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Reinventing Graphic Design Software by Bridging theGap Between Graphical User Interfaces and

ProgrammingNolwenn Maudet

To cite this version:Nolwenn Maudet. Reinventing Graphic Design Software by Bridging the Gap Between Graphical UserInterfaces and Programming. Design Research Society Conference 2018, Jun 2018, Limerick, Ireland.�10.21606/drs.2018.611�. �hal-02313951�

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ReinventingGraphicDesignSoftwarebybridgingthegapbetweenGraphicalUserInterfacesandProgrammingMAUDETNolwenn

aTheUniversityofTokyo*Correspondingauthore-mail:nolwenn.maudet@gmail.comdoi:10.21606/dma.2017.611

Graphic Design Software Applications radically transformed the practice and theindustry of graphic design. However, they barely evolved since their introduction,leadingdesignerstoquestiontheirubiquity.Inthispaper,weexplorethismismatchbyanalysingdigitaldesigntoolsthroughtwolenses.Wefirstinvestigatedigitaldesigntoolsfroma“lineage”perspective:howtheyreproducedthepre-existingdesigntoolsandpractices.Wethenusetwofamiliarexamples:thecolourpickerandthealignmentanddistribution commands toexplore thevisionofdesign that theypromote.Werevealhowthesetoolsassumethatdesignersalreadyhaveinmindadesiredoutcomeandthusintroduceamismatchwithcurrentdesigners'practices.Tobridgethisgap,we propose “graphical substrates”, interactive and visual tools that combine thestrengthsofbothprogrammingandgraphicaluserinterfaces.Weanalysehowseveralrecent researchdesign tools embed this approachandwepropose twoprinciples:tweakingandcreationfromexampletofostertheiradoptionbydesigners.

DesignTools;GraphicDesign;GraphicalUserInterfaces

1 IntroductionGraphicDesignSoftwareApplicationsrevolutionisedthegraphicdesignprocessassoonastheywereintroducedinpersonalcomputers.Underthenameofdesktoppublishing,theygreatlyfacilitatedandoptimisedthedifferentstepsofthegraphicdesignandproductionprocess.Designerscouldfinallyaccessandinteractwithrealtimevisualisationoftheirwork.Beforethedigitalisationoftheprintingindustry,graphicdesignwasanentireindustrywithmanydifferentandcomplementaryprofessions(typesetters,paste-upartists,photomechanicaltechnicians...)coexistingwithcomplexmachinerytooperate(Briar,2017).Theprofoundtransformationledbytheadoptionofgraphicdesignsoftwareapplicationsfirstdrewalotofcriticismfromestablisheddesigners(Armstrong,2016)buttheywererapidlyadoptedbytheindustry.Morethan25yearsafter,wesawthedemocratisationofinternetandthewideadoptionofmobilephones.Designpracticeaccompaniedthismovementandmanynoveldesigndisciplinesappeared,includinginteractiondesignanduser

experiencedesign.Yet,contrarytodesignpractice,thedigitaldesignsoftwarelandscapemostlydidnotchange.Someofthesamedesignapplicationsthatwereintroducedinthe1990’sarestillbeingusedbygraphicdesignersalmost30yearslater.

Figure1-ComparisonofAdobePhotoshopToolbarssince1987.Notehowlittletheyhavechanged.

Forexample,ifwelookatthetoolbarsfromAdobePhotoshop,oneofthemosticonicdesignsoftwareapplication,overtheyearswecanseethattheyprovidethesametoolssincetheiroriginandonlyaddedfewnewones(Figure1).FollowingMcGrenere’sanalysisofmainstreamsoftware,wecoulddescribetheirevolutionasaformof“softwarebloat”(McGrenere,2000).Doesthismeanthatdesigner’stoolsareasolvedproblem?Twodifferentelementsdemonstratethatdesignsoftwareremainsanopenquestion.

First,theimportanceofdesigntoolsisparticularlystrikingwhenweconsiderthereasonsbehinddesignbirth.DesignbirthisgenerallytracedbacktotheindustrialisationofBritaininthe19thcentury.FordesignpioneerWilliamMorrisandtheBritishArtsandCraftsmovement,theemergingindustrialisedmassproductionmeantauniformisationoftheresultingproducts,aswellasadegradationinproductquality(Morris,1884).Inresponsetothistrend,theyadvocatedforatighterconnectionbetweendesign,craftandproduction.Beforetheeraofindustrialisationandtheseparationofpeopleandthemeansofproduction,craftsmencouldcreatetheirowntools.AswecanseeinFigure2,theywereingeniousinadaptingtheirtoolstoone’shandsizeandhandedness,ortoachieveparticulareffects.Morrissoughttopreservethistradition.Afewdecadeslater,thepioneerBauhausdesignschoolencourageditsstudentstoembracemachinesandexploretheirpotential.Designersweretoappropriateindustrialprocessestocreatehighqualityproducts(Papanek,1972).Thus,oneofthefirstgoalsofdesignerswastoreappropriateproductionmeansandtofusiondesignandproduction.Followingthislineofthought,separatingthequestionofdesignanddesigntoolsisimpossible.DesignSoftwareisanopenissuebecausepartofadesigner’sworkethosistochooseandquestiontheirtools.

