reform 2012
TRANSCRIPT
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Early Reform
The Nineteenth Century
Harvie, C. Ch. 8. Revolution and the Rule of
Law, in Morgan.
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Reform & Religion (Harvie in
Morgan, p. 481)
The British government did not play apositive (definite/leading to practical
action/constructive) role inindustrialization; as the Corn Laws of 1815
were to show, neither did itabstain
(refrain/hold back) in the interests of
laissez-faire (freedom from political and
economic constraints).
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Corn Laws (1815-46)
Corn=BrE grain plants: e.g. barley, oats,
esp. wheat (staple diet of working class)
1804: 1st
Corn Law 1815: Depression. Abolition of income tax,
indirect taxes levied, e.g. New Corn Law.
= Foreign corn imported free of duty if priceof bread=80 s ; 1 shilling= 1/20 1
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Thomas Robert Malthus (1776-1834)
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An Essay on the Principle of Population
Malthus, T. R. (1798) An Essay on the Principle
of Population, as It Affects the Future
Improvement of Society with Remarks on the
Speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, andOther Writers.
I said that population, when unchecked,
increased in a geometrical ratio, and subsistencefor man in an arithmetical ratio
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Malthus, T. R. (1814)
Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws
Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws, and of a Rise or Fall in the
Price of Corn on the Agriculture and General Wealth of the Country
if we inquire into the expenditure of the labouringclasses it by no means consists wholly in food, and still
less in mere bread or grain {I}n a labourer's
family house rent, fuel, soap, candles, tea, sugar, and
clothing, are generally equal to the articles of bread or
meal {T}herefore that the whole of the wages of labour
can never rise and fall in proportion to the variations in
the price of grain
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Malthus, T. R. (1814)
Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws
an argument in favour of the corn laws {is} that thegreat sums which the country has had to pay for foreigncorn during the last twenty years must have beeninjurious to her resources, and might have been saved by
the improvement of our agriculture No purchase is evermade, either at home or abroad, unless that which isreceived is of more value than that which is given;we shall never buy corn or any other commodities abroad,if we cannot by so doing supply our wants in a moreadvantageous manner, and by a smaller quantity ofcapital, than if we had attempted to raise thesecommodities at home
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Malthus, T. R. (1814)
Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws
As one of the evils therefore attending the throwing open our portsif the stimulus to population, from the cheapness of grain, should inthe course of twenty or twenty five years reduce the earnings of thelabourer the condition of the lower classes of people in this countrywould be deteriorated. And if they should not be so reduced, it isquite clear that the encouragement to the growth of corn will not be
fully restored Those who contend for the unrestrained admission of foreign corn,
must not imagine that the cheapness it will occasion will be good;and that it will give an additional stimulus to the commerce andpopulation, while it leaves the present state of agriculture and itsfuture increase undisturbed. They must be prepared to see a sudden
stop put to the progress of our cultivation, and even some diminutionof its actual state; and they must be ready to encounter the risk, ofmaking a considerable proportion of our population dependent uponforeign supplies of grain, and of exposing them to those vicissitudesand changes in the channels of commerce to which manufacturingstates are of necessity subject
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David Ricardo (1772-1823)
The Principles of Political Economy (1817)
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Ricardo, David.An Essay on Profits
(1815)
The exchangeable value of all commodities, rises as thedifficulties of their production increase. If then newdifficulties occur in the production of corn, from morelabour being necessary the exchangeable value of corn
will necessarily rise, as compared with those things. Onthe contrary, facilities in the production of corn whichshall afford the same produce with less labour, will lowerits exchangeable value Thus we see that improvements inagriculture, or in the implements of husbandry, lower theexchangeable value of corn Wherever competition can
have its full effect, and the production of the commoditybe not limited by nature the difficulty or facility oftheir production will ultimately regulate theirexchangeable value
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Ricardo, David.An Essay on Profits
(1815) As the revenue of the farmer is realized in raw produce, or in the value of
raw produce, he is interested, as well as the landlord, in its highexchangeable value, but a low price of produce may be compensated to himby a great additional quantity. It follows then, that the interest of the landlordis always opposed to the interest of every other class in the community. Hissituation is never so prosperous, as when food is scarce and dear: whereas,
all other persons are greatly benefited by procuring food cheap. High rentand low profits, for they invariably accompany each other, ought never to bethe subject of complaint, if they are the effect of the natural course ofthings
If then, the principles here stated as governing rent and profit be correct,general profits on capital, can only be raised by a fall in the exchangeablevalue of food, and which fall can only arise from three causes:
1st The fall of the real wages of labour, which shall enable the farmer tobring a greater excess of produce to market.
