regional quarterly bulletin on wildlife and national parks

Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks Management

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP), BANGKOKFOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Vol. XXXII : No. 4

Featuring

Vol. XIX : No. 4

October-December 2005

REGIONAL OFFICEFOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

TIGERPAPER is a quarterly news bulletindedicated to the exchange of information

relating to wildlife and national parksmanagement for theAsia-Pacific Region.

ISSN 1014 - 2789

Address

TIGERPAPERFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit RoadBangkok, 10200, Thailand

Tel: (662) 697-4000Facsimile: (662) 697-4445

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Editor: Janice NaewboonnienAdvisors: M. Kashio and P. Durst

Contents

TIGERPAPER is dependent upon your free and voluntarycontributions in the form of articles, news items, and announcements inthe field of wildlife and nature conservation in the region. In order tobetter serve the needs of our readers please write to us and send in theinformation you have or let us know if there is any information that youneed. We appreciate receiving your letters and make all efforts torespond.

Cover: Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea)Photo: V. Ramakantha, IFS

The opinions expressed by thecontributing authors are notnecessarily those of FAO. Thedesignations employed and thepresentation of the material in theTIGERPAPER do not imply theexpression of any opinion on the partof FAO concerning the legal orconstitutional status of any country,territority or sea area, or thedelimitation of frontiers.

Second Announcement - Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission to meet in Dehradun, India....................................……… 1New Forest Assessment Indicates Overall Expansion of Asian Forests But Continued Decline of Natural Forests...................................................................….... 4Interested in Making Forest Management Work for the Poor?............................................................................ 6Award-Winning Forestry at Tonle Sap -- Cambodia’s “Great Lake”…..…............................................……… 7Jump Starting the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network..................................................................….. 9Three New Websites Put FAO Information at User’s Fingertips...................................................................... 10Upcoming RAP-Supported Forestry Meetings.....…………. 11FAO Advancing Forest Rehabilitation Efforts in Tsunami-Affected Countries......................................….. 12Asia-Pacific Forestry Chips and Clips……………..……. 13New RAP Forestry Publications………………………… 15FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar……………….…… 16

Birds of Coimbatore Urban Area, India.........…………... 1Study on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Biodiversity of Himachal Pradesh Himalayas......................…....… 6Participatory Wildlife Conservation Initiatives in Nepal.… 11Diversity of Spiders in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary.. 18Ecology of Purple Moorhen in Azhinhillam Wetlan…....… 23Breeding of an Indian Giant Squirrel Pup at Arignar Anna Zoological Park......................................................…. 27Food, Feeding, Behavior and Habitat Preferences of Spiny-Tailed Lizard in the Thar Desert...................…... 30

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BIRDS OF COIMBATORE URBAN AREA, INDIA

by V. Ramakantha, Thiru Selvan and R.J. Ranjit Daniels

Introduction

All landscapes have a native biodiversity pool,which is a result of local climate and human

influences. This pool of biodiversity is oftenfragmented and segregated within differentecosystems. One such ecosystem, which isconsiderably rich in biodiversity, especially in India,is the urban ecosystem. Avifauna in urban areasis richer than any other vertebrate taxa and yet,they remain a poorly studied group of organisms.Many large cities of India support over 300 birdspecies, with Delhi and its surroundings leadingwith 444 species, followed by Mumbai with 350species, and Pune with 332 species (Ingalhallikaret al., 2001). In Bangalore, one of the major urbancenters of southwestern India, as many as 330species of birds have been recorded, of which 220occur regularly in the urban area (George, 1994).The community organization of birds often variesconsiderably from being dominated by crows andkites in the hearts of cities to very diverseassociations of flycatchers, barbets and babblersin the less crowded suburbs (Daniels, 1991).

Birds in the urban landscapes perform a regula-tory function by controlling the population ofphytophagus insects, which could otherwise

spread to epidemic proportions. Flycatchers,drongos and bee-eaters play an important role bydestroying a lot of harmful insects. In spite of theirlimited energetical role in most habitats, birds area powerful tool in environmental monitoring(Jarvinen and Vaisanen, 1979). Thus, even whenafforded the least protection, the birds tend toreturn to us a lot more benefits than any othergroup of vertebrates (Urquhart, 1987). As a partof the study carried out for the doctoral degree ofthe first author, the first ever checklist was pre-pared for the Coimbatore urban area, followingthe taxonomy and nomenclature adopted by Aliand Ripley (2001) in the Handbook of the Birdsof India and Pakistan.

Study area

The Coimbatore urban area, sprawling over 105.6km2 of city corporation limits, was taken as theboundary of the study. The urban area is locatedbetween 11ºN latitude and 77ºE longitude. Thealtitude of the entire landscape varies from to 467m to 500 m above mean sea level. The climatehere is tropical with an average rainfall of 490mm, mostly falling from October to Decemberduring the northeast monsoon. Summers are hotwith maximum temperatures sometimes rising upto 38ºC during May- June.

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Checklist of birds of Coimbatore urban area Common Name Genus and Species Family Order Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis Podicipedidae Podicipediformes Spotbilled Pelican*** Pelecanus philippensis Pelicanidae Pelicaniformes Indian shag Phalacrocorax fusicollis Phalocrocoracidae Pelicaniformes Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger Phalocrocoracidae Pelicaniformes Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster Phalocrocoracidae Pelicaniformes Grey Heron Ardea cinerea Ardeidae Ciconiiformes Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Ardeidae Ciconiiformes Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii Ardeidae Ciconiiformes Cattle Egret Bubulucus ibis Ardeidae Ciconiiformes Great Egret Casmerodius albus Ardeidae Ciconiiformes Intermediate Egret Mesophoyx intermedia Ardeidae Ciconiiformes Little Egret Egretta garzetta Ardeidae Ciconiiformes Blackcrowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax Ardeidae Ciconiiformes Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Ardeidae Ciconiiformes Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala Ciconiidae Ciconiiformes Lesser Adjutant♦ Leptoptilos javanicus Ciconiidae Ciconiiformes Blackheaded Ibis♦ Threskiornis melanocephalus Ciconiidae Ciconiiformes Northern Pintail*** Anas acuta Anatidae Anseriformes Common Teal*** Anas crecca Anatidae Anseriformes Spotbilled Duck Anas poecilorhyncha Anatidae Anseriformes Garganey (Blue Winged Teal)***

Anas querquedula Anatidae Anseriformes

Northern shoveller*** Anas clypeata Anatidae Anseriformes Blackwinged Kite Elanus caeruleus Accipitridae Falconiformes Black Kite Milvus migrans Accipitridae Falconiformes Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus Accipitridae Falconiformes Shikra Accipiter badius Accipitridae Falconiformes Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina Accipitridae Falconiformes Western Marsh Harrier*** Circus aeruginosus Accipitridae Falconiformes Common Kestrel*** Falco tinnunculus Falconidae Falconiformes Grey Francolin Francolinus pondicerianus Phasinidae Galliformes Common Bustard Quail Turnix suscitator Phasinidae Galliformes Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus Phasinidae Galliformes Whitebreasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus Rallidae Gruiformes Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus Rallidae Gruiformes Purple Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio Rallidae Gruiformes Common Coot Fulica atra Rallidae Gruiformes Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirugus Jacanidae Charadriiformes Bronzewinged Jacana Metopidius indicus Jacanidae Charadriiformes Redwattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus Charadriidae Charadriiformes Yellow-wattled Lapwing Vanellus malabaricus Charadriidae Charadriiformes Little Ringed Plover*** Charadrius dubius Charadriidae Charadriiformes Green sandpiper*** Tringa ochropus Scolopacidae Charadriiformes Wood sandpiper*** Tringa glareola Scolopacidae Charadriiformes Common Sandpiper*** Tringa hypoleucos Scolopacidae Charadriiformes Little Stint***♦ Calidris minuta Scolopacidae Charadriiformes Temminck’s Stint***♦ Calidris temminckii Scolopacidae Charadriiformes Greater Painted Snipe Rostratula benghalensis Rostratulidae Charadriiformes Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Recurvirostridae Charadriiformes Rock Pigeon Columba livia Columbidae Columbiformes Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocta Columbidae Columbiformes Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis Columbidae Columbiformes Laughing Dove (Little Brown Dove)

Streptopelia senegalensis Columbidae Columbiformes

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Roseringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri Psittacidae Psittaciformes Pied Cuckoo (Pied Crested Cuckoo)

Oxylophus jacobinus Cuculidae Cuculiformes

Common Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus varius Cuculidae Cuculiformes Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea Cuculidae Cuculiformes Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis Cuculidae Cuculiformes Barn Owl Tyto alba Strigidae Strigiformes Spotted Owlet Athene brama Strigidae Strigiformes Indian Nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus Caprimulgidae Caprimulgiformes Asian Palm Swift Cypsiurus batasiensis Apodidae Apodiformes Little Swift Apus affinis Apodidae Apodiformes Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis Alcedinidae Coraciiformes Common Kingfisher (Small Blue Kingfisher)

Alcedo atthis Alcedinidae Coraciiformes

Whitethroated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis Alcedinidae Coraciiformes Chestnutheaded Bee-eater Merops leschenaulti Meropidae Coraciiformes Bluetailed Bee-eater*** Merops philippinus Meropidae Coraciiformes Little Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis Meropidae Coraciiformes Indian Roller Coracias benghalens Coraciidae Coraciiformes Eurasian Hoopoe Upupa epops Upipidae Coraciiformes Coppersmith Barbet Megalaima haemacephala Capitonidae Piciformes Blackrumped Flameback Dinopium benghalensis Picidae Piciformes Indian Pitta Pitta brachyura Pittidae Passeriformes Singing Lark Mirafra cantillanus Aludidae Passeriformes Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula Aludidae Passeriformes Dusky Crag Marten Hirundo concolor Hirundinidae Passeriformes Common Swallow*** (Barn Swallow)

Hirundo rustica Hirundinidae Passeriformes

Redrumped Swallow Hirundo daurica Hirundinidae Passeriformes Wiretailed Swallow Hirundo smithii Hirundinidae Passeriformes Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor Lanidae Passeriformes Baybacked Shrike Lanius vittatus Lanidae Passeriformes Rufousbacked Shrike Lanius schach Lanidae Passeriformes Brown Shrike*** Lanius cristatus Lanidae Passeriformes Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus Oriolidae Passeriformes Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus Dicruridae Passeriformes Ashy Drongo*** Dicrurus leucophaeus Dicruridae Passeriformes Whitebellied Drongo Dicrurus caerulescens Dicruridae Passeriformes Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus Dicruridae Passeriformes Rosy Pastor (Rosy Starling)*** Sturnus roseus Sturnidae Passeriformes Common Myna Acridotheres tristis Sturnidae Passeriformes Rufous Tree Pie Dendrocitta vagabunda Corvidae Passeriformes House crow Corvus splendens Corvidae Passeriformes Largebilled Crow Corvus macrorhynchos Corvidae Passeriformes Common Wood-Shrike Tephrodornis pondicerianus Campephagidae Passeriformes Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike Coracina melanoptera Campephagidae Passeriformes Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer Pycnonotidae Passeriformes Large Grey Babbler Turdoides malcolmi Muscicapidae Passeriformes Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus Muscicapidae Passeriformes Yellowbilled Babbler Turdoides affinis Muscicapidae Passeriformes Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa daurica Muscicapidae Passeriformes Asian Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi Muscicapidae Passeriformes Blacknaped Monarch Hypothymis azurea Muscicapidae Passeriformes Ashy Prinia Prinia socialis Muscicapidae Passeriformes Jungle Prinia Prinia sylvatica Muscicapidae Passeriformes Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius Muscicapidae Passeriformes

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Results and discussion

The 135 species of birds recorded in Coimbatoreurban area belong to 93 genera, 42 families and17 orders. 135 species of avifauna is remarkablefor the size of the area and human-induced dis-turbances. The 135 species also represent a fourthof all the species of birds that occur in all of south-western India, which was recorded by Daniels(1997). This also constitutes 41% of the speciesthat Rathinam (2002) recorded from the State ofTamil Nadu.

The order Passeriformes (oscines/song birds) sin-gly dominates with 62 species of birds. The or-

ders having the next most representatives areCharadriiformes (waders and shorebirds) andCiconiiformes (herons, egrets and storks) with 12species each.

The order Coraciiformes is represented by 8 spe-cies and order Falconiformes (birds of prey) by 7species. The other 12 orders are represented bya fewer number of species, with the ordersPodicipediformes, Psittaciformes andApodiformes being represented by a single spe-cies each.

Thirty species of birds (22%) found in theCoimbatore urban area are winter visitors, whose

Great Reed Warbler*** Acrocephalus stentoreus Muscicapidae Passeriformes Blyth’s Reed Warbler*** Acrocephalus dumetorum Muscicapidae Passeriformes Paddyfield Warbler*** Acrocephalus agricola Muscicapidae Passeriformes Booted Warbler*** Hippolais caligata Muscicapidae Passeriformes Orphean Warbler*** Sylvia hortensis Muscicapidae Passeriformes Greenish Warbler*** Phylloscopus trochiloides Muscicapidae Passeriformes Oriental Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis Muscicapidae Passeriformes Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata Muscicapidae Passeriformes Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata Muscicapidae Passeriformes Olivebacked Pipit (Indian Tree Pipit)***

Anthus hodgsoni Motacillidae Passeriformes

Paddyfield Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae Motacillidae Passeriformes Forest Wagtail*** Dendronanthus indicus Motacillidae Passeriformes Yellow Wagtail*** Motacilla flava Motacillidae Passeriformes Citrine Wagtail (Yellowheaded Wagtail)***

Motacilla citreola Motacillidae Passeriformes

Grey Wagtail*** Motacilla caspica Motacillidae Passeriformes White Wagtail*** Motacilla alba Motacillidae Passeriformes Whitebrowed Wagtail (Large Pied Wagtail)

Motacilla maderaspatensis Motacillidae Passeriformes

Thickbilled Flowerpecker Dicaeum agile Decaeidae Passeriformes Palebilled (Tickell’s ) Flowerpecker

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Decaeidae Passeriformes

Purplerumped Sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica Nectariniidae Passeriformes Purple Sunbird Nectarinia asiatica Nectariniidae Passeriformes Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longinostris Nectariniidae Passeriformes House Sparrow Passer domesticus Ploceidae Passeriformes Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus Ploceidae Passeriformes Red Avadavat Amandava amandava Ploceidae Passeriformes Whiterumped Munia Lonchura striata Ploceidae Passeriformes Whitethroated Silverbill Lonchura malabarica Ploceidae Passeriformes Scalybreasted Munia (Spotted Munia)

Lonchura punctulata Ploceidae Passeriformes

Blackheaded Munia Lonchura malacca Ploceidae Passeriformes

*** Winter Visitor ♦ (Thirumurthy’s personal communication)

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visits begin in late September with many of themstaying on until the end of May. Only 14 speciesof the winter visitors are water birds. Winter mi-grant land birds visiting the city are dominated bywagtails and warblers.

The Indian Pitta (Pitta brachyura), Asian BrownFlycatcher (Muscicapa daurica), Asian Para-dise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi), Eur-asian Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus) and thePied Crested Cuckoo (Oxylophus jacobinus)were partial migrants.

Considering that Coimbatore is a major industrialcity in South India with as many as 3,000 indus-tries and a large population extending over onlyabout 105.6 km2 , it is indeed fascinating that sucha diverse assemblage of birds can eke out a liv-ing in the urban area, despite the concrete build-ings and disturbances caused by human activi-ties. Hence, concerted efforts need be taken toconserve the rich avifauna of this urban area.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr.LalitNarayan and Dr.R.Annamalai, IFS, for pro-viding valuable advice and suggestions.Thanks are also due to Dr.S.Thirumurthy forgenerously sharing his vast knowledge in or-nithology.

References

Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley. 2001. Handbook of theBirds of India and Pakistan. Volume 1-10. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Anon. 2001. Provisional Census Data Book– 2001. Tamil Nadu Economics and Statisti-cal Department, Coimbatore.

Ingalhallikar, S., Purandare, R., Nalavade, S. andS. Dhole. 2001. Bird Diversity Changes ofPune Urban Area. Journal of EcologicalSociety 13/14: 59-70.

George, J. 1994. Annotated Checklist of theBirds of Bangalore . Birdwatcher’s FieldClub of Bangalore. 92p.

Daniels, R.J.R. 1991. Tree planting in urbancentres and its role in conservation ofbirds. Myforest 27(4): 317-326.

Jarvinen, O. and R.A. Vaisanen. 1979. Changesin bird populations as criteria of environ-mental changes. Holarctic Ecology 2:75-80.

Gadgil, M. 2001. The Birdlife of Bandipur.Ecological Journeys. The Science andPolitics of Conservation in India. Perma-nent Black. Bangalore.

Urquhart, T. 1987. Save the birds: why bother?New Scientist 2:55-58.

Daniels, R.J.R. 1997. A Field guide to the Birdsof Southwestern India. Oxford UniversityPress, New Delhi. 217p.

Rathinam, K. 2002. Tamilnadu Paravaigal.Mayappan Tamilaivagan, Chidambaram,Tamil Nadu. 182p.

Author’s addresses:V. Ramakantha, IFS, Prin-cipal, State Forest Service College, P.O. Box1130, R.S. Puram, Coimbatore, 641 002, In-dia. Dr. Thiru Selvan, State Forest Service Col-lege, R.S. Puram, Coimbatore 641 002, India.Dr.R.J. Ranjit Daniels, Director, Care Earth,Srinivasa, 21st Street, Thillai Ganga Nagar,Chennai, 600 061, India.

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Introduction

Himachal Pradesh is a Himalayan province ofIndia. The state of Himachal Pradesh lies be-

tween 30° 22' N to 33° 13' N latitude and 75°23'24'’ E to 79° 00' 50'’ E longitude stretching eastabout 315 km and a north-south expansion of about310 km covering an area of 55, 673 km2. HimachalPradesh has a rich repository of medicinal andaromatic plant wealth (Chauhan, 1999). Althoughthe state represents only about 1.7% of the geo-graphical area of the country, it constitutes about7.4% of India’s fauna and 7.3% of itsflora. Thisshows that the state, although very small in area,is extremely rich in biodiversity in the country. Thestate is, therefore, a potential treasure of bio-re-sources, which, if properly exploited, can trans-form the face of the present poor state economyinto a prosperous wealthy state. This is of tre-mendous contemporary relevance because it canprovide self-employment to millions of farmersthrough medicinal plant cultivation, as well as em-ployment in herb processing and pharmaceuticalunits on one hand, and health security to hill peopleon the other hand.

Materials and methods

The information about the herbal plant biodiversitystatus of Himachal Pradesh and its utilization, thesocio-economic status of hill farmers and the im-pact of herbal biodiversity on the rural economyof the state was gathered in 2004 from the stateagricultural department, revenue officials, Vedicliterature, local inhabitants, farmers and personalvisits to potential biodiversity sites of HimachalPradesh.

