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IndexReferences to Figures or Tables are shown in italics.

Academie des Seiences debate 7, 37, 38,40-7

Acanthocephala 18Achondroplasia 202Acoelomate animals 15,17Activation of the egg 86, 94, 100-1, 103Activin A 107-8Activin B 108Adaptation 152-3

larval, 196-7see also Exaptation; Genetic

assimilation: PreadaptationAdaptive form and funct ion 80, 82, 129,

219-22Agassiz , J. 1. R. 52, 59

see also RecapitulationAgmata 24Agnatha 23, 137, 138, 187,211

see alsoJawless vertebratesAmbystoma

maculatum 112, 207mexicanum 112, 207punctatum 113-14

tigrinum 145cannabilistic morph 126, 144

Ameloblasts 115, 116Amphioxus 27, 218Analogy 48

R. Owen and 54, 56, 185Anatomical plans, 13

see also Body plansAngler fish, 147Animal ph yla 15-23

see also Super phyla and individualphyla

Annelida 14, 20, 30, 36, 98, 101, 139

Antennapedia complex, see Homeoticgenes

Antero-posterior polarity 133, 137Aortic arches, patterns in rabbit 162, 163Archaeocyatha 23, 36Archetypes 37-8, 47-65, 72,214

Baer, K. E. von . and 47, 51, 57, 63, 74Darwin and 59, 64, 185embryologicaI47-8, 50, 59, 64, 185,

214E. H aeckel and 60-4and homology 191, 214E. R. Lankester and 56R. Owen and 55, 57, 58universal 61vertebrate 57, 58, 70of vertebrate skull 55

Arisrorleand development 83-5, 98and epigenesis 84-5, 90and Great Chain of Being 5and morphology 41,68theory of causality 90and unity of type 38-9, 42, 68, 98

Arthropodain Burgess Shale 14, 34diagnostic features 21diversity of 15in Ediacara fauna 36homeotic genes and 136phylorypic stage 98see also Trilobites

Asplanchna brightwelli 126-7Astraspis 14Atavisms 56, 187Autonomization 151, 172-4

see also Schmalhausen, 1. 1.

Index 265

Aysheaia24, 26, 31Axolotl 203

Baer, K. E. vonarchetypes 47, 51, 57, 64, 74biogenetic law 11, 49-21, 54,185, 197and Geoffroy-Cuvier debate 46, 48germ layers 61, 85homology 57, 50-1see also Recapitulation

Baldwin effect 163Balfour, F. M. 48, 64Balzac , H . de 46Barry , Martin 51, 57Basal lamina 104Basement rnembrane 121Baupläne 65-8'2', 129, 132, 162, 185, 214

con straints and 75-9developmental processes and 73- 5evolution of 75-6generation of 72,79- 82, 170,216-19hierarchical 71- 2and homology 68-9, 72, 192-3and ind ividual morphology 70nested 68, 71-2of ph yla 15-23, 37, 131,215of turtles 148see also Body plans; Unterbaupläne

Bilateral symmetry 17Biogenetic law, see Baer, K. E. vonBiological homology concept, see

HomologyBiston betularia 153Bithorax complex, see Genetic

assim ilation; Homeotic genesBlastodisk 99

see also Ernbryonie diskBlastula

as emb ryonie stage 95, 96, 97, 99, 101,177, 216

as Haeckel's primordial stage 62-3and origin of multicellularity 132as ph ylotypic stage 98, 99

Body plan 66,70,214-219of Burgess Shale fossils 27-8, 31, 215and developmental constraints 70, 80,

172, 217and Geoffro y 41and homeotic genes 107-8, 136-7,

217-18

insect 77, 98, 133-7, 149, 156novel28-31 ,36-7of ph yla 15, 27-8 , 31, 34and phylotypic stages 98-9, 172, 197,