2nd Improvements in agriculture, or in the implements of husbandry, whichshall also increase the excess of produce.
3rd The discovery of new markets, from whence corn may be imported at acheaper price than It can be grown for at home.
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Ricardo, David.An Essay on Profits
(1815) There are two ways in which a country may be benefited by trade
one by the increase of the general rate of profits, whichcan nevertake place but in consequence of cheap food, which is beneficial onlyto those who derive a revenue from the employment of their capital,either as farmers, manufacturers, merchants, or capitalists, lending
their money at interestthe other by the abundance of commodities,and by a fall in their exchangeable value, in which the wholecommunity participate. In the first case, the revenue of the country isaugmentedin the second the same revenue becomes efficient inprocuring a greater amount of the necessaries and luxuries of life.
It is in this latter mode only that nations are benefited by theextension of commerce, by the division of labour in manufactures,and by the discovery of machinery,they all augment the amount ofcommodities but, they have no effect on the rate of profits, becausethey do not augment the and it is impossible that all other profitsshould rise whilst the profits on land are either stationary, orretrograde.
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Ricardo, David.An Essay on Profits
(1815) If we became a regularly importing country, and
foreigners could confidently rely on the demand of ourmarket, much more land would be cultivated in the corncounties with a view to exportation. When we considerthe value of even a few weeks consumption of corn in
England, no interruption could be given to the exporttrade, if the continent supplied us with any considerablequantity of corn, without the most extensively ruinouscommercial distressdistress which no sovereign, orcombination of sovereigns, would be willing to inflict ontheir people; and, if willing, it would be a measure towhich probably no people would submit. It was theendeavour of Buonaparte to prevent the exportation of theraw produce of Russia, more than [any] other causewhich produced the astonishing efforts of the people ofthat county against the most powerful force perhaps ever
assembled to subjugate a nation
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Corn Laws (1815-46)
1839: trade depression, Anti-Corn Law Leaguefounded
1845-50: Irish Famine
1846:Repeal of Corn Laws
PM: PeelTory (1834-35; 1841-46), despiteopposition by protectionists (DisraeliPM 1868;1874-80)
Peelites broke away from Tories to form LiberalParty, ruled 1846-74
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Sir Robert Peel (PM 1834-35; 1841-46)
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Benjamin Disraeli Disraeli (PM 1868; 1874-
80)
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Petition to Parliament (1841)
The humble Petition of the undersigned Members and Friends of the Congregation of ProtestantDissenters, assembling for divine worship Hackney
That your Petitioners contemplate with pain and distressing apprehension the continuanceof certain Laws of Her Majesty's realm, the design and effect of which are to restrictthe supply of the necessaries of human life, and greatly to increase their cost.
That the results of those unhappy Laws are now made manifest in the extreme sufferingsof those classes of our fellow subjects which constitute the basis of our national
strength, in the depression of manufactures, and their exportation to rival countries, inthe miserabel [sic] inadequate wages of both agricultural and manufacturing industry,in the entire want of work to an alarming extent, in the hazardous and perniciousdirection given to mercantile pursuits, and in a fearful tendency to the impoverishingand ruin of the nation.
That your Petitioners arc especially affected by a rational and Christian conviction of theimpiety involved in those Laws, as being in their nature a crime against God, and as intheir practical operation productive of discontent, disloyalty, infidelity, profligacy of
conduct, a rejection of the authority of religion, and by necessary consequence themost appalling dangers to the peace and security of all classes as to both property andperson.That therefore your Petitioners humbly and earnestly implore your honourableHouse to take these awful facts into your consideration, and to adopt prompt andeffectual measures to stop the progress of national misery, and to prevent our commonand irreparable ruin.
And your Petitioners shall ever pray {names}.
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Western, Baron Charles Callis (1839) The
maintenance of the Corn Laws Essential to the
General Prosperity of the Empire.