Thesecond,andprobablymoreimportantreasonisanemergingreappropriationmovementcomingfromdesignersthemselves.TheiconicProcessingprogramminglanguageandenvironment,launchedin2001,wasamongtheveryfirsttoolthatsought“tointroducevisualdesignersandartiststocomputationaldesign”(Reas,2007).Fordesigners,programmingoffersawholenewrangeofdynamiccapabilitiesthattraditionalsoftwareapplicationsdonotprovideyet(Reas,2010).Thesepioneerinitiativesnurturedanewgenerationofdesignerswhostartedcreatingdesignsoftware,usuallyfortheirownneeds.Ina2012essaycommissionedbythemagazineGraphismeenFrance,ReasandMcWilliamsaskedseveraldesignerswhoprogramtheirowntools:“Howdoeswritingyourownsoftwareaffectyourdesignprocessandalsothevisualqualitiesofthefinalwork?”(Reas&

McWilliams,2012,p.26)Theyfoundthatsomeideaswereprevalentacrossrespondents.First,designersexplainedthatwritingcustomsoftwaregivesthemmorecontrolovertheresultingartefact.Thesecondisthatnewtoolsbringnovelcreativeopportunities:“Experienceddesignersknowthatoff-the-shelf,generalsoftwareapplicationsobscurethepotentialofsoftwareasamediumforexpressionandcommunication.Writingcustom,uniquetoolswithsoftwareopensnewpotentialsforcreativeauthorship”(Reas&McWilliams,2012,p.27).

Figure2-Someofthemanytrowelsthatcanbeseenatthe"Maisondel’outiletdelapenséeouvrière”inTroyes,France.Notehowverysimilartheylook,yethowuniquelydifferenteachoneofthemis.

Atthesametime,severaldesignersstartedtoquestionthelackofinterestanddiversityindesignsoftwarethroughtheirwritings.AccordingtodesigneranddesigncriticDavidReinfurt:“Functionsets,softwareparadigms,anduserscenariosaremappedoutforeachsoftwareprojecttoensurethewidestpossibleusability,resultinginanaveragedtoolwhichskipsthehighs,lows,errors,andquirks.”(Reinfult,2012,p.6).Inhisthesis“digitaltoolsandgraphicdesign”,graphicdesignerKevinDonnotwonders“Whycouldn’tweacceptthattoolsinfluenceusandthatwecouldchoosethemdependingontheirimpact?Shouldn’tweaskourselveswhichtoolismostappropriatebeforemechanicallyresortingtoourusualsoftware?”(Donnot,2011).Thisrecentintereststartedbringingdesignsoftwareinthespotlight(Leray&Vilayphiou,2011)andshowstheexistingmismatchbetweendesigners’practicesandtheircurrentdigitalapplications.

Withthispaper,wewanttostartqualifyingthemismatchbetweengraphicdesigners’practicesandcurrentdigitalgraphicdesigntools,aswellasproposingprinciplesfornoveldesigntoolsthatcouldmitigatethismismatch.Inthefirstpartofthispaper,weanalysethe“technicallineage”betweentheearlyexamplesofdigitaltoolsandthepre-existingprocessesandtoolstheywerederivedfrom.Wethenmorespecificallyanalysetwodesigntools,thecolourpickerandthealignmentanddistributioncommandstounderstandthevisionofdesigntheyembedanditslimitationsindesigner’spractices.Throughthisanalysis,werevealsomeofthemythsaboutthedesignprocessthatunderliethesetools.Inthesecondpartofthispaper,webuildonarecentwaveofdigitaldesigntoolsandintroducethenotionof“graphicalsubstrates”,interactivevisualobjectsthatbridgethegapbetweentraditionalgraphicaluserinterfacesandprogramming.Webrieflyshowhowrecentdesigntoolsstartedimplementingsuchinteractiveobjectsandweproposetwodesignguidelinestofurtherenhancegraphicalsubstratesandfacilitatetheirappropriationbydesigners.

1.1 AworkingdefinitionofdigitaldesigntoolDefiningdesigntoolsmightbeanendlessendeavour,becausetheintricatearchitectureofsoftwaretendstoblenddifferentlevelsofgranularity.Inthispaper,wefocusonthemaindesigntoolsproducedbytheindustryandstillinusetoday,eventhoughtheearliesttoolscreatedfordesignersweredevelopedbyresearchers.Withinthisscope,wedefinedesigntoolasindividualtoolswithin

designapplicationssuchasAdobeIllustratorandInDesign.Concretely,wecall“designtools”individualpanelsandcommandssuchascolourpickers,alignmentcommands,levelspanel,filters,etc.WeotherwiseusethetermdesignsoftwareapplicationtorefertodesignapplicationssuchasAdobeIllustrator,PhotoshopandInDesignthatincludeawidevarietyofdesigntools.Evenwithsuchadefinition,somedesigntoolscanbequitecomplexandincludeseveralinteractivecomponentssuchasthelevelspanelinAdobePhotoshop,whileothers,suchastherectangleselection,aremuchsimpler.However,becausetheyareallaccessibleatthesamelevelintoolpalettesandinmenus,wecanpositfornowthattheyweregrantedthesamelevelofimportancebytoolcreators.