219see also Baupldne; Homeotic genes

Bolyerine snakes 146Bone, indu ction of 118, 120-1Bonnet, Charles 4-6Bovid extin ctions 152Brachionus calyciflorus 126-7Brachiopoda 14, 19Branchiostoma 27, 218Bryozoa, see EctoproctaBuffon, G. L. 39Bufo 208Burgess Shale fossils 13"':14, 24-37, 79,

214-15assignable to phyla 24-7, 215not assignable to ph yla 28-31 , 215formation of 13not un ique 35-6

Cadherins, see Cell adhesi on moleeulesCaenorhabditis elegans 89, 206-7Canadapsis 24Canadia spinosa 28, 31Canalization of development 74, 90,

93-4, 166, 168, 173, 216, 218and selection 170-1and variability in morphology 162,

163-4, 165see also Stabilizing selection

Cannabilistic morph, see Ambystomatigrinum

Carpal bon es, pattern of 163, 164Carpenter, William Benjamin 52-3Cartilage 77

hormones and 204indu ction of 118-19,120-1rostral 196secondary 168-9, 177-9see also Mechel's cartilage

Cell adhe sion moleeules 120, 132see also L-CAM; N -CAM

Cell condensations , see CondensationsCel l lineages 222

in dire ct developing echinoderms 99,199,207,218

in Caenorhabditis elegans 206-7

266 Index

in Styela partita 91Wilson, E. B. and 86

Cephalocarida 24Cephalochordata 23, 218Cephalopods 42, 44-5, 184

see also SepiaChaetognatha 22Chambers, Roben 53-4

author of 'Vestiges' 53influence on Darwin 53see also Unity of type

Cheek pouches 211-12Chelicerata 24Chelydra serpentina 106Chordamesoderm

differentiation of 103induction of 103, 137,218N-CAM and 120or igin of 137, 138

Chordata 14, 23-4, 26-7origin of 136-7, 138

Chordula 63Cichl id fishes

diet and morphology 126, 141,204speciation 34, 141pharyngeal jaws 122, 141-3, 148, 169,

219Cleavage 95-6, 99, 196-7

patterns and super phyla 15see also Spiral cleavage

Cnidaria 16, 101Coelenterate 14, 36, 61Coelom 15Coelomate animals 13, 19-23Coelomula 63Competence 89, 109-110 , 114Coenogenesis 81Coiter, Volcher 84Condensations 179-80, 184, 190,204-5,

221-2see also Fundamental developmental

unitsConodonta 24Constraints 44, 48, 65, 71-2, 74- 81, 110

and adaptive form and function 80-1 ,219-20

cellular 77, 80developmental44, 71-2, 74, 77, 80,

110, 192-4epigenetic 80, 172

functional 78and generation of Baupläne 70, 80,

172, 217genetic 44, 71-2, 76-7, 80historical 72, 80maternal 78metabolie 77-8phylogenetic 65physiological 44structural44, 71, 76

Continuity of the germ plasm 102see also Weismann, A.

Cope's law 11Cope's rule 11Creeper mutant 201Crossveinless, see Genetic assimilationCrustacea 24Ctenophora 16, 26Cuvier, Georges

debate with Geoffroy 7, 37-8, 40-7,55, 81, 214, 220

embranchements42-4, 47, 50, 52, 57,64

principle of correlation of parts 39Cyclomorphosis 125-9, 148, 181, 208,

216in Cladocerans 127in geometrid moths 128in rotifers 126-7see also Interspecific epigenetics

Cyclostomes 209, 210Cytoplasmic rearrangement 97, 100, 103Cytula 62, 63

Daphne pulex 127Darwin, Charles 48, 53, 58-60, 63

use of embryological evidence 59-60views on homology 59-60see also Archetypes; Homology;

Unity of typeDentary bone

and mammalian jaw evolution 147-8and model for morphological

evolution 175-6, 177, 178-82Dentine 114-15, 116, 118, 178, 209Dermal skeleton 56Deuterostoma 21-3, 137, 138Developmental buffering 161, 170Developmental Evolutionists 171-4Developmental programmes 157