I distinctly affirm that my object is PLENTY to secure to the people of thiscountry the most abundant and regular supply of corn possible: maintain thatsuch has ever been and now is the object of our Corn Laws, and that theyhave produced that effect; that the existing law has worked admirably; thatthe price has been as moderate and steady for the last eight or ten years, lessfluctuating than in any other country in Europe...
The establishment of the system was completed in the reign of Charles theSecond {In 1670 an Act was passed extending the exportation price that is tosay, the permission unlimited to export till the price reached to 53s. 4d. aquarter for Wheat and imposing at the same time prohibitory duties on theimportation of Wheat, till the price rose to 53s.4d. and a duty of 8s. betweenthat and 80s. when it was free}
The moment this country took a spring in all its branches of industry, its
commerce, and its manufactures, which period I may perhaps date about theyear 1765, the price of Corn rose; and with our increasing prosperityThiswas certainly the effect produced by our commercial and manufacturingindustry upon the agriculture of the country; but it does in no measure decidethe question of the Corn Laws namely, whether the encouragement ofBritish agriculture by restrictive regulations on foreign growth, or the freeadmission of the same, affords the best prospect of plenty...
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Western, Baron Charles Callis (1839) The
maintenance of the Corn Laws
{The Corn Laws are based upon} the principle of self-preservationand national independence, in the supply of Corn, the chief food ofour people ; thus, by teaching the country to rely upon its ownresources, by encouraging and almost forcing our own Agriculture,they, in fact, did produce independence
What is it then that makes our price so much higher than theContinental price? It is our superior wealth, and our higher Revenueand burdens necessary to be borne to support that Revenue; it is notthat these burdens make the price of Corn it is our wealth thatmakes a higher price in England, not only for Corn, but for everything else, and which enables us to bear those heavier burdens andmaintain our superior revenue with comparative facility; and that
superior wealth is mainly owing to our commercial andmanufacturing pre-eminence. It is, I repeat, to the vast achievementsof our merchants and manufactures, the wealth acquired by theirsuccess, that the price of corn has reached and maintained its superiorheight over that of other countries.
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Western, Baron Charles Callis (1839) The
maintenance of the Corn Laws {If the price of Corn is brought down, this would result falling corn prices, wages,
revenue and in general in the falling to pieces of everything else. Low agriculturalprices would lead to unemployment which is}infinitely worse than the difficultiesattendant upon a defective harvest, and has always more irritated and oftener driven toacts of violence the hard- working classes of the community than any other cause
I am thoroughly convinced that Corn is grown cheaper in this country than anycountry in Europe, that is to say, when the cost price is measured by the quantity oflabour and seed bestowed upon its production : that our skill science, and capital,enable us to effect this result
{U}ninterupted Foreign supply {of Corn is} very problematical indeed I think itmadness to rely upon it But it will be so evidently and so much for their interest tobring their corn to our market, and to extend their growth largely for our supply; if itshould be so our price must remain high and our growth continue to decrease as theirscontinues to advance We are at their mercy
Our markets must be for ever in a most feverish state, and such a state must be
allowed to be highly injurious As to steadiness of price so desirable, I contend thatso far from ensuring it we must bid adieu to that degree of it we have hitherto enjoyed,and it is distinctly provable that our fluctuation in price has been less in England thanboth in the Corn-growing and importing countries
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Reform & Religion (Harvie in
Morgan, p. 481)
But increasingly it [the Br. gvmt] observedprinciples which were more or lesssystematic(careful, thorough, methodical, rigorous), andless unfavourable to industrial capitalists
(owners of means of production & employers ofwage labour = industrial millionaires, theleaders of industrial armies) than they were toany other classexcept, of course, landowners
(MPs) , who were often capitalists themselves inmining (coal, iron), transport (railways,steamboats, canals, turnpike trusts) andproperty
development(building)
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Reform & Religion (Harvie in
Morgan, pp. 481-82)
The axioms (principle accepted as truth) ofBlackstone and Burke: of(1) continuity, (2) thedivision of powers, (3) the interpenetration
(mutual influence) of gvmt, economy, andsocietyand above all (4) the notion of gvmt asa self-regulating mechanismcomplemented (a)the mechanics of classical economics, (b) the
discoveries of science, and even (c) the cultivateddeism ( theism) of the upper classes(aristocracy & gentry).
