remote sensing for geoscientists : image analysis and ... · imageprocessing 21...

THIRD EDITION

REMOTE SENSING

FOR GEOSCIENTISTS

GARY L. PROST

CRC PressTaylor& Francis CroupBoca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an Imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business

Contents

Preface xxi

Acknowledgments xxv

Author xxvii

Section I Initiating Projects

1. Project Flow and Obtaining Data 3

Chapter Overview 3

Choosing the Right Imagery for the Job 3

Acquiring Imagery 8

References 8

Additional Reading 9

2. Photointerpretation Tools and Techniques 11

Chapter Overview 11

Tools 11

Light Tables 11

Magnifying Glasses 11

Stereoscopes 12

Transferscopes 12

Scales and Planimeters 14

Parallax Bars 14

Overlays 14

Base Maps 15

Filters 15

Image Characteristics 15

Photo Finish 15

Paper versus Film 15

Hard Copy versus Digital 16

Mechanics of Image Analysis 16

Image Interpretation 16

Influence of Scale 18

Influence of Color 19

Technique 19

Effect of Viewing Direction or Perspective 20

Foreshortening 20

Filtering 20

Viewing with "Fresh Eyes" 20

Multiple Images of the Same Area 20

Image Processing 21

Contrast Enhancement (and Suppression) 21

Filtering 21

Ratioing 24

vii

viii Contents

Transforms and Spectral Band Merging 25

Color Manipulation 28

Density Slicing 28

Vegetation Indices 28

Classification 29

Geographic Information Systems 30

References 31


3 Remote Sensing Systems 33

Chapter Overview 33

Instrument Systems 33

Cameras and Photography 33

Black-and-White Photography 35

Color Photography 36

Satellite Photography 39

Thermal Scanners and Imagery 39

Radar 41

Radar Profiling/Microwave Sounders 44

Radar Altimeters 45

Radar Interferometry 45

Passive Microwave Radiometry 46

Spectrometers, Spectrophotometers, and Interferometers 47

Multispectral and Hyperspectral Scanners 48

Imaging Absorption Spectrometers 51

Occultation Spectrometers 51

Michelson Interferometers 51

Lasers, Lidar, and Lidar Altimeters 51

Backscatter Lidar 55

Differential Absorption Lidar 55

Fluorescence Lidar 55

Doppler Lidar 55

Broadband Lidar 56

Potential Fields Systems (Gravity and Magnetics Instruments) 56

Gravimeters 57

Magnetometers 59

Gamma Ray and X-Ray Spectrometry 61

Airborne Electromagnetic Surveys 64

Airborne Very Low Frequency Electromagnetic Survey 64

Airborne Resistivity 65

Airborne Induced Polarization 65

Ground-Penetrating Radar 66

Other EM Systems 67

Side-Scan Sonar 68

Instrument Platforms 70

Airborne Scanner Systems 71

Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner 71

Airborne Imagining Spectrometer 71

Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer 71

Contents ix

Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager 72

Thematic Mapper Simulator 72

NS-001 72

AIRSAR 73

Multispectral Infrared and Visible Imaging Spectrometer 73

Hyperspectral Digital Imagery Collection Experiment 73

Short Wavelength Infrared Full Spectrum Imager 73

Digital Airborne Imaging Spectrometer 7915 73

Portable Hyperspectral Imager for Low-Light Spectroscopy 74

MODIS/ASTER Airborne Simulator 75

IceBridge 77

DISCOVER-AQ 77

Airborne Microwave Observatory of Subcanopy and Subsurface 79

CARVE 79

Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel 79

Satellites and Their Primary Earth Observation Systems 79

United States of America (NASA, NOAA) 80

Orbiting Geophysical Observatory 80

Skylab 80

Landsat 80

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 83

Laser Geodynamics Satellite 1 and 2 83

The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration and MetOp-A 83

Heat Capacity Mapping Mission 84

SeaSat 84

Magnetic Field Satellite 86

Space Shuttle 86

Geodetic Satellite 87

TOPEX/Poseidon 87

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 88

Geosat Follow-On 88

TERRA (EOS AM) 88

Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor III 91

Quick Scatterometer 92

New Millenium Program Earth Observing-1 Satellite 92

Scientific Application Satellite-C 92

Jason-1 94

Jason-2 95

AQUA (EOS PM1) 95

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment 96

Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite 97

Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment 97

Aura 98

CBERS Series 98