Index 267

Developmental time, see Timing ofdeveloprnent

Developmental units, see Fundamentaldevelopmental units

Dinomischus isolatus 31,32Direct development

in amphibians 99, 145, 197,218in echinoderms 197-8, 218

DNA, see MethylationDollo's law 11, 56Dorso-ventral polarity 96,97, 103, 133Double assurance 122Drosophila 102, 141

bristle number 167-8eyeless mutant 189four-winged 155genetic assimilation and 154, 155,

156-9, 161-2, 165-8homeotic genes and 133-4, 135,

136-7, 205, 217-28origin of body plan 133-4, 135, 136-7,

148, 156, 176scute mutant 167see also Genetic assimilation;

Homeotic genesDwarfism 122, 201-2

see also Growth

Echinodermata 14,22,34, 197-8see also Direct development

Echiura 20Ecology

embryonie development and 144epigenetics and 126-9heterochrony and 200, 203-4

Ectoprocta 19, 214Ediacara fauna 35-6, 79Embryological archetype, see ArchetypeEmbryonie disk in hylid frogs 99, 197Embryonie induction, see InductionEname1114-15, 116, 118Enarneloid 210Entoprocta 18, 34, 101,215Epigenesis

cytoplasmic 87Geoffroy, E. and 74, 124Owen, R. and 55and preforrnation 84-6Wilson, E. B. and 86-7

Epigenetic burden 171-2, 217

Ep igenetic cascades 77,85,103, 111-19,172,201,217

and kidney development 115-17and oral developrnent 118-19and tooth developrnent 114-15

Epigenetic induction of germ cells 102Epigenetic interactions 77, 193, 219-20

see also Epithe1ial-mesenchymalinteractions; Tissue interactions

Epigenetic organization ofdeveloprnent 71, 78, 123, 148, 176,180-2, 215-17, 222-3

Epigenetic programmes 94Epigenetic traps 172, 193, 217Epigenetics

centrality of ce1l to 222-3definition 89, 215and ecology 126, 129,216and environment 150-1and genetics 85-91mechanism of 119-24see also Interspecific epigenetics

Epithelia 103, 104Epithe1ial-mesenchymal

interactions 103-5, 115-16, 120-2,216

and bone induction 118, 120-1and cartilage induction 120-1, 210-11,

220and cheek pouches 211-12and generation of new tissues 208-21heterochrony and 209, 210and tooth development 115, 116

Erypticus 14Escumasia roryi35Evolution

beyond Biology 7-8as change 5-7, 213definition 3, 9-10as development 3, 213of development 195-8as genetic change 8-9as hierarchy 9-10history of the term 3-4, 213origin of the term 3-4as population genetics 8-9as progress 7, 8, 10, 53reversibility of 56as unfolding 3-5zig-zag 56

268 Index

see also Macro-, Mega-,Microevolution

Evolutionary novelties 81, 129, 130,139-43, 208-10

see also Key innovationsExaptations 145External causation 2,48, 74, 79, 80-1,

123,220-22see also Internal causation

Extinctions 152Extracelular matrix 87, 103, 114-16,

119-22see also Matrix-mediated interactions

Pertilization 94, 97, 99-101FGF, see Fibroblast growth factorFibroblast growth factor 107, 136Form and function 7,41,45,79,81-2,

214, 220Form as determinant of function 41, 79,

81,214,220Fossil species problem 31, 34Fossils , taxonorny of 31, 34-5Fracture repair 178-9Frogs

altitudinal variation and eggsize 160-1

direct developrnent 99, 145, 197, 218embryonie stages 95homeotic genes in 107, 136-7lens induction 112, 189, 207-8, 220maternal cytoplasmic control 88

