.an
dot
hers
1 m
ust b
e br
ough
t to
bear
on
a pa
rtic
ular
case
. Whe
ther
the
psyc
holo
gist
is th
eon
e -.
o m
ake
such
con
tact
s.or
whe
ther
this
is a
res
pons
ibili
tyof
adm
inis
trat
ors
or o
ther
pup
il pe
r-so
nnel
spe
cial
ists
dep
ends
on lo
cal c
ircu
mst
ance
s.T
he r
e-sp
onsi
bilit
y fo
r re
ferr
al s
houl
dbe
thou
ghtf
ully
wor
ked
out
and
latit
ude
for
exce
ptio
ns s
houl
d be
gen
eral
lyun
ders
tood
.W
ritte
n re
port
Tho
ugh
the
bulk
of
the
com
mun
icat
ion
abou
t a c
hild
sho
uld
be v
erba
l and
pre
fera
bly
face
-to-
face
. wri
tten
repo
rts
and
reco
rds
ofa
psyc
holo
gist
's w
ork
are
esse
ntia
l to
any
pro-
fess
iona
l pro
gram
.In
th p
sych
olog
ist's
conf
iden
tial f
ile
shou
ld b
e ke
pt th
e de
tails
of
test
fin
ding
s, th
e sp
ecif
ics
ofhe
alth
and
soc
ial h
isto
ry, a
nd th
e in
form
atio
n gi
ven
con-
fide
ntia
lly b
y pu
pil,
pare
nt, o
r ot
her
pers
on, w
ith d
ates
at-
tach
ed in
all
case
s. S
umm
arie
s of
fin
ding
s an
d re
com
men
da-
tions
sho
uld
be s
tore
d in
pup
il fo
lder
s an
d m
ade
acce
ssib
leto
all
scho
ol p
erso
nnel
.U
sual
ly, s
ever
al c
opie
s to
var
ious
teac
hers
and
oth
er s
taff
mem
bers
are
req
uire
d. E
very
sch
ool
psyc
holo
gica
l ser
vice
nee
ds a
dequ
ate
cler
ical
ass
ista
nce
toke
ep r
ecor
ds, m
aint
ain
accu
rate
file
s, a
nd tr
ansc
ribe
dic
tate
dre
port
s.
BR
OA
DE
R A
SPE
CT
S O
F A
SC
HO
OL
PSY
CH
OL
OG
IST
'S F
UN
CT
ION
Her
etof
ore,
we
have
bee
n de
scri
bing
the
role
of
the
scho
olps
ycho
logi
st a
s a
clin
icia
n.T
he s
mal
l num
ber
of c
hild
ren
who
can
be
serv
ed in
the
dept
h de
scri
bed,
anz
l the
adv
ance
sin
psy
chol
ogy
that
are
of
cons
eque
nce
to th
e sc
hool
as
aw
hole
, lea
d to
a s
earc
h fo
r w
ays
to m
ake
broa
der
use
of th
eps
ycho
logi
st o
n th
e sc
hool
sta
ff.
All
of th
e fu
nctio
ns d
e-sc
ribe
d be
low
are
cur
rent
ly c
arri
ed o
n in
man
y sc
hool
s;pr
obab
ly a
ll sc
hool
psy
chol
ogis
ts a
re in
volv
ed o
ccas
iona
llyin
at l
east
one
or
mor
e, a
nd s
ome
psyc
holo
gist
s m
ay b
e
pred
omin
antly
or
entir
ely
utili
zed
in th
ese
way
s. I
ncre
asin
gat
tent
ion
is b
eing
giv
en to
man
y of
thes
e ar
eas.
as
stat
ewid
epl
ans
and
polic
ies
for
utili
zatio
nof
psy
chol
ogis
ts a
rede
velo
ped,
as
trai
ning
pro
gram
s ar
e se
t u )
. and
as
the
actu
alan
d po
tent
ial c
ontr
ibui
ons
of th
e ps
ycho
logi
st to
the
scho
olpr
ogra
m a
re a
sses
sed
by n
atio
nal g
roup
s.
Inse
rvic
e ed
ucat
ion
of te
ache
rsIn
form
al c
ontr
ibut
ions
of
the
psyc
holo
Ost
to th
e pe
rson
alan
d pr
ofes
sion
al g
row
th o
f te
ache
rs h
ave
been
men
tione
din
ref
eren
ce to
the
case
stu
dy. T
o th
e ex
tent
that
adm
inis
-tr
ator
s an
d te
ache
rs f
ind
him
use
ful,
the
psyc
holo
gist
is li
kely
to b
e ca
lled
upon
for
mor
e fo
rmal
par
ticip
atio
n in
staf
fde
velo
pmen
t pro
gram
s.
Pare
nt e
duca
tion
The
eff
ectiv
e sc
hool
psy
chol
ogis
t rec
eive
s m
any
requ
ests
to s
peak
to p
aren
t gro
ups,
and
he
ma}
mee
tw
ith s
mal
lgr
oups
to e
xplo
re a
sub
ject
in d
epth
.H
e ex
pect
s to
giv
em
any
afte
rnoo
n an
d ev
enin
gho
urs
to th
is w
ork.
in o
rder
tohe
lp in
terp
ret t
he s
choo
l as
a w
hole
and
the
psyc
holo
gica
lse
rvic
es in
par
ticul
ar to
the
com
mun
ity.
57
Con
sulta
tion
on s
choo
l com
mitt
ees
and
spec
ial
proj
ects
Cur
ricu
lum
com
mitt
ees
may
cal
l upo
n th
eps
ycho
logi
stfo
r ad
vice
on h
ow a
nd w
here
in th
ecu
i ric
ulum
to in
trod
uce
units
inse
lf-u
nder
stan
ding
,m
enta
l hea
lth,
or h
uman
rel
a-tio
ns.
The
psy
chol
ogis
tm
ay c
ontr
ibut
e to
pla
nsfo
r ea
rly
adm
issi
on, m
ultip
letr
ack
prog
ram
s, r
emed
ial r
eadi
ng,
ex-
tend
ed s
choo
l day
s,re
crea
tiona
l nee
dsof
teen
ager
s, a
ndpr
o-gr
ams
for
preg
nant
gir
ls,
the
brai
nin
jure
d,or
you
thre
turn
ing
from
cus
todi
alin
stitu
tions
.A
ll th
ese
prob
lem
sof
inst
ruct
ion
and
adm
inis
trat
ion
have
psyc
holo
gica
l im
plic
a-tio
ns.
Gro
up te
stin
gpr
ogra
ms
Mos
t sch
ools
toda
y ha
veex
tens
ive
prog
ram
s of
gro
upte
stin
g, f
requ
ently
for
inte
llige
nce
and
achi
evem
ent
and
less
freq
uent
ly f
orot
her
aptit
udes
and
inte
rest
s.T
he s
choo
lps
ycho
logi
st o
ften
serv
es a
s a
cons
ulta
ntas
sch
ools
con
-tin
ually
ree
valu
ate
thei
r te
sts;
for
ms
of r
epor
ting;
met
hods
of in
terp
reta
tion
io te
ache
rs, p
upils
,an
d pa
rent
s; a
ndpr
e-ca
utio
ns ta
ken,
espe
cial
ly if
suc
hto
ols
are
used
as p
art o
f a
proc
ess
of c
lass
ifyi
ngpu
pils
.
58
Com
mun
ityre
latio
nsA
n al
ert p
sych
olog
ist
with
ski
ll an
dtr
aini
ng in
com
mun
i-ca
tions
and
soc
ial
psyc
holo
gym
ay b
e he
lpfu
l in
the
publ
icre
latio
nspr
ogra
m o
f th
e sc
hool
.H
e m
ay h
elp
to in
terp
ret
scho
ol p
olic
y an
dpr
oble
ms,
or to
est
ablis
ha
rece
ptiv
e at
-tit
ude
tow
ard
bond
issu
esor
tax
;!.c
reas
es.
He
may
hel
pto
pla
n ca
mpa
igns
or p
ublic
rel
atio
nsm
ater
ials
if h
isal
,iliti
eslie
in th
is d
irec
tion.
Res
earc
hA
gre
at b
ody
of b
ehav
iora
lsc
ienc
e kn
owle
dge
coul
d be
appl
ied
in A
mer
ican
scho
ols.
Prob
lem
s of
lear
ning
. mot
iva-
tion,
soc
ial o
rgan
izat
ion,
grou
p st
ruct
ure,
men
tal h
ealth
, and
optim
um h
uman
func
tioni
ng h
ave
been
fiel
ds o
f ac
tive
inqu
iry
by r
esea
rch
psyc
holo
gist
s.T
he s
choo
lps
ycho
logi
st h
asan
impo
rtan
t rol
eas
an
inte
rpre
ter
of th
ere
sults
of
such
rPqe
arch
.A
s m
ore
staf
ftim
e is
allo
tted
to r
esea
rch,
the
psyc
holo
gist
is f
requ
ently
one
or th
e fi
rst
pers
ons
to b
e in
volv
ed.
He
isso
met
imes
amon
g th
e be
st tr
aine
d st
aff
mem
bers
with
resp
ect
to d
esig
ning
, car
ryin
g ou
t, an
dev
alua
ting
rese
arch
prop
osal
sbe
caus
e re
sear
chha
s hi
gh p
rior
ityin
all
univ
ersi
tytr
aini
ngpr
ogia
ms
in p
sych
olog
y.
TR
AIN
ING
AN
D C
ER
TIF
ICA
TIO
N
Tra
inin
gT
he p
erso
n qu
alif
ied
to c
arry
or.
eve
n th
e m
inim
um f
unc-
tions
just
out
;ined
obv
ious
ly m
ust h
ave
exte
nsiv
e gr
adua
tetr
aini
ng in
bot
h ps
ycho
logy
and
edu
catio
n.H
e ne
eds
a so
lidfo
unda
tion
is p
sych
olog
y as
a s
cien
cege
nera
l, ex
peri
men
-ta
l, th
eore
tical
, phy
siol
ogic
al, c
ompa
rativ
e, s
tatis
tical
, and
rese
arch
.H
e ne
eds
clin
ical
tool
s fo
r th
e di
agno
sis
and
trea
t-m
ent o
f ch
ildre
n, in
clud
ing
coun
selin
g, p
lay
and
grou
pth
erap
y, a
nd a
n ap
proa
ch to
psy
chot
hera
py.
He
shou
ld h
ave
a br
oad
base
in le
arni
ng th
eory
and
the
psyc
holo
gy o
f m
oti-
vatio
n.H
e ne
eds
muc
h un
ders
tand
ing
of c
hild
dev
elop
men
t,ad
oles
cent
psy
chol
ogy,
hum
an r
elat
ions
, psy
chol
ogy
ofgr
oups
, juv
enile
del
inqu
ency
, men
tal r
etar
datio
n, s
ocia
lps
ycho
logy
, per
sona
lity
theo
ry, a
nd a
bnor
mal
psy
chol
ogy.
In e
duca
tion,
he
need
s a
basi
c un
ders
tand
ing
of th
e hi
stor
y,ph
iloso
phy,
org
aniz
atio
n, a
nd a
dmin
istr
atio
n cf
the
Am
eric
ansc
hool
sys
tem
, tes
ts a
nd m
easu
res
as u
sed
in s
choo
ls, c
lass
-ro
om m
anag
emen
t;, s
choo
l gui
danc
e pr
ogra
ms,
rem
edia
lin
stru
ctio
n, s
peci
al e
duca
tion
of e
xcep
tiona
l chi
ldre
n, a
ndpe
rhap
s m
ost o
f al
l, an
app
reci
atio
n of
the
pres
ently
mou
nt-
ing
pres
sure
s on
sch
ools
. Whe
nw
e co
nsid
er th
at h
e m
ust
also
be
a br
oadl
y ed
ucat
ed h
uman
bei
ng w
ith a
ll th
e he
lp th
ehu
man
ities
and
sci
ence
s ca
n gi
ve to
war
d de
velo
ping
roun
ded
pers
onal
ity, a
nd b
e se
nsiti
ve to
his
res
pons
ibili
ties
to h
imse
lf, h
is f
amily
-, h
is c
omm
unity
. his
nat
ion
and
the
wor
ld, t
he tr
aini
ng ta
sk m
ay w
ell a
ppea
r im
poss
ible
.E
ach
of th
e ar
eas
of p
sych
olog
y an
d ed
icat
ion
liste
d ab
ove
coul
d w
ell b
e th
e to
pic
not m
erel
y of
one
cour
se b
ut o
f a
sequ
ence
of
cour
ses.
The
stu
dent
atte
mpt
ing
to u
nder
take
all o
f th
em w
ould
hav
e a
long
gra
y be
ard
befo
re b
eing
rea
dyto
beg
in h
is p
rofe
ssio
nal c
aree
r.Fo
rtun
atel
y, tr
aini
ng p
ro-
gram
s sp
ecif
ical
ly g
eare
d to
sch
ool p
sych
olog
y ar
e be
ing
deve
lope
d to
pro
vide
the
esse
ntia
l con
tent
fro
m m
ost o
f th
ese
fiel
ds in
a c
oher
ent p
rogr
am w
ith a
min
imum
of
over
lapp
ing.
It is
not
sur
pris
ing
that
off
icia
l sta
tem
ents
on
the
topi
c by
com
mitt
e -3
of
psyc
holo
gist
s un
iver
sally
rec
omm
end
a do
c-to
ral p
rogr
am f
or a
ful
ly q
ualif
ied
scho
ol p
sych
olog
ist,
in-
elud
ing
a ca
refu
lly s
truc
ture
d in
tern
ship
fol
low
ing
prac
ticum
5in
con
nect
ion
w it
h cl
inic
al c
ours
es.
The
re is
, how
ever
, gen
-er
al r
ecog
nitio
n no
t onl
y of
the
unre
ality
of
this
req
uir-
tmen
tin
vie
w o
f nu
mer
ical
nee
ds a
nd s
alar
ies
avai
labl
e in
sch
ools
.bu
t als
o of
the
feas
ibili
ty a
nd d
esir
abili
ty o
f vs
ing
pers
ons
of d
iffe
rent
leve
ls o
f tr
aini
ng f
or th
e va
ried
fun
ctio
ns in
tow
hich
the
psyc
holo
gica
l pro
gram
may
be
divi
ded.
59
Cer
tific
atio
nT
oday
mos
t per
sons
em
ploy
ed a
s sc
hool
psyc
holo
gist
s m
ust
mee
t tra
inin
g an
d ex
peri
ence
stan
dard
s de
term
ined
by
vari
-ou
s St
ate
depa
rtm
ents
of
educ
atio
n.In
196
0, 2
3 St
ates
and
the
Dis
tric
t of
Col
umbi
a, in
whi
chsu
bsta
ntia
l num
bers
of
scho
ol p
sych
olog
ists
wer
e em
ploy
ed, h
adso
me
form
of
cer-
tific
atio
n re
qui :e
mcn
t for
sch
ool p
sych
olog
ists
.2It
is p
roba
ble
that
addi
tiona
l Sta
tes
have
sinc
e in
stitu
ted
cert
ific
atio
n st
anda
rds.
Hod
ges
foun
d th
em
aste
r's d
egre
e(o
r eq
uiva
lent
)un
iver
sally
req
uire
d,an
d 2
grad
uate
year
sco
mm
only
men
tione
d.T
he f
our
Stat
es th
atsp
ecif
ied
a do
c-to
ral d
egre
e fo
r th
e"s
choo
l psy
chol
ogis
tal
so h
ad c
ertif
ica-
Hod
ges,
Wal
ter
L.
"Sta
te C
ertif
icat
ion
ofSc
hool
Psy
cho
:gis
ts,"
Am
eric
an P
sych
olog
ist,1
960,
vol.
15, p
p. 3
46-3
49.
tion
stan
dard
s fo
rlo
wer
leve
l psy
chol
ogic
alw
orke
rs w
ithdi
ffer
ent t
itles
.In
196
0, 1
4 St
ates
spec
ifie
d ei
ther
teac
her
cert
ific
atio
nor
elig
ibili
ty f
or te
r ?h
erce
rtif
icat
ion
as p
art o
fth
e re
quir
emen
t.T
here
appe
ars
to b
e a
tren
d to
rep
lace
this
requ
irem
ent w
ithan
inte
rnsh
ip in
a s
choo
lse
tting
, acc
om-
pani
ed b
y sp
ecif
ictr
aini
ng in
und
erst
andi
ngsc
hool
pro
blem
s.T
he k
mer
ican
Psy
chol
ogic
alA
ssoc
iatio
n no
w r
ecom
men
dsfu
ll ce
rtif
icat
ion
at th
e do
ctor
al le
vel,
prov
isio
nal c
ertif
ica-
tion
with
2 a
cade
mic
year
s in
gra
duat
eco
urse
s, a
nd c
ertif
ica-
tion
as a
"ps
ycho
logi
cal
assi
stan
t" w
ith 1
1;2
acad
emic
year
sof
gra
duat
e tr
aini
ngto
wor
k on
ly u
nder
supe
rvis
ion
ofa
cert
ifie
d sc
hool
psyc
holo
gist
."
3 B
ardo
n, J
ack
I., a
ndth
e D
ivis
ion
16 C
onun
ittee
on T
rain
iae,
Sta
nd-
ards
and
Cer
tific
atio
n.A
mer
ican
Psy
chol
ogis
t,vo
l. le
, 196
3,pp
.71
1-71
4.
New
Em
phas
ison
Rol
e an
d T
rain
ing
for
the
Sch
ool
Psy
chol
ogis
tB
y E
LI
M. B
OW
ER
, Con
sulta
nt, M
enta
lH
ealth
in E
duca
tion,
Nat
iona
l Ins
titut
eof
Men
tal H
ealth
TH
E E
FFE
CT
IVE
NE
SS o
f th
e sc
hool
as a
pri
mar
y in
stitu
tion
lies
in it
s ab
ility
to m
aint
ain
degr
ees
of e
last
icity
and
flex
ibili
ty b
y w
hich
itca
n pr
ovid
e ed
ucat
iona
l ser
vice
s to
all
child
ren.
Whe
n it
is u
nabl
eto
do
this
, lar
ge n
umbe
rs o
fch
ildre
n ar
e un
succ
essf
ul in
the
cogn
itive
aff
ectiv
e ta
sks
re-
quir
ed b
y th
e sc
hool
, and
a pu
blic
men
tal h
ealth
pro
blem
resu
lts.
The
refo
re, t
he s
choo
l psy
chol
ogis
tne
eds
to a
pply
his
beha
vior
al s
cien
ce s
kills
to th
e ba
sic
rigi
ditie
s an
d or
gani
-za
tion
of th
e sc
hool
syst
em, i
n ad
ditio
n to
hel
ping
the
casu
altie
s an
d ex
trus
ions
fro
mth
e sy
stem
.H
e sh
ould
be
prev
entin
g sc
hool
cas
ualti
es r
athe
r th
anm
erel
y tr
eatin
g th
em.