2 AtechnicallineageapproachtounderstandingdigitaldesigntoolsAccordingtoSimondon,philosopheroftechnology,astudyoftechnologyshouldnotapproachtechnologyfromanindividualperspective.Instead,eachtechnicalobjectbelongstowhathecalls“atechnicallineage”andcannotbefullyunderstoodoutsideofit(Simondon,1958).AsMasureshowed,toestablishtheireconomicsuccessandwideadoption,designsoftwarepublishersneededtopursueanapparentcontinuitywithexistingenvironmentandtechniques(Masure,2014).Thislineageapproachcanbeaninterestingfirststeptounderstanddigitalgraphicdesigntools.Takingafewexamplesoffunctionalities,wecanshowthatatleastsomefunctionalitiesofthefirstcommercialgraphicdesignapplicationswerederivedfrompre-existingpracticesandtechniques.Contrarytotheveryfirstdigitaldesignsoftwareapplications,suchasSketchpad(Sutherland,1963),thatweredesignedbycomputerscientistswhohadlittleaccesstohowgraphicdesignersworked,thefirstcommercialdesignapplicationswerecreatedbypeoplewhowereincloserelationshipwithgraphicdesign.Togivetwoexamples,Aldus’founder,PaulBrainerd,hadhimselfbeenaneditorforasmalljournalwhilethewifeofJohnWarnock,co-founderofAdobe,wasagraphicdesigner.Theythereforehadacloseunderstandingoftheconcretepracticesandtoolsusedbygraphicdesignersbeforethedigitalera.

Figure3-Priortousingdesignsoftwareapplications,designersusedtocreatelayoutsthrough“paste-up”,cuttingandpastingdifferentcontentelementsontoablankpage.ImagefromGraphicMeans:AHistoryofGraphicDesignProduction.

In1985,AldusreleasedPageMaker,aMacintosh-dedicatedsoftwareapplicationfordesktoppublishing.Thispieceofsoftwarewasspecificallycreatedtosupplanttraditionaltechnologiesandfitwithintheexistingprintingindustrypractices.Asitscreatorexplains,“mostofthepagemakerinterfaceanddialogsandthewayitworks,thebasicfunctionscamefrommyexperienceofhaving

donepasteupmyselfwitharazorblade”(PaulBrainerd,inLevit,2017).Indeed,PageMaker,soonfollowedbyitssuccessors,QuarkXPressandAdobeInDesign,introducedtographicdesignersthepossibilitytofreelydraganddroptextandimageontothepage,whichiswhattheywereusedtodowhencreatinglayoutthroughpaste-up.Moreover,thewaydesktoppublishingsoftwareapplicationshandletextisalsoareminiscenceofthepaste-upprocessthatwasprevalentintheindustryatthattime:First,designerswouldsendthetexttoaphototypesettertogeneratethewholetextusingtherightfontattherightsize.Theywouldreceivesinglecolumnsscrollsthattheywouldthencutandpasteontothepage.Indesignsoftwareapplicationstoo(andincontrasttotexteditorssuchasMicrosoftWord),thetextisreceivedasoneinfinitescroll,itisdisconnectedfromitscontainers.Designerscanthencompose,cutandadjustthecontainersontothewhitepage.Thekeydifferencebeingthatthetextcontinuouslyflowsinthecontainers,andcanfreelyberearrangedandrecombined,offeringgreaterexplorationpossibilitiestodesigners.

Asecondexampleoftheinfluenceofthetraditionalprocessoverdesktoppublishingcanbefoundinitswayofhandlingpageformat.Indesignsoftwareapplicationstoo,whencreatingaproject,designersmustfirstselectpages’dimensionsaswellasmargins.Theseparametersarethenfixedandarenotsupposedtobemodified.Thisechoesthetraditionalpaste-upprocessinwhichthedesignerfirstchoseapageformatandestablishedpagemargins.Thispagebecamethecanvasontowhichshecouldexperimentwithtextandimagelayouts.Yet,indesktoppublishing,thechoicetofirstsetpagesizesandmarginsisnotdictatedbyatechnicalconstraint,rather,itsimplyreproducesapre-existingprocess.Finally,whenpresentingtheirsoftware,PageMakers’developersexplained:“itwasdesignedwiththeindustryinmind,inotherwordsitdoeshalf-tones,ligatures,kerning,allthewordsthatthetypesettingindustryhasbeenfamiliarwith.”(PaulBrainerd,inComputerChronicles,1986”).Withthesedifferentexamples,wecanobservethatdesktoppublishingfirstandforemostdevelopedfunctionalitiesthatmatchedpreviouslyexistingonesintheindustry.Infact,becausetheirgoalwastofitwithinexistingworkflowandtobeeasilyadoptedbydesigners,theytriedtomimictheexistingprocess.

Thelineageapproachcanhelpusunderstandthedesignofsomefunctionalitiesproposedingraphicdesignsoftwareapplications.Aswehaveseen,theenvironmentbehindtheemergenceofgraphicdesignsoftwareapplicationsledtothereproductionofsomepre-existingconstraints.However,thisapproachislimitedwhenwelookatindividualdesigntoolsandtrytounderstandtheirdesign.Infact,toolsreproducingpre-existingprocessescoexistedwithotherfunctionalitiesthatdidnothavedirectequivalentinpre-existingprocesses,suchastheundocommand,thecolourpickerandthealignmentanddistributioncommands.