Functionas deterrninant of form 41, 82, 214,

220intensification of, and morphological

change 146-7new, and morphological change 147-8

Functional integration 122Functional morphology 39, 105, 123,

141Fundamental developmenal

units 176-82see also Condensations

Fundulus heteroclitus 207Fungi 15, 101

Gap genes 134, 217Garstang, W. 11Gastra:a theory 48, 60-4, 98, 130-1 , 195

see also HaeckelGastropods 70

origin of torsion in 143-4Gastrotheca 99, 197, 218

see also Direct developrnentGastrotricha 17Gastrula

as embryonie stage 95,96-8, 162, 177,197

as Haeckel's primordial stage 62-3as phylotypic stage 98

Gastrulation 96, 196-7Genetic assimilation 79, 125-6 , 151,

153-61, 165-71, 216, 222adaptation and 167-70of behaviour 160of Bithorax 154-8 , 161, 165-6, 171,

174of crossveinless 154-5, 158definition 154and Dugesia gonocephala 160and Gasterosteus aculeatus 160and genetic fixation 161-2, 165, 167and genetic variability 157-8, 162,

165-6,170-1and Limnaea 159-60a mechanism for 165-7and mutation 157, 159, 161, 170in nature 159-61and phenocopies 155-6polygenic basis 157-9and Rana sylvatica 160-1and secondary cart ilage 168-9se1ection and 157-61, 154-70and xenophytic plants 160, 172-3see also Canalization of development;

Waddington, C. H .Genetic fixation 161-2 , 165, 167Genetic homeostasis 162Genetic programmes 2, 206-7Genotype 9,151, 174,215Geoffroy, E. Saint -Hilaire

and debate with Cuvier 7, 37-8, 40-7,55, 81, 214, 220

and idealistic morphology 40-1, 46-7influence in Britain 51-9and fardin des Plantes 55principle of connections 40, 56, 59,

68-9,76, 119, 184and teratology 73-4, 85

Index 269

union of invertebrates andvertebrates 42

see also Epigensis ; Homology;idealistic morphology; unity of thetype

Geomyoid rodents 211-12Germ band stage in insects 98, 162, 196Germ cells, determination of 91, 101-2

see also Germ plasmGerm layers 15, 61, 64, 85, 97, 105, 137,

177, 187,214Baer, K. E. von and 61, 85and heterotopy 211Lankester, E. R., and 61Pander, C. H . 61, 85and super phyla 15

Germ plasm 2, 49, 79, 91Baer, K. von and 49dist inct from soma 2, 101-2, 222Weismann, A., and 102see also Continuity of the germ plasm;

Germ cellsGigantisrn 201Gnathostomata

characteristics of subphylum 23, 68evolution of jaws 137, 138, 140, 186,

209Gnathostomulida 17, 23Goethe, J. W. 39, 45Grainger, R. D. 51Grant, Robert, E. 6, 51, 56Gray, Asa 60Great Chain of Being 5Growth 81, 86, 89, 201-2

onset of 202, 204-5rate of 201-2, 204-5termination of 202, 204see also Heterochrony

Growth factors 97, 107-8, 121, 216-17see also Activin; Fibroblast- and

Transforming growth factors

Haeckel, E. 60-4,98, 130-1, 185, 195,214

and archetypes 48and heterochrony 199and heterotopy 210and phylogeny 10, 61-3, 67,214phylum coined 13

see also Gastraea theory;Recapitulation

Hagfish 135see also Agnatha

H aller, Albrecht von 3, 6Hallucigenia sparsa 28, 31,33Harding sandstone 14Harvey, William 85Heliocidaris 198Hemichordata 14, 22, 101Heterochronic genes 206-7Heterochrony 145, 199-212,216

acceleration 200categories of 201, 204as developmental change 199-200and developmental rates 202, 204and developmental processes 202,