As
a be
havi
oral
sci
entis
t, he
mus
t fin
d m
etho
ds o
f ut
ilizi
nghi
s ex
peri
ence
and
insi
ght
to g
rapp
le w
ith th
e pr
oble
ms
ofch
ildre
n w
ho f
ail t
o le
arn,
in s
uch
way
sas
to in
sure
the
succ
ess
of th
e sc
hool
sys
tem
with
oth
er c
hild
ren
who
sho
wco
mpa
rabl
e le
arni
ng b
ehav
ior
prob
lem
s.
To
achi
eve
the
purp
ose
of "
prev
entio
n,"
a gr
adua
te p
ro-
gram
for
trai
ning
sch
ool p
sych
olog
ists
wou
ld h
ave
to b
esp
ecia
lly d
esig
ned.
The
pro
gram
mig
ht b
e he
aded
by
a"m
aste
r" b
ehav
iora
l sci
entis
t with
a pa
rt-t
ime
staf
f co
m-
pose
d of
a p
ublic
hea
lth p
sych
iatr
ist,
clin
ical
psy
chol
ogis
t,an
thro
polo
gist
, sch
ool a
dmin
istr
ator
, soc
ial w
orke
r, a
ndre
me-
dial
edu
catio
nal c
peA
alis
t.A
ll ca
ndid
ates
in th
e 2-
or 3
-ye
ar p
rogr
am w
ould
be
plac
ed im
med
iate
ly in
sch
ools
asha
lf-d
ay w
orke
rs w
ith c
hild
ren
and
adol
esce
nts
as te
ache
rai
des,
as
scho
ol a
dmin
istr
ator
alte
r eg
os,
and
in a
ll ca
ses,
isbe
havi
oral
sci
ence
stu
dent
s in
the
scho
ol.
The
exp
erie
nces
of th
ese
stud
ents
in th
e sc
hool
wou
ldbe
inte
grat
ed a
ndex
-pa
nded
by
a fl
exib
le a
cade
mic
sem
inar
of n
ot m
ore
than
eigh
t stu
dent
s. w
ith th
e in
itial
em
phas
ispl
aced
on
per-
sona
lity
( in
clud
ing
cogn
itive
( de
velo
pmen
tan
d ay
nam
ics.
A f
ull y
ear
wou
ld b
e gi
ven
to a
cqui
ring
:
61
1. A
usa
ble
and
oper
able
pro
fess
iona
lse
lf, o
ne w
hich
is f
ree
to ta
ke in
and
proc
ess
data
and
cor
rect
sel
fan
d ot
her
perc
eptio
ns;
2. A
usa
ble
and
unde
rsta
ndab
le th
eory
of p
erso
nalit
yde
velo
p:te
at a
nd d
ynam
ics;
and
3. C
lues
and
hyp
othe
ses
abou
t the
scho
ol s
ocia
l sys
tem
,sc
hool
cur
ricu
lum
, and
pro
cedu
res
whi
ch m
ight
be
used
to b
uild
ego
stre
ngth
of
child
ren
thro
ugh
cogn
i.tiv
e-af
fect
ive
tran
sact
ions
in th
e sc
hool
.
The
fir
st p
art o
f th
e ac
adem
icpr
ogra
m w
ould
be
facu
lty c
en-
tere
d, b
ut w
ould
invo
lve
the
stud
ents
mor
e an
mor
e in
pres
enta
tions
and
ana
lyse
s gr
owin
gou
t of
thei
r w
ork
situ
a-tio
ns.
Whe
re a
reas
of
puzz
lem
ent
or o
mis
sion
wer
e pe
r-ce
ived
by
staf
f,an
app
ropr
iate
pre
sent
atio
n w
ould
be
plan
ned
and
give
n.If
, for
exa
mpl
e. th
e pr
oble
mof
teac
hing
read
ing
to s
low
stu
dent
s be
cam
ea
conc
ern
of th
e gr
oup,
itco
uld
be e
xplo
red
by in
tere
sted
mem
bers
of
the
staf
f.Fo
rth
ose
stud
ents
who
evi
denc
edm
ore
than
a c
urso
ry in
tere
st.
the
topi
c co
uld
be e
xplo
red
in d
epth
.In
all
of th
ese
and
othe
r sp
arki
ngs
betw
een
the
scho
ol-c
ente
red
expe
rien
ces
and
the
colle
ge s
taff
, the
em
phas
isw
ould
be
on m
akin
g th
e st
uden
ta
lear
ner
abou
t sel
f--a
bout
sel
f in
rel
atio
nto
the
scho
ol a
s a
62
syst
eman
d a
lear
ner
of h
owch
ildre
n an
d ad
ults
can
behe
lped
to f
unct
ion
best
inth
e sy
stem
.A
bove
all.
the
stu
dent
wou
ld s
eek
to f
ind
way
s of
hel
ping
the
scho
ol b
uild
ego
stre
ngth
in c
hild
ren
as w
ell a
s re
pair
ing
defi
cien
cies
whi
chcu
rtai
l eff
ectiv
e le
an:h
it,.
!Tul
ly id
ual s
tudi
es o
f he
alth
yas
wel
l as
diso
rder
ed c
hild
ren
wou
ld f
ocus
pri
mar
ilyon
the
use
of c
urri
cula
as
foun
datio
ns f
rom
whi
cate
ache
rs c
ould
stim
ulat
e hu
man
gro
wth
.D
urin
g th
esu
mm
er th
e ei
ght s
tude
nts
wou
ld o
pera
te th
eir
own
scho
ol f
or s
elec
ted
stud
ents
. The
cur
ricu
lum
mig
ht in
-cl
ude
rem
edia
l ins
truc
tion,
wor
kw
ith p
aren
ts, l
earn
ing
hou
to a
pply
psy
chol
ogic
al in
form
atio
n ab
out
child
ren
to s
peci
fic
educ
atio
nal p
roce
dure
s, a
nd h
owto
use
sta
ndar
dize
d in
ter-
view
ing
tech
niqu
es in
clud
ing
test
s.In
the
seco
ndye
ar th
e em
phas
is w
ould
be
plac
edon
:L
Int
erpe
rson
al s
kills
suc
has
inte
r vi
ewin
g, te
stin
g,co
mm
unic
atin
g fi
ndin
gs o
f te
ache
rs, c
ouns
elin
gpa
r-en
ts, a
nd w
orki
ng w
ith o
ther
pup
il pe
rson
nel
wor
k-er
s; a
nd2.
Res
earc
h sk
ills
and
mea
sure
men
t tec
hniq
ues.
Bot
h of
thes
ear
eas
of s
tudy
wou
ld b
e ca
rrie
d ou
t in
the
scho
ol in
sm
all l
abor
ator
yer
sim
ulat
ed s
ettin
gs f
rom
whi
chpr
oble
ms
coul
d b
pres
ente
dto
stu
dent
s an
d st
aff.
The
foc
us
of th
is w
ork
for
the
scho
ol p
sych
olog
ist w
ould
he
on a
ssis
t-in
g ot
her
scho
ol s
taff
in le
arni
ng h
ow to
use
him
as
a co
n-su
ltant
and
pro
fess
iona
l res
ourc
e in
the
beha
vior
al s
cien
ces.
The
pro
gram
dur
ing
the
last
or
thir
d ye
ar m
ight
incl
ude
rese
arch
des
ign.
bas
ic e
xper
ienc
es w
ith e
xcep
tiona
l chi
l-dr
en in
com
mun
ity s
ettin
gs, a
nd s
ocia
l psy
chol
ogy
and
so-
ciol
ogy
of o
rgan
izat
ions
and
soc
ial c
hang
e.T
he p
rodu
ct o
f su
ch a
pro
gram
wou
ld b
e a
beha
vior
al
scie
ntis
t or
scho
ol p
sych
olog
ist w
hose
exp
ertis
e an
d tr
aini
ngha
ve b
een
scho
ol c
ente
red.
Such
a p
erso
n no
t onl
y w
ould
assi
st th
e te
ache
r w
ith in
div;
dual
stu
dent
s. b
ut a
lso
wou
lden
hanc
e ed
ucat
iona
l tra
nsac
tions
in th
at c
lass
in a
pos
itive
prog
ram
of
prev
entio
n.In
add
ition
. he
wou
ld a
ssis
t oth
erpu
pil p
erso
nnel
wor
kers
adm
inis
trat
ors.
and
cur
ricu
lum
staf
f to
und
erst
and
and
isbe
havi
oral
sci
ence
kno
w-h
owan
d kn
owle
dge
to c
al r
y ou
t the
ir o
wn
dutie
s.
63
64
Cur
rent
ly, a
pub
lic s
choo
lsy
stem
is f
ortu
nate
if it
has
even
one
sch
ool p
sych
i-at
rist
.C
onse
quen
tly, t
he g
reat
est n
umbe
rof
stu
dent
sm
ay b
e be
nefi
ted
by a
pro
gram
of
prev
entio
nth
roug
h ps
ychi
atri
c co
nsul
tatio
nw
ith th
e sc
hool
staf
f.W
ith th
e sl
ow b
ut in
evita
ble
incr
ease
in n
umbe
rs o
f ch
ildps
ychi
atri
sts
and
othe
r m
enta
l hea
lthw
orke
rs in
sch
ools
, dir
ect
ther
apy
for
dist
urbe
dch
ildre
n m
ay e
vent
ually
be
prov
ided
.
PAR
T I
ICH
APT
ER
5
PS
YC
HIA
TR
IC S
ER
VIC
ES
By
WIL
LIA
M G
. HO
LL
IST
ER
, M.D
., Pr
ofes
sor
of C
omm
unity
Ps,
chia
try.
Dep
artm
ent o
f Ps
ychi
atry
, Uni
vers
ity o
f N
orth
Car
olin
a M
dica
l Sch
ool
The
opp
ortu
nity
to s
erve
as
cons
ulta
nt to
sch
ool s
yste
ms
prov
ide:
, the
psy
chia
tris
t with
som
e fa
scin
atin
g ch
alle
nges
in a
pply
ing
his
art a
nd s
cien
ce. S
ince
app
roxi
mat
ely
7 to
14
perc
ent o
f ch
ildre
n at
tend
ing
scho
ol e
ach
year
hav
e so
me
sort
of e
mot
iona
l, be
havi
oral
, or
psyc
hoso
mat
ic p
robl
em, o
rle
arni
ng p
robl
em o
f ps
ycho
logi
cal o
rigi
n, s
choo
l per
sonn
elar
e co
nfro
nted
with
the
task
of
deal
ing
with
them
.M
ost
of th
ese
Chi
ldre
n ha
ve m
ild, m
inor
, or
tran
sito
ry p
robl
ems
aris
ing
from
dev
elop
men
tal o
r si
tuat
iona
l cau
ses.
A le
sser
num
ber
have
mod
erat
ely
seve
re p
robl
ems
of th
e ge
nera
lna
ture
that
are
usu
ally
see
n in
chi
ld g
uida
nce
clin
ics.
Ase
riou
sly
ill c
hild
is r
arel
y en
coun
tere
d in
sch
ool.
Sinc
e A
mer
ican
trad
ition
pla
ces
our
scho
ols
unde
r lo
cal
scho
ol b
oard
s an
d ea
ch s
yste
m is
qui
te d
iffe
rent
in o
rgan
iza-
tion
and
prog
ram
, it i
s im
poss
ible
to m
ake
gene
raliz
atio
ns
that
wou
ld f
it al
l sch
ool s
yste
ms.
Som
e lo
cal s
choo
l jur
is-
dict
ions
com
plet
ely
igno
re th
e ex
iste
nce
of m
enta
l hea
lthpr
oble
ms
in th
eir
child
ren
and
cons
ider
thei
r m
issi
on q
uite
sepa
rate
fro
m m
enta
l hea
lth. l
east
of
all p
sych
iatr
y.O
n th
eot
her
hand
. the
re a
re s
choo
l sys
tem
s sh
ich
are
high
ly s
ensi
live
to th
e m
enta
l hea
lth a
nd s
ocia
l pro
blem
s of
thei
r pu
pils
and
cons
ider
thei
r so
lutio
n or
am
elio
ratio
n cl
osel
y re
late
dto
the
task
of
educ
atin
g a
usef
ul m
embe
r of
soc
iety
.So
me
of th
e la
rges
t psy
chia
tric
chi
ld g
uida
nce
clin
ics
in th
e co
un-
try
are
now
ope
rate
s' u
nder
sch
ool h
oard
aus
pice
s.T
he f
act
that
a la
rge
num
ber
of s
choo
ls h
ave
child
stu
dy u
nits
. psy
cho
-lo
gica
l clin
ics,
sch
ool s
ocia
l cas
ewor
k. s
peci
al c
lass
es. g
uid-
ance
cou
nsel
ing,
and
men
tal h
ealth
uni
ts in
thei
r sc
hool
heal
th p
rogr
ams
atte
sts
to th
e gr
owin
g ac
cept
ance
of
the
prin
cipl
e th
at s
choo
ls m
ust d
eal w
ith th
e -w
hole
chi
ld"
and
65
that
an
atte
mpt
sho
uld
bem
ade
to g
ive
ever
y ch
ild a
n ed
uca-
tion
that
bef
itshi
s in
divi
dual
pote
ntia
l,ev
en if
he
is h
andi
-ca
pped
by
men
tal
reta
rdat
ion
or e
mot
iona
l illn
ess.
In th
eir
ultim
ate
goal
s,ed
ucat
ion
and
men
tal h
ealth
both
see
k th
em
axim
um d
evel
opm
ent
of th
e po
tent
ial
of e
ach
indi
vidu
al.
TH
E S
CH
OO
LSY
STE
M'S
NE
ED
FO
RA
PSY
CH
IAT
RIC
CO
NSU
LT
AN
TA
lmos
tan
y sc
hool
sys
tem
,es
peci
ally
one
serv
ing
5,00
0or
mor
e ch
ildre
n,en
coun
ters
a n
umbe
rof
beh
avio
ral,
emo-
tiona
l, an
dps
ycho
som
atic
prob
lem
s in
its
stie
nts
and
staf
fas
par
t of
its d
aily
oper
atio
ns.
Succ
essf
ul r
ebol
utio
nof
thes
epr
oble
ms
perm
itsm
ore
stud
ent a
ndst
aff
ener
gies
to b
ede
vote
d to
the
wor
k of
lear
ning
.In
add
ition
to h
elpi
ng it
spe
ople
res
olve
prob
lem
s th
atin
terf
ere
with
the
educ
atio
nal
proc
ess,
the
scho
olha
s tw
o ot
her
maj
or m
enta
lhe
alth
re-
spon
sibi
litie
sthe
prev
entio
n of
beha
vior
and
emot
iona
ldi
sord
ers
stem
min
g fr
omth
e sc
hool
situ
atio
n, a
nd th
epo
si-
tive
task
of
build
ing
pers
onal
ities
(pro
mot
ing
ego
stre
ngth
s)ca
pabl
e of
effe
ctiv
e le
arni
ngan
d ap
plic
atio
nof
kno
wle
dge.
In f
ulfi
lling
thes
e th
ree
men
tal h
ealth
rela
ted
oblig
atio
ns,
a sc
hool
sys
tem
freq
uent
lytu
rns
to b
ehav
iora
l scie
ntis
ts, i
n-66
elud
ing
a ps
ychi
atri
c co
nsul
tant
.W
here
are
beha
vior
alun
ders
tand
ings
mos
t cru
cial
ly b
eing
appl
ied
thro
ugh
cons
ulta
tion
ina
scho
ol s
yste
m?
Whe
redo
psy
chia
tris
tsfi
nd a
nop
port
unity
toco
ntri
bute
thei
rsk
ills?
A q
uick
over
view
of
the
aver
age
com
plet
esc
hoc,
1pr
ogra
mw
ill p
inpo
int
the
follo
win
gpo
ssib
lear
eas
of w
ork
for
aps
ychi
atri
cco
nsul
tant
: sch
ool h
ealth
prog
ram
; pup
ilpe
r-so
nnel
dep
artm
ent;
spec
ial e
duca
tion
prog
ram
s (f
or th
eem
o-tio
nally
and
phys
ical
lyha
ndic
appe
d an
dth
e re
tard
ed, e
tc.)
;ch
ild s
tudy
unit;
res
earc
hse
ctio
n; te
ache
rhe
alth
prog
ram
;cl
assr
oom
-beh
avio
rm
anag
emen
t; an
dco
nsul
tatio
n w
ithth
esc
hool
adm
inis
trat
ion
on p
robl
ems
ofpe
rson
nel
man
age-
men
t, st
aff
rela
tions
,an
d po
licy
deve
lopm
ent.
In e
ach
ofth
ese
setti
ngs
psyc
hiat
rist
sca
n an
d do
con
trib
ute.
Scho
ol h
ealth
prog
ram
Her
e th
eps
ychi
atri
st's
clin
ical
know
ledg
eca
n he
lp g
ener
alph
ysic
ians
and
nurs
es a
sses
s th
em
any
tens
ion
and
stre
sspr
oble
ms
they
see
daily
.Sc
hool
ison
e of
life
's m
ajor
chal
-Ie
nges
a "m
ust"
bes
etw
ithpr
essu
res,
dem
ands
,ex
pect
a-tio
ns, a
ndfa
ilure
s. T
hese
prob
lem
sco
me
to th
e sc
hool
heal
thun
it hi
dden
behi
ndst
omac
hach
es,
head
ache
s,fa
tigue
reac
-tio
ns,
nerv
ous
sym
ptom
s,an
d fr
ank
anxi
ety
atta
cks.
Mos
t
scho
ol p
rinc
ipal
s an
d nu
rses
are
not
equ
ippe
d to
man
age
som
e of
thes
e pr
oble
ms
and
will
gra
tefu
lly u
se th
e co
unse
l,tr
aini
ng, e
mot
iona
l sup
port
, hel
p in
pla
nnin
g, a
nd r
efer
ral
reso
urce
s a
psyc
hiat
ric
cons
ulta
nt c
an p
rovi
de. T
his
is m
ainl
ycl
inic
al c
onsu
ltatio
n.