Polar Operational Environmental Satellite N Series 98

CloudSat 100

CAL1PSO 102

Aquarius/SAC-D 102

Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership 103

x Contents

Canada 103

RADARSAT-1 103

RADARSAT-2 104

SCISAT-1 104

Chile 105

FASat-Bravo 105

SSOT 106

China 106

Yaogan 1 Series 106

HaiYang-2A 107

Ziyuan Series 107

Denmark 108

0rsted 108

DigitalGlobe 109

Early Bird 109

QuickBird 109

WorldView-1 109

WorldView-2 109

European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites 109

Meteosat Second Generation 110

European Space Agency 110

ERS-1 and -2 Ill

Cluster II Series 112

Project for On-Board Autonomy 112

ODIN 112

Environmental Satellite 112

FORMOSAT-2 114

COSMO-SkyMed 115

Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity 115

Gravity Field and Ocean Circulation Explorer 116

CryoSat-2 116

Laser Relativity Satellite 116

France 117

STARLETTE and STELLA 117

SPOT Series 118

SPOT-6 118

Detection of Electro-Magnetic Emissions Transmitted from Earthquake

Regions 119

Polarization and Anisotropy of Reflectances for Atmospheric Science

Coupled with Observations from Lidar 119

Pleiades Series 120

Pleiades IB 121

Germany 121

Challenging Minisatellite Payload 121

TerraSAR-X 121

TanDEM-X 121

GEOEYE, INC 122

IKONOS-1 and IKONOS-2 122

ORBVIEW-1 122

Contents xi

ORBVIEW-2 122

ORBVIEW-3 123

GeoEye-1 123

India 124

IRS Series 124

IRS-P4 (Oceansat-1) 125

Technology Experiment Satellite 126

IRS-P6 126

IRS-P5 127

IRS-P7 127

Indian Micro Satellite-1 127

Oceansat-2 127

RISAT 2 127

CARTOSAT 2B 128

ResourceSat-2 128

RISAT-1 128

Indonesia 128

Lapan-TUBsat 128

ImageSat International 128

Earth Resources Observation Satellite 128

Earth Resources Observation Satellite B 129

Japan 129

Geostationary Meteorological Satellite Series 129

Marine Observation Satellite-1 and -lb 130

Advanced Earth Observing Satellite Series 130

JERS-1 132

Multifunctional Transport Satellites Series 132

Advanced Land Observing Satellite 133

Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite 135

Korea 135

Korea Multipurpose Satellite-1 136



Soviet Union/Russian Federation 136

KOSMOS Series 138

ETALON Series 138

ALMAZ-1 138

Monitor-E 138

Resurs-DKl 138

Meteor-M-1 140

Electro-L 140

Singapore 140

X-Sat 141

Surrey Satellite Technology Limited 141

Disaster Monitoring Constellation 141

Alsat-1 and Alsat-2 142

Bilsat-1 142

NigeriaSat-1 and NigeriaSat-2 142

NigeriaSat-X 143

xii Contents

U.K. DMCSat-1 143

Beijing-1 143

Deimos-1 143

THEOS 143

Future Satellite Systems 143

Swarm Series 144

LDCM (Landsat-8) 144

ATTREX 145

GeoEye-2 145

CBERS Series 145

Sentinel Series 145

Atmospheric Dynamics Mission (ADM-Aeolus) 146

SPOT-7 146

Global Precipitation Measurement 146

Worldview-3 147

National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System 147

SAOCOM Series 147

OceanSat-3 147

International Space Station (ISS) 148

Jason-3 148

Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 148

EarthCARE 149

GOES NEXT Series 149

HyspIRI 149

ResourceSat-3 149

CartoSat-3 150

Soil Moisture Active-Passive 150

Geosat Follow-On-2 150

Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite-2 150

Joint Polar Satellite System 151

RADARSAT-3, -4, and -5 151

ASCENDS 151

Deformation, Ecosystem Structure, and Dynamics of Ice 152

References 152


Section II Remote Sensing in Geologic Mapping and Resource

ExplorationIntroduction 165

Geologic Mapping 166

Frontier Area Analysis 166

Lease Evaluation 167

Established Concessions 168The Field Check 168

4. Recognizing Rock Types 171

Chapter Overview 171

Igneous Rocks 171

Contents xiii

Intrusive Igneous Rocks 171

Extrusive Igneous Rocks 173

Metamorphic Rocks 175

Sedimentary Rocks 176

Sandstones 176

Shales 176

Carbonates 177

Evaporites 178

References 180

5. Recognizing Structure 181


Undeformed Terrain 181

Recognizing Dip 183

Anticlines, Domes, and Uplifts 188

Surface Folds 190

Buried Folds 191

Topographic Expression of Folding 192

Color Anomalies Indicating Folds 192

Vegetation Anomalies Suggesting Folds 193

Fracture Patterns Indicating Folds 194

Buried Folds in Glacial Terrain 200

Folds beneath Drifting Sand 200

Folds Revealed by Drainage Patterns 201