3 DesignmythsbehinddesigntoolsTounderstandthecurrentmismatchbetweendesigners’practicesanddigitalgraphicdesigntools,theworkofSuchmancanprovideahelpfulapproach.Accordingtotheanthropologist,“Everyhumantoolrelieson,andmaterialises,someunderlyingconceptionoftheactivitythatitisdesignedtosupport”(Suchman,2007,p.31).Bycarefullyobservingindividualdigitaldesigntoolsandhowdesignersusethemonadailybasis,wecananalysetheperceptionofthedesignprocessthattheyembody.Inthissection,wefocusonthetwoaforementioneddesigntools:thecolourpickerandthealignmentanddistributioncommandandweanalysetheunderlyingconceptionofthedesignprocessthattheyembedintheirdesign.Wechosethesetwotoolsforseveralreasons.First,theydon’tdirectlymimicpre-existingmechanismsbuttheyfeaturetwodifferentandpervasivemechanisms:selectionandcommand.InhisanalysisofdesignapplicationssuchasAdobePhotoshop,Manovich,showedthatselectionmechanismsarepervasiveincurrentdesignapplicationsandhecorrelatesthiswiththedevelopmentofaremixaesthetic(Manovich,2001).Moreover,theyareamongtheoldestdigitaldesigntoolsand,aboveall,theirdesigndidnotevolvesincetheirfirstintroductionindesignsoftwareapplications(Jalal,Maudet&Mackay,2015)(Ciolfi,Maudet,Mackay&Beaudouin-Lafon,2016).

3.1 TheDesignprocessasaHylomorphicprocessSinceitsorigin,thecolourpickerpresentsthreecommonfeatures:“avisualrepresentationofaspecifiedcolourmodel,theorganisationofdisplayablecoloursintoathree-dimensionalcolourspace,andcontrolstochangeparametervalueswithinthatspace”(Jalaletal.,2015,p.1).Itsdesignsignificantlydiffersfromthetraditionalcolourmixingprocessusedbypaintersorthecolourchartsusedinindustry.Designersnowpotentiallyhaveaccesstoeverypossiblecolour.Thecolourpickerfocusesonselectingaspecificindividualcolourfromallthepossiblecolours.Thedesignbriefbehindthetoolcouldbesummarisedas:“giventhatadesignerwantstoselectaspecificcolour,helpherachievethisgoalinthefeweststepspossible”.Thisbriefassumesthatdesignersalreadyhaveaclearideaofthecolourtheywanttoselectandthecolourpickersimplydisplaystheminacomprehensivemannertofacilitateitsretrieval.Thesecondexample,thealignmentanddistributioncommandsalsodon’thavedirectequivalentinpre-digitalgraphicdesign.Therewasnodedicatedtoolbutusingrulersandtracinglinesonpapertoverifyalignment.Incomputers,alignmentanddistributioncanbeexecutedthroughasetoftwelvecommands,sixforalignmentand6fordistribution.Designerscanaligngraphicalelementusingtheircentreortheirboundingboxes’verticesasreferencepoints.Thedesignerfirstselectstheelementsandthenpressesthecommandtohavethemalignedfollowingoneofthesixpossibilities.Thisalignmentisnotpermanentbutiscomputedadhocbythesystemwhenthedesignerpressesthecommandbutton.Hereagain,thecommandapproachfocusesonasingleandspecificaction.

However,severalrecentstudiesshowedthatthesetwodesigntoolshavelimitations.Inourstudyofcolourmanipulationwithdesignersandartists,weshowedthatdesignershaveawidevarietyofcolourmanipulationstrategiesthatdon’tfollowasimpleselectionprocess.Designersrarelyusedthecolourpickerdirectly(Jalaletal.,2015).Incontrast,designersandartistscreatedmanydifferentstrategies,usingdiversetoolstomanipulatecoloursbeyondcolourselection.Forexample,weshowedhowdesignersfocusonthenotionofpalettewhilethecolourpickeronlyletsdesignersselectindividualcoloursinthecontextoftheirsurroundingcoloursinthecolourspace.Similarly,inastudywith12usersofgraphicalauthoringapplications,weshowedthatdesignersfindalignmentanddistributioncommandsconfusing(Ciolfietal.,2016).Moreover,commandsdonotsupportdesigners’practices:designersoftenresorttocreatinggraphicalelementsandusethemas“spacingobjects”.Byfocusingontheimmediateaction,commandsomitthefactthatalignmentanddistributiontakeplacewithinamuchlargerprocessoflayoutcomposition.

Fromthesetwoexamples,wecanseethatboththecolourpickerandthealignmentanddistributioncommandsconformwiththevisionthatdesigniswhatanthropologistIngoldcallsa“hylomorphic”process:theypositthatdesignersalreadyhaveinmindtheoutcometheywanttoachieve(Ingold,2013).Inacommercialfortheground-breakingAdobeIllustrator88,thenarratorexplainsthatthissoftwareapplicationis“arevolutionbasedonnewtools,toolsthatfreetheimaginationandeliminatedrudgery”(Illustrator88).Behindthisassumptionliestheideathattoolsimposerestrictiononanotherwiseboundlesscreativity.Thisideaalsoimpliesthattheactofcreativityandtooluseareseparatedphenomena.Accordingtothisidea,designtoolsshouldallowdesignerstoreachtheirpreconceivedoutcomewiththeleasteffort,withoutgettingintheway.Bothcommandandselectionmechanismsareextremelyefficientwhenitcomestoattainingspecificgoalswithpreconceivedanddefiniteoutcomes:eitherchoosinganelementwithinadefinedsetofpossibilitiesorapplyingaspecificactiontoselectedelements.