Pupi
l per
sonn
el d
epar
tmen
tIn
mos
t sch
eol s
yste
ms
the
larg
est c
once
ntra
tion
of m
enta
lhe
alth
trai
ned
pers
onne
l is
plac
ed in
this
uni
t.T
he r
espo
nsi-
bilit
ies,
fun
ctio
ns, a
nd a
te n
umbe
rs o
f ps
ycho
logi
sts,
soc
ial
wor
kers
, atte
ndan
ce w
orke
rs, g
uida
nce
coun
selo
r., r
.mie
dial
ther
apis
ts. s
pPec
han
d ot
hers
var
y w
idel
y fr
omsy
stem
to s
yste
m. S
ome
selic
ol b
oa d
s hi
re o
nly
one
,nd
ofpu
pil p
erso
nnel
wor
ker,
whi
le a
few
hav
e de
velo
ped
colla
bora
-tiv
e te
ams
of th
ese
spec
ialis
ts w
ith c
erta
in r
oles
in c
omm
on,
as w
ell a
s un
ique
rol
e fu
nctio
ns. A
psy
chia
tric
con
sulta
ntas
ked
to s
erve
suc
h sp
ecia
lists
mus
t car
eful
ly d
iagn
ose
thei
rop
erat
iona
l pat
tern
s, a
s ac
tual
rol
es m
ay v
ary
wid
ely
from
ster
eoty
ped
conc
epts
of
each
dis
cipl
ine'
s fu
nctio
noft
en b
en-
efic
ially
.Si
nce
prof
essi
ons
may
hav
e va
riou
s gr
a.le
s of
spe
-ci
alis
ts (
cert
ifie
d, m
aste
rs d
egre
e, a
nd d
octo
ral l
evel
s),
and
sinc
e na
tura
l cap
acity
to r
elat
e to
par
ents
, tea
c!_e
rs, a
ndch
ildre
n of
ten
exis
ts w
ithou
t rel
atio
n to
leve
l or
type
of
trai
n-in
g, th
e ro
les
assi
gned
and
acc
epte
d m
ay s
how
mar
ked
vari
a-
tion
from
the
usua
l hos
pita
l and
clin
ical
fun
ctio
ns o
f th
ese
sam
e di
scip
lines
.W
hate
ver
role
s th
ey m
ay p
erfo
rm, m
em-
bers
of
the
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
taff
all
enco
unte
r di
ffic
ult p
rob-
lem
s of
ass
essm
ent,
diag
nosi
s, in
terp
reta
tion,
and
inte
rper
-so
nal r
elat
ions
, and
man
y of
them
wel
com
e pr
oble
m-c
ente
red
cons
ulta
tion
from
a p
sych
iatr
ist w
ho is
cap
able
of
tran
slat
ing
his
clin
ical
und
erst
andi
ngs,
der
ived
fro
m s
tudi
es o
f th
ese
vere
ly il
l, in
to p
ragm
atic
hel
p in
dea
ling
with
thes
e ch
il-dr
en w
ho h
ave
min
or p
robl
ems.
Spec
ial e
duca
tion
prog
ram
sA
lthou
gh v
ario
us s
choo
l boa
rds
orga
nize
them
dif
fere
ntly
,m
ost s
dioo
l pro
gram
s pr
ovid
e a
num
ber
of s
peci
al e
duca
tion
oppo
rtun
ities
.T
hese
incl
ude
prov
isio
ns f
or tu
tori
ng, r
e-m
edia
l rea
ding
, spe
ech
ther
apy,
res
ourc
e ro
oms,
spe
cial
clas
ses,
spe
cial
sch
ools
, hos
pita
l or
hom
ebou
nd te
achi
ng, a
sw
ell a
s ca
mps
, spe
cial
sum
mer
pro
gram
s, o
r re
duce
d tim
epr
ogra
ms
for
child
ren
with
var
ied
men
tal o
r ph
ysic
al d
is-
abili
ties.
The
sta
ff o
pera
ting
thes
e pr
ogia
ms
not o
nly
has
to d
eal w
ith th
e em
otio
nal a
nd s
ocia
l asp
ects
of
phys
ical
hand
icap
s, b
ut a
lso
prov
ide
spec
ial e
duca
tiona
l exp
erie
nces
for
trai
nabl
e re
tard
ed, e
duca
ble
reta
rded
, and
em
otio
nally
hand
icap
ped
child
ren.
The
chi
ldre
n ar
e fr
eque
ntly
gro
uped
into
hel
ping
cla
sses
of
16 to
20
pupi
ls o
r sp
ecia
l zla
sses
of
67
4 to
10,
or
are
man
aged
in a
reg
ular
cla
ss w
ith s
peci
alas
sist
-an
ce to
the
teac
her.
In a
dditi
on, t
he s
choo
lfr
eque
ntly
has
indi
vidu
al a
ndgr
oup
cont
acts
with
the
pare
nts
of th
ese
chil-
dren
whe
re f
amily
inte
ract
ions
and
atti
tude
sm
ust b
e m
an-
aged
wis
ely
if r
esul
tsar
e to
be
real
ized
in s
choo
l.Fr
eque
ntly
, the
sch
ool s
taff
mem
bers
in e
ach
of th
ese
spe-
cial
edu
catio
npr
ogra
ms
are
conf
ront
ed w
ith q
uite
dif
ficu
ltde
cisi
ons
and
prob
lem
sre
gard
ing
scre
enin
g, d
iagn
osis
, pro
per
plac
emen
t and
gro
upin
g of
stud
ents
, rou
tine
asse
ssm
ents
,ev
alua
tion
ofpr
ogra
m, a
nd th
e ta
sk o
f in
terp
reta
tion
to p
ar-
ents
or
othe
r st
aff.
The
se a
re p
rim
ear
eas
for
psyc
hiat
ric
cons
ulta
tion.
Chi
ld s
tudy
uni
tM
ost o
f th
e la
rger
sch
ool
syst
ems
have
dev
elop
ed c
entr
al-
ized
uni
ts to
con
duct
psyc
holo
gica
l stu
dies
in d
epth
.T
hese
oper
ate
unde
r su
chna
mes
as
child
stu
dy u
nit,
psyc
hoed
uca-
tiona
l clin
ic, c
hild
gui
danc
ese
rvic
e, o
r cl
inic
.In
thes
e se
t-tin
gs th
e ps
ychi
atri
st u
sual
lyfu
nctio
ns a
sa
mem
ber
of a
nin
terd
isci
plin
ary
team
.In
the
mor
e fu
lly d
evel
oped
uni
ts,
the
psyc
hiat
rist
is a
sked
to p
rovi
de d
iagn
osis
,tr
eatm
ent,
supe
rvis
ion,
sta
ff tr
aini
ng,
cons
ulta
tion,
and
pla
nnin
g fu
nc-
tions
sim
ilar
to th
ose
perf
orm
ed b
y a
psyc
hiat
rist
ina
child
guid
ance
clin
ic.
68
Res
earc
h se
ctio
nL
ess
freq
uent
ly, b
ut in
crea
sing
lyov
er th
e la
st f
ew y
ears
,sc
hool
sys
tem
s, u
nive
rsity
labo
rato
ries
, or
dem
onst
ratio
nsc
hool
s ha
ve d
evel
oped
res
earc
hpr
ogra
ms
utili
zing
psy
chi-
atri
c pa
rtic
ipat
ion
and
cons
ulta
tion.
Psyc
hiat
rist
s w
orki
ngin
thes
e se
tting
sm
ay s
erve
as
asse
ssor
s of
the
chan
ge c
ifce
r-ta
in d
epen
dent
var
iabl
es,
obse
rver
s an
d in
terp
rete
rs o
fva
ri-
ous
dyna
mic
pro
cess
es, a
nd o
ccas
iona
lly,
as p
art o
f th
ein
terv
entio
n.T
hose
with
res
earc
hex
peri
ence
oft
en s
hare
inth
e pr
epar
atio
n of
des
ign
and
sam
ple
sele
ctio
n,as
wel
l as
into
ol v
alid
atio
n an
d re
liabi
lity
test
ing
phas
es o
f th
e re
sear
ch.
Tea
cher
hea
lthpr
ogra
mC
erta
in s
choo
l sys
tem
s ut
ilize
som
e of
the
psyc
hiat
ric
serv
-ic
es a
vaila
ble
to th
emto
pro
vide
clin
ical
ser
vice
sto
thei
rst
affs
, not
onl
yas
a p
art o
f th
e pe
rson
nel s
ervi
ces
of th
eor
gani
zatio
n bu
t -A
lso
as a
n ad
ditio
nal s
afeg
uard
of
the
gen-
eral
men
tal h
ealth
of
clas
sroo
mgr
oups
.E
ntra
nce
exam
ina-
tions
, on-
the-
job
appr
aisa
ls,
sele
ctio
n fo
r pr
omot
ion
and
lead
ersh
ip, c
heck
ing
suita
bilit
yfo
r du
ty, a
nd p
rovi
ding
assi
stan
ce to
indi
vidu
als,
are
som
e of
the
serv
ices
req
uest
edof
the
psyc
hiat
rist
.So
me
soph
istic
ated
syst
ems
mak
e av
ail-
able
to th
eir
staf
fin
anon
ymity
a pa
nel o
f ps
ychi
atri
cco
nsul
tant
s as
par
t of
an e
mpl
oyee
hea
lth s
ervi
ce.
Thi
s
heal
th b
enef
it is
som
etim
esco
vere
d by
insu
ranc
e an
d fu
nc-
tions
as
in p
riva
te p
ract
ice.
TH
E P
SYC
HIA
TR
IST
AS
CO
NSU
LT
AN
T T
OT
HE
TE
AC
HE
RT
he w
ork
of th
e ps
ychi
atri
stas
con
sulta
nt to
the
teac
her
has
been
sel
ecte
d fo
rse
para
te e
mph
asis
bec
ause
spe
cifi
cm
odes
of
func
tioni
ng in
this
area
hav
e re
cent
ly r
ecei
ved
mor
eco
mpl
ete
delin
eatio
n in
the
liter
atur
e.'
The
Nat
iona
l Ins
ti-
Cap
lan,
Ger
ald,
ed.
Prev
entio
n of
Men
tal D
isor
ders
in C
hild
ren.
New
Yor
k, B
asic
Boo
ks, 1
961.
.M
enta
l Hea
lth C
onsu
ltatio
n.N
ew Y
ork,
Gri
me
and
Stra
tton,
196
2..
"Men
tal H
ealth
Con
sulta
tion
in S
choo
ls."
The
Ele
men
tsof
a C
omm
unity
Men
tal
Hea
lth P
rogr
am. N
ew Y
ork,
Milb
ank
Mem
oria
l Fun
d, 1
956.
Kle
in, D
onal
d C
., an
dL
inde
man
n, E
rich
."P
reve
ntiv
e In
terv
entio
nin
Ind
ivid
ual a
nd F
amily
Cri
sis
Situ
atio
ns,"
cha
pter
XII
I,p.
283
-3C
6.Pr
even
tion
of M
enta
l Dis
orde
rsin
Chi
ldre
n. N
ew Y
ork,
Bas
ic B
ooks
,19
61.
Lin
dem
ann,
Eri
ch.
"The
Wel
lesl
ey P
roje
ct f
orth
e St
udy
of C
er-
tain
Pro
blem
s in
Com
mun
ityM
enta
l Hea
lth,"
p. 1
67-1
85.
Inte
rrel
a-tio
ns B
etw
een
the
Soci
al E
nvir
onm
ent a
nd P
sych
iatr
ic D
isor
ders
.N
ewY
ork,
Milb
ank
Mem
oria
lFu
nd, 1
953.
tute
of
Men
tal H
ealth
cos
pons
ored
two
conf
eren
ces
on th
ispr
oble
m w
ith S
tate
men
tal h
ealth
aut
h9ri
ties
ofPe
nnsy
lvan
iaan
d w
ith m
enta
l hea
lthsp
ecia
lists
of
Cal
ifor
nia.
To
beco
me
real
ly p
ract
ical
for
the
teac
her,
suc
cess
ful
con-
sulta
tion
mus
tm
ove
beyo
nd d
escr
if in
g th
e ch
ild's
nee
dsan
dth
e m
eani
ngs
of h
isbe
havi
or in
to th
e re
alm
of
help
ing
the
teac
her
with
his
hou
r-by
-hou
r cla
ssro
om m
anag
emen
t.E
ven
child
ren
unde
r th
erap
yor
cas
es, o
rk m
anag
emen
t stil
lco
me
to s
choo
l and
mus
t be
deal
tw
ith c
onst
ruct
ivel
y in
the
clas
sroo
m.
Mos
t im
port
ant i
s th
eco
nsid
erat
ion
that
the
reco
mm
enda
-tio
n to
the
teac
her
mus
t be
tran
slat
ed in
to a
nd c
omm
unic
ated
in h
is la
ngua
ge.
The
psy
chia
tris
tm
ust &
quir
e th
e st
anda
rd b
ehav
ior
man
-ag
emen
t ter
min
olog
y of
he
clas
sroo
mte
ache
r in
ord
erto
com
mun
icat
e ef
fect
ivel
y w
ith th
ete
ache
r.Si
nce
cons
ulta
tion
ir.
any
nonp
sych
iatr
ic s
ettin
g re
quir
esth
at th
e co
nsul
tant
fin
tst
udy
the
setti
ng th
orou
ghly
,he
can
ask
for
an o
rien
tate
m e
xpiv
y;; u
in ; f
u to
etc
licg
ins
wor
k.B
y ob
serv
ing
clas
ses
in o
rder
to li
st a
nd c
ateg
oriz
e ty
pes
ofbe
havi
or m
anag
emen
t tec
hniq
ues
used
by
teac
hers
, he
can
soon
bui
ld u
p an
imag
e of
wha
t tea
cher
sca
n an
d ca
nnot
do.
He
may
obs
erve
a te
ache
r's e
mot
iona
l clim
ate-
setti
ng m
eth- 69
ods,
his
use
of a
ntic
ipat
ory
guid
ance
, his
met
hods
of
soci
alm
anag
emen
t, an
d hi
sre
dire
ctio
n of
poor
beh
avio
r;as
var
ious
way
sa
leac
her
mee
ts c
hild
ren'
sem
otio
nal n
eeds
indi
rect
ly th
roug
hac
tiviti
es w
ithpe
ers
and
thro
ugh
dire
ctem
otio
nal s
uppo
rt.
Psyc
hiat
rist
s en
gage
din
teac
her
cons
ulta
tion
freq
uent
lyar
e ca
lled
upon
to s
erve
as
grou
p co
nsul
tant
s. S
ome
have
foun
d it
wis
eto
use
a c
ompl
eted
case
as
a sp
ring
boar
dfo
rdi
scus
sing
the
child
ren
who
are
not y
etca
ses
but
are
show
ing
earl
ysi
gnst
hepr
ecas
es.
Such
dis
cuss
ions
ofte
nm
ove
into
the
topi
cof
pre
vent
ive
man
agem
ent s
o th
atth
ese
child
ren
do n
ot b
ecom
eca
ndid
ates
for
indi
vidu
al h
elp.
Insu
mm
ary,
wor
k w
ithte
ache
rs p
rovi
des
oppo
rtun
ities
tosh
arpe
n th
eir
sens
iilvi
ties
and
stre
ngth
en th
eir r
ole
as te
ache
rsan
d ca
n be
com
ean
eff
ectiv
e m
etho
d of
prim
ary
prev
entio
nT
HE
PSY
CH
IAT
RIS
TA
S C
ON
SUL
TA
NT
TO
TH
E S
CH
OO
LA
DM
INIS
TR
AT
OR
Thi
s co
nsul
tant
role
is s
elec
ted
for
fulle
rex
posi
tion
be-
caus
e of
its
impo
rtan
cean
d sp
ecia
lte
chni
cal c
onsi
dera
-tio
ns.
Con
side
ring
his
high
sta
tus
and
exte
nsiv
e tr
aini
ng,
it m
ight
be
expe
cted
that
the
psyc
hiat
rist
wou
ldqu
ickl
y be
acce
pted
into
the
inne
r of
fice
of
the
supe
rint
ende
ntto
-ly
e70
coun
sel
on th
ose
mat
ters
of
polic
y an
dpr
actic
e th
at w
ould
affe
ct th
e em
otio
nal
wel
l-be
ing
of a
llsc
hool
chi
ldre
n.O
b-se
rvat
ions
in th
efi
eld
indi
cate
that
this
rar
ely
happ
ens
asth
e op
enin
gga
mbi
t.In
stea
d, th
is h
igh
oppo
rtun
ityse
ems
to c
ome
step
by
step
thro
ugh
a pr
oces
s of
rol
es e
volu
tion.
Prob
lem
s of
rev
olut
ion
A p
s>,:n
iatr
ist
com
ing
to w
ork
in a
sch
ool
syst
em u
sual
lym
eets
with
initi
alho
spita
lity
and
high
expe
ctat
ions
.L
ater
disa
ppoi
ntm
ent
reac
tions
may
app
ear
as h
islim
its b
e &om
eap
pare
nt. F
requ
ently
he .1
s fi
rst
perc
eive
dls
an
omni
pote
ntcl
inic
ian
and
will
...ec
eivt
. ref
erra
l:th
e m
ost s
ever
e r
t Jbl
emca
ses
that
hat
e ac
cum
ulat
ed in
the
syst
em o
ver
the
year
s.M
anv
of th
efi
rst r
efer
rals
will
be
tota
ltr
ansf
ers
ofre
spon
-si
bilit
y (d
umpi
ng)
as th
e sc
hool
s se
ekto
rid
them
selv
esof
prob
lem
s an
dun
load
them
o' th
e ne
w s
peci
alis
t.T
he p
re-
dict
able
occu
rren
ce o
f th
is p
heno
men
onis
indi
catio
nth
at th
ispr
oble
m s
houl
dbe
ant
icip
ated
and
shou
ld b
eca
refu
lly ir
is-
cuss
ed w
ith th
ead
min
istr
atio
n ah
ead
of ti
me.
Suc
hpr
oble
ms
may
be
min
imiz
ed b
ya
care
ful e
xpla
natio
nto
the
staf
of
the
psyc
hiat
rist
's r
ole.
As
ster
eoty
ped
conc
epts
giv
ew
ay to
rea
lity,
a ph
ase
of"t
estin
g" o
ften
appe
ars.
Thr
ough
dif
ficu
ltre
ferr
als
and
othe
r
devi
ces,
the
scho
ol s
taff
test
s th
e sk
ills
of th
e ps
ychi
atri
st.
As
the
psyc
hiat
rist
pas
ses
thes
e "t
ests
" an
d de
mon
stra
tes
that
he c
an id
entif
y w
ith th
e ed
ucat
ors'
mis
sion
,ne
w o
ppor
tuni
-tie
s ar
e op
ened
up
to h
im.
From
con
sulta
nt in
clin
ical
mat
ters
reg
ardi
ng p
upils
and
staf
f, h
e m
ay b
e as
ked
to c
ouns
el w
ithpa
rent
s, o
r co
nstir
_tw
ith te
ache
rs o
n ge
nera
l cla
ssro
om b
ehav
ior
man
agem
ent.