Results and discussion

1. Medicinal and aromatic plant biodiversitystatus and its conservation

India, one of the 12 mega- diversity countries ofthe world, has a particularly rich heritage of me-dicinal plant wealth. More importantly, it has beendocumented in detail since ancient times in Vedicliterature. The importance of medicinal and aro-matic plants has been recognized throughout theworld. Vedic literature, particularly the Rig Veda,carries accounts of a number of plants of medici-nal importance. The remarkable ‘MateriaMedica’ the Charka Samhita is an immenselyimportant treatise on hundreds of plants of me-dicinal value, and is still referred to by scientistsand the herbal industry. So is the SusrutaSamhita, another treatise dating back to roughlythe same era (800-1000 BC). The trade in crudedrugs in India has been documented since the dawnof the first millennium. Indian Systems of Medi-cine (ISM), Ayurveda and then the Unani systemof medicine are based upon the medicinal proper-ties of plants and derive their modes of adminis-tration from extensive research done in olden dayson these plants. As in all ancient cultures, the oldsystems saw a period of decline and then neglectwith the advent of modern science. One majorimpact of this neglect has been that the old wis-dom has been relegated to tribal cultures and otherforest-based communities like Himachal Pradeshwho still derive the benefits of this ancient heri-tage. Unfortunately, in the process not only has alot of knowledge been lost, but the exploitation ofthis medicinal plant wealth became such that mostspecies have been unscientifically harvested, lead-ing to their extinction. Realization of the impor-tance of scientific cultivation techniques and ex-ploration of our medicinal wealth is now dawning.It gained critical impetus after the Conventionon Biological Diversity which emphasized theimportance of the bio-resources of biodiversity richcountries, and the need for their conservation.Today, in order to harness this biodiversity fornational interests and mankind, the medicinal plantssector needs to be developed in a planned man-

STUDY ON MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTSBIODIVERSTIY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH HIMALAYAS

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ner keeping all aspects, i.e. economic, genetic, re-search and sustainable development, in mind.

2. Importance of medicinal and aromatic plantsbiodiversityIn Himachal Pradesh and other rural areas, localcommunities have discovered medicinal and aro-matic uses for hundreds of plants found locally intheir ecosystem through their experiences and theancient Indian Vedic literature. Now, these me-dicinal plants continue to be an important resourcematerial as therapeutic agents in traditional medi-cines and pharmaceutical formulations. The useof traditional medicines and other herbal drugs isincreasing not only in developing countries but alsoin the developed world. Rural people don’t haveaccess to modern medicines in many developingcountries and traditional medicines, being locallyproduced, are readily available. However, manypeople also use these medicines on account offaith, local myth, tradition and their socio-culturalmilieu.

The global resurgence of interest in herbal rem-edies is due partly to a disenchantment with in-dustrialization, which at times poses serious envi-ronmental threats (resulting in a movement ofgoing back to nature), and partly to an undercur-rent of dissatisfaction with modern drugs on ac-count of the side effects observed with many ofthem. The development of stronger tendenciesleaning towards ‘naturals’ is also gaining ground.However, increased use of spontaneously grow-ing flora is leading to decreased availability andeven threatening the existence of some species.Thus, in present times, herbal biodiversity is gain-ing attention at the national and international lev-els as health care products and for their economicbenefits.

3. Herbal biodiversity and livelihood of hillfarmers of Himachal PradeshThe biodiversity of Himachal Pradesh has beenlargely influenced by its unique geographical po-sition. Out of total 45,000 plant species in thecountry, as many as 3,245 species (7.32%) arereported in the state of Himachal Pradesh. Ofthese, about 150 species are recognized for theirmedicinal and aromatic value. The number ofplant species having confirmed medicinal and aro-matic value is about 100. Himachal Pradesh has

been the natural habitat of a large variety of me-dicinal plants, some of which are on the verge ofextinction due to unscientific exploitation in theforests to meet the ever-increasing demand formedicinal herbs. No systematic efforts have beenmade to cultivate these bio–drug plants for com-mercial purposes, although the state offers diver-sified agro-climatic conditions ranging from sub-tropical to temperate to cold deserts. In HimachalPradesh, 92% of the total population lives in ruralareas with a heavy dependence on agriculture,livestock rearing and natural resources. The ma-jority of the farmers (83.7%) are marginal andsmall, having small and scattered land holdings withan average size ranging from 0.4 to 1.4 ha. Al-most 63.8% of the farmers are marginal farmerswith an average land holding of less than 0.4 ha.With increasing fragmentation of land holdings,poor families are able to meet only 4-5 months oftheir food grain requirements in a year and theremaining gap is met through other sources of in-come like working as daily wage labourers in pri-vate works and the collection of medicinal andaromatic plants in forest areas. The economy ofHP is primarily an agrarian economy. The agro-climatic conditions of the state are highly conge-nial for the cultivation of medicinal and aromaticplants besides agriculture and horticulture. Me-dicinal and aromatic plants occupy an importantposition in the socio-cultural and spiritual activi-ties of the rural people of Himachal Pradesh.Thus, medicinal plant biodiversity can have greatimpact on the livelihood of the rural population ofHimachal Pradesh with proper utilization of itsresources.

4. Major medicinal and aromatic plants ofHimachal PradeshThe most commonly exploited herbs of HimachalPradesh are Dioscorea deltoidea (rhizomes),Angelica glauca (roots), Berberis spp. (root andbark), Embilica officinalis (fruit), Cinnamomumtamala (leaf), Picrorrhiza kurrooa (root), Violaserpens (flowers), Terminalia chebula (fruit),Terminalia belerica (fruit), Valeriana jatamansi(roots), Heracleum candicans (root), Artemisiamaritima (herb), Ephedra gerardiana (stems),Podophyllum haxandrum (root), etc. Althoughno specific and systematic inventory is availableon the current status of medicinal and aromaticplants, their quality, quantity and regeneration un-

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der natural conditions, various workers have gen-erated a fair amount of information in the pastfew years.

Among the cultivated medicinal and aromaticplants, Saussurea lappa (Kuth), Buniumpersicum (Kala Zira), Cichorium itybus(Chicory), Crocus sativus (Kesar) and Humuluslupulus (Hops) are the important ones in the state.However, some important medicinal and aromaticplants have become endangered and are underthreat of extinction. These include Podophyllumhexandrum (Bankakri), Nardostachys grandi-flora (Jatamansi), Gentiana kurroo (Indian Gen-tian), Aconitum heterophyllum (Atees), Onosmabracteatum (Ratanjot), Ephedra gerardiana(Somlata), Swertia chirata (Chirayata), Taxusbaccata (Talispatra), and Atropa acuminata (In-dian belladonna).

Besides these medicinal plants, seabuckthorn(Hippophae rhamnoides L.) is another uniquemedicinal plant having wider commercial impor-tance. It is a nitrogen-fixing plant which grows inRussia, Britain, Germany, Finland, Romania,France, Central Asia, China and Nepal etc. InIndia, seabuckthorn grows in high altitude areasof H.P and J&K, Uttaranchal, Sikkim andArunachal Pradesh. In HP, seabuckthorn growsalong riversides and on sun facing slopes in Lahaul-Spiti, parts of Chamba, Kinnaur, Kullu, Shimla andKangra (Choudhary and Jaggi, 2002a). The In-dian Himalayas have the second or third richestresources of seabuckthorn (30,000-40,000 ha) inthe world. The fruits and leaves of seabuckthornare very rich sources of Vitamin C and otherbioactive substances (Choudhary and Jaggi,2002b). Thus, Himachal Pradesh has a Himalayangeographical regime rich in medicinal and aro-matic plants biodiversity.

5. Traditional importance of medicinal andaromatic plants biodiversity of HimachalPradeshThere are no specific and systematic inventoriesavailable with general information about the me-dicinal and aromatic plants of Himachal Pradesh,their utility and the plant parts utilized. Hence, anattempt has been made here to present a fairamount of information regarding the major me-

dicinal and aromatic plant biodiversity of HimachalPradesh and its utilization in traditional medicines(Table 1).

Conclusion

Himachal Pradesh is home to a large variety ofmedicinal and aromatic plants. Out of total 45,000plant species in the country, as many as 3,245 spe-cies are found in the state of Himachal Pradesh.Of these, about 150 species are recognized fortheir medicinal and aromatic value. To harnessthis plant wealth on a sustainable basis, the agro-technologies for the cultivation of MADP’s shouldbe developed and transferred to hill farmers toencourage them to take up the cultivation of me-dicinal plants, particularly in forests, wastelandsand orchards as an additional income-generatingactivity. In addition, industries must be promotedto produce phyto-chemicals, essential oils, medi-cines, cosmetics, etc. This Himalayan state hasgreat potential as a medicinal and aromatic plantsproducer and manufacturer of herbal products forhuman health, awhile conserving the MADPbiodiversity to protect the natural environment ofthe state.

References

Choudhary, A.K. and R.C. Jaggi. 2002. Role ofseabuckthorn in the conservation of frag-ile ecosystem of temperate Himalayanregion. Tigerpaper, 29(1):3-4.

Choudhary, A.K. and R.C. Jaggi. 2002.Seabuckthorn cultivation – A boon to sus-tain the fragile ecosystem of temperateHimalayan region. Farmers’ Forum. 2(6):15-16.

Chauhan, N.S. 1999. In: Medicinal and aromaticPlants of Himachal Pradesh. Indus Publish-ing Company, New Delhi. pp.: 29-46.

Authors’ address: Department of Agroforestryand Environment, Himachal Pradesh Agri-cultural University, Palampur (HP) – 176062INDIA.

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Table 1: Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Biodiversity of Himachal Pradesh Himalayas and its utility in traditional medicine:

Scientific Name

English Name

Family Traditional Importance and Utility

Zingiber officinale

Ginger Zingiberaceae Used as spice and condiment, and also used in medicines as carminative and digestive stimulant. Essential oil obtained from rhizomes, is used for flavouring purposes.

Emblica officinalis

Aonla Euphorbiaceae Raw fruits are used medicinally as diuretic and laxative, and in dried form in diarrhea and dysentery. Emblica fruit is a good source of vitamin C, and is considered to be a good liver tonic.

Punica granatum

Pomegranate Punicaceae Peel from fruit is used medicinally in treating dysentery and diarrhoea.

Terminalia arjuna

Arjun Combretaceae Powdered bark is reported to relieve hypertension, and has diuretic and tonic effect in cirrhosis of liver.

Aconitum heterophyllum

Atis Ranunculaceae Roots are used medicinally as astringent, tonic and in diarrhoea and cough.

Terminalia bellirica

Bastard myrobalan

Combretaceae Fruits are reported to have antibiotic activity against a wide variety of microorganisms. Fruits are used for dyeing and tanning, and are also used to increase the potency of spirit. Kernels yield an oil that is reported to be used for preparing soaps. Fruit pulp is used in treating dropsy, diarrhoea and leprosy, and half-ripe fruits as purgative.

Plantago lanceolata

Baltanga Plantaginaceae Leaves are applied to wounds, sores and inflamed surfaces. Seeds are used as purgative.

Viola odorata Sweet violet Violaceae Used to treat several diseases under the Ayurvedic and Unani systems. Fresh flowering herb is used in homoeopathy for several skin, eye and ear diseases. Also used as a blood purifier. Flowers are used in perfumery, and are also used medicinally as demulcent and in biliousness and lung troubles.

Cannabis sativa

Hemp Cannabinaceae Bhang is composed of dried leaves and flowering shoots of male and female plants, both cultivated and wild. Ganja consists of dried unfertilized female inflorescences, and charas is crude resin. Active principal of these narcotics is a resinous exudation from glandular hairs on leaves, stems and inflorescences. Ganja and charas are two forms in which the drug is used for smoking, whereas bhang is taken in the form of a drink. Drug is also used as stomachic, antispasmodic, analgesic and sedative. Stem fibre is used for ropes, twines, canvas, nets and tarpaulins. Seed oil is used in paints, varnishes and soap manufacture.

Urtica dioica Stinging nettle

Urticaceae Seeds yield an edible oil. Externally used to excite activity in paralyzed limbs, internally for hemorrhages.

Centella asiatica

Asiatic pennywort

Hydrocotylaceae Considered useful in diseases of the nervous system and skin. Drug has a weak sedative effect used as a cardio-depressant and hyper-tensive action. A decoction of the whole plant is used in the treatment of leprosy. Drug consists of leaves and stems of plant and is used as a tonic and diuretic.

Rauvolfia serpentine

Rauvolfia

Enicostema hyssopifolium

Indian gentian

Rumex acetosa

Garden sorrel

Berberis aristata

Indian barberry

Coriandrum sativum

Coriander

Datura stramonium

Thornapple Jimson weed

Tribulus terrestris

Land-caltrops

Apocynaceae Fruits are known to have diuretic and tonic properties. Paste prepared from leaves is used for treatment of stones in bladder. Roots possess aperients and tonic properties.

Ferula zeksiana

Narthex asafetida

Gentianaceae Used in medicines for relieving spasms, whooping cough, and in indigestion and cholera. It produces an oleo-gum-resin which is used for flavouring food products.

Syzygium cumini

Java plum Polygonaceae Alcoholic extract of seeds has been reported to reduce level of blood sugar in diabetic patients. Bark is used in dyeing and tanning. A decoction of bark and seeds is said to be useful in diarrhoea and dysentery.

Urginea indica

White squill, Sea-Onion

Berberidaceae Externally used for removing corns and warts. Used chiefly in chronic bronchitis and asthma. Alcoholic extracts of the bulbs possess anticancer activity against human epidermis carcinoma. Also employed in dropsy, rheumatism and skin troubles.

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Rumex acetosa

Golden dock Umbelliferae Leaves are cathartic and roots are purgative, used as substitute for rhubarb.

Asclepias curassavica

False ipecac, Blood flower

Drug consists of dried leaves, flowering tops and seeds which are used in treatment of asthma. Kanaka asava, an Ayurvedic preparation, contains Stramonium as one of the main ingredients, is used as expectorant, and used to treat asthma. Alkaloid atropine, obtained from Stramonium, is used as a stimulant for the central nervous system.

Rhus succedanea

Japanese wax tree, Wild varnish tree

Anacardiaceae Used for coughs and asthma problems. Galls are astringent and expectorant and also used for tanning. Wood is suitable for agricultural implements. Japan wax is used in manufacture of candles, wax-matches and pencils. Latex from stem is used in manufacture of varnish.

Bunium persicum

Earth nut, Black cara-way

Umbelliferae Starchy tubers are eaten as vegetable and seeds are used as spice to treat the common cold.

Gentiana kurroo

Himalayan gentian, Indian gentian root

Gentianaceae Roots are used as tonic, stomachic and for urinary infections.

Picrorhiza kurrooa

Katki, Karu Scrophulariaceae Roots are used as stomachic, tonic and to improve appetite and stimulate gastric secretion.

Crocus sativus

Saffron Iridaceae On account of its colouring properties, bitter taste and aromatic odour, saffron is used mostly as a food additive in culinary, bakery and confectionery preparations. Saffron is used chiefly to colour and flavour foods.

Allium sativum

Garlic Alliaceae Garlic has antibacterial properties and is widely used to treat intestinal disorders and a number of infectious diseases. The bulbs are used to treat coughs and fever and as a condiment and flavoring substance. Garlic powder is extensively used as condiment and also serves as carminative and gastric stimulant in medicinal preparations. Also relieves rheumatism, clears chest and improves lungs. Plant has germicidal properties.

Carica papaya

Papaya Caricaceae Ripe fruits are eaten. Papain, the proteolytic enzyme contained in the milky latex of immature fruits, is an important ingredient in digestive medicines, and is used as an anthelmintic particularly effective in expulsion of lumbrici. Carpaine, an alkaloid occurring in green parts and in seeds, is reported to have been used as a heart stimulant and as a diuretic. Also considered to be an amoebicide particularly for amoebic dysentery.

Allium cepa Onion Alliaceae Bulbs are used in stimulants, expectorants, aphrodisiacs and to treat flatulence and dysentery. Onion is used as spice in food preparations.

Mentha arvensis

Field mint Labiatae Leaves are the source of an essential oil, which is used in preparation of certain kinds of herbal cigarettes and pharmaceuticals. Also used medicinally as carminative, refrigerant and stimulant.

Achyranthes aspera

Puth-kunda Amaranthaceae A herb used to treat coughs, and its decoction is given in renal dropsy and for bronchial infection.

Datura metel

Datura Solanaceae Its leaves and flowering tops are used to treat asthma. Leaves and seeds show similar properties as stramonium. The principal alkaloid of the plant is scopolamine.

Acorus calamus

Sweet flag Araceae Its many branched aromatic rhizomes are used medicinally as a carminative stimulant to the central nervous system, also used to relieve flatulence, acts as an expectorant, and to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Leaves and rhizomes used to flavor drinks and to prepare insecticides. An essential oil, obtained from rhizomes, is used in perfumery and for flavouring liquors and other foodstuffs. Alcoholic extract of plant has sedative and analgesic effects, and causes moderate depression in blood pressure.

Asparagus adscendens

Safed musli Liliaceae Root is used as demulcent and also to treat male impotency, diarrhoea and dysentery.

Foeniculum vulgare

Fennel Umbelliferae Fruits are used as spice and condiment, also used medicinally as carminative and stimulant. Leaves are used for treating rheumatism, cramps and gastric disorders. Fennel oil besides being used for various medicinal preparations, is also used as a flavoring agent in culinary preparations, confectionary and liquors.

Cinnamomum tamala

Indian Cassia

Lauraceae Leaves are used as a condiment, and for flavoring tea, and also as substitute for betel leaves. Leaves are carminative and are used to treat colic and diarrhoea.

Ocimum sanctum

Holy basil, Sacred basil

Labiatae The juice or infusion of the leaves is useful against bronchitis, cough, digestive complaints; applied locally on ringworm and other skin diseases. A decoction of leaves is used to cure common colds. Seeds are recommended for complaints of the urinary system. The oil from leaves can destroy bacteria and insects.

Cuminum cyminum

Cumin Umbelliferae Seeds are used as spice and for flavoring purposes. Fruits are also used medicinally as stomachic, stimulant, carminative, and are useful in dyspepsia and diarrhoea. Essential oil is used in perfumery and for flavoring beverages.

Rumex hastatus

Garden sorrel

Polygonaceae Leaves are eaten. Dried and powdered roots are used for diarrhoea and bleeding.

Silybum marianum

Holy thistle, Milk thistle

Compositae Boiled roots are eaten as pot-herbs. Flowers are consumed by diabetics. Seeds are reported to be a good source of fatty oils.

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PARTICIPATORY WILDLIFE CONSERVATIONINITIATIVES IN NEPAL

by Gandhiv Kafle and Mohan Krishna Balla

Introduction

Although comprising only 0.09% of the globalland area, Nepal possesses a disproportion-

ately large diversity of flora and fauna at genetic,species and ecosystem levels. Out of the total 118ecosystems identified by Dobremez (1970), 80ecosystems are included in the current ProtectedAreas (PAs) of Nepal (HMGN/MFSC, 2002).Nepal is home to 861 species of birds (includingsix endangered pheasant species), about 640 spe-cies of butterflies, 6,500 species of floweringplants and 175 mammal species (DNPWC, 2004).