Thisconceptionofdesignasahylomorphicprocessleadstotheconclusionthatdesigntoolsarenecessaryobstaclesonthewayofthedesigner’screativity.Thisvisionisechoedina1987AdobeIllustrator88commercialinwhichthenarratorexplainsthattraditionalgraphicdesigntools“takeconsiderableskilltouse,andeveninthehandsofapro,taketoomuchtime,timethatcouldbeusedtodesignandcreate”(Illustrator88).Toovercometheselimitations,Illustrator88isadvertisedaseasytolearnandmoreefficientthantraditionaltools.AsNewMediaprofessorOliaLialinaargued,themessagefromAdobeintheiradvertisementcampaignisthatthebestkindofdesign

requiresdesignerstoforgetabouttheirtools,sothattheycanfocusonthecoreoftheirwork:beingcreative(Lialina,2012).Thelogicbehindthisassertionisthat,ideally,thecreativeprocessshouldbedecoupledfromthetools.Becausedigitaldesigntoolswereenvisionedasobstacleonthewayofthedesignprocess,theyweredesignedbyputtinganemphasisontheiruser-friendlinessandefficiency.Thus,thetransparency,orthe“invisibilisation”toputitinotherwords,ofdesigntoolsshouldinfactbecometheultimategoalfortoolcreators.

3.2 LimitationofthetransparentdesigntoolmythTheprincipleoftransparencyisnotexclusivetodesigntools.Instead,itrepresentsoneofthecorevaluebehindthedevelopmentofpersonalcomputing.AsearlyastheXeroxStar,thefirstcommercialGraphicalUserInterfacesystem,userinterfacesweredesignedtobeastransparenttousersandeasytolearnaspossible(Bolter&Gromala,2003).Whilethesevalueswereveryproductiveandcanstillbeconsideredidealsofdesigninmanycontexts,theyfacedsomecriticismveryearlyon.Whenitcomestolearnability,LucySuchman,inheraccountofusers’encounterwithan“easy-to-use”photocopierin1984,demonstratedthatself-explanatorydigitalartefactsareadesigners’fantasyandthatdespitetheirsophistication,interfaceswillalwaysrequirean“activesense-making”fromtheuserandthatit“[…]calledintoquestiontheviabilityofmarketingthemachineas“self-explanatoryorself-evidentlyeasytouse”(Suchman,2007).

Moreover,whilethesevaluesmightbeworthpursuinginastrictlyproductiveorinleisure-orientedsoftwareapplications,theymaynotbestsupportcreativedesignwork.Contrarytotraditionalwork,designersfacewickedproblems(Rittel&Webber,1973)thatcannotbesolvedbyfollowingaprescribedseriesofstepsthatcanthenbeoptimised.Aboutthenotionofeaseofuseingraphicdesignsoftwareapplications,MasureshowshownewversionsofAdobePhotoshopaddfunctionalitiesthatautomatepartofthedesignprocess,forexample,automaticallyreplacingobjectsonaphotographwithageneratedbackgroundinAdobePhotoshopCS5.Hearguesthatthistypeoffunctionalitiesismeanttosimplifytheworkofthedesignerbyautomatingit.Indoingso,Masurearguesthat“thesemi-automaticfunctionalitiesorienttheimagetowardsastatethatissociallyandculturallyaccepted”(Masure,2014).Byfocusingonthefinaloutcome,currentdesigntoolsneglecttheintermediarystepsinthedesignprocessandtherelationshipdesignersneedtoestablishwiththeirtools.Thisapproachmayforexamplelimitexploration,oneofthedefiningaspectofdesignwork(Gaver,2000).

3.3 TheinstrumentalturnofdesigntoolsAgainstthisidealoftransparencyandefficiency,wecanobservewhatwecancall“aninstrumentalturn”intheperceptionofdesignersandothercreativeprofessional’srelationshipwiththeirtools.Inastructuredobservationconductedwith12graphicdesigners,JalalshowedthatdesignerspreferredtousegeneralpurposeGraphicalUserInterface(GUI)toolsratherthanthemorenovelandspecificdesigntools,becausetheyfeltlessincontrolwiththelatter(Jalal,2016).Earlyon,fromasetofobservationswithcreativeprofessionals,Schöndemonstratedhowdesignersapproachproblemsasuniquecasesandfocusonthepeculiaritiesofthesituationathand.Theydon’tproposeorlookforstandardsolutions.Instead,Schönarguesthatdesignersperformaconversationwiththematerialoftheirdesignandthatanyactionwillhaveeffectsbeyondwhattheyhadimagined.InSchön’sterms,“[thedesigner]’smaterialsarecontinuallytalkingbacktohim,causinghimtoapprehendunanticipatedproblemsandpotentials”(Schön,1983).Morerecently,Dalsgaardfurtherexploresthepragmatistperspectivetoconsidertoolsindesignas“instrumentsofinquiry”(Dalsgaard,2017).Hearguesthattoolsalsoaffectourperceptionandunderstandingoftheworldandhelpusexploreandmakesenseofit.Furthermore,hearguesthat“repeateduseofacomputerislikelytoalterthewayyouthinkaboutandengageinthewritingprocessthroughthechangesiteffectsonseeminglyfunctionallevels”.TheperceptionofdigitaldesigntoolsasinstrumentisalsodevelopedbyBertelsenetal.Originallyproposedinthecontextofmusicalcreation,theyintroducethenotionofinstrumentnessasa“qualityofhuman-computerinteraction”(Bertelsenetal.,2007).Theyproposetoconsidercreativesoftwareasinstrumentinthemusicalsense,tobeabletomoveawayfromthe