He
may
mov
e on
to s
hari
ng in
the
inse
rvic
e tr
aini
ng o
fte
ache
rs o
r pu
pil p
erso
nnel
sta
ff, p
artic
ipat
ing
ina
stud
ygr
oup,
and
wor
king
on
a cu
rric
ulum
com
mitt
ee. A
s he
be-
com
es "
safe
r" a
nd m
ore
clos
ely
iden
tifie
d w
ith e
duca
tors
,th
e ps
ychi
atri
stm
ay b
e re
ques
ted
by th
e pr
inci
pal,
or s
ome
cent
ral s
taff
per
son,
to w
ork
with
him
. As
thes
e ex
tens
ions
of tr
ust a
re f
ulfi
lled,
the
psyc
hiat
rist
may
be
invi
ted
to b
e-co
me
a di
rect
con
sulta
nt to
tha
cent
ral s
taff
and
the
supe
rin-
tend
ent.
Thi
s se
quen
ce o
f ro
les
and
proc
esse
s ha
s be
enca
lled
"the
rol
e ev
olut
ion
proc
ess.
"R
ecog
nitio
n of
the
need
s an
d dy
neic
s th
at c
reat
e th
is p
heno
men
onw
ill h
elp
the
psyc
hiat
ric
cons
ulta
nt e
xped
ite th
ispr
oces
s.A
psy
chia
tris
t who
eve
ntua
llyse
rves
the
prin
cipa
l or
supe
rint
ende
nt a
s a
mor
e or
less
per
sona
l con
sulta
nt w
illfr
eque
ntly
be
aske
d to
giv
e co
unse
lon
dif
ficu
lt st
aff
rela
tion-
ship
pro
blem
s,or
ask
ed to
sug
gest
way
s to
und
erst
and
and
cope
with
fan
atic
s, p
rofe
ssio
nal c
ritic
s, o
r w
ith p
aren
ts w
hoha
rass
the
facu
lty.
The
se c
linic
ally
rel
ated
nee
ds a
re u
sual
lyau
gmen
ted
by th
e sc
hool
adm
inis
trat
or's
des
ire
to u
nder
-st
and
his
own
role
and
fee
lings
as h
e tr
ies
to c
ope
with
the
stre
sses
of
his
job.
Aft
erth
eps
ychi
atri
st-a
dmin
istr
ator
rela
tions
hip
has
mat
ured
into
con
side
rabl
e tr
ust,
the
cons
ulta
ntm
ay b
epr
esen
ted
with
bid
s to
hel
p an
d ad
v;se
on s
choo
l sys
tem
or
com
mun
ityw
ide
soci
al p
sych
iatr
y pr
oble
ms.
Info
rmat
ion
and
guid
arce
may
be
requ
este
don
way
s to
bui
ld s
taff
mor
ale,
or w
ays
to r
edir
ect p
aren
t and
citi
zen
host
ilitie
s an
d fe
ars
into
con
stru
ctiv
e su
ppor
t.T
he p
sych
iatr
ist m
ay b
e as
ked
to e
xam
ine
scho
ol p
olic
ies
to h
elp
in s
ettin
g up
"ex
cept
ion
mec
hani
sms"
to a
void
har
mfu
l im
pact
on c
erta
in in
divi
dual
s.A
t thi
s st
age
the
cons
ulta
ntm
ay f
ind
him
self
far
fro
m h
isus
ual c
linic
al b
ase
and
in n
eed
of c
onsi
dera
ble
scho
larl
yre
view
of
the
soci
al p
sych
olog
ical
res
earc
hon
adm
inis
tra-
tive
proc
ess.
Eve
n in
thes
e m
atte
rs o
f po
licy,
it is
ess
entia
lto
pro
vide
the
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
per
sona
lity
dyna
mic
s an
din
terp
erso
nal p
roce
sses
in o
rder
to h
uman
ize
educ
atio
nal
polic
y. T
hus,
psy
chia
tris
ts h
ave
a se
rvic
e to
off
er a
t all
leve
lsof
the
scho
ol s
yste
mfr
om p
upil
to s
uper
inte
nden
t of
scho
ols.
71
72
A c
hild
with
a c
omm
unic
atio
n di
sord
er m
ay b
e ha
ndic
appe
d in
sch
ool a
ndin
his
per
sona
l dev
elop
men
t.W
ithou
t ass
ista
nce,
he
will
hav
e on
e st
rike
agai
nst h
im w
hen,
as
an a
dult,
he
seek
s to
est
ablis
h hi
mse
lf in
the
wor
king
and
soci
al w
orld
.
PA
RT
IIC
HA
PT
ER
6
SP
EE
CH
AN
D H
EA
RIN
G S
ER
VIC
ES
By
PA
RLE
Y W
. NE
WM
AN
,A
ssoc
iate
Sec
reta
ry, A
mer
ican
Spe
ech
and
Hea
ring
Ass
ocia
tion
The
pri
mar
y pu
rpos
e of
spe
ech
and
hear
ing
serv
ices
is th
ere
med
iatio
n of
dis
orde
rs o
f hu
man
com
mun
icat
ion.
The
term
"co
mm
unic
atio
n di
sord
er"
mea
ns a
n im
pair
men
t in
spee
ch, h
eari
ng, o
r la
ngua
ge, o
r so
me
com
bina
tion
of th
ese.
The
con
sequ
ence
s of
ser
ious
dis
abili
ties
of c
omm
unic
atio
nar
e fa
r re
achi
ng. A
dis
orde
r of
com
mun
icat
ion
may
inhi
bit
an in
divi
dual
's s
ocia
l adj
ustm
ent,
rest
rict
his
eco
nom
ic p
o-te
ntia
l, an
d re
duce
his
lear
ning
abi
lity.
Nor
mal
spe
ech
de-
velo
pmen
t is
even
ess
entia
l to
the
norm
al m
atur
atio
n of
thou
ght p
roce
sses
.T
he p
rofe
ssio
n w
hich
has
con
cern
ed it
self
with
dis
orde
rsof
com
mun
icat
ion
is n
ew a
nd g
row
ing
rapi
dly.
An
indi
ca-
tion
of it
s re
cent
em
erge
nce
is th
it, a
t the
pre
rAnt
tim
e, s
ever
aldi
ffer
ent n
ames
are
atta
che-
1. .o
it.
How
ever
, spe
ech
and
hear
ing
prof
essi
on is
the
title
mos
t com
mon
ly u
sed.
The
spec
ialis
t who
is c
once
rned
pri
mar
ily w
ith s
peec
h di
sord
ers
is k
now
n as
a s
peec
h pa
thol
ogis
t, sp
eech
clin
icia
n, s
peec
h co
r-re
ctio
nist
, and
spe
ech
ther
apis
t. T
he p
erso
n w
ho is
pri
mar
ilyco
ncer
ned
with
dis
orde
rs o
f he
arin
g is
cal
led
an a
udio
logi
st.
Man
y sc
hool
sys
tem
s th
roug
hout
the
coun
try
have
est
ab-
lishe
d sp
eech
and
hea
ring
pro
gram
s to
alle
viat
e th
e pr
oble
ms
in le
arni
ng c
reat
ed b
y di
sord
ers
of c
omm
unic
atio
n. A
desc
ript
ion
of th
e id
eal p
rogr
am is
impo
ssib
le, f
or lo
cal c
on-
ditio
ns v
ary
and
new
ir e
thod
s re
mai
n to
be
test
ed.
Nev
er-
thel
ess,
som
e su
gges
tions
are
pro
vide
d he
re f
or th
e co
nsid
era-
tion
of s
choo
l off
icia
ls w
ho m
ay n
eed
info
rmat
ion
nrm
whi
lew
aitin
g fo
r m
ore
defi
nitiv
e re
sults
fro
m r
esea
rch
as is
curr
ently
bei
ng c
ondu
cted
by
the
Inte
rpro
fess
iona
l Res
earc
hC
omm
issi
on o
n Pu
pil P
erso
nnel
Ser
vice
s.
73
INC
IDE
NC
E A
ND
PR
EV
AL
EN
CE
OF
SPE
EC
H A
ND
HE
AR
ING
DIS
OR
DE
RS
With
in th
e to
tal p
opul
atio
n of
han
dica
pped
child
ren
in th
eU
nite
d St
ates
, the
larg
est s
ibgr
oup
cons
ists
of
child
ren
with
spee
ch a
nd h
eari
ng p
robl
ems,
Mor
o th
an3
mill
ion
child
ren
have
spe
ech
or h
e' 'n
gso
ser
ious
ly im
pair
ed th
at it
inte
r-fe
res
with
thei
r ed
uLat
iona
l, so
cial
, or
emot
iona
l adj
ustm
ent.
An
estim
ate
mad
e in
195
9 1
indi
cate
sth
at 5
per
cent
of
our
scho
ol-a
ge c
hild
ren
have
spe
ech
prob
lem
s.If
we
take
a ty
pica
l city
with
a po
puht
ion
of 4
0,00
0, a
ndas
sum
e a
scho
ol p
opul
atio
n of
app
roxi
teat
ely
10.0
00,
we
wou
ld e
xpec
t to
find
500
chi
ldre
nw
ith s
petA
han
dica
ps.
Tab
le 1
rep
rese
nts
the
estim
ated
num
ber
of th
ese
500
scho
olch
ildre
n w
ith e
ach
type
of
spee
ch p
robl
em.
1 L
iais
on S
ubco
mm
ittee
on L
egis
latio
n, A
mer
ican
Spe
ech
and
Hea
r-in
g A
ssoc
iatio
n, "
The
Nee
d fo
r A
dequ
atel
yT
rain
ed S
peec
h Pa
thol
o-gi
sts
and
Aud
iolo
gist
s."
ASH
AA
Jour
nal o
f th
e A
rner
icaa
Spe
ech
and
Hea
ring
Ass
ocia
tion,
vol
. 1, N
o. 4
,D
ecem
ber
1959
, pp.
138
-139
.
74
Tab
le 1
.E
stim
ated
child
ren of
num
ber
of s
choo
l-ag
ein
a s
choo
l pop
ulat
ion
of 1
0,00
0, w
ithea
ch ty
pesp
eech
pro
blem
Num
ber
of c
hild
ren
with
spe
ech
prob
lem
sA
rtic
ulat
ion
prob
lem
300
Stut
teri
ng10
0V
oice
dis
orde
r10
Spee
ch p
robl
ems
due
to c
left
pal
ate
10Sp
eech
pro
blem
s du
e to
cer
ebra
l pal
sy10
Ret
arde
d sp
eech
dev
elop
men
t20
Spee
ch p
robl
em d
ue to
impa
ired
hea
ring
50
Tot
al50
0
The
abo
ve e
stim
ates
are
belie
ved
to b
e co
nser
vativ
e an
d.in
som
e in
stan
ces,
may
und
eres
timat
e th
e m
agni
tude
of
the
prob
lem
. An
addi
tiona
l 0.7
perc
ent o
f sc
hool
-age
chi
ldre
nha
ve h
eari
ng lo
sses
whi
char
e si
gnif
ican
tly h
andi
capp
ing.
Ano
ther
mill
ion
scho
ol c
hild
ren
have
non
hand
icap
ping
re-
duct
ions
in h
eari
ng a
cuity
.
TY
PES
OF
CO
MM
UN
ICA
TIO
ND
ISO
RD
ER
ST
he ty
pes
of s
peec
h di
sord
ers
usua
lly f
ound
in e
lem
enta
ryan
d se
cond
ary
scho
ols
are
brie
fly
defi
ned.
U.`
Art
icul
atio
n di
sord
erT
he c
hild
with
a pr
oble
m o
f ar
ticul
atio
nha
s di
ffic
ulty
inpr
oduc
ing
the
soun
dsof
spe
ech.
The
ext
ent o
fdi
sabi
lity
cove
rs th
e en
tire
rang
e of
sev
erity
, fro
mm
isar
ticul
atin
gon
eso
und
to c
ompl
etel
yun
inte
lligi
ble
spee
ch.
As
show
n in
tabl
e1,
the
prob
lem
of m
isar
ticul
atio
nis
the
mos
t com
mon
type
of s
peec
h di
sord
er.
Spee
ch p
robl
ems
due
to c
ereb
ral
pals
yT
he n
euro
mus
cula
r dis
orde
r of
cer
ebra
l pal
sy is
man
ifes
ted
in s
ever
alw
ays
and
usua
lly r
esul
tsin
spe
ech
and
lang
uage
impa
irm
ent.
A c
hild
with
cer
ebra
lpa
lsy
may
hav
em
otor
,se
nsor
y, a
nd p
erce
ptua
ldi
stur
banc
es w
hich
mak
e it
diff
icul
t,if
not
impo
ssib
le,
for
him
to s
peak
and
utili
ze th
esy
mbo
lsof
lang
uage
.
Spee
ch p
robl
ems
due
to c
left
pala
teT
he s
peec
h of
a ch
ild w
ith a
cle
ft p
alat
eis
gen
eral
ly c
har-
acte
rize
d by
poor
art
icul
atio
n an
dna
salit
y, a
nd is
oft
enve
rydi
ffic
ult t
o un
ders
tand
.T
he c
hild
with
a cl
eft p
alat
e is
bor
nw
ith a
n op
enin
gin
the
roof
of
the
mou
th.
Thi
s op
enin
gm
akes
it im
poss
ible
or d
iffi
cult
to p
rodu
ceno
rmal
spe
ech
soun
ds, f
or n
asal
reso
nanc
e an
d na
sal
esca
pe o
f so
und
inte
r-
fere
. 4.I
t is
extr
emel
y un
likel
yth
at a
chi
ld w
ithcl
eft p
alat
esp
eech
wou
ldre
ach
scho
olag
e w
ithou
t hav
ing
unde
rgon
esu
rger
y an
d pe
rhap
spr
osth
odon
tictr
eatm
ent t
o co
rrec
t the
birt
h de
fect
.Y
et, i
nm
any
case
s, th
ese
child
ren
need
ass
ist-
ance
in a
cqui
ring
app
ropr
iate
spee
ch.
Spee
ch p
robl
ems
due
to im
pair
edhe
arin
gU
nlik
e th
e de
afch
ild, t
heha
rd-o
f-he
arin
g ch
ildis
fou
ndin
reg
ular
clas
sroo
ms.
He
isno
t dea
f bu
t exp
erie
nces
dif-
ficu
lty in
sou
ndre
cept
ion.
The
deg
ree
and
type
s of
hea
r-in
g im
pair
men
t var
y w
idel
y, a
nd th
us,
requ
ire
expe
rt a
sses
s-m
ent a
nd in
terp
reta
tion.
If a
chi
ld h
asdi
ffic
ulty
in h
ear-
ing
cert
ain
soun
dsof
spe
ech,
he
will
prob
ably
be
unab
leto
pron
ounc
e th
em c
orre
ctly
.
Spee
ch p
robl
ems
due
to s
tutte
ring
The
tens
e, r
epet
itiou
s,or
hes
itant
spe
ech
ofso
me
child
ren
is q
uick
ly e
valu
ated
by m
ost
pers
ons
as s
tutte
ring
, but
the
prob
lem
ism
ore
com
plex
than
the
over
t man
ifes
tatio
nsm
ight
sug
gest
. The
child
who
stut
ters
sho
uld
rece
ive
help
as
soon
as
poss
ible
to r
educ
eth
e po
ssib
ility
of
the
prob
lem
be-
com
ing
firm
ly e
ntre
nche
d.
75
Voi
ce p
robl
ems
A s
erio
us d
evia
tion
in v
oice
pro
duct
ion
can
sign
ific
antly
inte
rfer
e w
ith th
e no
rmal
proc
ess
of c
or m
uniz
atio
n.It
may
also
indi
cate
an
orga
nic
prob
lem
nee
ding
med
ical
trea
tmen
t.
Spee
ch p
robl
ems
due
to d
elay
ed s
peec
hde
velo
pmen
tD
elay
ed s
peec
h or
spe
ech
reta
rdat
ion
does
not i
ndic
ate
asp
ecif
ic k
ind
of d
isab
ility
, !.u
t is
a br
oad
.n c
over
ing
am
ultit
ude
of p
robl
ems
in w
hich
, for
one
reas
or o
r an
othe
r, a
child
doe
s no
t lea
rn to
talk
or ta
lks
inin
ima
ay.
The
cau
ses
for
the
dela
y in
the
acqu
isiti
on o
f no
rmal
spee
ch a
nd la
ngua
gem
ay b
e en
viro
nmen
tal o
r or
gani
c, o
r bo
th.
Spee
ch p
robl
ems
due
to a
phas
iaA
phas
ia 's
a la
ngua
ge d
istu
rban
ce r
esul
ting
from
dam
age
to c
erta
in a
reas
of
the
brai
n an
d is
man
ifes
ted
inm
any
way
s.In
gen
eral
. the
pers
on w
ith a
phas
ia h
as d
iffi
culty
in u
sing
the
sym
bols
of
lang
uage
.D
iffi
culty
with
sym
boliz
atio
nm
aycr
eate
pro
blem
s in
spe
akin
g. w
ritin
g. r
eadi
ng, l
iste
ning
,an
dar
ithm
etic
.
Spee
ch p
robl
ems
due
to m
enta
l ret
arda
tion
The
chi
ld w
ho is
men
tally
ret
arde
d of
ten
has
spee
ch a
ndla
ngua
ge p
robl
ems.
Impr
ovem
ent i
n th
ese
skill
sm
ay r
esul
t
76
in in
crea
sed
lear
ning
pot
entia
l.
Spee
ch p
robl
enits
due
to b
i-lin
gual
ism
A c
hild
who
is e
xpos
ed to
two
lang
uage
s du
ring
the
year
shi
s sp
eech
is d
evel
opin
gm
ay le
arn
both
lang
uage
s, I
ca th
isdi
stin
ct d
ual s
timul
atio
nm
ay b
e de
trim
enta
l.T
his
child
'ssp
eech
and
lang
uage
may
be
foun
d la
ckin
g w
hen
com
pare
dw
ith h
is p
eers
who
hav
e be
en e
xpos
edto
onl
y on
e la
ngua
ge.
TH
E S
PEE
CH
AN
D H
EA
RIN
G S
PEC
IAL
IST
The
com
mun
icat
ion
proc
esse
sar
e ve
ry c
ompl
ex f
orm
s of
hum
an b
ehav
ior.
The
refo
re, a
sub
stan
tial a
mou
nt o
f tr
ain-
ing
is r
equi
red
to a
chie
ve th
e co
mpe
tenc
ene
cess
arr
to c
orre
ctdi
sord
ers
of c
omm
unic
atio
n.T
he g
reat
dem
and
for
indi
-vi
dual
s to
s?r
ve s
peec
h an
d he
arin
g ha
ndic
appe
dch
ildre
nha
s re
sulte
d in
man
ype
rson
s be
ing
empl
oyed
who
are
min
i-m
ally
, if
not i
nade
quat
ely,
pre
pare
d.