204-7ecological context of 203-4, 208, 212and epithelial-mesenchymal

interactions 209, 210, 211-12and generation of new tissues or

organs 208-10of nasal bones in salamanders 203as pattern 200-3,207-8,212as process 201-4,207-8,212retardation 200and sexual maturiry 200, 203specific 201,204, 213systemic 201, 204see also Growth; Haeckel; Neoteny;

Ontogenetic trajectories;Paedomorphosis; Timing ofdevelopment

Heteroropy 210-12of rodent cheek pouches 211-12

Horneotic genes 77, 82, 107-8, 133-7,217

Antennapedia complex 135, 136Bithorax complex 135, 136in Drosophila 133-7, 205, 217-19duplication of 136, 149Hox series 107, 135-7phyletic distribution 136, 149, 156and transgenie mice 137, 184in vertebrates 135-6see also Homeotic mutations; Body

plansHorneotic mutations 126, 137, 156-7,

184

270 Index

Hominids, extinction of 152Homogeny 56Homology

Baer, K. E. von and 47, 50-1biologieal eoneept 57, 189-5Carpenter, W. B. and 52and eommon inductions 189eomplete 186, 195as continuiry of information 188, 192Darwin, C . and 40, 59-60 , 185embryologieal eriteria of 50, 57, 59,

185,190,214embryology and 45, 47, 50, 59, 183-98in ethology 46genetie 192-3Geoffroy's eoneeption of 39-40 , 44-5,

52, 57, 184, 188historieal 190idealistic morphology and 40ineomplete 186, 195Lankster, E. R. and 56-7latent 187Owen, R. and 54-6, 184-5and non-hornologous developmental

processes 183-5, 187, 195,214,221as pattern or proeess 184, 189, 191,

194-5,214see also Serial homology

Homoplasy 57Homuneulus 4Hooker, J. D. 60Hopeful monsters 129Hox genes, see Homeotie genesHuxley, Thomas 10, 56, 59Hyolitha 24

Idealistie morphology 38-41 ,55-6,68,184

Idiocranium russeli 203Induetion

of bone 118, 120-1of chordamesoderm 103, 137,218double assuranee 122epithelial-mesenehymal interactions

and 103-5, 115-16, 118, 120-2,208-32

heterochrony and 209-10of kidneys 115-16, 117of lens 112-14,186,189,193,207-8,

212, 220

of mesoderm 96-7, 103, 105, 107-8,111,201,217

of neural ectoderm 97, 103, 137-8, 218pr imary embryonie 108-10, 120, 218of salivary glands 121of teeth , 114-15see also Epithelial-mesenchymal

interactionsIndustrial melanism 153, 189Innovations, see Key innovationsIntegrated change in morphology 144-8,

216see also Key innovations

Internal causation 2, 40, 48, 74, 79, 81,123,220-2

see also External causation;Structuralism

Interspecific epigenetics 125-9, 216see also Cyclomorphosis

]ardin des plantes, Paris 54-5]awless vertebrates 24, 27, 139-40,

209-10see also Agnatha; Hagfish; Lampreys

Key innovations 72, 129-44, 149, 216,220

Geoffroy and 74-5and large seale change 131-8in morphology 139-43as single gene mutations 126, 130, 136,

143-4see also Integrated change in

morphologyKidney induction 115-16, 117Kinorhyncha 18

Lampreys 210Latimeria chalumnae24Lamarckism 73, 124, 151, 158-9Lankester, Edwin Roy 56, 61, 63

see also Homology; Planula theoryLaurencet 42, 44-5, 184L-CAM 120Lens induction 112, 113,114, 186,