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Sir William Blackstone (1723-80)
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The axioms ofBlackstone
Sir William Blackstone (1723-80) Commentaries on the Laws
of England(1765-1769)
Unwritten law= common law =general customs,
judgesare its depositories
Universal public relation: governors & governed
Division of powers (balance, mutual checks):
legislative& executive:
In the legislature the people are a check upon the nobility and thenobility a check upon the people; by the mutial privilege of rejecting
what the other has resolved: while the king is a check upon both
And this very executive power is again checked and kept within
bounds by the two houses
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The axioms ofBurke
Edmund Burke (1729-1797).Reflections on the
Revolution in France (1790)
Cf. Glorious Revolution & French Revolution
1688: Two principles:
1. Conservation (ancient form of gvmt: monarchy,
hereditary descent)
2. Correction (statute law, new line of descent,Protestantism as qualification)
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Edmund Burke (1729-1797).
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The axioms ofBlackstone and
Burke
(1)continuity=uninterrupted connection beneaththe surface turbulence of politics (Morgan:ix), slow development, evolution
(2)division/separation of powers= persons,functions, mutual checks & balances
(3)interpenetration of gvmt, economy, &society= small, closely-knit interdependentisland, common interests
(4)gvmt: self-regulating mechanism (sets its ownlimits=rule of law)
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The axioms ofBlackstone and Burke
complemented (blended in, matched, suited):
(a) the mechanics (ways) ofclassicaleconomics=laissez-faire=economic liberalism
(b) the discoveries of science: e.g.
1790: Lavoisier: Table of 31 Chemical Elements1796: Jenner vaccination against smallpox
1816: Lannec invents stethoscope
1827: Niepce: photographs on metal plate
1831: Guthrie & Liebig invent chloroform1859: Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species by Natural
Selection.
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1790: Lavoisier: Table of 31 Chemical Elements
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1796: Edward Jenner innoculates a
boy
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Early Lannec stethoscope
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Niepces first photograph
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Joseph T. Clover administering chloroform.
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Charles Darwin (1809-82)
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Origin of Species (Ch 4)
It may be said that natural selection is daily and hourlyscrutinising, throughout the world, every variation, eventhe slightest; rejecting that which is bad, preserving andadding up all that is good; silently and insensibly
working, whenever and wherever opportunity offers, atthe improvement of each organic being in relation to itsorganic and inorganic conditions of life. We see nothingof these slow changes in progress, until the hand of timehas marked the long lapses of ages, and then so imperfect
is our view into long past geological ages, that we onlysee that the forms of life are now different from what theyformerly were.
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Reform & Religion (Harvie: 482)
But the ideal(axioms) required renovation.Corruption and inefficiency had taken theirtoll (done harm) at the time of the American
War, and although the spectacle of mob(large violent crowd) violenceparticularlyin the Gordon Riots of 1780maderespectable (decent) reformers more
circumspect (cautious),reform(reorganization, restructuring) was an admittednecessity
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Gordon Riots6 days June 1780
1558-1700: Penal Laws: enactments against
Catholics religious, civic, labour freedom
1778: Catholic Relief Act: Catholic worship
1778: Protestant Association founded,
President: Lord George Gordon
1780:Gordon Riots in London, suppressed with
troops
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Lord George Gordon
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Catholic Emancipation, 1829
1828: Repeal of Test & Corporation Acts
Corporation Act (1661): holders of municipaloffice to take CofE communionTest Act (1673): excluded non-members ofCofE from public office 1829: Catholic Emancipation passed:
Catholics permitted to sit in Parliament,participate fully in public life
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Reform & Religion (Harvie: 482)
The messages ofAdam Smith and JohnWesley had seen to that (reform was anadmitted necessity).
Smith (1723-90):An Inquiry into theNature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations 1776=free trade, restrictions are
harmful Wesley (1703-91): Methodism
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Adam Smith (1723-90)
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John Wesley (1703-91)
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Social Unrest
Peacetime economy: depression, unemployment,crop failures=economic hardshiprioting +repression
1811-16: Luddite riots , machine-breakers.Mythical leader, general Ludd. East midlands,South Lancashire, West Yorkshire.Transportation/execution.