idealsoftransparencyandusability.Theyexplainthat“thesoftwareiscomparabletoamusicalinstrumentsincethesoftwarebecomestheobjectof[thecomposer]attentionandsomethingheexplores,tweaks,observes,andchallengesinacontinuousshiftoffocusbetweenthesoundingoutputandtheinstrument”.Theyarguethatthenotionofinstrumentnesscanbeadaptedbeyondmusiccreationandberelevanttodescribedesigners’relationshipwiththeirdigitaltools.

4 GraphicalSubstrates:towardsanoveltypeofdesigntoolsToacquirenewpossibilitiesandenhancetheircontroloverthedesign,graphicdesignerscurrentlyneedtoturntoprogramming.Inourinterviewswith12graphicdesigners,weshowedhowfiveofthemusedprogrammingtocreateprojectsthattheycouldnothavecreatedusingtraditionalgraphicdesignsoftwareapplications(Maudetetal.,2017).Whilethesedesignersneededtospendtimeestablishingtheirprogram,theythenwereable,forexample,toeasilyproducehundredsofpostersinonenight,ortoexploreradicallayoutmodificationsinasecond.Theaforementionedprinciples,transparency,efficiencyanduser-friendliness,deeplyintegratedintocurrentGraphicalUserInterface-baseddesignapplications,maypartlyberesponsiblefordesignersincreasinginterestforprogramminglanguagessuchasProcessingormax/MSP.Programmingdoesnotfocusonspecificandproduction-orientedtasks,butrather,theyoffernewlanguagesthroughwhichdesignerscanthinkandworkinnewways.Morethanproducingonefinalartefact,programmingletsdesignerssettingupaprocessthatcanthenbeexecutedandmodified.

Whilethereisnodoubtthatlearningtoprogramcanbeextremelyvaluablefordesigners,programmingcannoteasilyreplaceGUI-baseddesigntools.Apaperisnotenoughtothoroughlyinvestigatethedifferencesbetweenprogrammingandvisualinterfacesandhowtheyimpactcreativework,butthereareafewelementsthatcanhelpusunderstandthatweneedtobridgethegapbetweenthetwoapproaches.First,itisstillhardfordesignerstolearnhowtoprogram(Ko,Myers&Aung,2004)asprogrammingmayforcedesignerstothinkinadifferentway.Inthecontextofinteractiondesign,westudiedhowdesigneranddeveloperrepresentinteractionintheirownway(Maudet,Leiva,Beaudouin-Lafon&Mackay,2017).Weobservedhowtheyenvisioninteractionfromdifferentperspectives.Whilevisualsoftwareapplicationscanpredisposedesignerstofocusonvisualexamplesthatdescribespecificmomentsofaninteraction,programmingforcesdeveloperstoprovideacompleteandabstractedrepresentationofthesameinteraction.Similarly,inalabstudy,parkshowedthatdesignersanddevelopersdescribedifferentlyinteractionbehaviours,statingthat“designer’sexperiencewithtoolslikePhotoshopandPowerPointinfluencestheirnaturalexpressionofbehaviors”(Park,Myers&Ko,2008).Therefore,visualandtextualrepresentationsprovidedifferentbenefits.Inhisvisualessayabout“climbingtheladderofabstraction”(Victor,2011),Victorshowshowconcrete,visualandsymbolicrepresentationsmightcomplementeachother,providingdifferentwaysofseeing,interactingandunderstandingthesamephenomenon.

Today,programmingandGraphicalUserInterfacesaregenerallytwomutuallyexclusivesetsoftools.Wecanconsiderthemastwooppositeboundsofalargerangeofpossibledesigntools.Someresearchersandtoolcreatorsproposedafewmodelstobridgethegap.Forexample,departingfromthestrictlytext-basedrepresentationofcode,visualprogrammingseekstogiveavisualrepresentationtocode(Myers,1986).Visualprogrammingtriestosimultaneouslypreservetherangeofcapabilitiesofferedbyprogrammingwhileenhancingitthroughvisualrepresentations.Ontheotherhandofthespectrum,graphicdesignersworkwithvisualcontent.CurrentGUI-baseddesigntoolsgenerallyletdesignersmanipulatecontentthroughdirectmanipulationandinthecontextoftheirfinaloutcome.Thischaracteristicmakesthemveryflexibleandeasilyappropriablebydesigners(Jalaletal.,2016).Thepowerofdirectmanipulation(Shneiderman,1981)originallyledtothewideacceptanceofdigitaldesigntoolsandgreatlyfacilitatedgraphicdesigners’work.AsgraphicdesignerandcriticEllenLuptonrecallsabouttheintroductionofgraphicdesignsoftwareapplications:“beingabletodirectlymanipulatetype,photography,colour,andbeingabletoseeitinrealtime,asyouareworking,that’swhatit’sallabout,that’stherevolution”(Briar,2017).Inhis

paperaboutinstrumentalinteraction,Beaudouin-Lafonproposesthenotionofdegreeofindirectnesstoqualifydifferenttypesoftools:asmalltemporalandspatialoffsetmeansthattheactionisperformedcloselytotheobject(Beaudouin-Lafon,2000).Resizehandlesareagoodexampleofsuchtools.WhileGUIscanhaveverylittleindirection,textualprogrammingisgenerallyfurtherawayfromtheobjectitismanipulating,bothtemporallyandspatially.