207-8,220and homology 186, 189, 193temperature and 208, 212

Limnea and genetic assimilation 158-59Lophophorata 14

Index 271

Loricifera 15, 18,23-4Lyell, Charles 5

Macroevolution 9, 70, 124,211,220Macromutations 171Mammalian jaw, evolution of 147-8Mammary gland 121Marella splendens 24, 25, 35Maremal cytoplasmic control of early

development 88-9, 96, 101, 159,176, 216

and coiling in gastropods 143-4Maternal effect genes 133-4Maternal genome 176, 181Matrix-mediated tissue

interactions 120-2see also ExtraceUular matrix

Meckel, J. F. 49Meckel's cartilage 118, 178,209, 210,, 211,220Meckel's-Serres law 53Megaevolution 9Meiosis 100Membrane bone 120-1, 177-8Membranous skeleton 180

see also CondensationsMesenchyme 103, 104Mesoderm

and buccal development 118, 119induction of 96-7, 103, 105, 107-8 ,

111,201,217and kidney induction 116,117

Mesoderm-inducing factors 97, 107-8,217

see also Growth factorsMesozoa 17Metamorphosis 73, 196-7Metazoa 34, 36, 61-4, 215Methylation of DNA 88, 176, 222Meyranx, P-S. 42, 43, 44-5, 184Microevolution 9, 220Middle ear ossic1es 147-8, 193, 209Milne-Edwards, H. 46-7Mollusca 14, 20, 44, SOMonera, see ProkaryotaeMonerula 62, 63Morphogenesis

and differentiation 94, 110-11, 116,177

as epigenetic process 89

and growth 81, 89Morula 62-3Mosaic development 92, 100MulticeUularity;

evolution of 76origin of 131-3, 139, 195

Natural selection 75, 144see also Selection

Naturphilosophie 45N-CAM 120Nernatoda 15, 18-19Nematomorpha 19Nemertina 17Nemoria arizonaria 128Neoplasia 101Neopilina 24Neoteny 159-'{'0, 200-2

see also HeterochronyNeural crest 105, 106, 115-16, 137, 138,

171,210,211and buccal development 118, 119and kidney induction 117

Neural induction 97, 103, 137, 138, 218Neurula 73, 96-8 , 162, 177,216Neurulation 96-8, 108-10, 114Notochord

and Baupläne 23, 70, 75, 79, 138and epigenetic burden 171and homeotic gene expression 137induction of 97, 103, 107-8and kidney induction 116,117and Metazoan ancestor 63as neural inducer 108-9, 110, 138as neural inducer in ascidians 219in Pikaia 27and primary embryonie

induction 108-11as primary organizer 109-11, 137, 197and super phyla 15

Notophthalmus viridescens 187Novelties, see evolutionary noveltiesNuclear-cytoplasrnic interactions 87-8

Odontoblasts 115, 116, 118, 178Ontogenetic repatterning 81, 145-6,

148-9, 220Ontogenetic series 11Ontogenetic trajectories 204

see also Heterochrony

272 Index

Ontogenyand phylogeny 10-12, 102and systematics 11, 185

Onychophora 21,26,31see also Peripatus

Oogenesis 100see also Maternal cytoplasmic control

Opabinia regalis 28, 29Optic capsule 113, 114Optic vesicle 112-14Ostracoderms 27Otic vesicle 114Owen, Richard 2, 46, 54-9, 184-5

and homology 41, 54, 56, 69vertebrate archetype 55, 57-9

Paedomorphosis 203see also Heterochrony

Pair rule genes 133-4, 217Pander, C . H. 61, 85Parazoa 16Parthenogenesis 88, 94Pentadacryl limb 68, 70, 191Pentastoma 21Peripatus 26, 100Pharyngeal jaws 122, 141-3, 148-9, 169,

195,219see also Cichlid fishes

Pharyngula 98, 196Phenocopy 155-6Phenotype 9, 151, 174, 215Phoronida 15, 19Phyla

and embranchements 42see also listing for individual phyla;

