references acknowledgments construction process envelope systems materials + components structural...

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AcknowledgmentsConstruction

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Structural

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Front page

Project Details

Materials and Components

Structural systems

Construction Process

Envelope Systems

Design proposal

Case Studies

Regulations

References and Acknowledgements

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Project Details

• This project requires teams of 5 architects and construction managers to undertake the design and documentation of a warehouse and office complex. Teams will be formed in the week 1 tutorial and maintained throughout the semester. These teams MUST be composed of a combination of architects and double degree/ construction management students. Team compositions will be confirmed in the week 2 tutorial session-from then on, you will work together.

• This project requires teams to undertake a significant amount of research into issues related to the design and construction of industrial and commercial buildings. This project requires teams to prepare a digital report (PowerPoint or webpage) demonstrating research into the following issues:

• Critical review of structural systems appropriate for warehouse and office spaces. This review should be framed in terms of comparisons between systems positive in relation to each other. Advice should be sought from architects and builders, as well as from websites and books to inform this critical review. The end result of this should be a recommendation of appropriate structural systems for the project

• Critical review of construction processes for commercial and industrial buildings of this scale, to be undertaken primarily through visits to job sites under construction. This critical review should provide an understanding of how constructability influences the selection of appropriate construction systems for the warehouse and office building. This should involve site visits by every team member

• Review of envelope systems appropriate for both warehouse and office spaces. What are the critical issues that influence the selection of envelope systems for both warehouses and office buildings? The end result of this should be a recommendation of appropriate envelope systems for the project

• Production of a chart for rules of thumb for indicative structural sections and sizes for elements of warehouse and office buildings. This is to determined through the measure-up of existing (built) structures and review of texts and should include information on span, spacing, member size and factors influencing loading upon structure

• Development of schematic design layout of building proposal. This layout should include building planning (including stairs, toilets, office layouts, pallet layout etc), This should include freehand plans and sections (1:100 min) based on the information gathered during the research.

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SteelGeneral Information

Structural systemEnvelope SystemsConstruction Process

Rules of ThumbFire RatingConclusion

ConcreteGeneral Information


Drainage systemsRules of ThumbFire RatingConclusion

TimberGeneral Information



Glass / PlasticGeneral Information

Structural system

Envelope Systems

Construction Process Rules of ThumbFire RatingConclusion

MasonryGeneral Information

Structural system

Envelope Systems



OtherRetaining wall Drainage systemsRules of ThumbFire Rating suspended ceilingConstruction ProcessConclusionCarpetPlaster BoardPlywood

Comparisons

Materials and Components

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Structural Systems

SteelOne way rigid frame / one way braced

Two way rigid framework

Two way braced framework

Bracing

Mast Architecture

ConcreteFootingsRoof Structure Wall Structure

Timber

Masonry

Glass and Plastic

OtherRetaining Walls 1 2 3

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Steel

Timber

ConcreteFootingsTilt upPre Cast

Glass and PlasticGlass BricksCrystallised glass 1 2Plastic sheeting Rooflight Fibreglass Planar (structural Glazing)Glass Balustrades 1 2Spider Tension Truss SystemSpider Glass Fin SystemOverhead Glazing

Masonry

GeneralTrussesSpace TrussesPortal FramesStructural sequence Portal Frames


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Envelope Systems

Interior

ConcreteFlooringWall CladdingCeiling

Timber

Exterior

Steel

ConcreteWall CladdingRoof Cladding

Timber

Glass and PlasticPolytetrafluoroethylene glass fiber coated fabric

Glass BlocksPlastic sheeting Rooflight Fibreglass Crystallised glass Planar (structural glazing) Spider Tension Truss System Spider Glass Fin System balustrade Overhead Glazing Balustrade system

Masonry

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Steel

High strength and stiffness compared to other common construction materials such as reinforced concrete, timber, brickwork.

Steel has great structural value due to its high strength in tension

Steel is often chosen over other materials for structural systems due to it’s high strength in comparison to member sizes.

Steel is commonly used in conjunction with concrete in footing systems, wall systems such as tilt up construction as well as in structural members such as concrete columns or beams.

Steel is used independently in framing systems for roof and wall structures, bracing, flooring systems such as mezzanine floors and as structural members such as supportive columns.