1819: Peterloo, repressed by Hussars reserve(yeomanry)
1830: Captain Swing Riots: Kent, againstagricultural machinery: Seed drill; Horse-drawn hoe.
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Luddites smashing looms in a
factory 1811-16
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Captain Ludd 1812
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Peterloo Massacre
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Peterloo
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Peterloo The Manchester Guardian
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Swing Riots (rioters settting fire to alandlords hayrick)
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Swing Riots
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Repression
1799-80: Combination Acts: against unions;repealed 1824-25
1817: suspension ofHabeas Corpus Act (1679)
1819: Six Acts: (1) Meetings over 50 peopleprohibitedin force 5yrs; (2) Magistratesempowered to search private houses2yrs; (3)Military training by civilians prohibitedtoday;(4) Libel laws strengthenedtoday; (5) Right to
adjournment of trial limited; (6) Stamp duties onprinted matter increasedreduced & abolished
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Reform (Harvie:495) Representation in
Parliament
Franchise (right to vote) House ofLords
(hereditary to 1999)
House ofCommons
(rotten boroughs,pocket
boroughs + property
qualifications)
Reform of Parliament:Whigs & Radicals
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Reform (M-W)
Represent/ation: to serve in a legislative
body by delegated authority resulting from
election.
Vote: a usu. formal expression of opinion
or will = Ballot ( + secret voting).
Franchise:right to vote.
Suffrage = franchise + the exercise of
such right
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England & Wales
before 1832
Counties returning 1member ea
Counties returning 2members ea
County of Yorkshirereturning 4 members ofwhom 2 were returnedby the West Riding
City of London
returned 4 members &the U of Oxford &Cambridge 2 membersea.
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Reform Act 1832
1st Reform Bill 1831
Reform Act 1832
1. Rotten boroughs abolished; small villagesnot represented; new towns represented
2. Franchise: 10 yr in rent = merchants,
businessmen, doctors, lawyers,shopkeepers 200thou.men enfranchised
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England & Wales after 1832Counties returning 1 mmbr ea
Counties returning 2 mmbrs e
Counties returning 3 mmbrs eaCounties subdivided into 2
constituencies and returning 4members ea
County of Yorkshire subdivided into3 constituencies returning 6mmbrs
Boroughs returning1 memberea
Boroughs returning 2 membersea
City of London returned 4 mmbrs & U.of Oxford & Cambridge 2 mmbrs
eaBoroughs of New Shoreham, East
Retford, Cricklade, & Aylesburyincluded surrounding
districts.
S t f t ti H f C b f & ft
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System of representation House of Commons before & after
1832Borough returning two members before
1832, disfranchised 1832
Borough returning one member before1832, disfranchised 1832Borough that had representation
reduced 1832
Borough enfranchised 1832, returningtwo members
Borough enfranchised 1832, returningone member
Borough returning two members before& after 1832
Borough returning one member before& after 1832
County returning three members after1832
County returning two members after
1832Division of county returning two
members after 1832
Before 1832 ea. county in Englandreturned 2 members, & ea. county inWales one member;
After 1832 ,9 counties in Wales, only,
returned one member.
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Chartism 1838-48
The Peoples Charter: 1. Universal
manhood suffrage; 2. Secret Ballot; 3.
Abolition of property qualification for
MPs; 4. Payment of MPs; 5. Annual
Parliaments.
Movement disappeared by 1848 (end of age
of revolution abroad) but not aims.
h l h
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The Peoples Charter
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Chartist Riots
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Evolution of Franchise
1832 First Reform Act: upper (middle)
classes
1867 Second Reform Act: townhouseholders paying rents & one-year
residence lodgers ( 10)
Reform and Redistribution Acts 1884-
85: agricultural workers & tenants.