Exe
cutiv
e C
oune
ii. A
mer
ican
Spe
ech
and
Hea
ring
Ass
ocia
tion.
"Ser
vice
s an
d Fu
nctio
ns o
f Sp
eech
and
Hea
ring
Spe
cial
ists
in P
ublic
Scho
ols.
" A
SHA
- A
Jou
rnal
of
the
Am
eric
an S
peec
h an
d H
eari
ngA
ssoc
iatio
n, v
ol 4
. No.
4. A
pril
1962
, pp.
99-
10f .
Res
earc
h C
omm
ittee
, Am
eric
an S
peec
h an
d H
eari
ng A
ssoc
iatio
n."P
ublic
Sch
ool S
peec
h an
d H
eari
ng S
ervi
ces.
"Jo
urna
l of
Spee
chan
d H
eari
ng D
isor
ders
," m
onog
raph
sup
plem
ent N
o. 8
, Jun
e19
61.
Typ
ical
ly, t
hepe
rson
who
is tr
aine
d to
a le
r3; o
fco
m-
pete
ncy
in s
peec
h an
d he
arin
g ha
s at
leas
ta
mas
ters
deg
ree.
He
can
pres
ent e
vide
nce
ofth
e co
mpl
etio
n of
per
haps
60
sem
este
r ho
urs
cons
titut
ing
a w
ell i
nteg
rate
d pr
ogra
m in
cour
ses
that
pro
vide
: (a!
bac
kgro
und
info
rmat
ion
need
ed to
unde
rsta
nd th
epr
oc,_
,es
of s
peec
h, h
eari
ng, a
nd la
ngua
ge;
(b)
fund
amen
tal i
nfor
mat
ion
rela
tive
to th
e m
anag
emen
t of
com
mun
icat
ion
diso
rder
s; a
ndc
;nfo
rmat
ion
supp
lem
en-
tary
to th
ese
fiel
ds.
Subj
ect m
atte
rar
eas
fund
amen
t..1
toth
e tr
aini
ng o
f sp
eech
and
hea
ring
spec
ialis
ts in
clud
e: h
uman
deve
lopm
ent,
anat
omy,
phy
siol
ogy,
psyc
holo
gy, a
nd p
hysi
cs.
Spec
ialty
are
as s
tudi
ed b
y th
e st
uden
tm
ajor
ing
in s
peec
hpa
thol
ogy
and
audi
olog
y in
clud
e:(a
) cu
rren
t pri
ncip
les,
proc
edur
es, t
echn
ique
s, a
ndin
stru
men
tatio
n us
ed in
eva
luat
-in
g th
e di
sord
ers
of s
peec
h, la
ngua
ge.
and
hear
ing;
)
clas
sifi
catio
ns, c
ause
s, a
nd m
anif
esta
tions
of d
isor
ders
of
spee
ch, l
angu
age,
and
hea
ring
;an
d (
el p
rinc
iple
s an
dre
-m
edia
l pro
cedu
res
used
inha
bilit
atio
n an
d re
habi
litat
ion
ofth
ose
havi
ng v
ario
us d
isor
ders
of c
omm
unic
atio
n.T
he tr
aini
ng o
f th
eco
mpe
tent
clin
icia
n al
so in
clud
essu
perv
ised
clin
ical
pra
ctic
eco
nsis
ting
of s
ever
al h
undr
edho
urs
of a
ctua
l dia
gnos
tic a
ndth
erap
eutic
exp
erie
nce
with
com
mun
icat
ivel
y im
pair
ed in
divi
dual
sun
der
the
guid
ance
of
com
pete
nt p
rofe
ssio
nals
. CA
SEL
OA
DT
he s
ervi
ces
of th
e sp
eech
and
hear
ing
spec
ialis
t can
bes
tbe
util
ized
if th
eyar
e di
rect
& to
war
d ch
ildre
n ha
ving
sig
nifi
-ca
ntly
han
dica
ppin
g sp
eech
. lan
guag
e.an
d he
arin
g pr
oble
ms.
Such
wor
k is
oft
en in
divi
dual
ized
and
time
cons
umin
g. A
child
with
a s
igni
fica
ntco
mm
unic
atio
n ha
ndic
ap s
houl
d be
seen
at l
ea-t
twic
e a
wee
k fo
r 20
to 2
5 m
inut
es.
It is
pos
-si
ble
that
a to
tal o
f 12
chi
ldre
n w
ould
requ
ire
the
full-
time
serv
ices
of
the
spee
ch c
linic
ian.
Som
etim
es th
e nu
mbe
r of
chi
ldre
n se
rved
can
be in
crea
sed
by g
roup
ing
toge
ther
thre
eto
fiv
e ch
ildre
n w
ho h
ave
hand
i-ca
ps in
com
mon
.If
sm
all g
roup
sar
e ut
ilize
d, it
is c
on-
ceiv
able
that
an
effi
cien
t clin
icia
n co
uld
wor
k w
ith a
s m
any
as 1
00 c
hild
ren
a w
eek.
Bec
ause
of
the
dive
rsity
of
prob
lem
sth
at a
clin
icia
n m
eets
, how
ever
. it
wou
ld b
e un
reas
onab
le to
expe
ct th
at a
ll w
ork
he d
one
ingr
oups
.If
som
e w
ork
ispe
rfor
med
with
indi
vidu
als
and
som
e w
ith g
roup
s, th
e ca
se-
load
will
be
mor
e th
an 1
2 an
d le
ss th
an 1
00.
The
teac
her,
clin
icia
n ro
les
A c
lari
fica
tion
of th
e ro
le o
f th
esp
eech
and
hea
ring
spe- 77
cial
ist i
n th
e pu
blic
sch
ool i
s pe
rtin
ent.
Thi
s sp
ecia
list
prov
ides
eva
luat
ive
(dia
gnos
tic)
and
habi
litat
ive
(the
ra-
peut
ic)
serv
ices
for
indi
vidu
als
hand
icap
ped
by im
pair
men
tsof
lang
uage
, spe
ech,
or
hear
ing.
His
ser
vice
s m
ust b
e in
te-
grat
ed in
to th
e ge
nera
l goa
l of
the
scho
ol a
lthou
gh h
is s
peci
fic
resp
onsi
bilit
ies,
ski
lls, a
nd b
asic
pro
fess
iona
l ide
ntity
ars
thos
e of
the
clin
ical
wor
ker
in s
peec
h an
d he
arin
g. T
he e
du-
catio
nal r
equi
rem
ents
nec
essa
ry f
or c
linic
al c
ompe
tenc
e an
dth
e na
ture
of
the
serv
ices
pro
vide
d do
not
var
y in
any
fun
da-
men
tal w
ay f
or th
e em
ploy
men
t of
clin
icia
ns in
dif
fere
ntse
tting
s (h
ospi
tals
, clin
ics,
sch
ools
).
Eve
n th
ough
he
wor
ks in
the
elem
enta
ry a
nd s
econ
dary
scho
ols,
the
func
tions
of
the
spee
ch a
nd h
eari
ng s
peci
alis
tar
e di
ffer
ent f
rom
thos
e of
cla
ssro
om te
ache
rs, i
nclu
ding
teac
hers
of
the
deaf
, tea
cher
s of
the
men
tally
ret
arde
d, a
ndte
ache
rs o
f ge
nera
l spe
ech
of s
peec
h im
prov
emen
t. T
each
ers
are
impo
rtan
tly c
once
rned
with
inst
ruct
ion
in s
ubje
ct m
atte
ran
d te
achi
ng c
erta
in s
kills
as
dete
rmin
ed b
y th
e cu
rric
ulum
of th
e sc
hool
. The
y m
ust h
ave
the
educ
atio
nal p
repa
ratio
nw
hich
pro
vide
s th
em w
ith th
e kn
owle
dge
and
tech
niqu
es f
orsu
ch in
stru
ctio
n. O
n th
e ot
her
hand
, as
has
been
indi
cate
d,th
e w
ork
of th
e sp
eech
and
hea
ring
spe
cial
ist i
s in
the
natu
reof
eva
luat
ive
and
habi
litat
ive
serv
ice
whi
ch is
rel
ated
pri
-
mar
ily to
the
com
mun
icat
ion
hand
icap
s of
an
indi
vidu
al.
The
edu
catio
nal p
repa
ratio
n of
this
spe
cial
ist m
ust e
quip
him
to c
arry
out
a c
linic
al s
ervi
ce p
rogr
am w
hich
doe
s no
t in-
%.1
ve th
e te
achi
ng o
f cu
rric
ulum
mat
eria
ls. T
o re
quir
e th
est
uden
t maj
orin
g in
spe
ech
and
hear
ing
to ta
ke a
ll th
e co
urse
wor
k re
quir
ed o
f th
e ed
ucat
iona
l maj
or o
r th
e sp
ecia
l edu
ca-
tion
maj
or w
ould
be
inco
nsis
tent
with
the
natu
re o
f th
epr
ofes
sion
nd
wou
ld in
terf
ere
with
the
achi
evem
ents
of
the
prim
ary
goal
s of
the
spee
ch a
nd h
eari
ng p
rogr
ams
in th
esc
hool
s.A
dequ
ate
clin
ical
ser
vice
s re
quir
e tim
e fo
r di
agno
stic
eva
l-ua
tion,
pla
nnin
g of
indi
vidu
al th
erap
eutic
pro
gram
s, in
di-
vidu
aliz
ed c
linic
al a
nd r
emed
ial s
ervi
ces,
sat
isfa
ctor
y re
cord
-ke
epin
g, a
nd th
e on
essa
ry c
ouns
elin
g of
par
ents
and
oth
ers.
The
re a
re, h
owev
er, m
any
inst
ance
s w
here
spe
ech
and
hear
-in
g sp
ecia
lists
are
req
uire
d to
ser
ve c
hild
ren
in n
umbe
rsw
hich
pre
clud
e in
divi
dual
atte
ntio
n. T
oo o
ften
, the
num
ber
of c
hild
ren
seen
, rat
her
than
the
qual
ity o
f se
rvic
e re
nder
ed,
is th
e cr
iteri
on f
or p
rogr
am e
valu
atio
r.
SPE
EC
H I
MPR
OV
EM
EN
T A
ND
SPE
EC
H A
RT
SIn
add
ition
to s
peec
h ha
bilit
atio
n, th
ere
are
at le
ast t
wo
othe
r ar
eas
of s
peec
h ac
tivity
fou
nd w
ithin
sch
ool s
yste
ms
Of
spee
ch im
prov
emen
t and
spe
ech
arts
.In
ord
er to
adm
inis
ter
a pr
ogra
m o
f sp
eech
and
hea
ring
serv
ices
eff
ectiv
ely,
the
ad-
min
istr
ator
mus
t und
erst
and
how
thes
e ac
tiviti
esdi
ffer
fro
msp
eech
hab
ilita
tion.
Spee
ch im
prov
emen
tA
ll ch
ildre
nca
n pr
ofit
from
act
iviti
es w
hich
incr
ease
thei
rsp
eech
and
lang
uage
skill
s. A
hei
ghte
ned
awar
enes
s of
in-
divi
dual
spe
ech
soun
dsfa
cilit
ates
the
mas
tery
of
read
ing,
spel
ling,
and
spe
akin
gsk
ills.
Man
y ac
tiviti
es h
ave
been
deve
lope
d to
hel
p th
ech
ild r
ecog
nize
indi
vidu
al s
peec
hso
unds
, dis
crim
inat
eam
ong
them
, and
app
ly th
ese
perc
ep-
tions
in th
e ov
eral
lla
ngua
gepr
ogra
m.
The
se s
peec
h im
-pr
ovem
ent a
ctiv
ities
pro
perl
ybe
long
in th
e cl
assr
oom
and
can
be e
ffec
tivel
y ta
ught
by th
e cl
assr
oom
teac
her
with
the
advi
cean
d co
unse
l of
the
spee
ch a
nd h
eari
ngcl
inic
ian.
Spee
ch a
rts
Bey
ond
the
spee
chim
prov
emen
t act
iviti
esar
e th
e sp
eech
arts
whi
ch a
ppro
pria
tely
can
be ta
ught
by
the
clas
sroo
mte
ache
r or
spe
cial
ist.
The
con
trib
utio
nsof
the
spee
char
tste
ache
r ar
e in
the
area
s of
pub
lic a
ddre
ss, o
ral
inte
rpre
tatio
n,dr
amat
ics,
and
the
othe
rae
sthe
tic a
ctiv
ities
asso
ciat
ed w
ithsp
eech
.
INT
EG
RA
TE
D P
RO
GR
AM
A d
isor
der
ofco
mm
unic
atio
n ha
sm
any
face
ts. A
s a
re-
sult,
the
cont
ribu
tions
of m
any
prof
essi
onal
sm
ay b
e so
ught
.O
ften
times
ther
ear
e or
gani
c co
mpo
nent
s in
the
etio
logy
whi
chre
quir
e th
e se
rvic
es o
fth
e nu
rse
and
phys
icia
n.In
asm
uch
as s
peec
h an
d la
ngua
gepr
oces
ses
are
a pa
rt o
f to
tal b
ehav
ior,
the
scho
ol p
sych
olog
ist
has
an im
port
ant
cont
ribu
tion
tom
ake.
Furt
herm
ore,
sin
ce th
eco
mm
unic
atio
n di
sord
er h
aspa
rt o
f its
roo
ts in
the
hom
e,th
e sc
hool
soc
ial
wor
ker
can
cont
ribu
te m
uch
to r
ound
ing
out t
hepi
ctur
e of
the
child
'sho
me
envi
ronm
ent
whi
ch is
fun
dam
enta
l to
an u
nder
stan
ding
of th
e sp
eech
and
lang
uage
pro
blem
. Thu
s,a
full
prog
ram
inte
grat
ing
the
serv
ices
of s
ever
al p
rofe
ssio
nsis
mos
des
ir-
able
in h
elpi
ngto
alle
viat
e th
e pr
oble
ms
asso
ciat
ed w
ith d
is-
orde
rs o
f co
mm
unic
atio
n.T
he s
peec
h cl
inic
ian
who
wor
ks w
itha
child
mus
t und
er-
stan
d w
hat t
he te
ache
ris
tryi
ng to
acc
ompl
ish
in th
e cl
ass-
room
so
the
habi
litat
ion
aspe
cts
can
be r
elat
edto
and
inte
-gr
ated
with
the
clas
sroo
mpr
ogra
m. T
he c
hild
will
neve
rm
aste
r ne
w p
atte
rns
ofsp
eech
and
lang
uage
until
he
can
begi
n to
app
ly th
emin
rea
l situ
atio
ns,
and
the
clas
sroo
m is
one
of th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtan
tpl
aces
whe
rene
w b
ehav
ior
can
beco
me
habi
tual
.
79
The
adm
inis
trat
or d
irec
tlyin
cha
rge
of th
e pu
pil
pers
onne
lse
rvic
es s
houl
d w
ork
to c
reat
e op
port
uniti
es w
here
byin
ter-
prof
essi
onal
exc
hang
eno
t onl
y ta
kes
plac
e bu
t is
faci
litat
edan
d en
cour
aged
. The
phra
se "
team
wor
k" is
oft
enus
ed, b
utis
oft
en a
buse
d. A
pile
of r
epor
ts f
rom
the
phys
icia
n, th
eps
ycho
logi
st, t
he s
peec
hcl
inic
ian,
etc
., do
esno
t rep
rese
ntte
amw
ork
unle
ss th
ese
indi
vidu
als
sit d
own
toge
ther
fro
mtim
e to
tim
e, e
xcha
nge
idea
s an
dco
me
to a
con
ceri
sus
rega
rd-
ing
the
man
agem
ent o
fin
divi
dual
pro
blem
s of
pup
ils.
IDE
NT
IFIC
AT
ION
How
are
the
child
ren
sele
cted
to r
ecei
ve s
ervi
ces?
One
met
hod
is te
ache
r re
ferr
al.
Ano
ther
app
roac
h is
the
scre
en-
ing
of a
ll ch
ildre
n by
spe
ech
and
hear
ing
pers
orra
el.
The
teac
her
refe
rral
met
hod
has
som
e di
sadv
anta
ges.
Ate
ache
r m
ay b
eun
awar
e, s
omet
imes
, of
cert
ain
prob
lem
sin
child
ren
whi
char
e in
nee
d of
rem
edia
tion.
For
exam
ple,
a ch
ild m
ay b
e in
atte
ntiv
e an
dse
emin
gly
unco
oper
ativ
ein
the
clas
sreo
m.
It m
ay n
otoc
cur
to th
e te
ache
r th
at th
is b
e-ha
vior
cou
ld b
e th
ere
sult
of a
par
tial h
eari
nglo
ss. A
noth
erte
ache
r m
ay th
ink
that
cal
ling
atte
ntio
nto
a s
peec
h pr
oble
mby
sel
ectin
ga
child
t,)
rece
ive
spec
ial
trea
tmen
t wou
ld b
e
80
mor
e de
trim
enta
l tha
n no
t ref
erri
ngth
e ch
ild f
or h
elp.
Thi
sre
ason
ing
is n
ot s
uppo
rtab
leby
act
ual e
xper
ienc
e.N
ot r
e-fe
rrin
g hi
m f
oras
sist
ance
am
ount
sto
neg
lect
of
oae
of h
ism
ost b
asic
nee
ds.
Spee
ch s
cree
ning
A s
cree
ning
tech
niqu
ew
here
by s
peec
h an
dhe
arin
g pe
r-so
nnel
list
en to
bri
efsa
mpl
es o
f ea
ch c
hild
'ssp
eech
is p
erha
psth
e m
ost e
ffec
tive
tech
niqu
e fo
r id
entif
ying
child
ren
with
spee
ch p
robl
ems.
Thi
s sh
ould
be
acco
mpl
ishe
d at
the
be-
ginn
ing
of th
e sc
hool
year
.T
o sp
eed
up th
e sc
reen
ing,
ass
ista
nce
may
be
solic
ited
from
stud
ents
maj
orin
g in
spee
ch p
atho
logy
and
audi
olog
y at
neig
hbor
ing
univ
ersi
ties
or c
olle
ges.
Whe
n th
is s
emip
rofe
s-si
onal
hel
p is
use
d, 1
0st
uden
ts c
an a
ssis
t in
the
initi
al s
cree
n-in
g of
as
man
y as
1,8
00 c
hild
ren
ina
sing
le d
ay.
Thi
s is
ava
luab
le e
xper
ienc
e fo
rst
uden
ts a
nd a
ssis
tanc
eof
this
type
can
ofte
n be
obt
aine
d.