Concrete

Concrete it is extremely strong under compression but weak under tension. It is for this reason that concrete is reinforced with steel, a material which can under go high tensile forces with less permanent deformation

Concrete is often chosen over other materials for structural systems due to it’s excellent thermal and acoustic properties as well as it’s high fire rating value

Common uses for reinforced concrete are in footing systems, panel wall systems as well as in structural members.

Timber

Parallel to the grain timber has a relatively equal compressive and tensile strength

Timber’s properties are generally not uniform, this is predominantly because of the variation in moisture content of the timber and the air, which can cause expansion and shrinkage of the timber.

Timber is often chosen over other materials because it only requires a capenter to construct timber systems with no specialist tools which makes it a more economical alternative than steel or concrete. Timber is also commonly chosen for it’s aesthetically pleasing appearance

Glass

Glass can come in many different forms depending on the application, it can be toughened, glazed, crystalised, tinted etc. to suit the application.

The transparency of glass allows natural light but blocks out the wind. It can be either coloured, patterned or not be seen at all.

Glass is predominantly used as glazing in either block or sheet form.

Masonry

Brick and stone masonry, like concrete, is strong under compression but weak under tension.

Due to the low time efficiency of masonry construction it usually chosen for use as cladding only and does not undergo any structural loads. It is also chosen for it’s high fire rating and good thermal and acoustic properties.

Common uses for masonry are in wall cladding systems, fences and landscaping walls.

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Design proposal

Scale 1:500

Schematics Warehouse plan

Showroom floor plan

Sectional plan office building

Site plan / Warehouse plan

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Showroom floor plan

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Warehouse plan

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Pro’s• High strength and stiffness compared to other common

construction materials such as reinforced concrete, timber, brickwork.

• Steel has great structural value due to its high strength in tension (480MPa), and under compression (340MPa) and shear loads

• Suitable for situations of bending, compression and tension.

• Relatively easy to connect (welding or bolting)

• Common grades known as mild steel, but higher grades are available for certain situations

• steel has a high strength to weight ratio with

• good toughness and hardness qualities.

• Stainless steel and high tensile steel have higher structural strength as well, they are harder and tougher.

Steel – General information

Con’s• Heavy and expensive compared to other

materials and thus should be used efficiently

• Care needs to be taken in the finishing with corrosion or rusting common in the presence of moisture and air in combination.

Steel is also a generic term for many steel alloys that are in use within the construction industry with a wide range of steel quality available.

Structural steel > 96% iron, + varying proportions of• Carbon

• Phosphorus

• Manganese

• Silicon

• Sulphur

• Nickel

• Chromium

• Copper

• (Ref 56)

(Ref 42)

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Steel – Structural Systems

Framing system and layout considerations will be influenced by:• Nature and level of loads to be resisted

• requirements and restrictions on useable space within the framework

• constraints imposed by architectural requirements

• These considerations can have a variety of solutions that are typically provided for by steel framed construction in a portal frame system (A continuous rigid frame with a restrained joint between the column and beam Hamsters website). This entails three basic framing systems (two way rigid, one way rigid/one way flexible or two way braced frameworks) in conjunction with two basic connection types (flexible or rigid) within

One way rigid frame / one way braced

Two way rigid framework

Two way braced framework

Bracing

Mast structure

Examples of structural steel would include

•Hot rolled – a universal beam is a good example of hot rolled structural steel. A hot billet of steel of forced through a series of rollers to form the pre determined shapes such as the I, C and L (also called angles). The I beam is predominantly replaced with the universal beam due to its square edges allowing easier jointing and welding.

•Cold Rolled Sections – C and Z sections are predominantly used in lesser structural elements such as girts and purlins providing light weight easily lifted supports for roofing or wall cladding and associated fixings. Sheet steel formed while cold are often treated with galvanizing or zincalume to increase product life against corrosion and oxidation.

•Rolled steel plates – often used in conjunction with Universal beams to construct base plates or intricate joints.

•High tensile steel – is an alloy which is typically used in pre stressed and post tensioned members where large elongation forces are resisted.

•Steel pipe and tubes are also used as structural elements in light weight construction. Roof members and structural supporting tubular members are common in contemporary steel house framing applications, cabled and masted structures.

•Steel Rods – are used as a structural element for lightweight masted structures as tension transferring elements as well as to resist racking forces as bracing commonly in portal frames and other buildings requiring resistance against large wind loads.

•Combinations of rods provide a steel mesh wuited to concrete reinforcing that provides tensional strength.