Channel Width/Depth Adjustment and Incision 202

Compressed Meanders 202

Drainage Texture 203

Radial and Concentric (Annular) Drainage 203

Braided Stream Segments 204

Double Drainage Deflection 204

Change in Strike of Bedding 204

Parallel Drainage Deflection 205

Levee Preservation 205

Topographic Profiles 206

Trend Surface Analyses 206

Surface Features Offset from Subsurface Structure 207

Circular Features 207

Fractures and Lineaments 208

Propagation Mechanisms 208

Joints 211

Faults 216

Normal, Reverse, and Listric Faults 219

Strike-Slip Faults 228

Thrust Faults 231

Case History: Structure and Geomechanics of

Active Fault Zones 239

Fault Zone Mapping 241

Fault Zone Complexity 241

Lateral Displacement of Geomorphic Markers 242

xjv Contents

Geomechanical Modeling 245

Earthquakes and Tectonics 247

Case History: Measuring Earthquake Deformation UsingDifferential Lidar 248

El Mayor-Cucapah Earthquake Deformation 248

Remote Sensing and Earthquake Forecasting 251

Timing of Structural Development 252

References 253


6. Stratigraphic and Compositional Mapping 263


Rock Spectra 263

Mineral Spectra 264

Hyperspectral Imagery 268

Mineral Mixing and Unmixing 269

Atmospheric Corrections 272

Ground-Penetrating Radar 272

Lithologic Mapping 274

Using Radar to Map Stratigraphy 279

Hyperspectral Outcrop and Core Analysis 279

Source Rock Mapping 283

Seeps Mapping 283

Stratigraphic Traps 285

Stratiform Deposits 287

Coal, Phosphate, Potash, and Uranium-Vanadium Deposits 287

Base Metal Sedimentary Deposits and Chemical Precipitates 287

Disseminated Sedimentary Ores and Replacement Mantos 289

Fluvial and Marine Placer Deposits 290

Laterites 292

References 292


7. Remote Geochemistry 297


Altered Rock and Soil Related to Hydrocarbon Seepage 297

Altered Rock and Soil Related to Mineral Deposits 304

Remote Sensing of Gases, Radiation, and Aerosols 309

Case History: Sniffing the Air 309

Detection of Gases, Radiation, and Aerosols Associated with

Mineral Deposits 311

References 312

8. Modern Analogs 317


Depositional Environments 317

Storm Deposits 322

Erosional Environments 323

Structural Analogs 324

Contents xv

Analogs for Hazards Planning 326

Planetary Analogs 327

References 328

9. Remote Sensing in Petroleum Exploration 331


Frontier Petroleum Exploration 331

Case History: Offshore Barbados Petroleum Exploration 331

Case History: Unraveling the Trap at Trap Springs, Nevada 333

Mature Basin Petroleum Exploration 336

Case History: An Integrated Approach BringsNew Life to an Old Basin 336

Case History: Stratigraphic Traps in the Paradox Basin, Utah 340

Resource Plays 343

Case History: Niobrara Fractured Carbonate-Shale Reservoir, Denver Basin,

Colorado-Wyoming 343

Case History: The Marcellus Fractured Shale Play 347

References 349


10. Remote Sensing in Mineral Exploration 353


Exploration Applications of Alteration Mapping 353

Case History: Mapping the Grizzly Peak Caldera, Colorado 353

Case History: The Missing Link—Alteration Associated with Gold

Mineralization at Goldfield, Nevada 357

Exploration Applications of Structure Mapping 361

Case History: Structure Mapping as a Guide to Porphyry Copper Deposits,Northeast China 361

Exploration Applications of Hyperspectral Mapping 362

Case History: Exploration for Diamond-Bearing Kimberlites and Diatremes,

Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming 362

Case History: Mineral Exploration in Northern Chile 365

References 370


Section HI Exploitation, Hydrologic, and Engineering Remote

SensingIntroduction 373

Exploitation Applications 373

Hydrologic Applications 374

Engineering and Logistical Applications 375

11 Remote Sensing in Resource Exploitation Projects 377


Choosing Infill and Stepout Well Locations 377

Case History: Developing the Bravo Dome C02 Field, New Mexico 378

Case History: Developing a Fractured (Conventional) Reservoir, Austin

Chalk, Texas 381

xvi Contents

Coalbed Methane 387

Case History: Developing Coal Bed Methane, Piceance Basin, Colorado 388

Secondary Recovery and Waterfloods 389

Case History: Understanding a Waterflood at Cottonwood Creek Field,

Wyoming 390

Extending Known Mineral Deposits 393

Case History: Extending Known Deposits in the Huancavelica MiningDistrict, Peru 394