Nepal’s rich biodiversity is a reflection of its uniquegeographical position as well as its altitudinal andclimatic variations. The altitude ranges from 57 m(Mukhiyapatti of Dhanusa District) to 8,848 m(Mount Everest) above mean sea level (Amatyaand Shrestha, 2002). It incorporates Palaearcticand Indo-Malayan biogeographical regions andmajor floristic provinces of Asia, creating a uniqueand rich diversity of life. Owing to its typical naturallandscape and cultural characteristics, Sagarmatha(Mt. Everest) National Park and Royal ChitwanNational Park (RCNP) were listed as World Heri-tage Sites in 1979 and 1984, respectively. TheKoshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, a wetland of inter-national importance, was declared a Ramsar Sitein 1987. Three other wetlands – the BeeshajariTal (Lake), Ghodaghodi Tal and Jagadishpur Res-ervoir were designated as Ramsar Sites in 2003.

Nepal is signatory to various international conven-tions and treaties including CITES, Convention onBiological Diversity (CBD) and the Ramsar Con-vention, and has the responsibility of conservingand maintaining the country’s major representa-tive ecosystems, genetic diversity, unique naturaland cultural heritages, and giving protection tovaluable and endangered species (DNPWC,

2004). His Majesty’s Government of Nepal(HMGN) has imposed restrictions on the exportof 12 plant species and one forest product. In ad-dition, 27 mammal species, nine bird species, andthree reptile species have been given legal pro-tection under the National Parks and Wildlife Con-servation (NPWC) Act, 1973. Fifteen vascularplant species, 58 mammal species, 40 bird spe-cies, 13 reptile species, one amphibian species andtwo insect species are listed under various CITESappendices. Sixty species of non-endemic plantsare regarded as threatened. Altogether, 27 mam-mal species are listed as threatened by IUCN:eight as Endangered, ten as Vulnerable, four asIndeterminate, and five as Insufficiently Known.Twenty-two bird species, 9 reptile species and 2insect species are listed in IUCN’s Red List (1995).Nine species of birds are regarded as threatenedin Nepal. Altogether, 342 plant species and 160animals have been reported as being endemic toNepal (HMGN/MFSC, 2002).

Nepal has had long experience in wildlife conser-vation through different approaches. Its conser-vation policy has evolved from the early empha-sis on species preservation and research with strictlaw enforcement practices, to a more concilia-tory and participatory approach (DNPWC, 2004).Nepal embarked upon a modern era of wildlifeconservation with the enactment of the NationalParks and Wildlife Conservation Act in 1973. TheDepartment of National Parks and Wildlife Con-servation (DNPWC) presently oversees a net-work of 9 national parks, 3 wildlife reserves, 3conservation areas, 1 hunting reserve, and 9 bufferzones around national parks and wildlife reserves,covering a total of 27,685.5 km2, or 18.81% of thecountry’s total land area. The management plansof RCNP, Royal Bardia National Park (RBNP)and the Buffer Zone Management Plan for

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| Sagarmatha National Park have already beenapproved by HMGN.

It has been realized that conservation cannot beachieved without the people’s participation. So,conservation programmes are now being designedand implemented in different models ensuring theactive participation of local communities in con-servation, protection and utilization of biologicaldiversity on a sustainable basis. A number of suc-cesses have been recorded over the years in theprotection and management of biological resourcesand their diversity, particularly with protected eco-systems and species, community forestry, agro-biodiversity and mountain biodiversity (HMGN/MFSC, 2002). The participation of communitiesin the decision-making process is central to thissuccess. The participatory conservation approachhas gained momentum in the conservation ofbiodiversity of Nepal along with the sustainableuse of resources and livelihood improvement oflocal communities since the late 1970s. Devolu-tion and decentralization of rights and responsi-bilities to local communities for sustainable man-agement of natural resources has built andstrengthened cordial relations with the communi-ties.

Participatory wildlife conservation models

Buffer zone (BZ) models around protected areas(PAs) and the landscape approach to biodiversityconservation are the major participatory wildlifeconservation initiatives in Nepal, which are de-scribed below.

Buffer Zone (BZ) Management ModelThe fourth amendment of the NPWC Act in 1992incorporated provisions for Conservation Areas(CAs) and Buffer Zones (BZs). Subsequently, theBuffer Zone Management Regulations 1996 andGuidelines 1999 were approved to designprogrammes compatible with national park man-agement and to facilitate public participation in theconservation, design and management of BZs. Theamended NPWC Act makes provisions for 30-50% of the parks (or reserves) revenues to beretained for community development activities inthe BZ. The revenue is disbursed through a BufferZone Management Committee (BZMC). The BZManagement Regulations are the only regulations

to promote Community Forestry (CF) in the BZsand to improve the regeneration of forests by thecommunity (DNPWC/MFSC, 1999).

BZ development is primarily focused on improv-ing the socio-economic well being of local com-munities surrounding PAs, while restricting accessto the PA. Conservation programs are designedto meet local needs and reduce the dependencyof local people on PA resources by developing analternative natural resource base in the BZ(HMGN/MFSC, 2002). Legal provisions allow BZsto be managed under community forest, religiousforest and private forest structures (Sharma, 1999).

As of 2004, eight BZs have already been declaredin different PAs – Royal Chitwan National Park,Royal Bardia National Park, Langtang NationalPark, Shey-Phoksundo National Park,Makalubarun National Park, Sagarmatha NationalPark, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve and RoyalSuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve. More than 127VDCs are involved in sustainable use and conser-vation of biodiversity in declared BZs. In June2005, HMGN declared the buffer zone of ParsaWildlife Reserve covering 278 km2. The new ad-dition makes a total of nine buffer zones covering3766.5 km2.

Landscape Approach to Biodiversity Conser-vationThe landscape approach to biodiversity conserva-tion aims for representation of all distinct naturalcommunities, maintenance of ecological and evo-lutionary processes that create and sustainbiodiversity, maintenance of viable populations ofspecies, ecosystem resilience to large-scale dis-turbances and long-term changes and promotionof sustainable livelihoods.

Landscape level conservation is not new to Nepal,as many successful lessons have been learntthrough the experiences in community forestry,conservation areas and the buffer zoneprogramme. Declaring BZs around national parksand reserves with a view to developing compat-ible land use patterns adjacent to PAs to simulta-neously address the growing needs of the peopleand the rapidly decreasing natural cover is an ef-fective initiative in landscape conservation. NBSis committed to making efforts to link PAs with

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epal|wildlife-friendly corridors. Development ofbiodiversity landscapes through a holistic and in-tegrated approach by incorporating all the ingre-dients of a landscape, namely national parks, re-serves, conservation areas, buffer zones, nationalforests, community forests, farmlands and wet-lands, with supportive policy regimes and planswould pave the way towards achieving landscapelevel conservation. Biodiversity conservation at thelandscape level is practiced in two models in Nepal.The first one is the Minimum Dynamic Area Model,and the second one is Network Model.

The Minimum Dynamic Area Model is, by andlarge, the existing conservation practice in Nepal.This model emphasizes the importance of main-taining an existing habitat of an appropriate sizeand character, which is suitable for the mainte-nance of biological diversity, by isolating it fromintensive land-use surroundings. The premise ofthis view is that the area available for nature re-serve elements should be large enough to providewell functioning populations or communities. Thisapproach emphasizes a better protection for thehabitats that still exist in the PAs. This can beaccomplished by establishing BZs in and aroundthose habitats. Nepal has made significantprogress towards the Minimum Dynamic AreaModel by declaring nine BZs in and around thePAs.

The second model is the Network Model, whichadvocates the overall reduction of land use, pro-tection of large areas for nature conservation, andcreation of a network of corridors and connectiv-ity or other small landscape elements. Terai ArcLandscape (TAL) jointly implemented byDNPWC, DoF, and WWF in collaboration withthe local community and other stakeholders, is anexample of this model as it is practiced in Nepal.It has connected eleven PAs that spread acrossthe boundary of Nepal and India to ensure theconservation of globally significant biodiversity inthe long run. The most important corridors andlinkages under the TAL Programme are KhataCorridor, Basanta Corridor, Lamahi Bottleneckand Dovan Bottleneck in the lowland of Nepal.The other important activities conducted by theTAL Programme in a participatory manner arecentered on capacity building, community man-agement of forest resources and improving the

livelihoods of the local people. Barandhabar For-est Corridor, connecting RCNP with the forestsof the foothills of the Mahabharat range in thenorth, is a successful example of the landscapeapproach carried out at the initiation of the KingMahendra Trust for Nature Conservation(KMTNC).

Existing participatory wildlife conservationprograms

A number of participatory conservation and de-velopment programs have been implemented byvarious organizations joining hands with the De-partment of National Parks and Wildlife Con-servation (DNPWC) inside, outside and withinthe BZs of different PAs, which are describedbelow.

Participatory Conservation Program (PCP)Implemented by DNPWC with the support ofthe United Nations Development Program(UNDP), the PCP has been extended until June2006 to complete the targeted works, particu-larly those relating to sustainability of the pro-gram and mainstreaming of target groups andthe poor living in the BZs. The PCP activitieshave been launched in the BZs of seven PAs.The PCP has made considerable progress in in-stitutionalizing the achievements and successesof the Park People Program (PPP) (WWFNepal, 2004). The major activities carried outby PCP include providing policy and institutionalsupport to the Ministry of Forests and Soil Con-servation (MFSC)/DNPWC, strengthening com-munity-based organizations such as User Groups(UGs) and User Committees (UCs), providingtraining for the members of UG/UC, and sup-port for income generating opportunities. Othernotable achievements were the institutionaliza-tion of the savings and credit scheme, theBiodiversity Conservation Facility through coop-eratives, conservation education and awarenessprograms, and support for UGs for self-initiativeafter social and environmental benefits. PCP alsoprovided support for the preparation of parkmanagement plans, resource profiles, habitat andnatural resource management and infrastructuredevelopment (DNPWC, 2004).

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|Terai Arc Landscape Program (TAL)In 2002, WWF Nepal began the Terai Arc Land-scape (TAL) Program in collaboration with theMFSC, DNPWC, DoF, and local community-based organizations to “conserve the biodiversity,forests, soils and watersheds of the Terai andChuria hills in order to ensure the ecological, eco-nomic and socio-cultural integrity of the region”(WWF Nepal, 2004). It is based on the landscapeapproach of biodiversity conservation. The pro-gram activities have been implemented in the PAs,their buffer zones and outside the PAs. The goalof the program is to restore critical biological cor-ridors and eliminate bottlenecks and provide link-ages to 11 trans-border PAs in Nepal and Indiaspreading over 49,500 km2 to facilitate wildlifepassage, while addressing the issues of the liveli-hood of the people in the region, especially thoseliving in the fringe areas (DNPWC, 2004). TAL ishome to flagship species like the Asiatic wild el-ephant, rhinoceros, and tiger. In Nepal, TAL en-compasses 23,129 km2 of 14 districts, including75% of the remaining forests of lowland Nepal,the Churia hills and four PAs. This landscape hasthe second largest population of rhinos and one ofthe highest densities of tiger populations in theworld. TAL covers three Ramsar sites and twoWorld Heritage Sites. TAL was prioritized byHMGN as a priority program in the 10th Plan(2002-2007). Khata biological corridor is one ofthe crucial corridors in the TAL and provides avital linkage between Nepal’s RBNP andKatarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary of India, espe-cially for the movement of the Royal Bengal tiger(Panthera tigris). A monitoring team of rangersfrom the DFO at Bardia and the Research Of-ficer from TAL Program confirmed that the Khatacorridor was being used by Bengal tigers and Asianwild elephants in 2003 (WWF Nepal, 2004).

The program is directed to improve the livelihoodof local communities to mitigate pressure on natu-ral resources. Major income generating activitiessupported by the TAL Program were vegetablefarming, livestock, retail shops and collecting non-timber forest products (NTFP). Since unsustain-able extraction of fuel wood has caused majorforest degradation, the TAL Program advocatesalternative energy like biogas and improved cook-ing stoves. Community services like road gravel-ling, maintenance of school buildings, irrigation and

drinking water schemes, and community healthservices are all part of the TAL program’s con-servation efforts. This was met with the over-whelming participation and contribution from thecommunities: local contribution (cash and kind) ex-ceeded 40% on average of the investment neededin fiscal year 2003-2004 (WWF Nepal, 2004).

HMGN and MFSC approved the Terai Arc Land-scape (TAL) Strategic Plan (2004-2014) in 2004.The major achievements of the TAL Programduring the fiscal year included the preparation ofthe TAL Strategic Plan, restoration of biologicalcorridors in critical areas, and partnership withlocal, regional and international stakeholders forsynergy to have the desired impact on biodiversityconservation.

The Western Terai Landscape Complex Projectwas approved by GEF in 2003 and implementedto initiate conservation activities in the westernpart of TAL under the leadership of HMGN. Aworking arrangement was signed between MFSC,HMGN, SNV Nepal and WWF NP for the imple-mentation of the Western Terai Landscape Build-ing Program (WTLB) in 2004. A Central SupportUnit (CSU) for the WTLB Program, jointly imple-mented by MFSC, SNV Nepal and WWF NP,was established at the premises of DoF (WWFNepal, 2004).

Northern Mountains Conservation Project(NMCP)The Northern Mountains Conservation Project(NMCP) is a joint initiative of WWF Nepal andDNPWC in Shey Phoksundo National Park(SPNP) and its BZ areas in Dolpa and Mugu dis-tricts. The objective of this integrated conserva-tion and development project is to facilitate thelocal management of natural resources and im-prove the people’s living conditions, while safe-guarding this region’s unique natural heritage.NMCP has two components: 1) People and PlantInitiative (PPI); and 2) Strengthened Actions forGovernance and Utilization of Natural Resources(SAGUN). PPI was launched in 1997 andSAGUN in 2002. While the main objective of PPIis to address the issues of conservation and sus-tainable use of valuable plant resources, SAGUNis focused on strengthening the capacity of localcommunities for governance in the sustainable

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epal|utilization of natural resources (WWF Nepal,2004).

Sagarmatha Community Agro-Forestry Project(SCAFP)The WWF Nepal Program has initiated SCAFPin Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). The SCAFPis a multifaceted community-based conservationproject, initiated in July 1996, to address the issueof deforestation in the Sagarmatha region.

One of the major achievements of the project isthe preparation of the BZ Management Plan forSNP. The other notable activity was the prepara-tion of operational plans and statutes of four com-munity forest user groups. Regular project activi-ties such as nursery management, plantation andforest regeneration were undertaken by localCFUGs and Monastery Management Committeesthrough financial grant support.

Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Project(KCAP)DNPWC implemented the Kangchenjunga Con-servation Area Project (KCAP) in March 1998with the technical and financial support of theWWF Nepal Program to conserve the naturalresources of the region and promote sustainabledevelopment. A major achievement of the pastyear was HMGN’s decision to hand over man-agement responsibility of the conservation areato local communities. This conforms to thegovernment’s recent policy of giving managementresponsibility of selected protected areas to NGOsand local communities. The aim is to share thebenefits generated by protected areas with thelocal people and to improve their socio-economicconditions. At present, the process of formallyhanding over management responsibility toKCAMC is underway. The KCA communitiesare very enthusiastic and committed toward thisinitiative. The first ever community managementof a conservation area serves as an excellentexample of conservation by the local people.These achievements are the result not only ofcommunity support, but also of strong local part-nerships such as with the District DevelopmentCommunity-Taplejung and Decentralized FinanceDevelopment Project (WWF Nepal, 2004).

Annapurna Conservation Area Project(ACAP)The Annapurna CA Project (ACAP) was offi-cially gazetted in 1992 and the KMTNC was giventhe responsibility of managing it for 10 years. TheACAP has evolved from an experimental Inte-grated Conservation and Development Project tothe largest PA (7,629 km2) in Nepal. The projectserves as a model throughout the Asia for inte-grating public participation in biodiversity conser-vation. It is based on a holistic and integrated ap-proach, considering local people as partners ratherthan beneficiaries (HMGN/MFSC, 2002).

New Models of Protection and Managementof CAsNBS 2002 indicates that new models of PA man-agement have been developed in the highlandsand mountains – in the Annapurna CA,Kanchenjunga CA and Manaslu CA – where thearmy is not involved. It realized that the relianceon the army alone for protecting PAs should bereduced given the high cost of mobilizing the army.The DNPWC implemented the Makalu-BarunNational Park and Conservation Area Project todemonstrate a new model for conservation. Theproject gives strict protection to the biodiversityof the park while developing sustainable use ac-tivities for the people who reside in the surround-ing CA. Makalu-Barun NP is the Nepal’s firstnational park east of Mount Everest NP to bemanaged without the help of the army. The localpeople who manage the resources are the realguardians. Recently, the rights and responsibili-ties to manage Sagarmatha NP, Shey PhoksundoNP and Sivapuri NP have also been given toKMTNC (HMGN/MFSC, 2002).

Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Program(TRPAP)TRPAP is implemented under the Ministry ofCulture, Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoCTCA)with the technical and financial support of UNDP,SNV and DFID. The goal of TRPAP is to con-tribute to the poverty alleviation objectives of thegovernment. The project aims to accomplish thetask through review and formulation of policy andstrategic planning for sustainable tourism(DNPWC, 2004).

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| CARE Nepal: The Buffer Zone DevelopmentProjectThe BZ Development Project, implemented withthe support of the European Union and DANIDA,is part of a broader integrated conservation anddevelopment program. DNPWC and CARENepal jointly implemented the Project in the BZof RBNP with the objective of improving the live-lihoods of local people of the BZ. The project suc-cessfully handed over a total of 8,957.75 ha offorest to 24 Buffer Zone Community Forest UserGroups (BZCFUGs), benefiting 7,782 households.The project successfully completed its projectcycle in July 2004. SAGUN has taken over someof the activities of BZDP in RBNP and SPNP(DNPWC, 2004).

Emerging participatory conservation initia-tives

Following the success of the program’s implemen-tation through the participation of local commu-nity members, HMGN has approved new policiesregarding wildlife conservation through the par-ticipatory approach. The NPWC Act 1973 wasamended for the fifth time in 2004. The newamendment includes provisions for wildlife farm-ing, reproduction and research; elephant domesti-cation; detailed specifications of the provision ofbuffer zones and specifications relating to the ex-change of wildlife species with other countries.Following are the new policies recently approvedby the government.

New policy on protected area managementHMGN has approved a policy in-execution re-garding the handing over of management respon-sibilities of protected areas to interested INGOs/NGOs or local communities. The objective is toensure maximum participation of local people insharing benefits from conservation activities, whilecontributing to biodiversity conservation and en-vironmental protection. The decision of HMGNto hand over the management responsibility is inconformity with the Tenth Plan (2002-2007) andensuring local people’s access to natural resourcesand equitable distribution of benefits.

Wildlife farming, reproduction and researchpolicyThe Cabinet approved the “Wildlife farming, re-production and research policy” in –execution 2060on 28 August, 2003.