Animal phyla ; Phylotypic stages:Super phyla

Phyleeie stage, see Phylorypic stagePhylogenetic tree 10Phylogeny

Haeckel, E. and 10, 61-3, 67, 214and heterochrony 199and ontogeny 10-12, 102

Phylorypic stages 98, 131, 162, 172,196-7,217,219

of annelids 98of arthropods 98, 162, 196blastula as 98-9gastrula as 98germ band stage of insect 98, 162, 196

pharyngula 98, 196of vertebrates 98, 162, 196-7

Piaget, J. 160Pikaia gracilens 26, 27Placodes 120, 138Placoza 15, 16, 101Planula theory 63Platyhelminthes 17Pleiotropy 174-6, 221-2

epigenetics and 91, 144, 181, 221-2as genetic constraint 77and genetic correlations 77, 91universal 90, 162

Plethodon cinereus 163, 164Pleurodeles waltl118, 122Pluteus larva 197Pogonophora 21, 23-4Polarity

anterio-posterior 133, 137dorso-ventral 96, 97, 103, 133

Polymorphism 151see also Cyclomorphosis

Polyploidy 100Polypterus 208-9Population genetics 8-9Porifera 14, 16, 26, 101Preadaptation 145, 151, 158, 169-70, 198Preformation 4, 6, 84-8, 91, 102

Baer, K. E. von and 49Bonnet, C. and 4Geoffroy, E. and 74nuclear 87Owen, R. and 55

Priapulida 14, 15, 20Primary embryonie induction 108-10,

120, 138, 218Prokaryotae 15Protochordates 137, 138Protoctista 15, 101Protostoma 19-21, 23Proximate causation, see Internal

causationPseudarthroses 169Pseudocoelomate animals 15, 17

Quantitative genetics model ofdevelopment and evolution 173-81,221-2

developmental units of 175-90, 181-2,221

Index 273

environrnental factors 181, 221genetic maternal effects 181genetics of 176genorype x environment

interactions 181-2epigenetic factors 181-2internal genetic factors 181, 221

Radial symmetry 15-16Rana

embryonie stages 95esculenta 112, 189, 208fusca 189pipiens 95sylvatica60-1, 207

Recapitulation 7, 49, 50, 65Baer, K. Ecvon and 11, 49-51, 54, 81,

197Agassiz , L. and 52, 59Haeckel, E. and 61-3

Regeneration 84, 86Regionalization of central nervous

system 108, 110-11 , 137-8Regulative development 92, 100Retinoic acid 136Rhyacotriton olympicus203Rotifera 18, 126-8

cyclomorphosis in 126-8Roux, Wilhe1m 3, 78-9

SalamandersBolitoglossinid 145--6, 219cannabilistic morph 126, 144carpal patterns 163, 164feding mechanisms 145--6, 219heterochrony and 203-5induction of Meckel's cartilage 209,

210lens induction 112-14, 207-8, 220neoteny and 159--60, 200-2ontogenetic repatterning 81, 145oral development 118, 122polymorphism 126, 144tarsal patterns 163, 164Thorius, as smallest 203

Salamandra salamandra 118Salmo 207Scaleless mutant 206, 220Schmal hausen, 1. 1. 79, 124, 151, 160,

168, 171-4

see also Autonomization; Stabilizingselection

Scleral bone 121Scleral cartilage 120-1Seasonal polymorphism, see

CyclomorphosisSecondary jaw articulations in

birds 146-7, 219Segmentarion

embryonie 78of hindbrain 136and homeotic gene expression 76, 82,

133-7, 156,219in insects 76, 82, 98-9, 133-7, 155,

156,176, 187, 193, 196,217of mesoderm 58, 111, 183of myomeres in Pikaia 27of Opabinia 28, 29Owen R. and 55and vertebrate ancestor 58, 98, 135,