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Evolution of Franchise
1872 Ballot Act: secret ballot
1918 Representation of the People Act: all men
over 21; women over 30 (ratepayers or wives of)
1928 Representation of the People (Equal
Franchise) Act: all women over 21
1948 Representation of the People Act: abolition
of plural voting in two places in constituency 1969 Representation of the People Act:
minimum voting age 18
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The Abolition of
Slavery, 1833 Ports: Triangular trade: 3
Passages: Outward: EnglandW. Africa:
brandy, cloth, muskets,gunpowder, & bar iron.Handcuffs & leg-irons(restraints) Beans for theMiddle Passage
Middle: W. AfricaW.Indies/America: slaves
Inward: W. Indies/AmericaEngland cotton, sugar, coffee,
tobacco, molasses:manufactured and re-shipped:Continent, colonies, rest ofworld
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Triangular trade + UK
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Triangular Trade + 13 colonies
Plan of the Brookes overcrowded
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Plan of theBrookes, overcrowded
slave ship
O i i Sl D S l
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Opposition to Slavery: Dr. Samuel
Johnson (1709-84)
Many countries have had part of their inhabitants in astate of slavery; yet it may be doubted whether slaverycan be the natural condition of man
Men in their original state were equal; [it is] difficult toimagine how one would be subjected to another but by
violent compulsion. An individual may forfeit hisliberty by a crime; but he cannot forfeit the liberty ofhis children.
What is true of a criminal seems true of a captive. Aman may accept life from a conquering enemy on
condition of perpetual servitude; but it is doubtfulwhether he can entail that servitude on his descendants
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Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-84)
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JohnsonsDictionary 1755
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Opposition to Slavery: Quakers (Society of
Friends, 1650s)
1688: Protest Against Slavery by Quakers inGermantown, Pennsylvania
Though they are black, we cannot conceive
there is more liberty to have them slaves,as it is to have other white ones.
There is a saying, that we shall do to allmen like as will be done ourselves; makingno difference of what generation, descentor colour they are.
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Quakers
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Opposition to Slavery: Quakers
And those who steal or rob men, and those whobuy or purchase them, are they not all alike? Hereis liberty of conscience, which is right andreasonable; here ought to be likewise liberty of
the body, except of evil-doers, which is an othercase.
But to bring men hither, or to rob and sell themagainst their will, we stand against.
In Europe there are many oppressed forconscience sake; and here there are thoseoppressed who are of a black colour.
Abolition of Slavery: William
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Abolition of Slavery: William
Wilberforce (1759-1833)
A Letter on the Abolition of the Slave Trade Addressed
to the Inhabitants of Yorkshire, 1807.
Where there is neither Greek nor Jew, circumcision nor
uncircumcision, Barbarian, Scythian, bond norfree: but
Christ is all, and in all. Put on, therefore, as the elect of
God bowels of mercies, kindness (Colossians 3.11-
12)
And [God] hath made of one blood all nations of men for
to dwell on all the face of the earth (Acts 17.26)
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Abolition of Slavery, 1833
1807: Slave Trade Bill
1824: Slave Trade Act
1833: Slavery Abolition Act
1836: Boers trek to Transvaal
T l
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Transvaal
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The Great Trek (1835)
Industrial Revolution
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Industrial RevolutionMarx & Engels,Manifesto
Relations of production :concentrated workplace, employedhundreds of men, women, childrenfactory: integral feature ofemployment.
New labour relations: workforcecreated (attraction into + controlwithin factories)
definition factory system (Encarta:working arrangement whereby anumber of persons cooperate toproduce articles of consumption(Revolution: 32).
But, what is a factory? (Revolution:
37)
Factory/mill = textile factories =cotton mills
Industry (manufacturing) = mill(textiles) = factory ({collection of}buildings w/ manufacturingmachinery) to c. 1840
I d t i l R l ti
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Industrial RevolutionMarx & Engels,Manifesto
Disciplining of workforce: punctuality
(long hours), regularity (long term
contracts, bonuses, compulsory fund),accuracy (fines, schools) (Revolution: 49-50).
Labour communities created:Derbyshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire
New Communities
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New Communities
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Factory Reform, only e.g.
Factory Act, 1833:No child under 9 to work incotton, woollen, flax mill; no child under 13 to work over
48hs/w; no one under 18 over 69hs/w.
1842: Mines Act:forbade women & childrens work 1847: Ten Hours Act: women & persons 13-18 to
10hs/d- 8hs/S.