The protected species that may be permitted forfarming include gharial crocodile (Gavialisgangeticus), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra),impeyan pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus),crimson horned pheasant (Tragopan satyra) andcheer pheasant (Catreus wallichi). Other spe-cies included in the list are barking deer, spotteddeer, sambar, rhesus monkey, hog deer, wild boar,snakes and all other bird species.

The seed animals for farming can be obtained fromthe DNPWC and the permission fee ranges fromfive thousand to forty thousand rupees. Permis-sion for the farming of protected species could beobtained from the MFSC, while DNPWC has beenauthorized to issue permission for other speciesof wildlife.

Policy on the management of domesticated el-ephantsHMGN passed a policy for the effective man-agement of domesticated elephants in the coun-try on 16 September 2003. The policy in-execu-tion aims to improve the breeding of domesticatedelephants by improving the food quality and hy-gienic conditions of the Hattisars (camps for do-mesticated elephants and their handlers) and im-proving the health care system of the elephants.It also aims to register all domesticated elephantsand reduce their impact in protected areas.

Out of the total 184 domestic elephants in Nepal,81 are owned by the government. The govern-ment-owned elephants are used for eco-tourism,patrolling for poachers, wildlife monitoring, cap-turing problem animals, evacuating trapped ani-mals and wildlife research.

Conclusion

The conservation policy of Nepal has evolved froman early emphasis on species preservation andresearch with strict law enforcement practices toa more conciliatory and participatory approach. It

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embarked upon a modern era of wildlife conser-vation with the enactment of the National Parksand Wildlife Conservation Act in 1973. HisMajesty’s Government of Nepal has approvedthree new policies, namely: 1) wildlife farming,reproduction and research policy; 2) policy onmanagement of domesticated elephants; and 3)the new policy on protected area management.These policies have placed local communities inthe center of the conservation program. Chang-ing policy into practice is a very sensitive task andguidelines related to the new policies should beprepared soon for effective wildlife managementpractices in collaboration with local communities.

A number of community-based participatory pro-grams have been implemented inside, outside andin the BZs of PAs. The Buffer Zone Manage-ment Model and the Landscape Approach tobiodiversity conservation are successful ap-proaches in the context of Nepal. Both approachesemphasize people’s participation in program de-sign and implementation. The landscape approachto biodiversity conservation aims for representa-tion of all distinct natural communities, mainte-nance of ecological and evolutionary processesthat create and sustain biodiversity, maintenanceof viable populations of species, ecosystem resil-ience to large-scale disturbances and long-termchanges and promotion of sustainable livelihoods.The BZ Management approach aims at makinglocal communities self-reliant in forest productsby initiating community forests and reducing bi-otic pressure in the core areas. Experiences show

that people’s participation is essential to sustain-able conservation. It is crucial to win the supportand stewardship of the local people in wildlife con-servation by implementing conservation programsalong with community development activitiesaimed at improving their socio-economic condi-tions.

References

Amatya, S. M. and K. L. Shrestha. 2002. NepalForestry Handbook. FAO, Italy, Rome.

DNPWC. 2004. Annual Report. His Majesty’sGovernment of Nepal.

WWF Nepal. 2004. Annual Report. World Wild-life Fund Nepal Program.

HMGN/MFSC. 2002. Nepal Biodiversity Strat-egy. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal,Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation.

NPWC Act. 1973. National Park and WildlifeConservation Act 1973. His Majesty’s Gov-ernment of Nepal.

Sharma, U. R. 1999. Country Paper – Nepal.In: Oli, K.P. (ed.) Collaborative Manage-ment of Protected Areas in the Asian Re-gion. IUCN Nepal.

Tenth Plan. 2002. Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007). His Majesty’s Government of Nepal.

Authors’ addresses: Gandhiv Kafle, Institute ofForestry, P. O. Box 203, Pokhara, Nepal,Email: [email protected]; Prof.Mohan Krishna Balla, Institute of Forestry, P.O. Box. 43, Pokhara, Nepal.

Table 1: Declared Buffer Zones (BZ) of parks and reserves Protected Areas Year gazetted BZ area (km2) VDCs within BZ Estimated

population in BZ Royal Chitwan NP 1996 750 37 242,000 Royal Bardia NP 1996 328 17 69,000 Langtang NP 1998 420 26 NA Shey Phoksundo NP 1998 449 8 9,185 Makalu-Barun NP 1999 830 12 32,000 Sagarmatha NP 2002 275 3 13,000 Koshi Tappu WR 2004 173 13 172,000 Royal Suklaphanta WR 2004 243.5 11 74,000 Parsa WR 2005 298 NA NA Total 3,766.5 127 611,185

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Introduction

Spiders play an important role in stabilizing orregulating insect populations; they are one of

the most numerous insectivores and exhibit a widevariety of lifestyles and foraging strategies(Nyffeler et al., 1994; Nyffeler and Benz, 1987;Wise, 1993). Spiders possess the characteristicsof predators that can contribute to density-inde-pendent limitation of prey, including self-damping,high levels of polyphagy, and life cycles that areasynchronous to those of prey species (Riechertand Bishop, 1990). The size of the spiders variesfrom as big as a small bird (Nephila maculata)and to as small as mites (Oonopids). Body lengthranges from 0.7 mm to 9 cm (bird-eating spider).Almost all spiders are generalist predators, mainlyeating insects and secondarily other spiders (Wise,1993); a few have become specialists (Nentwig,1986). Some larger species may even occasion-ally feed on small mice, birds, and lizards. Spidersmay be sedentary, social and could be cannibalis-tic. Additionally, spiders are an important foodsource for birds, lizards, wasps and other animals.Only fragmented information is available on thespider fauna of the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanc-tuary. The present study was an attempt to ex-amine the spider fauna of this Sanctuary.

Study area

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary is situated inPalakkad district of Kerala State, India with anarea of 274 km2. This sanctuary lies between79º35' and 76º51' E longitude and 10º20' and 10º26'N latitude, at an elevation of 600 m above MSL.The temperature varies from 13ºC to 32ºC. Thearea receives the southwest and northeast mon-soons and the average annual rainfall is 2,590 mm.This sanctuary is contiguous with forests ofAnamalai, Nelliampathi, Sholayar, Vazhachal andPalani hills. The natural vegetation of the sanctu-

ary is a combination of Malabar and Deccan ele-ments and both natural and man-made vegetationtypes are met within the area. Champion and Seth(1968) broadly classified the natural forest as Westcoast tropical evergreen, West coast semi-ever-green, Southern moist mixed deciduous and South-ern dry mixed deciduous forests.

Methods

The study was carried out in Parambikulam Wild-life Sanctuary, Kerala between May 2001 to April2002 to explore the diversity and abundance ofthe spider fauna. The data was sampled using aquadrate size of 10 x 10 m randomly laid in 3 dif-ferent habitats: moist deciduous forests, evergreenforests and plantations, with a total of 500 plots ineach habitat. A thorough search was made in theplots and spiders were collected by hand pickingor trapped directly into the specimen tubes or jars.The collected specimens were preserved in 70%alcohol. The spiders were identified with the helpof standard key systematic references (Pocock,1900; Subramanyam, 1968, 1969; Tikader, 1980,1982; Tikader and Biswas, 1981; Vijayalakshmiand Ahimaz, 1993). Identified spiders were de-posited in the interpretation center atParambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. Quantitativeinformation such as species richness and diver-sity indices were worked out using the softwareSPDIVERS.BAS in STATECOL (Ludwig andReynolds, 1988).

Results

A total of fifty-one species of spiders belonging tonineteen families and thirty-four genera were ob-served in the three different habitats ofParambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Table 1). Themost prominently represented family wasAraneidae (18 genus) followed by Lycocidae (7genus). All the recorded species from the study

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area are distributed throughout the country. Spe-cies richness and abundance of spiders were high-est in evergreen forests, followed by moist de-ciduous forests and plantations.

Number of spiders recorded in the differenthabitats

Plantations: A total of 4,482 spiders were recordedin the plantations, which cover an area of 92.30km2. Argiope pulchella (10%) was the common-est in the area, followed by Gasteracantha dalyi(8%).Moist Deciduous Forest: From a total of 39.4 km2

moist deciduous forests, 5,408 taxa of spiders wererecorded. Lycosa indagatrix (16%) was the com-monest in the area followed by Clubiona sp. (6%).Evergreen forest: A total of 6,848 spiders wererecorded from 101.10 km2 of evergreen forests.The highest percentage was Hippasaagelenoides (14%), followed by Gasteracanthadalyi (7 %).

Diversity indices of spiders in the three differ-ent habitats

The highest species diversity index (H’) was ob-served in evergreen forests, followed by planta-tions and moist deciduous forests. Species rich-ness indices were observed to be highest in ever-green forests, followed by moist deciduous for-ests and plantations (Table 1).

For evenness, two measures were calculatedbased on Shannon Wiener’s and Simpson’s diver-sity indices. The ratio of observed diversity tomaximum diversity is taken as the measure ofevenness (E). The index measures of the even-ness of species abundance is complimentary tothe diversity index concept and is a measure ofhow the individuals are appropriated among thespecies. In the present case, highest evenness wasobserved in plantations.

Spider webs

Spider webs can be found everywhere in gardens,trees and fields and inside the houses. Amongspiders, Araneids are unique because of their pe-culiar habit of constructing an orb web with geo-metrical precision and the finished product is a

masterpiece of craftsmanship. Though the websmainly serve as trapping nets to “capture prey”,they also camouflage the spiders from their preyand predators. The threads of the webs are noth-ing but solidified secretion from silk glands presentinside the abdomen of spider. The silk secretionis a kind of protein, which solidifies as soon as itcomes in contact with the air. The secretion ofthe silk gland comes out from the minute micro-scopic spigots present on the mound or spinnerets.The web varies from species to species. Somewebs are primitive and consist of merely a fewstrands of silk, while others are beautiful, elabo-rately organized webs.

Discussion

The results of the present study showed that agreat variety of spiders exists in the ParambikulamWildlife Sanctuary. The maximum number of spi-ders was recorded in evergreen forests (6,848)followed by moist deciduous forests (5,408) andplantations (4,482). Evergreen forests showedhigher values of diversity index (Table 2) mainlydue to the fact that many of the web weaversprefer thick under growth habitats and grass cov-ers. A total of 41 species of spiders were re-corded from evergreen forests, followed by 37species from moist deciduous forests and 35 spe-cies from plantations.

The occurrence of various species inParambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary seems to becorrelated with the vegetation type and biotic in-fluence. Nephila maculata, the spider with a largesized web, was recorded only from evergreenforests where large sized trees are luxuriantlygrown.

Gasteracantha, represented by five species, isthe largest genus and 10 genera have two conge-neric species; Hippasa has three congeneric spe-cies. Argiope pulchella was the most abundantand dominant genus in the plantations. There were433 individuals of Argiope pulchella recorded andit also showed greatest value in the dominanceindex (9.66), followed by Gasteracantha dalyi(8.14), Cryptophora citricola (7.8), andPlexippus payakulii (7.10). The maximum num-ber of individuals observed in moist deciduous for-ests were Lycosa indagatrix (856), which re-

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|corded the highest dominance index (15.83), fol-lowed by Clubiona sp. (6.38) and Lucaugedecorata (6.07). Hippasa agelenoides (923 in-dividuals) showed a greater dominance index(13.55), followed by Gasteracantha dalyi (6.66)and Drassodes sp. (6.32). The least representedtaxa in the three habitats were Clubiona sp. (0.27)Hippasa lycosina (0.18) and Hersilia savigyni(0.20).

Among the recorded species, Poecilotheriastriata, Psechrus sp., Hersilia savigyni,Thomisus sp., Artema atlanta, Phidippusindicus, Heteropoda phasma, Drassodes sp.,Lycosa indagatrix, Gasteracantha dalyi,Gasteracantha hasseltii, Gasteracanthamammosa, Leucauge decorata, Cryptophoracitricola and Cyclosa mulemeinensis commonlyoccurred in all three habitats. Two species,Crossopriza lyoni and Heteropoda venatoria,were confirmed only from the plantation. Hippasalycosina, Gasteracantha hasseltii and Neosconasp. were recorded only from moist deciduous for-ests. Dictyna sp. and Nephila maculata wereobserved only in evergreen forests.

Spiders are skillful hunters (Lycocids), jumpers(Attids), excellent architects (Arachnids) andspecialised swimmers (Pesaurids). They are dis-tributed extensively in fields, thick forest floors,under stones, logs and on tree trunks. Some ofthe spiders of family Araneidae are orb web weav-ers namely the genera Nephila, Araneus,Argiope, Leucauge, Neoxona andGasteracantha. Whereas members of familyTherididae (Rhomphae and Pholcidae) spin ir-regular webs. Stegodyphus sarasinorum belongsto the family Eresidae of social spiders and con-structs compact nests with many entrance holesand passages, commonly found on the Acacia treesand shrubs. However, some spiders prepare nosuch webs or snares to catch their insect prey.The spiders of the families Lycosidae,Gnaphosidae, Clubionidae, Salticidae,Oxyopidae and Thomisidae are hunting spiderswidely distributed in Parambikulam Wildlife sanc-tuary.

Spiders possess the characteristics of predatorsand play an important role in stabilizing or regu-lating insect populations because they are one of

the most numerous insectivores and exhibit a widevariety of lifestyles and foraging strategies(Nyffeler et al., 1994; Wise, 1993). While biologi-cal control by spiders has not been clearly dem-onstrated in natural systems, evidence in agro-ecosystems like plantations has been reported inseveral studies (Riechert and Bishop, 1990;Breene et al., 1993), and benefits to primary pro-ducers have been measured (Carter and Rypstra,1995). Spider silk is important to bird species fornest building; 24 of 42 families of passerine birdsand nearly all species of hummingbird depend onsilk from spiders and caterpillars for nest construc-tion (Hansel, 1993).

Spiders, like most terrestrial invertebrates, areaffected by habitat alteration such as deforesta-tion, agriculture, grazing, and urbanization. Forexample, clear-cutting of forests reduces spiderabundance and changes the spider communitycomposition drastically. The introduction of alienspecies can have serious direct and indirect con-sequences for native species. Alien ant speciesare perhaps one of the most invasive exotic spe-cies, with many reports of effects on native in-vertebrate species (New, 1995). Pesticide use hasdecreased spider populations in agro-ecosystems,affecting the ability of spiders to control pest spe-cies (Clausen, 1990). Fertilizers may change spi-der community composition and activity as well(Kajak, 1978). Chemical contamination of ground-water can have especially deleterious effects oncave spiders, and has been cited as a threat toseveral endangered arthropods (Hansen, 1993).

Future conservation efforts for spiders and otherarachnids will depend on increased cooperationand communication between arachnologists andconservation professionals. Little information isavailable to the conservation community regard-ing the status and distribution of spiders, due tothe general difficulty in finding reliable or appro-priate sources and an unfamiliarity with the taxa.Similarly, conservationists should make knowntheir information needs to researchers in order toencourage information exchange and promote sci-entific study.

Without appropriate occurrence information,species in need of conservation may beoverlooked. While most of the states have some

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type of spider species checklist, many lists areeither outdated, difficult to obtain, or unreliable.Additionally, most of the checklists provide vaguecollection locations, little information on habitatuse, and no discussion of abundance. Species areoften known from only one or few localities.Protection of rare or threatened ecosystems isarguably the best way to preserve the biodiversitythat remains in them. Without the necessaryinventories, however, it will be difficult to developmanagement regimes that benefit the mostspecies. More specifically, spider inventories inthese habitats are necessary for determining spidermanagement needs. Through continued spiderinventories in rare and endangered habitats, effortsto preserve biodiversity through ecosystemprotection can only be enhanced.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge Shri. P.Pugazhendi, I.F.S., Deputy Conservator ofForest and Wildlife Warden, ParambikulamWildlife Sanctuary for permitting us to carryout this study. They would also like to thankDr. Gunathilagaraj, Professor, Tamil Nadu Ag-ricultural University for helping with the iden-tification of spiders.

References

Breene, R. G., D. A. Dean, M. Nyffeler, and G.B. Edwards 1993. Biology, predation ecol-ogy, and significance of spiders in Texascotton ecosystems. The Texas AgriculturalExperiment Station Bulletin 1711.

Carter, P. E. and A. L. Rypstra 1995. Top-downeffects in soybean agro-ecosystems: Spi-der density affects herbivore damage .Oikos 72(3):433-439.

Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth 1968. A revisedsurvey of forest types of India. Nasik;Government of India Press. pp.404.

Clausen, I. H. S. 1990. Design of research workbased on a pilot study dealing with theeffect of pesticides on spiders in a sugar-beet field. Acta Zoologica Fennica 190: 69-74.

Hansel, M. 1993. Secondhand silk. NaturalHistory 102: 40-46.

Kajak, A. 1978. The effects of fertilizers onnumbers and biomass of spiders in ameadow. Symposium Zoological Society ofLondon 42: 125-129.

Ludwig, J.A. and J.F. Reynolds 1988. StatisticalEcology. A premier on methods and com-puting. A Wiley-Interscience publication. P.337.

Nentwig, W. 1986. Non-webbuilding spiders:Prey specialists or generalists?Oecologia 69: 571-576

New, T. R. 1995. An introduction to inverte-brate conservation biology. Oxford Uni-versity Press, New York.

Nyffeler M. and G. Benz 1987. Spiders in natu-ral pest control: A review. Journal ofApplied Entomology 104: 190-197.

Nyffeler, M., W. L. Sterling, and D. A. Dean 1994.How spiders make a living. Entomologi-cal Society of America 23(6): 1357-1367.

Pocock, R.I. 1900. Fauna of British India,Arachnida. London. 153-205.

Riechert, S. E. and L. Bishop 1990. Prey con-trol by an assemblage of generalistpredators: Spiders in garden test sys-tems. Ecology 71(4): 1441-1450.

Subramanyam, T.V. 1968. An Introduction tothe study of Indian spiders (Part I). Jour-nal Bombay Natural History Society 62(2):453-462.

Subramanyam, T.V. 1969. An Introduction tothe study of Indian spiders (Part II). Jour-nal Bombay Natural History Society 65(3):726-743.

Tikader, B.K. 1980. Fauna of India. Spiders Vol.I. Araneae (Thomsidae and Lycosidae),Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Tikader, B.K. 1982. Fauna of India. Spiders Vol.II. Araneae (Araneidae andGnaphosidae ), Zoological Survey of India,Calcutta.

Tikader, B.K. and B. Biswas 1981. Spider faunaof Calcutta and its vicinity part I. Recordsof Zoological Survey India. Paper No.30: 1-149.

Vijayalakshmi. K. and P. Ahimaz 1993. Spiders:An Introduction. Cre: A. Madras. pp.112.

Wise, D. H. 1993. Spiders in ecological webs.Cambridge University Press.

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Number of Individuals Dominance Index Sl. No.