4.1 GraphicalSubstratesTofillinthegapbetweenGUI-baseddesigntoolsandprogramming,weneedtoinventnoveltypesoftools.WearguethatweneedtopreservethequalitiesthatGUIscanprovidewhileenhancingthemwithmorecomputationalpower.Groundingourproposalintheideaofinstrumentness,weintroducethenotionofgraphicalsubstratestoqualifyanewwaveofgraphicdesigntools.Graphicalsubstratesareinteractivegraphicalobjectsthatembedbehavioursandinteractwithcontentelements.Inthelastpartofthispaper,weusethenotionofgraphicalsubstratetoanalysehowanewgenerationofprospectivedesigntoolssupportsdesigners’practicesinnovelways.Weprovideexamplesoftoolsthatembeddesignsubstratesbutalsoidentifytwoprinciplesthatcanguidetoolcreatorsinmakingdesignsubstratesmoreeffectiveinsupportingdesigners’practices.

GraphicalSubstratesareinteractivevisualtoolsthatrepresentrelationshipsbetweengraphicalelements.Byreifyingtheserelationships,e.g.,turningthemintointeractiveobjects(Beaudouin-Lafon&Mackay,2000),theyscaffolddesigners’explorationphase.ThenotionofsubstratewasfirstintroducedbyGarciaetal.whocoinedtheterminthecontextofmusicalcreation(Garcia,2012).Theyproposedanddesignedsubstrates,asetofdifferenttypesofmusicalscoresthatgivestructureandrelationshipstomusicaldata.Wethenbroughtthisnotioninthegraphicdesigncontextbyobservinghowdesignersestablishwhattheycallprinciples,rulesandconstraintstoguidetheirlayoutcreationindigitalapplications(Maudetetal.,2017).Theyshareacommoncharacteristic:theydefineandguidethelayout,butrarelyappearinthefinalresult.

Forexample,theconceptofalignmentcanbereifiedintoanobjectthatembodiesthealignmentbehaviour.Ciolfietal.providearecentexamplewithStickyLines(Ciolfietal.,2016),aninteractiveguidelinethatautomaticallyalignsanddistributestheobjectsthatareattachedtoit.Asavisualobject,StickyLinesnotonlyprovidesinteractionmechanismsthatfollowdirectmanipulationprinciples,butalsoembodiesbehavioursandrules,givingdesignersnewpossibilitiesfortestingtheirideas.InObjectOrientedDrawing(Xiaetal.,2015),theauthorsproposeagraphicalauthoringapplicationinwhichtheyreifyattributesintocards.Astheyareturnedintointeractiveobjects,thesepropertiescanbemoved,cloned,linked,andfreelyassociatedwithseveralgraphicalelements.AnotherexampleisHistomages(Chevalier,Dragicevic&Hurter,2012),atoolthatallowsuserstoeditimages’coloursbymodifyingahistogramofthecolouredpixelswithintheimage.Ahistogramisaspatialrearrangementoftheimage’spixels.Thecolouredpixelsaregroupeddependingonthevalueofthecolorchannelthatisvisualized.Therefore,itbecomesveryeasytoselectandmanipulaterelatedcolorsindependentlyofwheretheyappearontheoriginalpicture.Designerscanselectandchangesubsetsofcolours,suchasturningtheskyfromshadesofbluetoshadesoforange.Finally,Kitty,asketch-basedtoolforcreatinganimatedillustrations,reifiesparameters(foremissionandoscillationtexturesforexamples)intobubblesthatcanbelinkedtoproducefunctionalrelationshipsamongthegraphicalelementsofanillustration(Kazi,2014).Theserelationshipscanthenbeactivatedbytheillustrationviewersthroughdraggestures.Forexample,puttinganeggintoapanprovokestheemissionofwaterdrops.

Becausetheyareinteractiveandpersistentobjects,graphicalsubstratescaneasilybemodified.DesignSubstratesareparticularlypowerfulwhentheyembodyrulesandrelationshipsthatareautomaticallyappliedtocontent.Thisautomationgivesdesignersamuchgreaterscaleofexplorationbecauseiftheydecidetomodifytheirsubstrates,theywillbeabletoobservetheresultsonallthecontent.Forexample,changingonecolourcardappliesitsresulttoallthegraphicalelementsitwaslinkedto.Analysingexistingexamplesofgraphicalsubstratesledustoobservesome

oftheircurrentlimitations.WeproposetwodesignprinciplestofurtherdevelopGraphicalSubstratesandreinforcetheiradequacywithdesigners’practices.