(Ref 40)

(Ref 42)

(Ref 57)

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One way rigid frame/one way braced• One way rigid frames are used quite extensively due to their ability to resist bending

loads in one direction with the inferior bending angle being able to be braced.

• In general, this system requires the construction of a rigid system along the flexible plane to resist racking forces.

• This could be constructed using a number of systems including cables, steel rods, wind girders, a rigid diaphragm (reinforced concrete floor or walls could constitute this) with proper connections, a concrete core, or boxed/tubular steel sections making up rods could provide a suitable structural solution for bracing.

Advantages• Cheaper joints used in braced plane

• Can utilize I columns – usually rolled.

• Utilises simple flexible joints in the braced plane.

• Can use plastic design methods and continuous beam design in plane of rigid connections – saving materials

Disadvantages• Restricts the layout as there are the requirements for bracing along one plane.

• Utilises rigid connections in one plane.

Typical applications of one way rigid frameworksLow rise industrial frames (portal frames)

Rectangular frames (especially where bracing can be accommodated within the perimeter)

Industrial structures

Architectural structures (bracing elements are often used as part of the architectural feature).

Steel – One way rigid frame / One way braced

(Ref 57)

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Basic Framing Systems

Two way rigid frameworkTwo way rigid frameworks comprise two planes of rigid frames intersecting at right angles using common columns at their intersection. Such frameworks resist lateral forces in both planes by frame action without the need for any separate stabilizing elements. All beam to column connections must be of a rigid type with the columns may need to be of equal stiffness in both directions, with boxed or tubular columns being suitable options.

Typical applications for two way rigid frames are:•Multi storey frames

•Low rise rectangular frames where layout requirements restrict the use of bracing elements

•Heavy industrial structures where planning needs restrict the us of bracing elements

•Architectural structures that can be modeled as two way rigid frames.

Advantages•Complete freedom in planning as there are no internal columns or requirements for bracing along the sides that would interrupt openings.

•Floor beams for multiple story buildings can be reduced due to the increased strength as a result of the fixed ends.

•Uses less materials

•Plastic design methods can be utilised.

•Rigid portal frames are more economical of the steel framed systems for the 15 to 45 meter range when compared to trussed construction for the same span. p 24

Disadvantages•Necessitates more costly connections and columns to withstand greater forces without the assistance of bracing.

•Increased column section mass may reduce any savings in member size due to rigid ends resulting in larger bending moments.

•Columns should ideally have near equal stiffness in both directions which might entail fabricated box columns.

•Large column movements

Note: if economical construction is the driving force behind the structure, then a balance must be met between the savings in materials versus the extra cost of rigid construction.

Steel – Two way rigid frame

(Ref 41)

(Ref 57)

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Two way braced frameworkTwo way braced frameworks rely on stabilizing bracing resisting racking forces in all directions. The framework itself can be constructed using simple pin connections in combination with a rigid floor system to resist distortion of the framework. This system

Advantages•Simple connections are possible and are the least costly type (which can offset the costs of heavy beam construction)

•The stabilizing elements can be arranged in a number of ways including braced panels, cores and orthogonally arranged shear walls which could be utilised in as walls around service blocks or external walls.

•External bracing could be used as an architectural feature.

•Usually use I columns

Disadvantages•Restricts the layout as there is the requirement for bracing all planes.

•Little interaction between elements

•Heavier beam sizes

Steel – Two way braced framework

(Ref 57)

(Ref 60)

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Bracing elements

Stabilising elements whose function is to provide a means of stabilizing the framework in either one or two planes may be divided into the following categories:

•Triangulated steel bracing panels using the X, K or diamond pattern of diagonal members.

•Vertical Vierendeel cantilevers in steel.

•Triangulated steel core.

•Reinforced concrete or masonry shear walls.

•Reinforced concrete or masonry cores or shear tubes

•Brick infill panels and walls

•Light metal cladding used on the stressed skin principle.

Steel – Bracing Elements

(Ref 57)

STEEL CABLE AND ROD

Steel Cable and steel rods are an increasingly common fixing method for modern design utilising suspended systems and glazing.

Able to be purchased from wholesalers in diameters up to 26mm, cables are less rigid than rods but comparatively stronger as there are no threads that add weakness to the system

For comparison, a grade 316 cable of 22mm diameter has a breaking load of 285 Kn versus rod at 22.2 mm, has a breaking strength of 169 Kn.