Species name PLN MDF EVN PLN MDF EVN

Theramposidae 1. Poecilotheria rufilata Pocock 28 93 0 0.62 1.72 0 2. Poecilotheria striata Pocock 65 105 64 1.45 1.94 0.93 3. Plesiophrictus sp. 54 0 75 1.20 0 1.10 4. Thrigmopeus sp. 0 222 65 0 4.11 0.95 Psechridae 5. Psechrus sp. 43 34 74 0.96 0.63 1.08 Dictynidae 6. Dictyna sp. 0 0 53 0 0 0.77 Uloboridae 7. Uloborus danolius 74 0 82 1.65 0 1.20 Eresidae 8. Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch 0 30 116 0 0.55 1.69 Hersilidae 9. Hersilia savignyi Lucas 18 49 14 0.40 0.91 0.20 Thomisidae 10. Thomisus sp. 34 49 64 0.76 0.91 0.93 11. Pholcidae 12. Crossopriza lyoni (Blackwall) 79 0 0 1.76 0 0 13. Artema atlanta Walck 34 55 77 0.76 1.02 1.12 14. Pholcus phallangeoides 96 0 108 1.24 0 1.58 Salticidae 15. Plexippus payakulii 318 128 0 7.16 2.37 0 16. Phidippus indicus 66 122 176 1.47 2.26 2.57 Heteropodae 17. Heteropoda venatoria (Linneaus) 114 0 0 2.54 0 0 18. Heteropoda phasma Simon 44 235 246 0.98 4.35 3.59 Clubionidae 19. Clubiona sp. 12 345 0 0.27 6.38 0 Gnaphosidae 20. Drassodes sp. 104 105 433 2.32 1.94 6.32 Oxyopidae 21. Oxyopes rufisternis Pocock 136 0 192 3.03 0 2.80 22. Oxyopes sp. 98 0 72 2.16 0 1.05 Ctenidae 23. Ctenus sp. 32 55 0 0.71 1.02 0 Theridiidae 24. Theridion sp. 0 164 96 0 3.03 1.40 25. Rhomphaea vansdaensis 21 39 35 0.47 0.72 0.51 Agelenidae 26. Agelena sp. 214 0 14 4.77 0 0.20 Lycosidae 27. Lycosa quadrifer Gravely 0 28 72 0 0.52 1.05 28. Lycosa indagatrix Walckenaer 200 856 236 4.46 15.83 3.45 29. Hippasa agelenoides (Simon) 213 0 928 4.75 0 13.55 30. Hippasa pisaurina Pocock 155 22 97 3.46 0.41 1.42 31. Hippasa lycosina Pocock 0 10 0 0 0.18 0 32. Pardosa annandalei (Gravely) 122 0 0 2.72 0 0 33. Pardosa lucopalpis Gravely 45 17 0 1.00 0.31 0 Tetranathidae 34. Tetranatha mandibulata Walckenear 0 49 178 0 0.91 2.60 Araneidae 35. Gasteracantha dalyi Pocock 365 314 456 8.14 5.81 6.66 36. Gasteracantha hasseltii C.L. Koch 300 295 418 6.69 5.45 6.10 37. Gasteracantha geminata (Fabricius) 0 93 216 0 1.72 3.15 38. Gasteracantha mammosa C.L. Koch 208 18 53 4.64 0.33 0.77 39. Gasteracantha kuhlii C.L. Koch 0 244 0 0 4.51 0 40. Nephila maculata (Fabricius) 0 0 314 0 0 4.59 41. Leucauge decorata (Blackwall) 72 328 286 1.61 6.07 4.18 42. Leucauge fastigate (Simon) 0 0 412 0 0 6.02 43. Argiope anasuja Thorell 0 234 114 0 4.33 1.66 44. Argiope pulchella Thorell 433 297 0 9.66 5.49 0 45. Cryptophora moluccensis (Doleschall) 0 234 0 0 4.33 0 46. Cryptophora citricola (Stoliczka) 322 234 32 7.18 4.33 0.47

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Authors’ addresses: C. Sivaperuman, Division Forest Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation, KeralaForest Research Institute Peechi, Thrissur, Kerala - 680 653, India, Email:[email protected]; M. Karthikeyan, 58 V.K. Road, Peelamedu, Coimbatore - 641 004,Tamil Nadu, India, Email: [email protected] and R. Ravikumar, 58 V.K. Road, Peelamedu,Coimbatore - 641 004, Tamil Nadu, India.

47. Neoscona rumpfi (Thorell) 0 54 331 0 1.00 4.83 48. Neoscona sp. 0 45 0 0 0.83 0 49. Araneus nympha Simon 241 0 0 538 0 0 50. Araneus sp. 0 75 74 0 1.39 1.08 51. Cyclosa insulana (Costa) 79 22 134 1.76 0.41 1.96 52. Cyclosa mulemeinensis (Thorell) 43 22 104 0.96 0.41 1.52 PLN= Plantation; MDF = Moist Deciduous Forest; EVN = Evergreen Forest Table 2. Diversity parameters of spiders in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

Diversity Indices Richness Indices

Evenness Indices Sl.

No. Habitats Simpson Shannon

Wiener R1 R2 E1 E2

1. Plantation 0.05 3.22 4.04 0.52 0.91 0.72

2. Moist Deciduous Forest

0.06 3.17 4.19 0.50 0.88 0.64

3. Evergreen forest

0.05 3.33 4.53 0.50 0.90 0.68

The Purple Moorhen (Porphyrio porphyrio)is a swamp bird whose purplish color and long

red legs draw the attention. They have a short,heavy red bill, which continues upward as a fron-tal shield on the forehead. The stumpy tail jerksup and down as the bird walks. When alarmed,the birds scuttle away to conceal themselves inthe reeds or bushes. These birds are particularlynoisy during the breeding season and the male hasa ludicrous courtship display during which he holdswater weeds in his bill and bows before the fe-male with loud chuckles. Reeds and grass growin many parts of this area, making it an ideal habi-tat for the Rallidae family, and especially the PurpleMoorhen. According to Birds of Kerala (Ali,1969), the breeding season of the Purple Moorhen

is July-August. This paper mainly deals withmonthly variations in the activity pattern and timebudgeting of Purple Moorhen, and an evaluationof the causes of habitat shrinkage that have ledto the decline in the population of this bird. Thisstudy was conducted during 1999 October toMarch 2000.

Study area

The Azhinhillam wetland is situated on the north-ern border of Malappuram District in Kerala State,India, half a kilometer from the southern banks ofthe Chaliyar River. It was formed over one hun-dred years ago as a result of the removal of themost suitable soil from the paddy fields for the

ECOLOGY OF PURPLE MOORHEN (Porphyrio porphyrio)IN AZHINHILLAM WETLAND

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| tile and brick factories of Feroke and neighboringareas. The area covers about 30 ha, which is fullyaquatic from June to December; the depth variesfrom 0.5-2.5 m.

Azhinhillam receives the southwest monsoons,which start in June and continue up to Augustand sometimes to October. There is no signifi-cant variation in the temperature of the study area.The maximum temperature recorded in Marchwas 33ºC and the minimum temperature recordedwas 25ºC in October.

Methodology

To study the various activity patterns and timesampling, the focal animal sampling (Altmann) wasused. The birds were observed separately duringeach visit and the duration of activities was mea-sured with a stopwatch. The activities were clas-sified as feeding, chasing, maintenance, wing ex-pansion, walking and feeding while walking, preen-ing, alertness, bathing, swimming and chasing andbehavior.

Vegetation study

The vegetation of the study area is mainly com-prised of submerged free-floating plants and thedominant species is Salvinia mullata, which oc-cupies 90% of the total area. Other species in-clude Nymphae stellata, in which water birds liketo build their nests. There are many wild varietiesof paddy including Oryza sativia , and differentspecies of grass and some herbaceous plants likeMimosa paudica, Limnanthinum, Thydrilla,Vallisnaria, Cyperus, Saripus validus, Curexsp. and Janus sp.

Results and discussions

Activity pattern and time budgeting of thepurple moorhen

The spatial abundance of the Purple Moorhen hasa distinct seasonal pattern in the jheel; their num-bers shoot up during the post-monsoon and win-ter months and are lowest during August. Ali andRipley (1983) observed that the Purple Moorhenis a local migrant and can be seen in good num-bers during the autumn and winter seasons. The

maximum numbers of young ones were sightedfrom October to January and it may be that theavailability of preferred habitats for nestingpatches results in their breeding success. In addi-tion, these patches serve as a cover for the youngones from predators during feeding and other ac-tivities.

Though Purple Moorhens were observed through-out the study period, they attained optimum num-bers during December-January. During the post-monsoon period (October-December) they spentmore time walking after feeding.

Of the total observation time of 743.1 minutes,465 minutes were utilized for feeding, which comesto more than 60% of the total activity. This obser-vation is in agreement with studies on wigeons byKanel (1980) and Thomas (1982). More time wasspent on feeding during October and this gradu-ally decreased towards the dry season with slightmonthly differences. Significantly, during Marchthe birds spent only 47 minutes feeding. The maxi-mum duration of time spent chasing was recordedduring February. Likewise, alertness is also height-ened during February. Interspecific and intraspe-cific chasing was observed. It has been proposedthat the importance of competition, as an agentstructuring natural communities, should vary withthe intensity of environmental variability. (Nudds,T.D).

The maximum observations of both walking andfeeding while walking behavior occurred duringthe post-monsoon season. Similarly, the amountof time spent on bathing and swimming reached apeak during the same period since water avail-ability was higher due to monsoon rains. It wassignificant to note that the birds allotted only afew minutes for wing expansion throughout theseasons.

The Purple Moorhen did not show much signifi-cant difference in its feeding patterns month tomonth; however, all year round they spent a con-siderable amount of time feeding, followed bywalking after feeding. In Keoladeo National Park,among the Purple Moorhens the maximum timeis spent for feeding, followed by maintenance(Bhupathy, 1985) and the same patterns were re-

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urple Moorhen|

ported from Coots (Fulica atra) (Jayaraman,1985).

Studies carried out by Page and Whitacre (1975),Kenward (1978), and Bertram (1980) have putforward the theory that flocking is an anti-preda-tory tactic among many bird species with increas-ing group size. Both interspecific and intraspecificchasing were observed. On two occasions it wasrecorded that Purple Moorhens chased CattleEgrets.

Purple moorhens are extremely vigilant when ac-companied by young ones. Their sense of alert-ness is raised in the presence of Falconiformessuch as the Pariah Kite and Brahminy Kite todefend the young from predation.

Most organisms apportion their time for differentbehavioral activities. The optimal budgeting of timeand energy between foraging versus non-forag-ing activities is evidently profoundly influenced bythe circadian and seasonal rhythms of physicalconditions as well as of predators and prey.(Ramchandran, 1996).

Declining populations

About 75% of the wetlands are covered by weedslike water hyacinth and Salvinia due to the in-creasing use of fertilizers in agriculture in thecatchment area of the wetlands.

Many hectares of wetlands have already beenreclaimed for rice cultivation and the conversionprocess continues. Studies by Swanson et al.(1974) have shown that nutrient availability re-mains high in seasonal and tilled wetlands becauseof the regularity with which organic matter is oxi-dized as these wetlands become dry during latesummer. But conversely, when the wetlands arethoroughly tilled and cropped during dry years, tall,strong-stemmed perennial plants are temporarilyeliminated; when hydrophytes succession is re-sumed during wet years, the early stages favorshort, weak-stemmed annuals which cannot sup-port the nests of most bird species. They alsonoted that temporary and seasonal wetlands pro-duce invertebrates earlier in the season than semi-permanent wetlands because of the more rapidwarming of the shallow waters. The process of

siltation is estimated to be at a high rate due tothe construction of a bypass in the vicinity. Largeareas of the wetland have been encroachedupon. The construction of a new bypass of NH-17, running south to north, has prevented theeasy flow of water and movement of floatingvegetation, which adversely affects the move-ment of water birds. Vehicular disturbanceshave also affected the distribution pattern ofbirds and may have a detrimental effect onsome breeding wetland birds. This in turn hasled to a heavy decline in the number of PurpleMoorhens that visit this endangered ecosystem.

Conclusions

Wetlands are dynamic ecosystems and an un-derstanding of the varied community that theysupport and how they are affected by the con-ditions is a pre-requisite to managing them.

Complexes of small, seasonal and semi-perma-nent wetlands must be preserved in order toavoid drastic declines in the associated avianpopulations. They are important in maintainingthe food web of this biotype. Burning or graz-ing or a combination of these two forces willbe required to maintain wetlands in the bestcondition for most bird species. There are manyinstances where these forces have seemed tobenefit the productivity of prairie wetlands andtheir use by breeding and migrant birds. Thesebenefits arise from the decrease in the extentof monotypic strands of emergent vegetationand the creation of openings that allow greaterbiological productivity within shallow waterzones. The newly constructed road, vehiculardisturbances, and water pollution are posingthreats to this ecosystem, which in turn hasfragmented the population of birds into smallerpockets. This clearly depicts the rate of degra-dation of the area and the plight of the avifaunainhabiting this region. The wetlands still remainunprotected and a holistic approach is requiredtowards the conservation of this ecosystem.Appropriate conservation strategies should beimplemented to preserve this natural heritagefor the generations to come.

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| References

Abbasi. S.A. 1997. Wetlands of India – Ecol-ogy and Threats. Vol. II and Vol. III

Ali, S and S.D. Riply. 1983. Handbook of thebirds of India and Pakistan. Compact edi-tion, Oxford University, New Delhi.

Ali, S. 1996. The book of Indian Birds . BombayNatural History Society.

Baldassarre, G.A. and E.G. Bolen. 1994. Waterfowl ecology and management. John Wiley& Sons, Inc. New York.

Bhupathy, S. 1985. Ecology of Purple Moorhen(Porphyiro porphyiro) from January toMarch 1985 in Keoladeo National Park,Bharatpur. M.Sc. dissertation, BharathidasanUniversity, Thiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu.

Burton, B.A. and J.R.Hudson. 1978. Activitybudget of Lesser Snow Geese winteringon the Fraser river estuary, British Co-lumbia. Wildfowl 29:11-117.

Gopal, B. and K.P. Sharma. 1994. Ramsar sitesof India – Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan. WWFIndia.

Hayayaman, S. 1985. Wintering ecology ofCoots fulicatra in Keoladeo National Park,Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Bharathidasan Uni-versity, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu.

Ladhar, S.S. Ramsar sites of India – HarikeLake, Punjab. WWF-India.

Marquiss, M. and K. Duncan. 1994. Diurnal ac-tivity patterns of Goosander Mergus mer-ganser on a Scottish river system. Wild-fowl 45:209-221.

Murkin, H.R. and Kale. 1986. Relationship be-tween water fowl and macro invertebratedensities in a northern prairie marsh. J.Wildife Management 50:212-217.

Murkin, H.R and B.D.J. Batt. 1987. The inter-action of vertebrates and invertebratesin peat lands and marshes. Mem. Entomol.Soc. Can. 104:15-30.

Nudds T.D. 1983. Niche dynamics and orga-nization of waterfowl guilds in variable en-vironments. Ecological Society of America.

Ramachandran, N.K. 1995. Interspecific asso-ciations of Kancanas (Hydrophasianuschirurgus and Metopidius indicus) and therole of habitat. J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ramchandran, N.K. 1996. Population and dis-tribution of Bronze-winged (Metopidiusindicus ) and Pheasant-tailed(Hydrophasianus chirurgus) jacanas inKeoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,Rajasthan. J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 94.307-316.

Ramchandran, N.K. 1998. Activity patterns andtime budgets of the pheasant-tailed(Hydrophasianus chirurgus) and bronze-winged (Metopidius indicus) jacanas . J.Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 95:234-245.

Sankhala, R. 1990. Gardens of God. The wa-ter bird sanctuary at Bharatpur. VikasPublishing House Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.

Sridharan, V. 1989. Comparative ecology ofresident ducks in Keoladeo NationalPark, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Ph.D thesis,University of Bombay.

Singh, H.T. & R.K. Shyamananda Singh. 1994.Ramsar sites of India – Loktak Lake,Manipur. WWF-India.

Trisal, C.L., Robinson, Juan and M.R.D.Kondanger. 1994. Ramsar sites of India –Wular Lake, Jammu & Kashmir. WWF-India.

Vijayan, L. 1994. Ramsar sites of India –Sabhar Lake, Rajasthan. WWF-India.

WWF-India. 1993. Directory of Indian Wet-lands .

Author’s address: c/o C. Muraleedharan, AE,E/M, GE (I), R&D (East), C.V. Raman Nagar,Bangalore-93, India; E-mail:[email protected] .

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BREEDNG OF AN INDIAN GIANT SQUIRREL (Ratufaindica) PUP AT ARIGNAR ANNA ZOOLOGICAL PARK

by K. Santhilkumar and R. Thirumurugan

Introduction

Breeding of endangered species and sub-species of animals in captivity is likely to be

crucial to the survival of many forms. It must,therefore, be used as a method of preventingextinction, alongside the maintenance of the wildstocks in their natural habitat (Mallison, 1988).Arignar Anna Zoological Park (AAZP), India,taking this into consideration, plays as an importantrole in the ex-situ conservation and captivebreeding of endangered species of fauna in generaland of Western and Eastern Ghats of India inparticular. The zoo has a record of successfullybreeding many endangered species. To name afew – Royal Bengal tiger, Asiatic lion, Lion-tailedmacaque, Nilgiri langur, Wild dog, Striped hyaena,Brow-antlered deer, Barking deer and Gaur haveall been bred successfully on many occasions.

The Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) is anactive and agile, arboreal, diurnal mammal inhab-iting the deciduous, mixed deciduous and moistevergreen forests of peninsular India south ofGanges (Prater, 1971). Due to habitat depletion,the species is listed under Schedule II, Part II ofthe Wildlife Protection Act of India, 1972 and inAppendix II of CITES.

Crandall (1964) opined that tree squirrels fail tobreed in captivity due to lack in space for court-ship. Limited breeding biology data for giant squir-rels are recorded from India (Arora, 2002).Acharjyo & Misra (1973, 1977) reported birthsamong Malayan giant squirrels (Ratufa bicolor)in Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa, India.Paulraj and Naidu (1988) reported the births offive litters of Malabar giant squirrel pups at AAZP,India. The present paper puts on record the birthof an Indian giant squirrel pup and the maternal

care by the mother during the nursing period atAAZP.

Materials and methods

A pair of Indian giant squirrels was rescued fromPollachi, Tamilnadu and brought to Arignar AnnaZoological Park on 04-07-2003. They were named‘Ramu’ and ‘Rama’. After quarantine and nec-essary prophylactic measures the squirrels wereshifted to the exhibit area in the zoo, i.e. the smallmammal house. They were monitored for theirmovements and activities including their feeding,social interaction and habitat utilization in the newenclosure.