Hea
ring
scr
eeni
ngSc
reen
ing
for
hear
ing
loss
is o
ften
term
ed id
entif
icat
ion
audi
omet
ry a
nd r
equi
res
the
use
ofan
inst
rum
ent c
alle
d an
e
audi
omet
er.3
Idea
lly, i
t wou
ld h
e de
sira
ble
to te
st th
e he
ar-
ing
of e
very
chi
ld e
very
yea
r, b
ut c
ompr
omis
esar
e of
ten
mad
e du
e to
exp
ense
s in
volv
ed.
In n
ewly
est
ablis
hea
prog
ram
s, h
owev
er, a
n ef
fort
sho
uld
be m
ade
to te
st a
ll el
the
child
ren
duri
ng th
e fi
rst s
choo
l yea
r.T
here
afte
r, a
n :a
dequ
ate
prog
ram
incl
udes
ann
ual t
estin
g in
kind
erga
rten
, and
gra
des
1, 2
, and
3, a
nd le
ss f
requ
ent t
estin
gin
gra
des
3 th
roug
h 12
.M
ore
impo
rtan
t tha
n sc
hedu
ling
Com
mitt
ee o
n Id
entif
icat
ion
Aud
iom
etry
of
the
Am
eric
an S
peec
han
d H
eari
ng A
ssoc
iatio
n."I
dent
ific
atio
n A
udio
met
ry:
Def
initi
on,
Obj
ectiv
es, a
nd P
rogr
am R
espo
nsib
ility
." T
he J
ourn
al o
f Sp
eech
and
Hea
ring
Dis
orde
rs, m
onog
raph
sup
plem
ent N
o. 9
, 196
1.
hear
ing
test
s in
cer
tain
gra
des
ever
y ye
ar is
to m
ake
sure
that
no c
hild
fai
ls to
hav
e hi
s he
arin
g te
sted
at l
east
eve
ry 2
or
3ye
ars.
An
adeq
uate
pro
gram
sho
uld
incl
ude
oppo
rtun
ity f
or im
-m
edia
te te
stin
g of
pup
ils: (
1) w
hoar
e ne
w to
the
scho
ol, (
2)w
ho w
ere
disc
over
ed b
y pr
evio
us te
sts
to h
ave
hear
ing
im-
pair
men
t, (3
) w
ho h
ave
dela
yed
or d
efec
tive
spee
ch, (
4)w
ho a
re r
etur
ning
to s
choo
l aft
era
seri
ous
illne
ss, (
5) w
hoar
e en
rolle
d in
adj
ustm
ent o
r re
med
ial c
lass
room
pro
gram
s,(6
) w
ho a
ppea
r to
be
reta
rded
, (7)
who
are
havi
ng e
mot
iona
lor
beh
avio
ral p
robl
ems,
and
(8)
who
are
ref
erre
d by
the
clas
sroo
m te
ache
r fo
r he
arin
g te
stin
g.
81
82
Scho
ol n
ursi
ngw
as o
ne o
f th
e fi
rst p
upil
pers
onne
lse
rvic
es.
Its
pare
ntpr
ofes
sion
, nur
sing
, pio
neer
edin
exp
andi
ng h
ealth
ser
vice
sby
trai
ning
prac
-tic
al n
urse
s an
d nu
rse'
sai
des.
Lik
ewis
e, s
choo
l nur
sing
may
ser
ve a
s th
epr
otot
ype
for
expa
ndin
g ot
her
pupi
l per
sonn
el s
ervi
ces
thro
ugh
the
sele
ctio
nan
d tr
aini
ng o
f su
bpro
fess
iona
l per
sonn
el.
PAR
T I
ICH
APT
ER
7
NU
RS
ING
SE
RV
ICE
S
By
PAU
LIN
E R
. CA
RR
OL
L, D
irec
tor
of H
ealth
Ser
vice
s, S
choo
l Dis
tric
t of
Abi
ngto
n T
owns
hip,
Abi
ngto
n, P
a.
OST
EN
SIB
LY
, sch
ool n
ursi
ng in
this
coun
try
was
fou
nded
in19
02, w
hen
Lill
ian
Wal
das
sign
ed L
ina
Rog
ers
as th
e fi
rst
publ
ic h
ealth
nurs
e to
ser
ve c
hild
ren
in N
ew Y
ork
City
scho
ols.
In 1
903,
Mis
s W
ald
led
a cr
usad
e to
est
ablis
h a
Fede
ral C
hild
ren'
s B
urea
uw
hich
was
rea
lized
in 1
912
unde
rth
e le
ader
ship
of
Pres
iden
tT
heod
ore
Roo
seve
lt.2
Flor
ence
Kel
ly, a
n ar
dent
fig
hter
aga
inst
child
labo
r, a
nd L
avin
ia D
ock,
a le
ader
in n
ursi
ng, l
ent s
uppo
rt to
this
eff
ort.
Ove
r th
e ye
ars
the
Chi
ldre
n's
Bur
eau
has
grea
tly in
flue
nced
hea
lth s
ervi
ces
for
child
ren
and
yout
hbo
th in
this
cou
ntry
and
abro
ad.
In 1
952,
ther
ew
ere
6,30
9 nu
rses
em
ploy
ed b
y bo
ards
1 St
ruth
ers,
Lin
a R
oger
s.T
he S
choo
l Nur
se. N
ewY
ork,
G. P
.Pu
tnam
's S
ons,
191
7.U
.S. D
epar
tmen
t of
Hea
lth,
Edu
catio
n, a
nd W
elfa
re, C
hild
ren'
sB
urea
u.W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.:
Five
Dec
ades
of A
ctio
n fo
r C
hild
ren,
1962
. Tre
nds.
Bur
eau
Publ
icat
ion
No.
367
(R
evis
ed)
, 196
0.
of e
duca
tion,
3 w
hile
toda
y,th
ere
are
mor
e th
an 1
2,00
0 so
wnp
loye
d.4
An
unkn
own
num
ber
on th
e st
affs
of
publ
iche
alth
age
ncie
sar
e lik
ewis
e en
gage
d in
sch
ool n
ursi
ng.
Thr
ough
the
year
s, e
duca
tors
in n
ursi
ng, s
peci
alis
tsin
mat
erna
l and
chi
ld h
ealth
,ex
plor
ers
in n
ursi
ng r
esea
rch,
and
prac
titio
ners
innu
rsin
g fo
r ch
ildre
n of
sch
ool
age
have
put f
orth
pro
voca
tive,
pra
ctic
al,
and
loft
y id
eas
and
idea
lsab
out n
ursi
ng f
or s
choo
lch
ildre
n.In
add
ition
, phy
sici
ans,
educ
ator
s, p
ublic
hea
lthsp
ecia
lists
and
gen
eral
ists
,w
elfa
rew
orke
rs, a
nd m
embe
rs o
fot
her
disc
iplin
es h
ave
prop
osed
conc
epts
con
cern
ing
bette
r he
alth
for
child
ren
of s
choo
lag
e. Swan
son,
Mar
ie.
Scho
ol N
ursi
ng in
the
Com
mun
ity P
rogr
am.
New
Yor
k, th
e M
acm
illan
Co.
,19
53.
Am
eric
an N
urse
s A
ssoc
iatio
n,Fa
cts
Abo
ut N
ursi
ng, N
ew Y
ork,
N.Y
., 19
62.
83
FUN
CT
ION
ST
he s
tate
men
t, "F
unct
ions
and
Qua
lific
atio
nsfo
r Sc
hool
Nur
ses,
" pr
epar
ed b
yth
e A
mer
ican
Nur
ses'
Ass
ocia
tion
in19
60, m
ayse
rve
as a
gui
de f
or th
epr
esen
t and
a b
asis
for
eval
uatio
n of
ser
vice
sin
the
futu
re.
It p
rese
nts
the
view
that
prog
ram
, fun
ctio
ns, a
nd s
taff
shou
ld b
e bu
iltup
onsc
hool
-com
mun
ity n
eeds
.H
ealth
nee
ds o
fch
ildre
n,co
m-
mun
ity r
esou
rces
, edu
catio
nan
d pr
epar
atio
n of
the
nurs
e,St
ate
and
loca
l hea
lthla
ws,
num
bers
of
scho
ols
to b
e se
rved
,an
d re
quir
ed tr
avel
shou
ld b
e cr
iteri
a fo
rm
akin
g sc
hool
nurs
e as
sign
men
ts.
Scho
ols
have
em
ploy
edan
d co
ntin
ueto
em
ploy
nur
ses
be-
caus
e of
thei
r un
ique
con
trib
utio
nin
eva
luat
ing
the
heal
thof
chi
ldre
n an
d in
assi
stin
g w
ith th
em
odif
icat
ion
of e
duca
-tio
nal
prog
ram
s so
that
chi
ldre
nm
ay b
enef
it m
ore
fully
.T
he d
egre
e to
whi
chth
e sc
hool
nurs
e ca
rrie
s ou
t the
se f
unc-
tions
dep
ends
upon
suc
h fa
ctor
s as
sch
ool p
olic
y,he
r ow
npr
epar
atio
n an
d ex
peri
ence
, pup
il lo
ad, n
eeds
of
part
icul
arpu
pils
in th
e sc
hool
, and
the
avai
labi
lity
of o
ther
com
mun
ityse
rvic
es.
A n
urse
who
is r
espo
nsib
lefo
r pl
anni
ng a
ndim
plem
entin
gnu
rsin
g ac
tiviti
es in
scho
ols
may
hav
e th
etit
le o
f ad
min
is-
trat
or, d
irec
tor,
sup
ervi
sor,
cons
ulta
nt, c
oord
inat
or,
or c
hief
84
nurs
e. A
nur
se w
orki
ng a
lone
assu
mes
var
ying
deg
rees
of
the
func
tions
of
adm
inis
trat
ion,
coo
rdin
atio
n,an
d su
per-
visi
on.
In r
elat
ion
to th
ead
min
istr
atio
n of
a lo
cal s
choo
l hea
lthpr
ogra
m, t
he s
choo
l nur
se g
ives
lead
ersh
ip a
nd g
uida
nce
inits
dev
elop
men
t and
mai
nten
ance
, and
assi
sts
in p
lann
ing
and
carr
ying
out
the
nurs
ing
activ
ities
. She
assu
mes
a le
ader
ship
role
in th
e id
entif
icat
ion
of th
ose
pupi
ls w
ithhe
alth
nee
dsth
at in
terf
ere
with
effe
ctiv
e le
arni
ng, a
ndte
ache
s sc
hool
sta
ffan
d ot
hers
to r
ecog
nize
and
repo
rt h
ealth
dev
iatio
ns.
She
part
icip
ates
in f
acul
ty a
ndpa
rent
s' m
eetin
gs a
ndse
ries
on
com
mitt
ees
conc
erne
d w
ithsa
fety
as
wel
l as
emot
iona
l, m
enta
l,ph
ysic
al, a
nd s
ocia
l hea
lth.
The
sch
ool
nurs
e gi
ves
firs
t aid
and
emer
genc
y ca
re a
ndhe
lps
child
ren
deve
lop
impr
oved
atti
tude
s to
war
dhe
alth
, ac-
quir
e he
alth
kno
wle
dge,
and
assu
me
pers
onal
resp
onsi
bilit
yfo
r th
eir
own
wel
l-be
ing.
She
pro
vide
;co
unse
ling
and
guid
-an
ce to
pup
ils, p
aren
ts, a
nd s
choo
lpe
rson
nel d
irec
ted
tow
ard
elim
inat
ing
or m
inim
izin
g he
alth
pro
blem
sof
pup
ils.
She
coop
erat
es w
ith o
ther
pup
ilpe
rson
nel s
peci
alis
ts w
hen
re-
ferr
al o
f ch
ildre
n is
indi
cate
d.T
he n
urse
con
duct
sst
udie
s in
sch
ool h
ealth
usin
g av
ail-
able
reso
urce
s, a
nd e
valu
ates
her
prog
ram
per
iodi
cally
in a
n
1
effo
rt to
impr
ove
it.Sh
e re
ache
s ou
tto
the
com
mun
ity a
ndpr
ovid
es le
ader
ship
inth
e co
ordi
natio
n of
the
scho
olpr
o-gr
am w
ith th
e to
tal h
ealth
prog
ram
, wor
king
with
pro
fess
iona
las
soci
atio
ns, c
ivic
grou
ps, a
nd c
omm
unity
age
ncie
s.
PRE
PAR
AT
ION
Prop
onen
ts o
f sc
hool
nurs
ing
and
lead
ers
ined
ucat
ion
have
long
pro
mot
edsp
ecif
ic e
duca
tiona
lpr
epar
atio
n fo
r sc
hool
nurs
es.
The
192
0's
reco
rded
conc
entr
ated
eff
orts
inC
ali-
forn
ia, N
ew Y
ork,
Indi
ana,
and
Penn
sylv
ania
, fol
low
edby
New
Jer
sey
and
Illin
ois,
tose
cure
and
upg
rade
cer
tific
atio
nre
quir
emen
ts f
or s
choo
lnu
rses
.'A
ppro
xim
atel
y 30
Sta
tes
have
fol
low
ed th
ism
ovem
ent a
ndm
any
have
sec
ured
reg
ula-
tory
pro
visi
ons
for
the
prac
tice
of s
choo
l nur
sing
.E
duca
tors
in n
ursi
ngha
ve e
ndea
vore
dto
hel
p, b
ut th
eydi
sagr
ee w
ith s
choo
l pra
ctiti
oner
s w
ho r
ecom
men
dth
at h
ighe
red
ucat
ion
shou
ldgi
ve s
peci
fic
trai
ning
to s
choo
l nur
ses
atth
e un
derg
radu
ate
leve
l.W
este
rn R
eser
ve in
Cle
vela
ndw
ason
e of
the
firs
t uni
vers
ities
to in
clud
e un
derg
radu
ate
prep
ara-
tion
for
scho
ol n
ursi
ngin
o c
ours
e fo
r pu
blic
heal
th n
ursi
ng.
Tro
op, E
ileen
H. "
Sixt
yY
ears
of
Scho
ol N
urse
Prep
arat
ion.
"N
ursi
ng O
utlo
ok, A
mer
ican
Jour
nal o
f N
ursi
ng C
o.,
New
Yor
k, M
ay19
63.
Ear
ly a
nd c
ontin
uing
cont
rove
rsy
rega
rdin
g sp
ecia
lized
nurs
-in
g in
sch
ools
vers
us g
ener
aliz
ed p
ublic
hea
lthnu
rsin
gin
eudi
ng a
dmin
istr
ativ
epr
actic
es h
as lo
ng c
loud
edth
e is
sue
of b
et e
r pr
epar
atio
nfo
r sc
hool
nurs
es.
Alth
ough
the
basi
cnu
rsin
g cu
rric
ulum
inco
llege
s an
d un
iver
sitie
sde
vote
s a
rea-
sona
b:e
amou
nt o
ftim
e to
pub
lic h
ealth
nurs
ing,
it r
arel
yin
clud
es f
ield
exp
erie
nce
in s
choo
l nur
sing
for
the
inte
rest
edpr
actit
ione
r. S
uch
expe
rien
ce w
as r
ecom
men
ded
mor
e th
an30
yea
rsag
o by
Mar
y E
lla T
haye
rM
a ny
bel
ieve
that
a nu
rs,,
with
bac
c!au
reat
e pr
epar
atio
nis
ade
quat
e in
a sc
hool
set
ting
if s
he is
sup
ervi
sed
by a
nur
sew
ho h
as s
peci
aliz
edin
sch
ool n
ursi
ngat
the
grad
uate
leve
l.A
t the
pre
sent
tim
e, a
bout
39 p
erce
nt o
f th
em
ore
than
12,
000
scho
ol n
urse
s in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es h
ave
a ba
ccal
aure
ate
de-
gree
.Su
ch p
repa
ratio
n is
the
min
imum
for
acqu
irin
gsp
ecif
ic p
rofe
ssio
nal s
kills
appl
icab
le to
a sc
hool
set
ting.
A p
ublic
atio
n by
the
prof
essi
on, b
ased
on r
ecen
t res
earc
h,ou
tline
sar
eas
cf p
repa
ratio
n an
d ex
peri
ence
need
ed to
car
ryou
t pre
sent
fun
ctio
ns in
sch
ool
nurs
ing.
How
ever
, litt
le' C
I ay
er, M
ary
Ella
,Sc
hool
Nur
sing
. AC
ontr
ibut
ion
to H
ealth
Edu
catio
n. N
ew Y
ork,
G. P
. Put
nam
's S
ons,
193
1.N
atio
nal L
eagu
e fo
r N
ursi
ng.
The
Pre
para
tion
and
the
Rol
es o
f
85
evid
ence
is a
vaila
ble
to s
how
that
thes
e re
com
men
datio
nsar
e be
ing
impl
emen
ted.
ISSU
ES
Nur
se-p
upil
ratio
The
re h
as a
lway
s be
en d
iscu
ssio
n of
the
optim
um n
urse
-pu
pil r
atio
.O
bvio
usly
, the
que
stio
n of
a d
efin
ed r
atio
can
-no
t be
answ
ered
with
out a
n an
ass
essm
ent o
f he
alth
nee
dsof
sch
ool a
ge c
hild
ren
in g
iven
sch
ool c
omm
uniti
es. P
lans
are
bein
g de
velo
ped
by th
e A
mer
ican
Nur
ses'
Ass
ocia
tion
toco
oper
ate
with
app
ropr
iate
Fed
eral
age
ncie
s fo
r re
sear
ch in
this
and
oth
er s
elec
ted
area
s of
sch
ool n
ursi
ng w
hich
, it i
sho
ped,
may
con
trib
ute
to th
e ef
fort
of
the
Inte
rpro
fess
iona
lR
esea
rch
Com
mis
sion
on
Pupi
l Per
sonn
el S
ervi
ces.
Supe
rvis
ion
Supe
rvis
ion
in n
ursi
ng, a
s in
teac
hiag
, has
long
bee
n an
acce
pted
pra
ctic
e, y
et it
has
bee
n sl
ow to
dev
elop
for
the
scho
ol n
urse
gro
up,s
in s
pite
of
the
prof
essi
on's
rec
omm
enda
-
Nur
ses
in S
choo
l Hea
lth P
rogr
ams.
Gui
delin
es f
or th
e U
se o
f A
d-m
inis
trat
ors,
Edu
cato
rs, a
nd S
tude
nts.
New
Yor
k, T
he L
eagu
e, 1
962.
$ M
urph
y, E
thel
T. "
Nur
sing
Sup
ervi
sion
for
Sch
ool N
urse
s. W
hat
86
tiers
and
con
tinui
ng e
ffor
ts.
Ver
y fe
w S
tate
s or
loca
litie
spr
ovid
e th
is s
ervi
ce a
nd m
any
scho
ol n
urse
s w
ork
alon
e, f
arre
mov
ed f
rom
nur
sing
sup
ervi
sion
.