4.2 TweakingCurrentgraphicalsubstratesarestillverybinaryintheirapplication.Inpractice,however,designersneedtotakeintoaccountexceptions.Inourstudiesofdesigners’practices,wefoundnumerousexamplesofthisneed.Whenmanipulatingcolours,designersoftensampleexistingones,buttheythenmanuallyadjusttheresultingcolour(Jalal,2015);whenaligninganddistributinggraphicalelements,designersusuallytweakindividualobjectstoaccountformismatchesbetweenobjects’perceivedvisualweightandreferencepoints(Ciolfietal.,2016);whenstructuringlayout,designersestablishstructuresbutveryoftenneedtobreaktheirownrulestotakeintoaccountextremecases(Maudetetal.,2017).Revealingandreifyingrelationshipsorconstraintsintointeractiveobjectscanbeapowerfulmechanismfordesigningdesigntools.However,incurrentsoftware,existingstructuringmechanismstendtoberigidandbinary:eithergraphicalelementsfullyobeythestructuretheybelongto,orthereisnostructureatall.Whencreatingdesigntools,tooldesignersshouldtakeintoaccounttheflexibilityoftheirsubstrates.Enforcingrigidrulesgreatlyunderminessubstrates’usabilityanddesignersmightendupresortingtoamoremanualprocessevenwhenthereisanexistingmechanism.Forexample,StickyLinesintegratestwodifferentmechanismsfordesignerstotweakindividualobjects’alignment:tweaksandboundingboxes.Tocreateatweak,designerscanrepositionobjects,buttheobjectremainslogicallyattachedtotheguideline.Thisoffset,calledatweak,isrecordedanddisplayedasapurpleline.Theyarefirst-classobjectsthatcanbeedited,copiedontootherobjects,anddeleted.Designerscanalsomodifytheboundingboxofanobjectinordertofinelycontrolitsplacementonaguideline.Boundingboxescanbecopiedontootherobjects,replacingtheircurrentone.

4.3 CreationfromexampleAllowingdesignerstomanipulateandinteractwithDesignSubstratescanbeaninterestingperspectiveforfuturedesigntools,buttomakesubstratestrulyuseful,weneedtoaddressthequestionoftheircreation.Aswehaveseenalready,withautomationcomesagreaterriskofloosingcreativefreedom.Inthecontextofweaving,LutherHoopermentionedthat“witheachstageofmechanicalimprovementoftheloom,asmoreoveristhecasewithallmachineinvaryingdegrees,theweaver’sfreedomandhisorhercontroloftheconceptionoftheirworkisreduced”(Fetro,2017).Ifallgraphicalsubstratesprovidefixedandpredeterminedbehaviours,theirappropriabilitywillbelimited.Whenpossible,structuresshouldbereifiablefromexamples,i.e.,designtoolsshouldletdesignersextractrelationshipsandrulesfromexistingexamples.Indoingso,theyprovideawayfordesignerstofirstexploredifferentvariationsandthentoapplyprinciplestoallthecontent.Creatingthesubstratesthusbecomespartofthedesignprocessitself.TocontinueonwiththeStyckylinesexample,thesystemletsdesignerscreateguidelinesbasedonexistingshapesbycreating“aghost”,aguidelinethattakestheshapeofanexistingobject.InPaletteExplorer,acolourtoolbasedoninterviewswithdesigners(Jalaletal.,2015),theycancreateasamplepaletteandcanthenmodifythisoriginalpaletteasawholeononeofthecolouraxes(hue,saturationorcontrast),retainingitsoriginalharmonybykeepingtheotheraxesfixed.

5 ConclusionInthispaper,weproposedananalysisofdigitalgraphicdesigntoolstobetterunderstandthecurrentmismatchbetweendesignersandtheirtools.Wefirstshowedhowdesigntoolsfollowedalineageapproachintheirdesign,providingfunctionalitiesthatmimicpre-existing.Wealsoanalysedinmoredetailtwospecificdesigntools:thecolourpickerandthealignmentanddistributioncommandsandwerevealedhowtheirdesignsupportsavisionofdesignasahylomorphicprocess.Thisconceptionofdesignledtodesigningdesigntoolswithvaluessuchastransparencyandefficiency.However,designresearchshowshowthe“instrumentness”ofdesigntoolsmoreappropriatelysupportscurrentdesigners’practices.Toresolvethismismatch,designerscurrently

turntoprogrammingbutwearguethatwecancombineboththestrengthofgraphicaluserinterfaceandprogramming.Wecallthisnoveltypeofdesigntoolsgraphicalsubstratesandillustrateitwithseveralexamplesinrecentdesigntoolresearch.Wearguethatintegratingmechanismsforcreatinggraphicalsubstratesfromexamplesandtweakingthemwouldfurtherextendtheirappropriabilitybydesigners.Beyonddesigntools,thispaperquestionstheunderlyingemphasisoninvisibility,efficiencyanduser-friendlinessintool-design.

Acknowledgments:Iwouldliketothankthereviewerswhoprovidedvaluablefeedbackonthefirstversionofthispaper.Definingthebroadernotionofsubstratesisacollectiveeffortintheex)situteam.Iwouldliketothankmycolleagues,GhitaJalal,MarianelaCiolfiFelice,GermánLeivaandPhilipTchernavskij,withwhomIcollaboratedontheprojectsdescribedinthispaper.IwouldalsoliketothankmyPhDadvisors,MichelBeaudouin-LafonandWendyMackaywhoprofoundlyinfluencedthiswork.

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AbouttheAuthor:

NolwennMaudetisaninteractiondesigneranddesignresearcherworkingasapost-docattheUniversityofTokyo.Herkeyresearchinterestsareinstudyingdesigners’practicesandhowwecandesigndigitaltoolsthatbettersupportthem.