Study area

The small mammal house consists of two exhibitareas with front glass viewing windows and con-crete side walls. There is a partition wall in be-tween and each area has a separate breeding andhiding pen as per the recommendations of theCentral Zoo Authority, Government of India. Theenclosures can be accessed from the back throughthe service area. The floor of the enclosure iscovered with red soil to a depth of about 4 feet.Enclosure enrichments include dead trees, trans-verse branches, logs and plants. A wooden nestbox was provided in the upper part of the room,near the median wall. Feeding and water troughsare provided in each enclosure. Daily cleaning ofthe enclosures is carried out by the animal keep-ers in the morning hours. Care is taken to assignthe same animal keeper to clean and feed theanimals so that the animals will accept him as aregular feature in their environment, even duringthe nursing period.

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The diet of the Indian Giant Squirrels kept at AAZPconstitutes the following ingredients:

White Bengal Gram 25 gApple ½ NoGreen Grapes 50 gBread Slices 1 No.Banana 1 No.Ground nut (without shell) 25 gCarrot 25 gCabbage 25 gSweetlime ½ No.Guava 1 No.Coconut with shell 75 gTree leaves 100 gPapaya 50 g

After observing the signs of pregnancy, the dietwas supplemented with vitamin and mineral prepa-rations such as Dexorange syrup, Liv-52 liquid,Ostocalcium syrup and Vimeral liquid. After par-turition, the green grapes and coconut were in-creased by 25 g and 50 g respectively.

Observations and results

During the last week of May 2004, the femalewas seen with an enlarged abdomen and displayedslow careful movements. Taking these as signsof pregnancy, the feed was supplemented withvitamins and minerals and she was kept under aclose watch.

A bamboo basket was put in the enclosure in ad-dition to the wooden nest box, as the animals neverused the wooden box. The female accepted thebamboo basket and was found resting in the ‘drey’itself in the daytime except during feeding. Bauhinia(Bauhinia variegata ) and copper pod tree(Peltophorum pterocarpum) leaves and twigswere hung in the enclosure. The female startedto collect and store the leaves and twigs in thebamboo basket. Anticipating the parturition, theenclosure was closed to visitors to avoid distur-bance.

On 16-06-2004, the female gave birth in the bam-boo basket to a male pup. She was found nursingthe pup in the evening. We were not able to de-termine the gestation period. The blind pup was

born with black hairs in the dorsum and tail, darkchestnut hairs on the neck, sides of the chest andaround the ears, and pale chestnut hairs in theface, posterior and medial sides of the limbs andon the undersides of the body. A little noise wouldcause the pup to hide under the Bauhinia leaves.The mother could be seen in the enclosure onlyduring feeding. The male pup was named ‘Raju’.

On the 24th day after birth, the pup’s eyes openedand it came out of the basket during 5th week.The mother would lift the pup by the back andplace him in the basket. During this entire period,the mother didn’t allow the male near the basketor pup. From 8 weeks the pup started to roamfreely in the enclosure and was observed playingwith his parents. He also started to take the feedprovided.

Discussion and conclusion

In their natural habitat, Indian giant squirrels buildlarge globular nests of twigs and leaves amongthe slimmer branches of trees to avoid predators.They may build many nests within a small areaand one among them is used as nursery (Prater,1971). In this case, the mother used the bamboobasket rather than the wooden nest box for thebirth and subsequent nursing.

The single litter in this case is in agreement withthe findings of Acharjyo and Mishra (1977), Paulrajand Naidu (1988) and Paulraj (1988).

Acharjyo and Misra (1973) observed the openingof eyes on the 22nd day in a Malayan giant squir-rel pup and noted that the mother carried heryoung by grabbing the skin at the back or base ofthe hind limbs with her teeth until the pup was 8weeks old. Arora (2002) reported the opening ofeyes in Indian giant squirrel pups as occurringbetween 22 to 26 days. In the wild, the youngpups begin to come out from the drey and followthe mother about three months after birth(Ramachandran, 1988). In the present case thepup came out from the drey earlier (i.e. 5th week)and followed his mother from 8 weeks.

An effort by a mother to save a pup from themale that resulted in the fatal fall of the pup wasreported by Acharjyo & Misra (1977). In the

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present case, the father seemed to play no rolein the rearing of the young, although he washoused in the same enclosure.

Taking all the necessary precautions and ac-tive involvement taken during pregnancy dur-ing the pre-, peri-, post-parturition and nursingperiods paved way for successful birth andrearing.

As stated by Martin (1975), more and morezoos are accepting the idea that they have aduty to find out as much as possible about thehabits of the animals in their care and that par-ticular emphasis must be placed on successfulbreeding in captivity. In line with this philoso-phy, AAZP has provided the basic and neces-sary facilities for its inmates, including balancedfeed and a stress-free environment and hassuccessfully bred many endangered species of

animals. And now it has added an Indian giant squir-rel pup to the list.

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to the Director, ArignarAnna Zoological Park, Vandalur, Chennai-48 forpermitting them to undertake the work.

References

Arora, B.M. 2002. Reproduction in Wild Mam-malia and Conservation. Association of IndianZoo and Wildlife Veterinarians, Bareilly, UttarPradesh, India. 169-172 pp.

Acharjyo, L.N. and R. Misra. 1973. A note on thebirth of a Malayan Giant Squirrel (Ratufabicolor) in captivity. J. Bombay Nat. Soc.71(2):375.

Acharjyo, L.N. and R. Misra. 1977. Some noteson the Breeding habits and Growth of the

Indian Giant Squirrel pup – 5 days old. (Photo: R. Thirumurugan)

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FOOD, FEEDING, BEHAVIOR AND HABITATPREFERENCES OF SPINY-TAILED LIZARD (Uromastixhardwicki Gray 1827) IN THE THAR DESERT OFRAJASTHAN, INDIA

by Sanjay K. Das and Vivek Pandey

Introduction

Spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastix hardwicki Gray1827) has been recorded in India from Andhra

Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh andRajasthan (Joseph, 1988; Sharma, 2002). It is com-monly found in the Thar desert of Rajasthan.However, despite a ban, there is still an excessiveamount of killing of this lizard by man for its fat,meat and skin, and the trade for its economic value.The tail is considered to be a great delicacy, themeat is said to be excellent and sweet, and the oilis extracted for medicinal purposes. These de-mands have placed the lizard on the endangeredlist. Habitat destruction on a large scale is anotherthreat to this lizard’s survival in the Thar desert.

Food and feeding

Several studies have been carried out on the foodand feeding habits of this lizard. According toAnderson (1898), Purves (1915), Smith (1935),Krishna (1955), Krishna and Dave (1956),Schmidt and Inger (1957), Cloudsley-Thompsonand Chadwick (1964), Minton (1966) and Sharma(1977, 2002) this lizard is strictly herbivorous.Smith (1935) and Mayhew (1968) reported thatthe teeth of the young lizards differ from that ofthe adults and they also feed on insects (Mertens,1960; Pope, 1960 and Minton, 1966). But Pradhan(1971), Bhanotar et al. (1972a,b, 1973) andPradhan et al. (1973) state that the adult lizards

Malayan Giant Squirrel (Ratufa bicolor)in captivity. J. Bombay Nat. Soc. 73(2):381-382.

Crandall, Lee S. 1964. Management of WildMammals in Captivity. The University ofChicago Press, Chicago and London. 214 pp.

Mallinson, J.J.C. 1988. Conservation role of aModern Zoo. Why Zoos? Universities Fed-eration for Animal Welfare. 8, Hamilton Close,South Mimms. Potters Bar, Herts.

Martin, R.D. 1975. General Principles forBreeding Small Mammals in Captivity. In:Breeding Endangered Species in Captiv-ity. Academic Press, London. 143-146 pp.

Paulraj, S.S. 1988. Breeding behaviour of theMalay Giant Squirrel Ratufa bicolour atArignar Anna Zoological Park. Int.Zoo.Yb.27:279-282.

Paulraj, S. and Naidu, S.S. 1988. BreedingMalabar Giant Squirrel. Zoosprint. 3(4):4-5.

Prater, S.H. 1971. The Book of Indian Animals.Bombay Natural History Society, India. 197-199 pp.

Ramachandran, K.K. 1988. Ecology andBehaviour of Malabar Giant Squirrel,Ratufa indica maxima. KFRI. Research re-port. 55:110.

Authors’ address: Dr.K.Senthilkumar andDr.R.Thirumurugan, are respectively VeterinaryAssistant Surgeon and Zoo Veterinarian at theArignar Anna Zoological Park, Vandalur,Chennai-600 048, India.

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| Spiny-Tailed Lizard in the Thar Desert|

are also insectivorous through their observationsare based on the feeding of this lizard in captivity.

In the present study, the stomach contents of threesamples collected from near Gajner Sanctuaryand Talchappar Wildlife Sanctuary revealed thatits food consisted chiefly grasses and other veg-etable matter with some minute portions of insectparts (beetle, weevil, nematodes). Field observa-tions confirmed that although insects were presentin the habitat, the adult lizards preferred to feedon vegetation, preferably the tips of grasses. Itseems that this lizard is strictly herbivorous in natu-ral conditions. The insect parts and nematodes inthe stomach appear to have been ingested inci-dentally along with the vegetation.

Behavior

During the summer months this lizard emergesfrom its burrow in the early morning (between 8-9 am) and is active until an hour or two beforesunset. But in winter, it comes out in the late morn-ing (between 9.30-10.30 am) and is active onlyduring the warm hours of the day. Basking wasnoted. When emerging from its burrow this lizardoften raises itself as high as possible on its fore-limbs to look around. It has a strict homing in-stinct and when alarmed will immediately run backto its own burrow, even from a considerable dis-tance. When alarmed the lizard’s tail would oftenbecome slightly curved with the tip directed up-ward. It maintains this posture even when beingchased.

Habitat preferences

In Rajasthan Thar, the Spiny-tailed lizard is foundto occupy slightly clayey and hard soil which maybe gravelly and rocky or it may be found in salinedepressions with sparse ground vegetation con-sisting of grasses and xerophytic shrubs. Com-mon grasses in that habitat that the lizard prefersare Cynodon dactylon, Desmostachyabipinnata, Cenchrus bif lorus, Cyperusrotundus, Haloxylon salicornicum and Lasiurussindicus.

The authors observed this lizard in the collectionlocalities mentioned earlier and also in other ar-eas in Rajasthan Thar such as Bikaner, Jaisalmer,

Sudasari, Desert National Park in the Baran area.Among all these localities the area surroundingBikaner-Gajner state highway, Bikener, TalchapparWildlife Sanctuary and its surroundings with a 1km range, Churu and Baran village and its sur-roundings and Jaisalmer were found to be verygood habitats for this lizard in Rajasthan Thar. Itwas even seen in good numbers during the se-vere drought in 2002 and 2003 and these localitiesmay be important for this species from a conser-vation point of view.

Conservation measures

In order to protect this endangered species fromfurther exploitation the following conservationmeasures are recommended:§ Identify the key areas of conservation for

this species and protect them from allkinds of human interference that wouldresult in habitat destruction.

§ Declare the animal as economically valu-able and create awareness among peoplethrough environmental education, work-shops, etc.

§ Enact stricter laws to control the captureor exploitation of females of any endan-gered species and enforce them.

§ Indigenous knowledge of endangeredanimals should be enlisted in all tribal ar-eas.

§ Captive breeding should be introduced ona commercial scale and value-addedproducts extracted with people’s partici-pation. Profits should be equally shared.This may also discourage the illegal trade.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Dr. J.R.B.Alfred, Director, Zoological Survey of India,Kolkata and Dr. N.S. Rathore, Officer-in-Charge, Desert Regional Station, ZoologicalSurvey of India, Jodhpur for permission tostudy the material and for laboratory facili-ties. Financial assistance was granted by theMinistry of Environment and Forests, Govern-ment of India. Thanks also go to Dr. R.C.Sharma, Deputy Director (Retd), Desert Re-

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t | gional Station, for his guidance and sugges-tions.

References

Anderson, J. 1989. Zoology of Egypt. Reptiliaand Batrachia. Vol.1, Bernard Quatitch,London.

Bhanotar, R.K., Bhatnagar, R.K. and Y.N.Srivastava. 1972a. Further observations onthe dietary habits of spiny-tailed lizardUromastix hardwickii Gray. EntomologistsNews Letter, New Delhi 2(5):34.

Bhanotar, R.K. and R.K. Bhanotar. 1972b.Desert locust upsurve vis-a-vis predatoryfauna. Entomologists News Letter, NewDelhi. 2(8):53.

Bhanotar, R.K., Bhanotar, R.K., Srivastava, Y.N.and Y. Mahto. 1973. Preliminary studieson locust hopper production predationby Uromastix hardwickii, Gray. Entomolo-gists News Letter, New Delhi 3(3):19-20.

Cloudsley-Thompson, J.L. and M.J. Chadwick.1964. Life in deserts. Dudour Editions,Philadelphia.

Mayhew, W.W. 1968. Biology of desert am-phibians and reptiles. In: Brown, G.W.(Ed.) Desert Biology. Academic Press, NewYork. 196-356.

Minton, S.A. 1966. A contribution to the her-petology of West Pakistan. Bull. Amer.Mus. Nat. Hist. 132(2):27-184.

Resting position of Uromastix hardwicki Gray during feeding. (Photo: Sanjay Das)

Krishna, D. 1955. Desert and its animals.Extens. Lecture, University of Rajasthan,Jaipur, India. 1-20.

Krishna, D. and K.C. Dave. 1956. Observationson food and feeding habits of Uromastixhardwickii. Proc. 43rd session, Indian Sci.Congress. 4:35.

Pradhan, S. 1971. A voracious locust preda-tor. Entomologists News Letter, New Delhi1(1):5.

Pradhan, S., Singh, K.M., Sangwan, H.S., Singh,R.N. and R.P. Singh. 1973. Exploration ofvertebrate predators for crop pests-I;Food and feeding habits of spiny tailedlizard, Uromastix sp. Indian J. Ent.35(2):148-149.

Purves, E.H. 1915. The thorny-tailed lizard. J.Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 23:780-785.

Schmidt, K.P. and R.F. Inger. 1957. Living rep-tiles of the world. Doubleday, New York.

Sharma, R.C. 2002. The fauna of India and theadjacent countries, Reptilia-Sauria. Vol.II.Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

Sharma, R.C. and T.G. Vazirani. 1977. Food andfeeding habits of some reptiles ofRajasthan. Rec. Zool. Sur. India 73:77-93.

Smith, M.A. 1935. The fauna of British India,including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia andAmphibia-Sauria. Vol.II. Taylor andFrancis, London.

The authors are Research Scholars at the Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Pali Road,Jhalamand, Jodhpur – 342 005 (Rajasthan); E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected].

1

Vol. XIX: No.4 October-December 2005

1

FOREST NEWSFOREST NEWS

Vol. XIX: No. 4 Oct-Dec 2005

Second AnnouncementASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY COMMISSION TO MEET IN

DEHRADUN, INDIA , 17-21 April 2006

Key forestry officials from throughout Asia andthe Pacific are preparing to converge on Dehradun,India, in April, for what promises to be one of theregion’s most important forestry events of the year.The Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC)will convene its 21st session, 17-21 April 2006, inSouth Asia’s fabled “cradle of forestry” under thetheme “Towards Sustainable Forest Management.”

Delegates from the 30 APFC member countries,along with representatives from internationalorganizations, NGOs, universities and the privatesector, will discuss challenges and opportunitiesfacing forestry in the region, and map out strategiesand approaches for regional cooperation. Specifictopics for deliberation include progress towardsustainable forest management in the region, thestatus of forest resources, financing forestmanagement and protection, codes of practice andguidelines for planted forests and forest harvesting,regional partnerships, forest invasive species,forest law enforcement, outlook studies, and more.

An in-session seminar on “payment forenvironmental services” will explore the prospectsfor non-traditional mechanisms for funding andrewarding sound forest management andprotection. Experiences from various countriesand projects will be highlighted, providing freshinsights into the potential for wider application ofthese newly emerging instruments.

Special consideration will be given during theAPFC session to fostering further partnership andcollaboration among the various regionalmechanisms and approaches active in Asia andthe Pacific. Representatives of the Asia Forest

Partnership, Asia FLEG, ASEAN, SAARC, theSecretariat of the Pacific Community, AsiaForest Network, the Economic and SocialCommission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP),and others have been invited to share their viewsand experiences.

Numerous pre-session workshops and sideevents are also being organized in conjunctionwith the main APFC meeting. Topping theschedule will be a one-day workshop onSaturday, 15 April, focusing on “Forests andPoverty Reduction.” In line with the recentsurge in emphasis on poverty reduction as anoverriding objective of natural resourcemanagement and development, the workshopwill feature practical experiences and “lessonslearned” from India and other countries of theregion in reducing poverty through targetedforest management approaches. The workshopwill further explore how poverty reductionobjectives can be more effectively incorporatedinto national forest programmes and strategies.

On Sunday, 16 April, another one-day workshopwill discuss and provide input to the developmentof a global “Planted Forests Code.” Given theAsia-Pacific region’s dominance in establishingand managing forest plantations, the details ofthe code—which is presently being formulatedunder the leadership of FAO—will be of majorinterest to governments, private industry, NGOsand others concerned with plantationdevelopment and utilization. The workshop willprovide an important opportunity for participantsto provide perspectives and influence theformulation of the nascent code.

Vol. XIX: No. 4 October-December 2005

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Other pre-session events will include one-dayworkshops on Sunday, 16 April, on the developmentof a strategy for future work of the Asia-PacificForest Invasive Species Network (APFISN), andfuture directions for forest resources assessmentand monitoring in the region. The latter willshowcase the facilities, work and accomplishmentsof the Forest Survey of India. A 1½-day workshoporganized by the Asia-Pacific Forest GeneticResources Network (APFORGEN) on Saturdayand Sunday, 15-16 April, will offer an opportunityto discuss the status of forest genetic resourcesconservation and management in networkcountries, and work to develop an action plan forthe network.

On Sunday afternoon, 16 April, delegates andparticipants will have the opportunity to visit themuseums, laboratories and facilities of the world-renowned Dehradun-based forestry institutes,including the Forest Research Institute, ForestSurvey of India and the Wildlife Institute of India.Visitors will have the chance to discuss the workof the institutes with leading scientists and officialsduring informal “open house” sessions.

Dehradun offers a unique venue for the region’sforestry leaders to gather for this premier biennialforestry forum. The city is one of the oldest inIndia and is an important religious center for the

Sikh community. Many rich traditions of the pasthave been retained, and the local people pridethemselves on having a ready smile for all whovisit the enchanting city. Dehradun is situated 235kilometers north of New Delhi in the newly formedHimalayan state of Uttaranchal; the city lies justsouth of the majestic Himalayan Mountains, andwest of the sacred Ganges River.