Slope Stability and Mine Safety 397

References 397

12. Hydrology 401


Locating Sources of Groundwater 401

Soil Moisture Determination 405

Surface Waters and Bathymetry 407

Bathymetric Mapping and Ocean Floor Topography 409

Sub-Glacial Water 411

Georhermal Resources 413

References 415


13. Logistics and Engineering 419


Site Selection 419

Geologic Structure 420

Surface Materials 421

Subsidence 421

Surface Slope 422

Permafrost 422

Expanding Clays 424

Generating Appropriate Base Maps 424

Reconnaissance 425

Transportation 427

Construction Projects 432

Case History: Site Selection for the Kakrapar AtomicPower Project, India 432

References 433


Section IV Environmental Remote Sensing

14 Environmental Baselines and Monitoring 437


Environmental Audits 437

Hazardous Waste .438Terrestrial Hydrocarbon Leaks and Spills 438

Contents xvii

Habitat Mapping 439

Surface Disturbance and Change Detection 441

Case History: Using Interferometric Synthetic ApertureRadar (InSAR) to Monitor Surface Deformation over a

Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage Project,Christina Lake, Alberta 445

Coal Mine Fires 446

Case History: Monitoring the Jharia Coal Fire, India 449

Mine Reclamation 451

Case History: Mine Reclamation in the Couer dAlene Mining District, idaho....451

Water Quality 456

Rivers, Lakes, and Ponds 456

Case History: Acid Rock Drainage, Upper Arkansas River, Colorado 457

Case History: Monitoring Algal Blooms and Toxins, Nebraska 459

Groundwater Quality 463

Estuaries and Wetlands 466

Marine Environment 466

Algae 466

Discharges, Spills, and Seeps 467

Coastal Change Mapping 469

Atmospheric and Air Pollution Monitoring 470

Gas and Aerosol Detectors 473

Satellite and Airborne Atmospheric Monitoring 476

References 478


15. Geobotanical Remote Sensing 485


Geobotany and Geological Mapping 486

Vegetation Suppression Techniques 491

Botanical Indicators of Mineralization and Alteration 492

Botanical Responses to Hydrocarbons 494

Vegetation as a Groundwater/Geothermal Resource Indicator 499

References 500


16. Environmental Hazards and Global Warming 503


Monitoring the Effects of Global Warming 505

Landslides and Avalanches 508

Earthquakes and Tsunamis 513

Flooding 516

Erosion 520

Volcanoes 521

Case History: Monitoring Volcanic Unrest in Kenya 523

Subsidence and Sinkholes 525

Case History: Subsidence over Abandoned Coal Mines, Colorado Springs,Colorado 526

xviii Contents

Marine Hazards 528

Shoals 529

Shoreline Change 530

Submarine Slumps 530

Sea Ice and Sea Ice Scour 530

Hydrates, Gas Vents, and Craters 532

References 533


Section V AstrogeologyReferences 538

17. Mapping Planetary Structure 539


Faulting 539

Folding 545

Impact Structures 548

References 555


18. Mapping Planetary Stratigraphy 559


Erosion and Deposition 559

Eolian Erosion and Deposition 559

Oceans and Lakes 562

Rivers and Deltas 562

Mass Wasting 567

Glaciation 568

Volcanism 569

Composition and Mineral Mapping 572

References 577


19. Planetary Resources 579


Water 579

Minerals and Metals 582

Hydrocarbons 583

References 585


Section VI Remote Sensing, Geoscience, and the Public

20. Public Relations, the Media, and the Law 589


Public Relations 589

Media 592

Contents xix

Remote Sensing and the Law 593

Regulations 593

Law Suits 594

References 596

21. Geographic Information Systems and Online Remote Sensing Resources 597


Geographic Information Systems and Mapping 598

Case History: Mine Management Using a Geographic Information System 598

Case History: Pipeline Routing Using Remote Sensing and a GeographicInformation System 600

Online Resources for Remote Sensing 601

Data Repositories 602

NASA Reverb (reverb.echo.nasa.gov) 602

Rapid Response (lance.nasa.gov/imagery/rapid-response/) 602

USGS EarthExplorer (earthexplorer.usgs.gov) 602

USGS GloVis (glovis.usgs.gov) 603

ESA EOLi (eoli.esa.int) 603

Community Remote Sensing 603

Ongoing Research 604

Publishing Data 605

Standards 605

Software Tools 605

Geographic Information Systems 606

Virtual Globes 606

Google Earth 606

NASA World Wind 607

OpenWebGlobe 608

Image Analysis 610

ESA BEAM (www.brockmann-consult.de/cms/web/beam) 610

GDAL (gdal.org) 611

GeoTools (geotools.org) 611

OSSIM (www.ossim.org) 611

Networks 611

Forums 611

Twitter 612

Blogs 612

OpenTopography: Tutorial for a Web-Based Public Digital Topographic Data

and Tools 613

Introduction 613

Computing Considerations 614

References 619

22. Closing Thoughts 621

Index 623

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