Pers
onne
l pol
icie
sPe
rson
nel p
olic
ies
for
scho
ol n
urse
s ar
e ge
nera
lly r
ewar
d-in
g.In
are
as o
f th
e co
untr
y w
here
res
pons
ibili
ty a
nd p
rep-
arE
tion
are
com
para
ble
to th
at o
f ot
her
facu
lty m
embe
rs,
the
priv
ilege
s an
d be
nefi
ts a
re u
sual
ly c
omm
ensu
rate
with
thos
e of
oth
er p
rofe
ssio
nal p
erso
nnel
.A
ctua
lly, h
ighe
rsa
lari
es w
ere
paid
to s
choo
l nur
ses
than
to te
ache
rs in
the
earl
y da
ys.
It s
eem
s re
ason
able
to a
ssum
e th
at s
alar
ies
for
scho
ol n
urse
s sh
ould
be
com
men
sura
te w
ith th
eir
prep
arat
ion
and
expe
rien
ce a
nd -
the
uniq
ue c
ontr
ibut
ion
that
they
mak
etc
the
lear
ning
exp
erie
nce
of c
hild
ren.
Non
prof
essi
onal
wor
kers
Ove
r th
e ye
ars,
littl
e at
tent
ion
has
been
giv
en to
the
use
ofan
cilla
ry p
erso
nnel
in s
choo
ls. A
stu
dy d
one
by th
e w
rite
rin
196
1-62
dem
onst
rate
d th
at a
.cur
sing
sta
ff o
f 12
spe
ntt m
e in
cle
rica
l and
hou
seke
epin
g du
ties
equi
vale
nt to
that
Doe
s It
Off
er?"
Am
eric
an J
ourn
al o
f N
ursi
ng, v
ol. 6
2, N
o. 1
,, a
nuar
y19
62.
of tw
o fu
ll-tim
e nu
rses
.9 T
his
is n
ot o
nly
expe
nsiv
e cl
eric
alhe
lp, b
ut a
ser
ious
was
te o
f pr
ofes
sion
al ti
me.
The
em
ploy
-m
ent o
f m
edic
al c
lerk
s ca
n al
levi
ate
this
pro
blem
.E
ileen
H. T
roop
rec
omm
ends
exp
erim
enta
tion
with
1 he
serv
ices
of
a ne
w ty
pe o
f no
npro
fess
iona
l per
sonn
e1.1
9 Su
chw
orke
rs w
ould
fre
e sc
hool
nurs
es f
or p
rofe
ssio
nal w
ork
with
cert
ain
grou
ps o
f ch
ildre
n, e
spec
ially
thos
e w
ith e
mot
io:ia
lpr
oble
ms
and
othe
r ha
ndic
aps
whi
ch r
equi
reco
ncen
tra
:ed
follo
wup
.C
aref
ul s
elec
tion,
pro
fess
iona
l gui
danc
e,su
rer
-vi
sion
, and
cle
arly
def
ined
dut
ies
for
nonp
rofe
ssio
nal
y er
-so
nnel
wor
kers
wou
ld b
e es
sent
ial.
TR
EN
DS
Thr
ough
out t
he c
ount
ry, t
here
isa
tren
d to
org
aniz
edi
visi
ons
of p
upil
pers
onne
l ser
vice
sin
Sta
te a
nd lo
cal e
du-
catio
nal s
yste
ms.
Reg
ardl
ess
of th
e em
ploy
ing
agen
cies
,nu
rses
and
phy
sici
ans
are
the
heal
th s
peci
alis
ts in
thes
ese
rvic
es a
nd s
houl
das
sum
eH
eir
plac
es a
s m
embe
rs o
f th
epu
pil p
erso
nnel
ser
vice
team
.
Car
roll,
Pau
line
R. A
Tim
e A
naly
sis
ofSc
hool
Nur
sing
and
Hea
lthSe
rvic
es W
ith R
elat
ion
to R
elat
ed C
osts
.A
bing
ton,
Pa.
, Sch
ool D
is-
tric
t of
Abi
ngto
n T
owns
hip,
Aug
ust 1
962.
10 T
roop
, Eile
en H
.op
. cit.
, p. 8
5.
One
tren
d in
Sta
te d
epar
tmen
ts o
f he
alth
is th
e em
ploy
-m
ent o
f co
nsul
tant
s in
mat
erna
l and
chi
ld h
ealth
who
are
skill
ed in
sch
ool h
ealth
pra
ctic
e.T
here
is n
o ev
iden
ce th
atth
is tr
end
exis
ts in
Sta
te d
epar
tmen
ts o
fed
ucat
ion.
alth
ough
ther
e ar
e va
lid r
easo
ns f
or s
choo
l nur
sing
to h
ave
lead
ersh
ipfr
om th
is d
epar
tmen
t.Sc
hool
hea
lth s
ervi
ces
are
incr
easi
ngly
bei
ng e
xpan
ded
alon
g w
ith o
ther
hea
lth a
nd w
elfa
rese
rvic
es th
roug
h pr
o-gr
ams
prov
ided
by
Nat
iona
l, St
ate,
and
loca
l age
ncie
s. T
hegr
owin
g co
ncer
n fo
r th
e he
alth
of
child
ren
is r
efle
cted
inla
rge
Fede
ral a
ppro
pria
tions
des
igna
ted
for
this
pur
pose
.In
nee
d of
res
earc
hA
reas
of
rese
arch
whi
chm
ay w
ell b
e in
tegr
ated
with
the
prog
ram
of
IRC
OPP
S in
clud
e th
e fo
llow
ing:
1. T
he u
niqu
e co
ntri
butio
ns o
f sc
hool
nurs
ing.
2. T
he s
choo
l nur
se's
res
pons
ibili
ties
inm
ater
nal,
in-
fant
, and
pre
scho
ol h
ealth
to p
repa
re c
hild
ren
toen
ter
scho
ol.
3. T
he le
vel o
f ed
ucat
ion
need
ed b
ysc
hool
nur
ses.
4. C
ertif
icat
ion
requ
irem
ents
for
sch
ool
nurs
es.
5. R
elat
ive
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
var
ious
patte
rns
of a
dmin
is-
trat
ion
in s
choo
l nur
sing
.6.
The
use
of
nonp
rofe
ssio
nals
to a
ssis
t sch
ool n
urse
s. 87
88
amm
agam
mam
mia
aala
llIM
INIII
IIMM
OS
IIIIM
PIO
NIM
P11
1111
11
Phys
icia
ns s
erve
sch
ool c
hild
ren
ina
priv
ate
capa
city
as
wel
l as
thro
ugh
affi
liatio
n w
ith p
ublic
hea
lth d
epar
tmen
tsan
d sc
hool
sys
tem
s.T
heir
con
-tr
ibut
ions
in f
ree
cons
ulta
tive
and
trea
tmen
t ser
vice
s ha
ve n
ot b
een
srav
eyed
,bu
t the
y ar
e co
nsid
erab
le in
com
mun
ities
whi
ch la
ck m
edic
al s
taff
ass
igne
dto
pub
lic s
choo
ls.
I
se
110.
~1.6
.1.1
.
PAR
TII
CH
APT
ER
8
ME
DIC
AL
SE
RV
ICE
SB
y D
ON
AL
DA
. DU
KE
LO
W,
M.D
., A
ssis
tant
Dir
ecto
r, D
epar
tmen
t of
Com
mun
ityH
ealth
and
Hea
lth E
duca
tion
of th
eA
mer
ican
Med
ical
Ass
ocia
tion
IN 1
878,
the
hous
eof
del
egat
esof
the
Am
eric
anM
edic
al A
sso-
ciat
ion
acce
pted
this
stat
emen
t of
the
phys
icia
n's
role
insc
hool
s:L
C.
. . m
edic
al m
en o
ught
to h
ave
a vo
ice
in th
eco
nstr
uc-
tion
and
loca
tion
of p
ublic
scho
ol b
uild
ings
, in
the
ques
-tio
nsas
to th
e ag
eat
whi
ch c
hild
ren
shou
ld b
ead
mitt
ed,
the
hour
sof
stu
dy, a
nd th
ege
nera
l man
agem
ent o
f th
ese
inst
itutio
ns; a
ndto
this
end
itis
bel
ieve
dto
be
nece
ssar
yth
aton
e or
mor
ein
telli
gent
phys
icia
ns s
houl
dbe
pla
ced
on B
oard
s of
Edu
catio
n,B
oard
s of
Tru
stee
s, a
ndot
her
sim
ilar
boar
dsha
ving
con
trol
of p
ublic
educ
atio
n an
dsc
hool
s."
Tho
ugh
not t
he f
irst
reco
gniti
on o
f a r
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
the
phys
icia
n an
dth
e sc
hool
,it
was
sign
ific
ant s
ince
it ca
me
ata
time
whe
n"m
edic
alin
spec
tion"
of o
choo
l chi
ldre
nw
as n
ear
its in
cept
ion,
the
scie
ntif
icco
ncep
ts o
f ch
ildde
velo
pmen
t wer
ebe
com
ing
esta
blis
hed,
and
the
begi
nnin
gof
wha
tw
as to
be-
com
e he
alth
inst
ruct
ion
was
bei
ng a
dded
to th
e cu
rric
ulum
.T
he p
hysi
cian
'sre
latio
n to
the
scho
ol h
asev
olve
d du
ring
the
thre
e-qu
arte
rsof
ace
ntur
y si
nce
this
poin
ted
reso
lutio
nw
as a
dopt
ed. I
nad
ditio
n to
his
func
tion
as a
"pu
pil
pers
on-
nel"
spe
cial
ist,
his
role
incl
udes
serv
ices
and
advi
sory
resp
on-
sibi
litie
s to
the
scho
ol f
acul
tyan
d st
aff,
and
to th
e ad
min
istr
a-tio
n re
spon
sibl
efo
r w
hat i
s cal
led
"sch
ool h
ealth
."T
he p
hysi
cian
is in
tere
sted
in a
nd,
to s
ome
degr
ee,
con-
cern
ed w
ithth
e en
tire
area
incl
uded
inth
e sp
here
of in
tere
stof
the
Inte
rpro
fess
iona
lR
esea
rch
Com
mis
sion
on P
upil
Per- 89
sonn
el S
ervi
ces.
Tra
ditio
nally
, his
eff
orts
have
bee
n ce
nter
edon
cer
tain
pha
ses
of m
edic
al a
ndpu
blic
hea
lth p
ract
ice,
col-
lect
ivel
y kn
own
as th
e sc
hool
hea
lthpr
ogra
m. T
hese
incl
ude
the
prev
entio
n of
phys
ical
and
em
otio
nal
devi
atio
ns--
thei
rde
tect
ion
and
corr
ectio
nif
pre
sent
,-an
dco
unse
l with
alli
edhe
alth
and
edu
catio
npr
ofes
sion
s to
insu
rea
soun
d in
stru
c-tio
nal p
rogr
am in
the
basi
c co
ncep
ts o
f he
alth
ful l
ivin
g.
SCH
OO
L H
EA
LT
HPR
OG
RA
MT
he c
once
pt o
f th
esc
hool
hea
lthpr
ogra
m e
ncom
pass
esth
ree
inte
rrel
ated
area
s. T
houg
h in
sepa
rabl
e, th
eem
phas
isgi
ven
to e
ach
vari
es w
idel
yfr
om o
ne s
choo
l to
anot
her.
Lik
e-w
ise,
the
degr
ee o
fph
ysic
ian
inte
rest
inea
ch w
illva
ry w
ithth
e pe
rson
ality
and
expe
rien
ce o
f th
eph
ysic
ian
and
with
the
amou
nt o
ffr
eedo
m h
e ha
s in
advi
sing
the
scho
olad
min
istr
atio
n.Sc
hool
hea
lth e
duca
tion
is d
efin
edas
the
"pro
cess
of
pro-
vidi
ng le
arni
ngex
peri
ence
s w
hich
fav
orab
lyin
flue
nce
unde
r-st
andi
ngs,
atti
tude
s,an
d co
nduc
t in
rega
rd to
indi
vidu
alan
dco
mm
unity
hea
lth."
1
1 H
ealth
Edu
catio
n.M
oss,
Ber
nice
R.;
Sout
hwor
th, W
arre
n H
.; an
dR
eich
ert,
John
Les
ter,
edi
tors
.W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.:
Nat
iona
lE
duca
tion
Ass
ocia
tion,
196
1,p.
6.
90
Hea
lthfu
l sch
ool l
ivin
gem
brac
es "
all e
ffor
tsto
pro
vide
at
scho
ol p
hysi
cal,
emot
iona
lan
d so
cial
con
ditio
nsw
hich
are
bene
fici
al to
the
heal
than
d sa
fety
of
pupi
ls.
It in
clud
tspr
ovis
ion
of a
saf
e an
dhe
alth
ful p
hysi
cal
envi
ronm
ent,
the
orga
niza
tion
ofa
heal
thfu
l sch
ool d
ay, a
nd th
ees
tabl
ish-
men
t of
inte
rper
sona
lre
latio
nshi
ps f
avor
able
to m
enta
lhe
alth
." 2
Scho
ol h
ealth
ser
vice
sin
clud
e "p
roce
dure
sca
rrie
d ou
t by
phys
icia
ns.
nurs
es, d
entis
ts, t
each
ers,
and
oth
ers
to a
ppra
ise,
prot
ect,
and
prom
ote
the
heal
thof
stu
dent
s an
d sc
hool
per-
sonn
el.
Such
pro
cedu
res
are
desi
gned
(a)
to a
ppra
ise
the
heal
th s
tatu
s of
pup
ilsan
d sc
hool
per
sonn
el;
(h)
to c
ouns
elpu
pils
, tea
cher
s,pa
rent
s, a
nd o
ther
s fo
r th
epu
rpos
e of
hel
ping
pupi
ls o
btai
n ne
eded
trea
tmen
t or
for
arra
ngin
gsc
hool
pro
-gr
ams
it ke
epin
g w
ith th
eir
abili
ties;
(c)
to h
elp
prev
ent
com
mun
icab
le d
isea
ses;
(d)
to p
rovi
deem
erge
ncy
care
for
inju
ry o
r su
dden
sic
knes
s;(e
) to
pro
mot
eop
timum
san
i-ta
ry c
ondi
tions
and
to p
rovi
depr
oper
san
itary
fac
ilitie
s; a
nd(f
) to
pro
tect
and
prom
ote
the
heal
th o
f sc
hool
pers
onne
l." 3
2 Sc
hool
Hea
lth. S
ervi
ces.
Cha
rles
C. W
ilson
, ed.
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.:N
atio
nal E
duca
tion
Ass
ocia
tion,
1964
, p. 2
.3
Ibid
, p. 3
.
11,
a
PAT
TE
RN
S O
FPH
YSI
CIA
NPA
RT
ICIP
AT
ION
Eve
ry p
hysi
cian
who
inan
y w
ay s
erve
s th
e he
alth
need
sof
a s
choo
lag
e ch
ild o
r co
unse
ls h
im,
his
pare
nts,
or h
iste
ache
rs r
egar
ding
any
aspe
ct o
f hi
s ph
ysic
alor
em
otio
nal
wel
l-be
ing,
is in
volv
edin
the
scho
ol h
ealth
prog
ram
. The
seph
ysic
ians
may
be
empl
oyed
by
the
scho
ol o
r th
e he
alth
de-
part
men
t to
dire
ct th
esc
hool
hea
lthpr
ogra
m o
r pe
rfor
mce
rtai
n se
rvic
es w
ithin
it, b
ut th
e m
ajor
ityar
e th
e pe
rson
alph
ysic
ians
of
the
pupi
ls.
The
pri
vate
phy
sici
anis
nec
essa
rily
invo
lved
in th
esc
hool
heal
th p
ictu
re.
As
the
med
ical
advi
ser
to th
e ch
ildan
d hi
sfa
mily
, the
phy
sici
anbe
com
es r
elat
edto
the
scho
ol w
hen-
ever
he
advi
ses
or c
ares
for
the
child
.T
he p
ublic
clin
icph
ysic
ian
serv
es in
lieu
of
a ch
ild's
per-
sona
l phy
sici
anin
som
e co
mm
uniti
es.
Thi
s is
a fr
eque
ntpr
actic
e in
met
ropo
litan
area
s.H
ere,
the
rela
tions
hip
be-
twee
n th
e sc
hool
and
the
phys
icia
nca
ring
for
a ch
ild is
not
so c
lose
as
it ot
herw
ise
mig
ht b
e, th
ough
in ,.
..tan
yca
ses
the
liais
on is
ade
quat
e.T
he s
choo
l phy
sici
anor
sch
ool m
edic
al a
dvis
erha
s a
wid
ean
d va
ried
amou
nt o
f re
spon
sibi
lity
Idea
lly, h
e is
a m
edic
alad
min
istr
ator
, ori
ente
dto
war
d bo
thpr
even
tive
med
icin
e an
d
a
educ
atio
n.In
a la
rge
scho
olsy
stem
, he
is in
vari
ably
a fu
ll-tim
e di
rect
or w
itha
staf
f of
phy
sici
ans
serv
ing
as f
ull-
time
or p
art-
time
cons
ulta
nts.
He
also
dir
ects
the
wor
k of
thos
ein
the
allie
d he
alth
prof
essi
ons.
Som
etim
eshe
alth
edu
catio
nan
d th
e he
alth
aspe
cts
of p
hysi
cal e
duca
tion
and
athl
etic
sar
ew
ithin
his
sch
ool h
ealth
dep
artm
ent.
In s
mal
l sch
ool
syst
ems
whe
re th
eem
ploy
men
t of
a fu
ll-tim
e sc
hool
phy
sici
anis
not
fin
anci
ally
feas
ible
, it i
sco
mm
onfo
r a
phys
icia
nin
the
com
mun
ityto
ser
ve a
sa
scho
ol p
hysi
-ci
an. I
na
larg
e pr
opor
tion
ofca
ses
this
is a
gra
tuito
usse
rv-
ice,
thou
gh in
som
e ca
ses
a st
ipen
dor
pre
arra
nged
fee
com
-pe
nsat
es f
or p
art-
time
serv
ice.
Scho
ol m
edic
alad
vise
rs w
hose
rve
in th
ism
anne
r ar
elim
ited
in th
eir
serv
ices
and
usu
ally
act a
s ph
ysic
ians
for
athl
etic
team
s,pe
riod
ical
ly e
xam
inin
gpu
pils
who
pla
yon
the
scho
ols'
team
s. T
hey
also
per
form
rout
ine
phys
ical
ex-
amin
atio
ns o
f pu
pils
who
for
som
e re
ason
do
not r
ecei
veth
eir
exam
inat
ions
from
per
sona
lph
ysic
ians
.In
som
e in
-st
ance
s, th
e sc
hool
adm
inis
trat
ion
may
req
uest
thei
r co
unse
lon
a v
arie
ty o
f he
alth
prob
lem
s in
the
scho
ol.