1840: Act to abolish child chimney sweeping, only
effective 1875 (licensing of sweeps). 1901: Factory & Workshops Act:Minimum working
age 12
Child L b
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Child Labour
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Child Labour
Child L b + l i
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Child Labour + coal mines
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Child Labour + coal pits
Ed ti P i i
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Education Provisions
1833 Factory Act: children
working in textile mills;
1st gvmt. Grant
1844:Ragged schools (photo)
1870 Education Act: increased grants, moreschools
1880 Education Act: compulsory schooling 5-10
1918 Education Act: school leaving age 141936 Education Act: school leaving age 15
(enforced 1944)
1973: school leaving age 16 (announced 1964)
Consequences: Engels The Condition of the
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Consequences: Engels. The Condition of the
Working Class in England in 1844.
Such is the Old Town ofManchester, and on
re-reading my description, I am forced to admit
that instead of being exaggerated, it is far from
blackenough to convey a true impression of thefilth, ruin, and uninhabitableness, the defiance of
all considerations ofcleanliness, ventilation, and
health which characterise the construction of this
single district, containing at least twenty to thirtythousand inhabitants.
Manchester
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Manchester
Consequences: Engels The Condition of the
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Consequences: Engels. The Condition of the
Working Class in England in 1844.
And such a district existsin the heart of the second
city of England, the first
manufacturing city of the
world. If any one wishes tosee in how little space a
human being can move,
how little airand such
air!he can breathe, how
little of civilisation he may
share and yet live, it is only
necessary to travel hither.
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Consequences
No governmentcontrol.
Slums {denselypopulated usually urbanarea marked bycrowding, dirty run-down housing, poverty,and social
disorganization}(Lancashire, BlackCountry, S.Yorkshire).
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Consequences
Coke towns/wastelands: soot{black substance formed bycombustion}, grime {dirt
adhering to/ embedded in asurface}, fog {vaporcondensed to fine particles ofwater suspended in the lower
atmosphere}, sulfurous{burning sulfur}
emissions, chemicalwaste
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Urban landscpae
Consequences
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Consequences Factory accidents;industrial diseases {caused by
working conditions: affecting people as result of workthey do}; infectious (feverous) diseases:
Diphtheria {false membrane esp. in throat, caused by bacteriumproducing toxin causing inflammation of heart & nervous system}tuberculosis {bacillus that affects esp. lungs but might spread to
kidneys or spinal column} Typhoid fever {diarrhea, prostration, headache, & intestinal
inflammation, caused by bacterium}
Typhus {bacterial disease transmitted esp. by body lice, high fever,stupor alternating with delirium, intense headache, & dark red rash}
scarlet fever {streptococci, inflammation of nose, throat, & mouth,generalized toxemia, & red rash}
cholera {acute diarrheal disease},
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Black Country (W. Midlands)
P bli H l h
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Public Health
1848: Public Health Act:Boards + medical officers
1871: Local Gvmt Board:supervision
1872: Public Health Act:
compulsorymedicalofficers & sanitaryauthorities appointed bylocal authorities
1875: Public Health Act:drainage {photo top},sanitation, water supplies{photo bottom communal waterpump}
1875 P bli H l h A
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1875 Public Health Act
PLANS FOR MAIN SEWERAGE, DRAINAGE, And WATER SUPPLY..Explanation of the Terms used
Sewage: The fluid and feculent {fecal} refuse of dwellings.
Sewer: The main conduit {channel}for sewage.
Drain: The tributary conduit for sewage from houses to sewers.
Sewerage: A system of sewers.Raw or Crude Sewage: Sewage as it flows untreated from a sewer.
Clarified Sewage: Sewage deprived of solids and flocculent{fluffly/flakes}matters.
Purified Sewage: Sewage filtered through land sufficiently to have neutralizedthe salts.
Sludge: The crude refuse from sewage-tanks.Sewage-manure: Sludge dried or manipulated to make it more portable, andwhether mixed with chemicals or not.
Excreta: Faeces and urine combined.
Dust: The ashes and other dry refuse from houses.
Sewerage
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Sewerage
Ludgate Hill
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Ludgate Hill
H i
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Housing
1868 Artisans & Labourers Dwellings
Act: compulsory demolition/repair
1875 Artisans & Labourers Dwellings
Improvement Act: compulsory purchase of
unfit areas
1890 Housing of the Working Classes Act:
council houses
Housing
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Housing
H i
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Housing
Housing
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101
g
tema/nudo/problema/cuestin de su inters
Housing
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Housing