140,217of vertebrate skull 41see also Segmentation genes

Segmentation genes 133-4, 217Selection 75, 81, 145, 182,222

and adaptive form and function 80-1 ,219

artificial 180and generation of body plans 80, 217levels of 93, 132, 222for tail length 183-4 , 186see also Genetic assimilation; Natural

selection: Stabilizing selectionSepia 42,43Serial homology 41, 54, 56, 136, 187Serres, E. R. A. 47,49

see also Meckel's -Serres lawSipuncula 20Sku1l41, 55Snakes , loss of limbs in 56Social Darwinism 54Soma, distinct from germ plasm 2, 102,

222Somatoplasm, see SomaSpeciation 8, 9, 130, 141-3, 153

of amphibians 34of cichlid fishes 34, 141-3

Species 10biological 34evolutionary 34

274 Index

number in each animal phylum 16-23Spencer, Herbert 6

evolutionary theories 6, 7, 10, 54Spiral cleavage 15, 143-4, 195Spondula 63Spontaneous generation 5, 53, 86Stabilizing selection 74, 151, 168, 172-4,

219Structural reduction 169Structuralism 40, 72, 124

see also Internal causationStyela partita 91Substrate adhesion molecules 120, 132Super phyla 15Synapomorphies 75, 149, 184-5Survival of the fittest 10, 66Symonds, J. A. 51

Tabby mutant 165Taeniodonti 146Tardigrada 21·Taricha torosa 111,117,208Tarsal bones, patterns of in

urodeles 163, 164Terarology, see GeoffroyTGF-ß, see Transforming growth

factor-ßTheoretical Biology Club 67Thomomys bottae 211Thorius 203Timing of development 199-202,212

and cell division 201and inductive decision-making 201mass-specific metabolism and 200-1see also Heterochrony

Tissue interactions 77see also Epigenetic interactions;

Epithelial-mesenchymalinteractions

Tommotion fauna 36Tooth induction 114-15, 116Transforming growth factor-ß 107, 136,

217Trichoplax adhaerens 15, 16Trilobites 24Triton 208Tullimonstrum gregarium35Turtle carapace 148Type concept 38, 45

Baer, K. E. von and 50

Darwin, C. and 59-60Geoffroy, E. and 44, 51, 57, 59Owen, R. and 50seealso Unity of type

Ultimate causation, see Extemalcausanon

Uniramia 24Uniry of plan, see Uniry of typeUnity of type 3, 7, 76, 214, 217

Aristotle and 38-9Buffon, G. L. and 39-40Chambers, Robert and 54Cuvier, G. and 79Darwin, C. and 59Geoffroy, E. and 44,51,57, 73-4, 184,

217and idealistic morphology 39-40Owen, R. and 55, 79

Unterbaupläne 71-2see also Baupläne

Urmollusk 70Urochordata 23

Vertebral theory of skull 41Vertebrate development 93-123Vertebrate limb, homology of 191'Vestiges', see Chambers, RobertVestimentifera 15, 22-4Volvox 132

Waddington, Conrad HaIand adapration 152autobiography 8canalization 90, 93-4, 151, 162-3, 165,

168, 173,218developmental buffering 172epigenetics 89-90, 93-4, 124, 218epigenetics coined 89-90epigenetics and evolutionary

theory 124genetic assimilation 153-61, 165-6,

169, 173-4Theoretical Biology Club 67see also Canalization of development;

Geneeie assimilationWalcott, Charles Doolinle 14Weismann, August 102Whales, loss of hind limbs 56Whewell, William 51

Williston's rule 11Wilson, E. B. 68,86-7, 194-5

and homology 186Wiwaxia corrugata 28, 30

related to halkieriids 28, 30, 31related to polychaetes 30-1

Wolff, Caspar Friedrich andepigenesis 85

Woodger, ]oseph Henry 66-9, 86-7,194-5

Index

see also Baupläne

Xenopus 88, 136-7,201,218laevis 107, 118

Xeropbyticplants 160, 172-3XIHbox 6, 107, 136-7

Zygote 94, 95, 222genes in Drosophila 133genome 96, 176, 181,215nucleus 88

275