If th
eyar
eco
mpe
nsat
edon
a "
per
exam
inat
ion"
basi
s, th
e se
rvic
esou
t-si
de o
f ex
amin
ing
pupi
lsm
ay n
ot e
xist
.T
he c
omm
unity
heal
th o
ffic
er o
ften
serv
es a
s sc
hool
phy
si-
,,91
cian
. Tho
ugh
com
mon
in th
e sm
alle
r, le
sspo
pulo
usco
mm
u-ni
ties,
this
arra
ngem
ent a
lso
exis
ts in
som
e m
etro
polit
anar
eas.
The
hea
lth o
ffic
er,
him
self
,or
the
depa
rtm
ent's
dire
ctor
of
mat
erna
l and
chi
ldhe
alth
,se
rves
as
scho
ol p
hysi
cian
,ad
-vi
sing
the
scho
olad
min
istr
atio
n an
ddi
rect
ing
heal
thse
rvic
epe
rson
nel.
Usu
ally
a sc
hool
hea
lthpr
ogra
m w
hich
is d
irec
ted
by th
e he
alth
depa
rtm
ent
uses
pub
lic h
ealth
nurs
es to
mee
tth
e sc
hool
'snu
rsin
g ne
eds.
SCH
OO
LPH
YSI
CIA
N'S
RO
LE
Tra
ditio
nally
, the
phys
icia
n se
rvin
gth
e sc
hool
pla
nshi
ssc
hool
hea
lthpr
ogra
m in
acc
orda
nce
with
his
unde
rsta
ndin
gof
sch
ool h
efi
lth, t
he a
ttitu
deof
his
sch
ool
adm
inis
trat
or,
and
the
need
s of
the
child
ren.
One
of
du s
choo
lph
ysic
ian'
s im
port
ant
role
s is
liai
son,
whe
reby
he
inte
rpre
tsth
e sc
hool
'sim
pact
on
child
ren
to p
ri-
vate
phy
sici
ans.
Als
o,w
hen
priv
ate
phys
icia
nsre
ques
t mod
i-fi
ed s
choo
lpr
ogra
ms
for
thei
r pa
tient
s,th
e sc
hool
phy
sici
anin
terp
rets
thes
ere
ques
ts to
the
scho
olan
d su
gges
tspr
ogra
mch
ange
s w
hich
are
com
patib
le w
ith th
eai
ms
of th
e sc
hool
whi
le m
eetin
g th
ene
eds
of in
divi
dual
pupi
ls.
As
adm
inis
trat
orof
the
heal
thap
prai
sal p
rogr
am, h
e in
-st
ruct
s te
ache
rson
met
hods
of
obse
rvin
gch
ange
s in
the
92
appe
aran
ce a
nd b
ehav
ior
ofch
ildre
n, a
nd d
irec
tssc
hool
nurs
es a
nd a
llied
hea
lthse
rvic
e sp
ecia
lists
in th
e sc
hool
.H
e co
rrel
ates
the
find
ings
of
vari
ous
phys
icia
ns w
hoex
amin
ech
ildre
nper
sona
lph
ysic
ians
, par
t-tim
ecl
inic
al e
xam
iner
s,or
team
phy
sici
ans.
Lik
ewis
e, h
e co
rrel
ates
phys
ical
fin
d-in
gs o
f hi
s m
edic
alex
amin
ers
with
opin
ions
of
the
psyc
ho-
logi
st a
nd p
sych
iatr
ist,
in o
rder
to f
ind
the
optim
umw
ay to
hand
le c
hild
ren
with
em
otio
nal
prob
lem
s. S
ubse
quen
tly, h
ere
late
s re
habi
litat
ion
prog
ram
s fo
r hi
s pu
pils
to th
e to
tal
scho
ol a
ctiv
ity,
incl
udin
g sp
ecia
led
ucat
ion
ifne
cess
ary.
The
sch
ool
phys
icia
n is
, in
fact
,th
e sc
hool
hea
lthof
fice
ran
d, a
s su
ch,
is c
once
rned
with
the
heal
th o
f al
lpe
rson
sw
ithin
the
entir
esc
hool
env
iron
men
t.In
a m
etro
polit
ansc
hool
dis
tric
t the
scho
ol p
hysi
cian
has
a la
rge
staf
fof
par
t-tim
e an
dfu
ll-tim
e ph
ysic
ians
and
allie
d pe
rson
nel.
Her
e th
e m
axim
umde
velo
pmen
t of
the
idea
l pro
gram
bec
omes
pos
sibl
e.
SCH
OO
L P
HY
SIC
IAN
'SR
ESP
ON
SIB
ILIT
IES
In 1
960,
a co
mm
ittee
of
the
Am
eric
an S
choo
l Hea
lthA
ssoc
iatio
n su
rvey
edth
e op
inio
n of
the
Fello
ws
of th
e A
sso-
ciat
ion
abou
t sch
ool
phys
icia
n re
spon
sibi
litie
s.B
y ra
ting
95st
atem
ents
of
resp
onsi
bilit
yin
term
s of
thei
r
1111
1.11
1111
1111
.1".
""""
"..."
".."
.."7,
4111
prac
tical
ity, d
esir
abili
ty,
and
use,
it w
as le
arne
d w
hat
phys
icia
ns,
nurs
es, e
duca
tors
, and
oth
er§
insc
hool
hea
lthw
ork
felt
wer
e th
e ac
tiviti
es th
at s
houl
d be
reco
mm
ende
d fo
rth
e ph
ysic
ian
serv
ing
the
scho
ol. T
here
spon
sibi
litie
s ra
ted
mos
t oft
enin
the
top
10 r
anks
stat
ed th
at th
e sc
hool
phys
icia
n:
Wor
ks c
lose
ly w
ith s
choo
lnu
rses
to f
acili
tate
coo
rdin
atio
n of
the
heal
th s
ervi
cepr
ogra
m.
Bel
ongs
to a
nd p
artic
ipat
esin
Nat
iona
l, St
ate,
and
loca
lm
edic
alor
gani
zatio
ns.
Enc
oura
ges
pare
nts
to h
ave
thei
r ch
ildre
n im
mun
ized
.E
ncou
rage
s pu
pils
to h
ave
med
ical
exa
min
atio
ns d
one
by a
fam
ily p
hysi
cian
whe
nne
eded
.A
ssis
ts in
pla
nnin
g po
licie
san
d pr
oced
ures
for
emer
genc
y ca
resu
ch a
s fo
r vi
ctim
s of
an a
ccid
ent o
r su
dden
illn
ess.
Ass
ists
and
coo
pera
tes
with
scho
ol a
nd p
ublic
hea
lthof
fici
als
in th
e ex
clu
sion
and
read
mis
sion
pol
icie
s of
the
com
mun
icab
ledi
seas
e pr
ogra
m.
Enc
oura
ges
peri
odi m
edic
alex
amin
atio
n of
han
dica
pped
pupi
lsby
fam
ily p
hysi
cian
or o
ther
com
mun
ity r
esou
rces
to d
eter
min
eth
eir
phys
ical
sta
tus.
Part
icip
ates
in o
r co
nsul
tsw
ith e
xist
ing
loca
l med
ical
soci
etie
s.Pa
rtic
ipat
es in
pub
lic h
ealth
prog
ram
s to
pro
mot
e th
e co
ordi
na-
tion
of s
choo
l and
pub
lic h
ealth
prog
ram
s.
The
res
pons
ibili
ties
repo
rted
as
mos
t fre
quen
tlypr
actic
ed
a
wer
e th
e sa
me
as th
e ab
ove,
with
the
exce
ptio
n of
the
firs
ton
e an
d th
e ad
ditio
n of
thre
e ot
hers
:Pe
rfor
ms
med
ical
exa
min
atio
nof
chi
ldre
n re
ferr
ed b
yth
e te
ache
ror
nur
se f
or a
spe
cifi
c he
alth
pro
blem
.C
ondu
cts
peri
odic
med
ical
exam
inat
ions
of
pupi
lsno
t exa
min
edby
pri
vate
phy
sici
ans.
Con
duct
s m
edic
al e
xam
inat
ion
of a
thle
tes.
The
res
pons
ibili
ties
rate
d m
ost o
ften
in th
ebo
ttom
10
rank
s w
ere:
Imm
uniz
es a
ll pu
pils
.R
eque
sts
the
pres
ence
of
pare
nts
for
med
ical
exam
inat
ions
of
seco
ndar
y pu
pils
.M
edic
ally
exa
min
es a
llpu
pils
per
iodi
cally
on a
pre
dete
rmin
edsc
hedu
le.
Con
duct
s ex
amin
atio
ns o
fpr
evio
usly
inju
red
or il
l pup
ils b
efor
eth
eir
read
mis
sion
to s
choo
l pro
gram
s.Pe
riod
ical
ly s
tudi
es th
e m
edic
alex
amin
atio
n re
cord
s of
all
scho
olem
ph.y
ees.
Ass
embl
es b
udge
tary
prog
ram
for
pre
sent
atio
n to
the
scho
olad
min
istr
atio
n.
Lik
ewis
e, th
e re
spon
sibi
litie
sre
port
ed a
s le
ast p
ract
iced
incl
uded
all
the
abov
e, in
addi
tion
to th
e fo
llow
ing:
Prov
ides
co
asul
tatio
n co
ncer
ning
heal
thfu
l sch
ool l
unch
pra
ctic
es.
Ass
ists
in r
ecru
iting
, sel
ectin
g,an
d ev
alua
ting
prof
essi
onal
per- 93
fenn
el to
be
empl
oyed
in th
e sc
hool
heal
thpr
ogra
m.
Peri
odic
ally
eva
luat
esth
e sc
hool
'sad
apte
d ph
ysic
al e
duca
tion
prog
ram
.H
elps
toev
alua
tein
stru
ctio
nal
mat
eria
lsus
edin
heal
thin
stru
ctio
n.A
ssis
ts w
ith o
vera
llpl
anni
ng o
f ad
apte
dph
ysic
al e
duca
tion.
Ass
ists
phy
sica
l edu
cato
rs in
prog
ram
pla
nnin
g to
impr
ove
heal
thas
pect
s of
phy
sica
l edu
catio
n.A
ssis
ts w
ithin
serv
ice
educ
atio
nof
teac
hers
inth
e to
tal s
choo
lan
d co
mm
unity
heal
thpr
ogra
m.
Tho
ugh
som
e of
the
rare
ly p
ract
iced
resp
onsi
bilit
ies
coul
dbe
con
side
red
reas
onab
ly d
esir
able
,th
e fa
ct th
atth
ey w
ere
not p
ract
iced
indi
cate
s th
ech
arac
teri
stic
s of
the
scho
olph
ysic
ian'
s ro
le.4
In li
ne w
ithth
is o
pini
onfr
om F
ello
ws
of th
e A
mer
ican
Scho
ol H
ealth
Ass
ocia
tion
is th
eco
ncep
t of
the
phys
icia
n's
role
expr
esse
d by
the
Am
eric
anA
cade
my
of P
edia
tric
s in
its s
tate
men
t on
scho
ol h
ealth
polic
ies.
5
Bon
vech
io, R
. L.,
and
Duk
e lo
w, D
. A.
"Res
pons
ibili
ties
of S
choo
lPh
ysic
ians
," J
ourn
alof
Sch
ool H
ealth
, 31: 2
1, J
anua
ry19
61.
"Sch
ool H
ealth
Polic
ies"
Rep
ort o
f th
eC
omm
ittee
on S
choo
lH
ealth
, Am
eric
anA
cade
my
of P
edia
tric
s.Pe
diat
rics
, 24:
4, O
ctob
er19
59.
94
The
Aca
dem
yof
Ped
iatr
ics'
repo
rt is
ric
h in
its
refe
renc
eto
the
team
appr
oach
to s
choo
l hea
lthse
rvic
esin
volv
ing
atle
ast t
hepa
rens
, nur
se, t
each
er, a
ndph
ysic
ian.
Thi
s co
n-ce
pt is
com
mon
; in
the
liter
atur
eon
sch
ool h
ealth
prac
tice.
PRO
FESS
ION
AL
FUN
CT
ION
S A
ND
RE
LA
TE
DE
DU
CA
TIO
N O
FSC
HO
OL
PH
YSI
CIA
NS
The
Asn
eric
arPu
blic
Hea
lthA
ssoc
iatio
nth
roug
h its
Com
-m
ittee
on
Prof
essi
onal
Edu
catio
n ha
ssu
gges
ted
the
func
tions
and,
the
prof
essi
onal
qua
lific
atio
nsfo
r sc
hool
phys
icia
ns.6
In b
rief
, a s
choo
l phy
sici
ansh
ould
hav
etr
aini
ng in
edu
ca-
tion
and
publ
ic h
ealth
in a
dditi
onto
med
icin
e. H
esh
ould
be w
ell o
rien
ted
in c
hild
grow
th a
ndde
velo
pmen
t. M
any
have
spec
ializ
ed in
pedi
atri
cs. H
e al
so s
houl
dha
ve h
ad th
eex
peri
ence
of
fie
:'dtr
aini
ng o
rem
ploy
men
t und
eran
est
ab-
lishe
d sc
hool
med
ical
dir
ecto
r.
PHY
SIC
IAN
CO
NSU
LT
AN
TS
Mos
t sch
ool
syst
ems
need
the
cons
ulta
tion
of m
edic
alsp
e-
"Edu
catio
nal Q
ualif
icat
ions
of
Scho
olPh
ysic
ians
." A
mer
ican
Pub-
lic H
ealth
Ass
ocia
tion
Com
mitt
eeon
Pro
fess
iona
l Edu
catio
n.A
mer
i-ca
n Jo
urna
l of
Publ
icH
ealth
, vol
. 43,
Janu
ary
1955
,pp
. 75-
82.
cial
ists
.T
hus,
sch
ool h
ealth
ser
vice
pro
gram
s m
ake
use
ofpa
nels
of
spec
ializ
ed p
hysi
cian
s w
ho a
re c
oord
inat
ed b
y th
esc
hool
med
ical
dir
ecto
r an
d ca
n be
cal
led
for
advi
ce a
ndgu
idan
ce in
pro
blem
are
as.
The
se c
onsu
ltant
s m
ay in
clud
eop
thal
mol
ogis
ts, o
tolo
gist
s, d
erm
atol
ogis
ts, o
rtho
pedi
sts,
psy
-ch
iatr
ists
, and
ped
iatr
icia
ns.
ME
DIC
AL
ASS
OC
IAT
ION
SC
HO
OL
HE
AL
TH
AC
TIV
ITIE
S
With
in th
e pa
st tw
o de
cade
s bo
th S
tate
and
loca
l med
ical
soci
etie
s ha
ve d
evel
oped
con
side
rabl
e in
tere
st in
the
scho
olhe
alth
pro
gram
, esp
ecia
lly th
e sc
hool
hea
lth s
ervi
ce a
spec
tsof
the
prog
ram
.In
man
y in
stan
ces,
act
ive
com
mitt
ees
ofph
ysic
ians
wor
k cl
osel
y w
ith th
e al
lied
heal
th p
rofe
ssio
ns a
ndsc
hool
adm
inis
trat
ion
in f
orm
ulat
ing
polic
y an
d de
sira
ble
prac
tice
in s
choo
l hea
lth s
ervi
ce.
Stat
e m
edic
al a
ssoc
iatio
n in
tere
st in
the
scho
ol h
ealth
pro
-gr
am a
nd in
chi
ld h
ealth
in g
ener
al h
as d
one
muc
h to
bri
ngsc
hool
hea
lth w
ork
to th
e at
tent
ion
of lo
cal m
edic
al s
ocie
ties
and
the
prac
ticin
g ph
ysic
ians
with
in th
eir
area
of
infl
uenc
e.T
he 1
963
Surv
ey ©
n C
ount
y M
edic
al S
ocie
ty A
ctiv
ities
sho
ws
that
med
ical
soc
iety
sch
ool h
ealth
com
mitt
ees
occu
r w
ithgr
eate
r fr
eque
ncy
as th
e nu
mbe
r of
mem
bers
incr
ease
s.
$
Whe
re m
embe
rshi
p is
15
or le
ss, o
nly
23.5
per
cent
hav
e sc
hool
heal
th c
omm
ittee
s, w
hile
soc
ietie
s w
ith 1
,500
or
mor
e m
em-
Ler
s ha
ve s
uch
com
mitt
ees
in 7
3.7
perc
ent o
f in
stan
ces.
'M
uch
the
sam
e pa
ttern
exi
sts
for
com
mitt
ees
on m
enta
l hea
lthan
d pu
blic
hea
lth, a
nd m
ater
nal a
nd c
hild
car
e, w
hich
fre
-qu
ently
incl
ude
scho
ol h
ealth
act
iviti
es.
Man
y m
edic
al s
ocie
ties
plac
e th
eir
scho
ol h
ealth
inte
rest
sin
com
mitt
ees
iden
tifie
d as
hea
lth e
duca
tion,
chi
ld h
ealth
,m
ater
nal a
nd c
hild
car
e, p
ublic
hea
lth, o
r ev
en in
terp
rofe
s-si
onal
rel
atio
ns. I
n a
few
Sta
tes.
the
Stat
e m
edic
al a
ssoc
iatio
nan
d th
e St
ate
depa
rtm
ent o
f he
alth
are
so
inte
rrel
ated
that
scho
ol h
ealth
inte
rest
s ha
ve b
een
assi
gned
to th
e de
part
men
tof
hea
lth a
s a
conv
enie
nt d
ivis
ion
of p
rogr
am.
At t
imes
, med
ical
soc
ietie
s en
gage
as
a gr
oup
in s
ome
scho
olhe
alth
ser
vice
fun
ctio
n.In
pro
gram
s su
ch a
s pr
esch
ool e
x-am
inat
ions
and
sch
ool h
ealth
exa
min
atio
ns, t
he s
mal
ler
soci
-et
ies
have
a h
ighe
r ra
te o
f pa
rtic
ipat
ion
than
the
larg
er o
nes.
Thi
s m
ay s
ugge
st a
clo
ser
rela
tion
with
the
scho
ol in
the
rura
lan
d sm
all u
rban
com
mun
ities
.O
n th
e ot
her
hand
, lar
ger
soci
etie
s m
ore
freq
uent
ly s
pons
or c
onfe
rr n
ces
on p
hysi
cian
san
d sc
hool
s, a
nd s
port
s in
juri
es.
4196
3 N
atio
nwid
e Su
rvey
on C
ount
y M
edic
al S
ocie
ty A
ctiv
ities
.C
hica
go, A
mer
ican
Med
ical
Ass
ocia
tion,
Sep
tem
ber
1963
.
U.S
.GO
VE
RN
ME
NT
PR
INT
ING
OF
FIC
E:19
160-
-206
-676
95a