Our Indian hosts are currently planning threeseparate field excursions to add spice to the APFCagenda. Excursion 1 will travel to the RajajiNational Park for morning viewing of wildlife. Thepark is situated along the hills of the Shiwalik rangein the Himalayan foothills and offers spectacularscenic views and the opportunity to observe theunique Shiwalik ecosystem. In the afternoon, thegroup will visit Rishikesh, a famous religious centerin India. Additional stops will be made to observevarious forestry practices and demonstrations,before returning to Dehradun in the evening.Excursion 2 will start in the morning with a trip tothe Rishikesh religious center, followed by a visitto the Rajaji National park in the afternoon. Thisgroup will be able to observe the wildlife in thepark in the evening, before returning to Dehradun.Excursion 3 will visit Tehri Dam and reachDhanaulti by the afternoon. This route offers ascenic and peaceful drive, with spectacular viewsof pine and deodar forests. The group will

Historic Forest Research Institute Campus, Dehradun, India

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continue on to the beautiful Mussoorie hill stationand return to Dehradun by evening.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests of theGovernment of India will be the official host of theAPFC session. Staff of the Ministry, and numerousindividuals in related forestry organizations andinstitutes, are poised to welcome APFC delegatesand participants to India and are eager to showcasethe significant achievements of forestry in thecountry. India’s forests are incredibly diverse andharbor spectacular wildlife and flora. At the sametime, however, the forests are under great pressureto supply the ever-increasing demands of the largehuman and domestic animal populations. The stepsthat India has taken to protect treasured forestresources, meet the needs of the citizenry andcontribute to national development are veryimpressive and offer many lessons for forestmanagers from throughout the region. India is

especially noted for its implementation ofcommunity-focused forest managementapproaches. In particular, the country is famousfor pioneering the concept of Joint ForestManagement, which is founded on the principlesof collaborative management of forests bygovernment and local people. There are currentlymore than 10 million hectares of forests underJoint Forest Management in India. APFCparticipants will have several opportunities toobserve these and other innovative managementapproaches in April.

For more information on the session, please seethe APFC website at www.apfcweb.org orcontact the APFC Secretary:Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry OfficerFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, ThailandE-mail: [email protected]

ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY COMMISSION Provisional Agenda for 21st Session, 17-21 April 2006

Opening ceremony (including keynote address) Adoption of the agenda Election of officers

*********************************************************************************** Special Session: Towards Sustainable Forest Management

Progress towards sustainable forest management (SFM) in the region § Results of Forest Resources Assessment 2005 § APFC and other FAO accomplishments in the region § Countries discussion of major developments in the region

Financing sustainable forest management In-session seminar: payment for environmental services From global to local: the role of regional mechanisms in sustainable forest management

*********************************************************************************** Codes of practice

§ Report on pre-session workshop on planted forests code § Forest harvesting: country reports on implementation § Wildland fires: information on voluntary guidelines § Do we need a broader code for sustain able forest management standards?

Report of the pre -session workshop on forests and poverty reduction

Information items

§ Forest law enforcement: report on FAO/ITTO guidelines § Asia -Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network § Asia -Pacific Forest Sector Outlook Study

Regional issues identified by the Commission for the attention of the Committee on Forestry (COFO)

Other business

§ Report of the second meeting of the APFC Executive Committee § Other items raised by members

Date and place of the next session Adoption of the report


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NEW FOREST ASSESSMENT INDICATES OVERALLEXPANSION OF ASIAN FORESTS BUT CONTINUED

DECLINE OF NATURAL FORESTS

FAO has been coordinating the Global ForestResources Assessment (FRA) since 1946. FRA2005 is the most comprehensive assessment todate, covering 229 countries and territories.Globally, forests covered just under 4 billionhectares in 2005, some 30 percent of the world’sland. Forests in the Asia-Pacific region constitute734 million hectares, or about 18.6 percent of theworld’s forests and 25.8 percent of total land areain the region. Four Asian countries continued tobe among the top 10 countries in terms of forestarea viz. China (197 million hectares), Australia(164 million hectares), Indonesia (88 millionhectares) and India (68 million hectares). From2000 to 2005, the overall trend worldwide was ofcontinuing deforestation mainly due to conversionof forests to agricultural land, but the rate of netloss has slowed in recent years because ofplantation establishment, forest restoration effortsand natural regeneration of some forests.

The Asia-Pacific region has reversed a net lossof forests of around 1.275 million hectares peryear in 1990-2000 into an annual net gain of633,000 hectares in the 2000-2005 period, largelydue to increased plantation activity in the region.

This positive trend in forest cover should betreated with caution, however, as the loss or modi-fication of ecologically valuable primary forestsis continuing at a rapid rate. In the FRA survey,forest is defined as an area larger than 0.5 hect-ares with trees taller than 5 meters and canopycover of 10 percent or more. Degradation insideforests as a consequence of selective logging andother human interventions is difficult to gauge withthe methods used in this assessment.

The pattern of forest use and area change is notconsistent across the region. Forests are expand-ing at an increasing rate in China due to large-scale afforestation, while Southeast Asia contin-ues to suffer an increasing rate of forest loss. Inthe Pacific, the rate of forest loss has slowedslightly over the last 15 years.

Total wood removal from forests in Asia has de-creased from 450 million cubic meters in 1990 to350 cubic meters in 2005.

The total area of plantations and the rate of an-nual increase in the region is the highest in theworld, accounting for 45.6 percent of total forestplantations worldwide. Forest plantations are ex-panding at an annual rate of 1.816 million hect-ares in Asia and 74,800 hectares in the Pacificregion. They cover 11 percent of the total forestarea in Asia and 2 percent in the Pacific.

Within the Asia-Pacific region, forests are man-aged more intensively in Asia than in the Pacific.Forty-seven percent of the forest area in Asia isused for production, while the corresponding fig-ure in the Pacific region is just 11 percent. Log-ging activities are declining in Asia, while theyare increasing in the Pacific. Woodfuel accountsfor 52 percent of all wood removed from forestsin Asia and 15 percent in the Pacific.

The FRA 2005 report indicates another positivetrend in the region. The area of protected forestswhere conservation is designated as the primaryfunction increased from under 60 million hectaresin 1990 to over 70 million hectares in 2005, high-lighting the wider recognition of the positive pro-tective functions of forests.

Key findings of the FRA 2005 report are avail-able on the website: http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/fra/en. For more information, please contact:M. Kashio, Forest Resources Officer, FAO/RAP;E-mail: [email protected].

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5


Ten countries with the largest forest area, 2005

(million ha)

Russian Federaton

Brazil

Canada

USA

China

Australia

Congo, Demo. Rep. of

Indonesia

Peru

India

Others

Trends of wood removal in Asia, 1990-2005 (million m3)

050

100

150200250300350400

450500

1990 2000 2005

Changes in plantation area in Asia, 1990-2005 (million ha)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1990 2000 2005

Forests designated for conservation in Asia, 1990-2005 (million ha)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1990 2000 2005


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INTERESTED IN MAKING FOREST MANAGEMENTWORK FOR THE POOR?

-- CONFERENCE ANNOUNCEMENT AND CALL FOR ABSTRACTS --

Can we discover creative solutions that can directlylink forests and forest management to povertyreduction? Can forest management and utilizationbe planned to maximize jobs and income for therural poor without sacrificing efficiency andprofits? Can capital-intensive operations makeroom – not necessarily everywhere – for small-scale and labor-intensive practices?

A consortium of partners including FAO, theNetherlands Development Organisation (SNV),the International Tropical Timber Organization(ITTO), the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission(APFC), the Tropical Forest Trust (TFT), theRegional Community Forestry Training Center(RECOFTC) and the Department of Forestry inViet Nam believe that this is possible, as well asnecessary, if we want forestry to play a role inpoverty reduction and in achieving the MillenniumDevelopment Goals in Asia and the Pacific. Themembers of the consortium are organizing an“International Conference on ManagingForests and Poverty Reduction: Capturingopportunities in forest harvesting and woodprocessing for the benefits of the poor,” to beheld 2-6 October 2006 in Ho Chi Minh City, VietNam.

The event will bring together diverse stakeholdersand international experts to share experiencesrelated to small-scale forest operations, labor-intensive forest management practices and woodprocessing. There will be opportunities to presentinnovative ideas and listen to case studies, to visitthe field, to actively participate in the discussionsand to contribute during working groups. If youare interested in helping to highlight realisticmanagement options for forests to benefit the poor,the conference will be your opportunity to have asay.

force that will develop strategies for promotingforest management for poverty reduction.

Expected outcomes include:§ a commitment by a broad group of

stakeholders to support the developmentand implementation of practical measuresfor the benefit of the poor and sustainableforest management in the form of adeclaration or resolution (consisting of aset of principles and recommendations);

§ a publication on the state-of-the-artknowledge and recent experiences ofsmall-scale forest operations, labor-intensive forest management practicesand wood processing, and pathways forintegrating forest management withpoverty reduction through national forestprogramme processes; and

§ a commitment to support the task forceestablished during the conference andterms of reference for the task force.

If you are interested in participating in theconference, please contact Patrick Durst([email protected]) or Arthur Ebregt([email protected]). One-page abstracts andproposals for presentations or posters are currentlywelcomed; deadline: 31 March 2006. The firstannouncement of the conference is also availableon the website of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission: http://www.apfcweb.org.

While the main objective is to review technical,economic, institutional and policy aspects of small-scale and labor-intensive forest managementpractices and wood processing with regard to theirimpacts on the poor and their potential for reducingpoverty, the partners also intend to establish a task

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AWARD-WINNING FORESTRY AT TONLE SAP --CAMBODIA’S “GREAT LAKE”

Covering a quarter of a million hectares, TonleSap Lake is usually only about one meter deepfor much of the year. But every June the slowflow of water out of the lake reverses, and itswaters begin to rise as snowmelt from themountains of Tibet and monsoon rains swell theMekong River system and push into the lake. TonleSap’s depth increases up to 9 meters and itssurface area expands by a factor of 5 to cover1.25 million hectares.

The months of flooding are a catalyst that sparksa huge rise in the number of fish and aquaticorganisms, making the Tonle Sap ecosystem oneof the most productive inland fisheries in the world.It provides Cambodia with 200,000 tons of fisheach year, which accounts for 60 percent of thecountry’s total fish catch. And when the floodwaters recede, the alluvial soil surrounding the lakeis perfect for growing rice.

Eight years ago, the rich resources of Tonle SapLake were being poorly managed. Fish, and timberfrom the surrounding forests, were harvestedunsustainably. A 100-year-old system ofcommercial fishing concessions was troubled byproblems of unfair access, corruption and,occasionally, violent disputes.

Overfishing and illegal fishing were also takingtheir toll on fish stocks and catch amounts, as wellas the size of the fish, were declining.

FAO project helps government

In light of these mounting problems, Cambodianauthorities teamed up with FAO to establish anatural resource management program in one ofthe lake’s poorest provinces – Siem Reap.

The project, entitled “Participatory naturalresource management in the Tonle Sap region,”began operations in early 1995 with financialsupport from the Government of Belgium.

Working closely with staff from Cambodia’sMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries(MAFF), FAO conducted studies on the flora andfauna of the Great Lake while reaching out tocommunities to identify problems and prioritizeneeds. The FAO/MAFF team also assessed theway that natural resources were used and beganto draw up plans for strengthening resourcemanagement capacity in the lake communities.

Communities take on a leading role

Beyond overfishing, another key issue was theexcessive clearing of the forested land thatsurrounds the lake. According to Patrick Evans,Team Leader for the field project, “That forest isessential to productive fisheries on the lake. Everyyear when the lake rises, hundreds of thousandsof hectares of forest are flooded, which providesnutrients, food and habitat for the fish...Deforestation was affecting the productivity ofthe lake’s fisheries.”

The primary cause of forest loss was land clearingfor agriculture, as the floodlands bordering the lakeare highly fertile. A secondary cause was the highdemand for fuelwood to support an expandingbrick-making industry.

In 1997, the project team began to help the villagersorganize themselves into local resourcemanagement organizations, and by 2000community-led planned management thatintegrated people’s livelihoods with forestry andfishery sustainability concerns was taking placeon around 10,000 hectares of land.

The improved management, combined with a 1997government ban on brick kilns in the region,stemmed excessive timber harvesting and todaymuch of the cleared flood forest is growing back,says Evans.


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A revolution in management

In 2000, with community-led sustainable resourcemanagement taking root in the province, came anadditional opportunity to change the way the lakewas being managed on an even wider scale, thanksto a reform initiative spearheaded by Cambodianauthorities.

During a visit by Prime Minister Hun Sen to SiemReap following a series of devastating floods, localofficials and fisherfolk involved in the FAO projectspoke of the growing intensity of conflicts betweenthe fishing communities and commercial fishers.The prime minister supported the creation of afact-finding commission, which concluded that thepeople wanted a complete makeover of the waythe lake’s fisheries were managed. In answer towidespread calls for reform, in 2001 thegovernment released 56 percent of the areapreviously controlled by commercial interests

The government has incorporated the concept ofcommunity-led development planning and resourcemanagement into its development planningprograms and national legislation.

Although the original Tonle Sap project supportedby FAO has come to an end, its work continuesunder MAFF’s leadership, thanks to a US$10million Asian Development Bank program insupport of sustainable development in the lakeregion.

FAO remains closely involved and is workingtogether with MAFF on one component of thatprogram, a US$3.8 million project aimed at buildingthe capacity of lake communities to sustainablymanage the natural resources on which theydepend. (Source: FAO Newsroom)

under the old colonial-era system for managingfisheries for public access.

PATRICK EVANS WINS FAO’S B.R. SEN AWARD FOR 2005

Patrick Evans, a US citizen, has been awarded the prestigious B.R. Sen Award by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The award is given each year to an FAO field officer who has made outstanding contributions to the advancement of the country to which he/she was assigned. Mr. Evans won the award for his work to promote community-based natural resources management in Cambodia. He served as Team Leader for the field project “Participatory natural resources management in the Tonle Sap Region” from 1985-2004. The project was funded by the government of Belgium and executed by FAO. Tonle Sap Great Lake is one of the world’s great ecological wonders. When Mr. Evans went to Cambodia in 1997, unsustainable forestry and fisheries practices in the Tonle Sap region were the norm, and the entire ecosystem was in danger of being irreversibly damaged. The project was successful in helping to mobilize over 100 villages to participate in sustainable management practices, as well as in obtaining support from the national government for new, more progressive resource management policies. Innovative environmental awareness and income generation activities were effectively implemented.

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JUMP-STARTING THE ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTINVASIVE SPECIES NETWORK

The Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network(APFISN) held a Task Force meeting on 23September 2005 in Beijing, with the objective ofaccelerating the work of the APFISN.

Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAORegional Office for Asia and the Pacific, presentedan overview of APFISN activities since the lastAPFC session in Fiji (April 2004). He highlightedactivities in the areas of awareness raising,capacity building, information exchange anddatabase development, and stock-taking of nationalactivities. Awareness raising activities includeddevelopment of a brochure and fact sheetdescribing the network, participation in regionalmeetings on invasive species, organization of aside meeting at the Committee on Forestry(COFO) session held in March 2005, anddevelopment of website pages. Two capacity-building workshops were organized in the past year:one on eucalyptus rust, and one on coconut-leafbeetles. Information was shared throughdissemination of the proceedings for the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Conference, (heldin Kunming, China, 17–23 August 2003),distribution of workshop reports, and emaildistribution of information. Development of thenetwork database and national stock-takingexercises continued during the period.

The Task Force generally agreed that the networkhad been sufficiently active and had madereasonable progress toward achieving itsestablished goals, but that more could be done toaccelerate network activities. The supportprovided by several network countries wasacknowledged, but it was felt that more effortswere needed to attract the involvement of othercountries in the region.

Providing greater direction for APFISN

Although national focal points have beennominated for 24 countries, it is difficult to bringall of them to meetings regularly for networkdecision making. The Task Force thereforerecommended the establishment of a 6-8 memberExecutive Committee that would meet at leastonce a year (or more frequently as required). TheExecutive Committee would provide guidance anddirection to the network and its activities.

The Task Force also recognized the need for morenetwork coordination support. In this respect, theTask Force appreciated the contributions of Chinaand FAO in coordinating network activities, buthoped a more consistent and experiencedapproach to network coordination could beestablished.

Invigorating the network

Enhancing the profile of APFISN. In terms ofenhancing the profile of the network, the followingoptions were discussed:§ publishing a fact sheet on the network

which could be distributed with other FAOand APFC promotional materials;

§ publishing of brochures (alreadycompleted, but a reprint with better qualityphotographs may be desirable);

§ enhancing the APFC website to featuremore information on APFISN activitiesand publications;

§ placing notices about the existence andactivities of APFISN in a wide range ofrelevant forestry journals, newsletters,and on related websites;

§ establishing links with related websites;§ publishing a network newsletter;


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§ publishing of information sheets onspecific species pests and threats; and

§ designing a network logo.

Capacity building. The Task Force recognizedthat the capacity building needs of the networkmembers were varied and substantial. It wasrecommended, however, that rather than embarkon a comprehensive needs assessment, some initialcapacity-building activities of a general natureshould be initiated as early as possible. It wasproposed that a workshop on early warning andresponse approaches in combating forest invasivespecies be convened.

Database and information sharing. The TaskForce acknowledged that there were a numberof different views on how the network shouldproceed with database development. It was

generally agreed that efforts should be madeto access and link existing databases wheneverpossible. At the same time, those countriesfinding it useful to develop their own databaseson forest invasive species should be guided toensure the “inter-operability” of such databases;this may require agreement on certain “metadata” fields to allow for efficient searchingamong databases.

Forthcoming meetings§ Early Warning Systems for Forest

Invasive Species (Kerala, India) (seeUp-coming Meetings on p.9)

§ A National Focal Points Meeting willbe convened during the upcoming 21st

Session of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission in Dehradun, India, in April2006.

THREE NEW WEBSITES PUT FAO INFORMATIONAT USER’S FINGERTIPS

A new web-based FAO information service waslaunched in November 2005. “Ask FAO,” letsusers pose questions directly to experts in theOrganization and also includes a searchable“knowledge base” of answers to frequently askedquestions covering issues as varied as how toaccess FAO technical assistance for controllingbird flu – to finding out national rates of defores-tation.

Similarly, FAO’s new “Best Practices” website,also launched in November 2005, serves as a one-

stop source of technical information on recom-mended practices and techniques in food pro-duction, rural development, natural resourcemanagement and other areas.

And last but not least, the website of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) has beencompletely revamped and is now online. Visitthe website for updates about the up-coming21st APFC session in Dehradun and other APFCactivities.

AskFAO: http://www.fao.org/askfaoFAO’s Best Practices site: http://www.fao.org/bestpracticesRevamped APFC website: http://www.apfcweb.org

Website addresses:

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UPCOMING RAP-SUPPORTED FORESTRY MEETINGS

EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS FORFOREST INVASIVE SPECIES21-24 February 2006, Kerala India

The Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network(APFISN) is organizing a workshop on earlywarning systems for invasive species, to helpcontrol the introduction and spread of potentiallyharmful species into/within the region. Theconcept of an early warning system is relativelynew in the region, as there are few countries withsuch a system in place. The main objectives ofthe workshop are to:§ familiarize participants with key early

warning strategies for forest invasivespecies;

§ identify key challenges to implementingearly warning systems for forest invasivespecies and possible solutions to addressthese challenges;

§ develop working relationships andcontacts with colleagues from othercountries on invasive species; and

§ develop an action plan to address earlywarning of invasive species on a regionalscale.

RE-INVENTING FORESTRY AGENCIESIN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC28 February-1 March 2006, Manila,Philippines

Forestry institutions in the Asia-Pacific region areconfronted with rapid change with respect toexpectations and demands placed on forests bysociety. Most forestry agencies in the region arestruggling to come to terms with new roles andresponsibilities, as well as new ways of conductingbusiness. In many instances, structures, capacitiesand capabilities are outmoded and ineffective forimplementing new responsibilities.

The Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC)has commissioned a number of national case

studies from countries that have made an attemptto “re-invent” their forestry sectors and toexamine the features and factors that contributedto success or failure. Comparative analysis ofthese case studies can be expected to unearthcommonalities and countries should be able tolearn from the experiences of others.

ESTABLISHING A FOREST POLICYNETWORK FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC2-3 March 2006, Manila, Philippines

A variety of approaches, tools and processes havebeen used to assist in the strengthening of forestpolicy development in the Asia-Pacific region. TheAsia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC), incollaboration with the FAO Regional Office forAsia and the Pacific, has developed a short seriesof targeted studies, addressing nationalexperiences in implementing specific policies (e.g.logging bans, plantation incentives, and re-inventingforestry agencies). These studies provideinformation covering theory and practice,successes, failures and pitfalls in developing andimplementing these policies. The success of thistype of collaborative approach to informing policymakers suggests potential for the concept of amore formalized Asia-Pacific forest policynetwork.

APFC will organize a two-day expert consultationto bring together policy experts, researchers andpractitioners from the region to consider the nature,role and structure of such a policy network.

For more details on these meetings, pleasecontact:Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAORegional Office for Asia and the Pacific,Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok10200, Thailand; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]


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The Finnish-funded FAO project “ForestryProgramme for Early Rehabilitation in AsianTsunami Affected Countries” has beenoperational since May 2005 in Sri Lanka,Indonesia and the Maldives to rehabilitate treesand forests in coastal areas following theDecember 2004 tsunami. Physical damage tocoastal forests, trees in home gardens, trees onfarms and mangrove forests was considerable inAceh, where around 75,000 hectares of forestwere lost. In Sri Lanka, physical damage wasless dramatic although trees and coastal vegetationalong hundreds of kilometers of coastline weredamaged as a result of soil salination. Similarly inthe Maldives, damage to trees resulted mainly fromsalination of soil following extensive flooding.

After the tsunami, many agencies involved inrehabilitation and reconstruction focussed effortson mangrove planting – both to provide coastalprotection and as a means of providingemployment for villagers whose livelihoods wereaffected negatively. Efforts of this nature prevailedduring the first year after the tsunami, but activitiesare now expanding as more knowledge is gainedand the complexity of issues is better understood.

As a direct result of initial efforts, considerableexperience was gained and valuable informationcollected on the nature of the forestry situationprior to and following the tsunami. As reportscame in, the message became clear that coastalforests and trees other than mangroves had alsobeen significantly affected and were of greatimportance – especially those providing directbenefits to local livelihoods.

Moreover, mangroves had already been removedin many areas prior to the tsunami and, on moreexposed coasts, had not originally been presentat all. Despite initial field reports, questions werealso raised over the effectiveness of mangroves

in protecting coastal areas from natural disastersand extreme weather events and the practicalityof tree planting to provide coastal buffer zones.Overall, the situation has proven far more complexthan first believed and the necessity for collectingand disseminating information, and implementingmore sophisticated approaches has becomeapparent.

Responding to the challenges, FAO has providedtechnical inputs in the areas of tree planting andmanagement, participatory approaches and coastalarea management to help improve theeffectiveness of forest-related rehabilitation. Inlight of the experience gained in tsunami-affectedareas and elsewhere, it is clear that such inputsare essential if forestry-related interventions areto be sustainable. For instance, if forests and treeswere not present before the tsunami, there mustbe changes in the framework conditions beforereplanting is undertaken. Similarly, forestryactivities must be integrated into the seasonalschedules and desired land-use patterns toenhance prospects for sustainability. The factorshighlight the need for participatory integratedapproaches, such as those advocated by FAO.

FAO is also steadily building capacity andstrengthening forestry-related institutions in theaffected countries. In Indonesia, FAO has beeninstrumental in facilitating meetings between themain government agencies with responsibility forforestry in the tsunami-affected areas, and hasalso played a major role in increasing theinvolvement of local government forestry agenciesthat were previously sidelined. In the Maldives,FAO has encouraged the government to begindeveloping an overall national strategy for forestry,which has previously played only a minor role inthe country. In Sri Lanka, the project is workingthrough participatory approaches with 14,000households in rehabilitating home gardens and

FAO ADVANCING FOREST REHABILITATIONEFFORTS IN TSUNAMI-AFFECTEDCOUNTRIES

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coastal forests and providing support to district,provincial and national forestry institutions.

FAO is also assisting reconstruction in Indonesiaby facilitating the sourcing of wood for rebuildinghouses, other infrastructure and fishing boats. Theproject has carried out assessments of wooddemand and supply for reconstruction andidentified various options for sourcing wood.Guidelines for timber procurement, technicaltimber usage and legality standards have beendeveloped, along with a list of wood suppliers.FAO is currently providing technical advice to theGovernment of Indonesia on related policy issuesand supporting development of a wood supplystrategy.

More broadly, the project is working to strengthencapacities and collaboration among all eight Asiantsunami-affected countries – Indonesia, Sri Lanka,Maldives, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmarand Thailand. Related to this, a regional technicalconference will be organised in mid-2006 on“Protective functions of mangroves and othercoastal forests.” The program will continue untilthe end of 2006. Further information can be foundon the FAO tsunami website (http://www.fao.org/forestry/tsunami).

For further information, please contact:Susan Braatz, Chief Technical Adviser, ForestryProgramme for Early Rehabilitation in AsianTsunami-Affected Countries; E-mail:[email protected]

ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CHIPS AND CLIPS

WILD TIGER SNARES PRIMEMINISTER

Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh haspromised to save the endangered Royal Bengaltiger after sighting one in the wild for the first timein his life. Prime Minister Singh spotted a tigressnamed by locals “Lady of the Lake” during a tripto Ranthambore game park, where poachers arebelieved to have killed more than half the park’s35 tigers, since 2001. “We have a problem athand and if we do not tackle it, we would be doingan irretrievable damage to ourselves”, said Dr.Singh.– Source: China Daily –

TREE PLANTING HITS ROCKBOTTOM

Planted forest establishment in New Zealand, along-cited plantation leader, has dwindled tonegligible levels in recent years and the trendappears likely to continue in 2006. A spokesmanfor the Kyoto Forestry Association (KFA), a local

forest owners’ group, says that most forest treenurseries are growing very small quantities ofseedlings in anticipation of almost zero demandfor establishing new forest areas. The KFAblames poor government policy for the declinein planting and the loss of associated jobs inplanting and silviculture. In the period 1992 to1998, new planting rates in New Zealand werehigh, averaging 69,000 hectares per year. Since1998, the rate of new planting has declined andis now well below the average afforestation rateof the last 30 years.– Source: Kyoto Forestry Association –

PNG PUSHES CARBON ALLOWANCEIDEA FOR RAINFOREST COUNTRIES

A Papua New Guinean proposal to combatclimate change by paying rainforest countriesto stop chopping down jungles is gaininginternational momentum. PNG’s Prime MinisterMichael Somare has been championing the ideawhich has been debated at the UN climateconference underway in Montreal. The


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TWENTY PERCENT OF WORLD’SMANGROVE AREAS LOST OVER THELAST 25 YEARS

According to new FRA 2005 data recentlyreleased by FAO, around 20 percent of theworld’s mangrove forests have disappeared inthe last 25 years due to land use conversion andunsustainable exploitation. Mangrove areascover around 15 million hectares today. The rateof mangrove deforestation dropped from 185,000hectares per year in the 1980s to 105,000hectares during the 2000-2005 period as morecountries are recognizing the value of mangrovesand are making efforts to conserve and bettermanage them. Still, the importance of mangrovesis underestimated and their rate of loss issignificantly higher than for other forest types.Mangroves are found in more than 120 countries,but five countries (Indonesia, Australia, Brazil,Nigeria and Mexico) account for nearly half ofthe world’s total mangrove area.– FAO –

proposal to allocate carbon allowances todeveloping countries which combat deforestationwas welcomed at the conference by Canada andBritain, along with Brazil, where forest loss is ahuge problem.Somare has been working to puttogether a “Coalition of Rainforest Nations” toadvance the proposal for payment of carboncredits for preserving rainforests.– Source: AAP Newsfeed –

CHINA’S BAMBOO AREA INCREASES

According the statistics of the sixth National ForestSurvey, the area of bamboo forests in Chinaexpanded at an annual rate of 120,000 hectaresover the last 5 years. Bamboo areas currently total4.84 million hectares. With this increase, theproduction value of China’s bamboo sector grewto 5.5 billion yuan, making it one of the four biggestforest industries in China. Bamboo exportsamounted to US$600 million in 2004, with growthof more than 120% over that of 2000.– People’s Daily –

MALAYSIA TO PUT ASIDE 350,000HECTARES FOR FORESTPLANTATION DEVELOPMENT

Strong export demand for logs in Malaysia hasprompted the forestry department to commit tothe establishment of 350,000 hectares of forestplantations over the next 15 years in an effort tosustain timber production into the future. Exportsof timber products contributed RM 19.7 billion(US$5.2 billion) to Malaysia’s economy in 2004.The Malaysian government is also encouragingprivate sector investment in forest plantationprojects with the formulation of a National ForestPlantations Development Policy.– ITTO Tropical Timber Market Report 10/18 –

GERMANY TO PROVIDE 4.5 MILLIONEUROS FOR VIETNAM’S FORESTDEVELOPMENT

Under an agreement signed by the GermanAgency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and theVietnamese government, GTZ committed 4.5million Euros to a project on forest managementand marketing of forestry products in Vietnam.During the initial phase, the project will assist

farmers to apply new forest management methodsand to improved production and marketing of forestproducts. The project is scheduled to be carriedout on a trial basis at three farms and two forestrycompanies, and its activities will be reviewed everysix months by GTZ and relevant agencies.– Vietnam News Agency –

INDONESIA SEEKSTO REVIVE PAPERINDUSTRY AMID PROTEST

Indonesian government is trying to lure investorsto build three paper mills on the island of Borneoat a cost of $3 billion in order to revive its paperand pulp industry. The plan, however, faces stiffopposition from environmental groups and forestresearchers concerned about the industries failureto invest in plantation development and its relianceon natural forests for as much as three-quartersof its feedstock.– New York Times –

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NEW RAP FORESTRY

PUBLICATIONS

FORESTS FOR POVERTY REDUCTION:CHANGING ROLE FOR RESEARCH,DEVELOPMENT AND TRAININGINSTITUTIONSRAP Publication 2005/19

The Asia-Pacific regionhas seen a dramaticeconomic transformationin the last 30 years.However, significantportions of thepopulation still live in

extreme poverty. Many of thepoor are forest

dwellers or fromcommunities livingclose by. Theseforests can be asolution to theirindigent condition.

In order to readjust thefocus back to thesocio-economic roleof forests, forestryinstitutions have apivotal role to play:from formulating appropriate policies to developingmanagement systems that address the rapidlychanging demands.

Likewise, research institutes have to drasticallyrevise their work programmes to incorporate thesenew challenges. A number of participatoryresearch methodologies have emerged recently.Innovative approaches for development anddiffusion of poverty alleviation technologies arebeing pioneered in many parts of the developingworld.

In 2003, a series of workshops were organizedaround the theme of Forests for PovertyReduction – Exploring the Potential. The objectivewas to share the experiences hitherto gained frompoverty alleviation initiatives by forestry researchand development agencies in the Asia-Pacificregion. These proceedings, a collection of paperspresented during the workshop, could serve toincrease the recognition of the role of forestry inpoverty reduction.

ELEPHANT CARE MANUAL FOR MA-HOUTS AND CAMP MANAGERSRAP Publication 2005/10

The number of wild elephants in Thailand hasdeclined steadily over the last three decades,mostly because of relentless habitat destruction,and experts estimate that at present onlyabout 1,500 wild elephantsremain. Today, bettermanagement by stateagencies and increasedpublic awareness arehelping the wild elephantpopulation to stabilize.

Over the past ten years veterinary carefor elephants in Thailand has improvedastronomically and is now excellent both in qualityand availability. The original idea for an elephant

care manual wasone of therecommendationsmade by RichardLair in his bookGone astray: Thecare andmanagement of theAsian elephant indomesticity, whichwas published in1997.

The aim of thismanual is to enable mahouts to better support thework of veterinarians, not to do the veterinariansjob. The three primary goals are to help mahoutsmake quicker diagnoses, to better communicatesymptoms to veterinarians over the phone, and toimprove follow-up care. An underlying goal hasbeen to encourage the prevention of diseases andother ailments from occurring by paying moreattention to food, appropriate work conditions andadequate hygiene.

It is hoped that this publication will be a useful toolto improve the care and welfare of the Asianelephant, not only in Thailand, but also in otherAsian countries.


1616


FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR

FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as part of TIGERPAPER. Thisissue of FOREST NEWS was compiled by Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP.

16-20 January 2006. Ha Noi, Viet Nam. Second Regional Project Advisory Committee Meeting and Tri-PartiteReview Meeting for the Enhancing Sustainable Forest Harvesting in Asia Project (GCP/RAS/192/JPN). Con-tact: P. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra AtitRoad, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

17-18 January 2006. Bangkok, Thailand. National Workshop on the Elephant Care Manual.Contact: M. Kashio, Regional Forest Resources Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, MaliwanMansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4141; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail:[email protected]

21-24 February 2006. Kerala, India. Early Warning Systems for Forest Invasive Species. Organized in collaborationwith the USDA Forest Service, the Asia Pacific Association of Forestry Research Institutes (APAFRI) and KeralaForest Research Institute. Contact: P. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific,Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail:[email protected]

28 February - 1 March 2006. Manila, Philippines. “Re-inventing” Forestry Agencies in Asia and the Pacific.Contact: P. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra AtitRoad, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

2-3 March 2006. Manila, Philippines. Establishing a Forest Policy Network for Asia and the Pacific.Contact: P. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra AtitRoad, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

17-21 April 2006. Dehradun, India, 21st Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission. Contact: P. Durst, SeniorForestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200,Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

29 May-10 June 2006. Bangkok, Thailand. Forest Policy Short Course. Contact: T. Enters, NFP Facilitator, FAORegional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4328; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

5-8 September 2006. Jakarta, Indonesia. Regional Conference on Forest Governance and Decentralization inAsia. Organized in collaboration with the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), the Regional Commu-nity Forestry Training Center (RECOFTC), Swiss Intercooperation and the Governments of Indonesia and thePhilippines. Contact: T. Enters, NFP Facilitator, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion,Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4328; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

2-6 October 2006. Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam. International Conference on Managing Forests for PovertyReduction: Capturing Opportunities in Forest Harvesting and Wood Processing for the Benefit of the Poor.Organized in collaboration with the Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV), the International Tropical Tim-ber Organization (ITTO), the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC), the Tropical Forest Trust (TTT), the Re-gional Community Forestry Training Center (RECOFTC) and the Department of Forestry in Viet Nam. Contact: P.Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONALOFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

For copies please write to: Senior Forestry Officer for Asia and the Pacific,FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

Or visit the FAO website for an electronic version: http://www.fao.or.th/publications/publications.htm

§ APFC - The unwelcome guests: Proceedings ofthe Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive SpeciesConference (RAP Publication 2005/18)

§ Helping forests take cover (RAP Publication2005/13)

§ Waves of hope – report of the regionalcoordination workshop on rehabilitation oftsunami-affected forest ecosystems: strategiesand new directions (RAP Publication 2005/07)

§ Forest certification in China: latest developmentsand future strategies (RAP Publication 2005/08)

§ Forests and floods – drowning in fiction orthriving on facts? (RAP Publication 2005/03)

§ In search of excellence: exemplary forestmanagement in Asia and the Pacific (RAPPublication 2005/02)

§ What does it take? The role of incentives inforest plantation development in Asia and thePacific. Executive summary (RAP Publication2004/28)

§ What does it take? The role of incentives inforest plantation development in Asia and thePacific (RAP Publication 2004/27)

§ Forests for poverty reduction: opportunities forClean Development Mechanism, environmentalservices and biodiversity (RAP Publication 2004/22)

§ Report of the 20th Session of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission (APFC), 2004 (RAP Publication: 2004/09)

§ Forests for poverty reduction: can communityforestry make money? (RAP Publication: 2004/04)

§ State of Forestry in Asia and the Pacific – 2003:status, changes and trends (RAP Publication2003/22)

§ Advancing assisted natural regeneration (ANR)in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2003/19)- 2nd edition

§ Bringing back the forests: policies and practicesfor degraded lands and forests (RAP Publication2003/14) out of print

§ Community forestry – current innovations andexperiences (CD-ROM included)

§ Community-based fire management: case studiesfrom China, The Gambia, Honduras, India, the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic and Turkey (RAPPublication: 2003/08)

§ Practical guidelines for the assessment, monitoringand reporting on national level criteria and

§ Giants on our hands: proceedings of theinternational workshop on the domesticated Asianelephant (RAP Publication: 2002/30)

§ Communities in flames: proceedings of aninternational conference on community involvementin fire management (RAP Publication: 2002/25)

§ Applying reduced impact logging to advancesustainable forest management (RAP Publication:2002/14)

§ Monograph on benzoin (Balsamic resin from Styraxspecies) (RAP Publication: 2001/21)

§ Proceedings of the International Conference onTimber Plantation Development, 7-9 November 2000,Manila, Philippines

§ Trash or treasure? Logging and mill residues in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/16)

§ Regional training strategy: supporting theimplementation of the Code of Practice for forestharvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/15)

§ Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectiveness oflogging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific:executive summary (RAP Publication: 2001/10)

§ Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectiveness oflogging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific (RAPPublication: 2001/08)

§ Asia and the Pacific National Forest ProgrammesUpdate 34 (RAP Publication: 2000/22)

§ Regional strategy for implementing the Code ofPractice for forest harvesting in Asia-Pacific (July 2000)

§ Development of national-level criteria and indicatorsfor the sustainable management of dry forests of Asia:background papers (RAP Publication: 2000/08)

§ Development of national-level criteria and indicatorsfor the sustainable management of dry forests of Asia:workshop report (RAP Publication: 2000/07)

§ Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission: the first fifty years(RAP Publication: 2000/02)

§ Decentralization and devolution of forest managementin Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication: 2000/01)

§ Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - report of theAsia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study

§ Trees commonly cultivated in Southeast Asia: anillustrated field guide - 2nd edition (RAP Publication:1999/13)

§ Code of Practice for forest harvesting in Asia-Pacific(RAP Publication: 1999/12)

indicators for sustainable forest management in dryforests in Asia (RAP Publication: 2003/05)

regional quarterly bulletin on wildlife and national parks

Documents