(Ref 59)

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An alternative building typology is the mast structure or tensile structure.

Mast architecture consists of a tensile structure based on tall masts suspending smaller structural elements in suspension cables or rods as secondary support elements. Rigid decking and flooring or flexible roofing are able to be suspended off the mast in a number of formats and configurations depending on the design parameters using fundamental loading principles in more complex arrangements.

In general terms, mast architecture is considered costly and inefficient for the majority of applications. Harris and Li suggest that “in terms of scale, the larger the unobstructed space needed, the more likely is a masted structure to be an economic and effective solution” page 139. Unobstructed spaces as large as 87 x 104 meters have been described as the remarkably economic and others considered the most economic with the most efficient use of material. But the same authors note that actually calculating the price of mast structures is difficult and time consuming which might account for the construction industry’s lack of enthusiasm for these structural styles in Australia. There is also difficulty in calculating the economic contribution of a visually striking building and its appropriateness. Actual weight of steel used in a mast structure is less than in regular structures per square meter of floor area, which is difficult to gauge the usefulness of this information.

Steel – Mast Architecture

Next

(Ref 39)

(Ref 58)

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Mast structures Advantages •Represent a significant alternative to traditional steel framed construction

•They represent progress in conceptual analysis and theoretical and practical understandings of how tensile structures behave.

•They demonstrate the successful use of new materials and components, their fixing and weatherproofing.

•They show how creative architect engineer collaboration can result in innovative structures which benefit both professions.

•They have introduced a new architectural genre with its own vocabulary and range of structural expression.

The alternative arrangements of masts, tension stays and grouping of functional ‘cells’ can meet a wide variety of demands and can be interpreted using many different materials and forms.

The reduction or complete absence of internal masts or columns over large areas increase their internal layout flexibility.

The regularity of the structural systems enables them to be easily extended, often with little disruption to the original fabric.

The main structural foundations can be concentrated on areas of sound foundations and reduced where soil is less accepting.

Externalising the structure reduces the visual scale of the building adding interest to the façade (an alternative to an anonymous big shed).

Building volume can be reduced allowing fewer materials to be used, less visual impact and reduced heating expense.

The structural efficiency of good design could lead to less structural materials and less costs as a result when compared to traditional methods.

Reductions in component sizes can reduce transport costs and overall savings to design.

The disadvantages •There are likely to be higher costs due to difficulties in analysis, calculation and checking, and in detailing.

•Difficult to predict issues in construction and design due to generalized lack of previous examples.

•In most examples there will be increased thermal movement with implications to the detailing of the structure and the envelope.

•The loading of the structure will require more than usual consideration

•Increased costs in corrosion proofing of steel work.

•High performance roofing systems will usually need to be provided and maintained.

Steel – Mast Architecture

(Ref 37)

(Ref 37)

(Ref 58)

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Steel – Envelope SystemsExternal

non structural steel would constitute cladding and sheet materials.•Most steel sheet products are non structural in that they form a cladding envelope in the form of a roof or walls. Although there is some racking force resistance benefits, these light weight steel sheets are well suited to cladding arrangements.

•Jointing methods.

•Riveting – early steel construction utilised riveting predominantly which was slow, cumbersome, noisy and by today’s standards very dangerous. Riveting utilses hot rivets being forced through pre drilled holes and forming a head on the stem to keep the rivet in place.

•Bolting – Still used for many situations to fix elements together on site, steel bolts and nuts are used to connect trusses, beams, floor plates, bracing.

•Welding – Welding essentially involves heating the metals to great temperature in a controlled manner so the metal will flow together and form one piece of metal. Developments in welding equipment sees much work done on site. Jointing beams and fixing shear connectors on decked concrete slabs is a good example of welding increasing productivity through this development in welding technology. (Ref 42)

• Steels’ tensile and compressive strength in fire situations where larger temperatures are encountered should also be considered during the design process. Application of post construction fire retardants can be utilised to reduce the impact of heating such elements by increasing the fire resistance rating of the elements (Ref 42)

Steel – Fire Rating

Steel column fire protection

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Simple judicial design of a steel structure can determine the potential economy of the structure. Through consultations with fabricators and builders, a clear picture of the best methods should be determined.

The ability to design for the maximum amount of work to be completed off site is typically beneficial.

Rolled universal sections are typically the cheapest for use in beams and columns. Composite columns could be used in high rise to good effect with square hollow sections giving good appearance.

Base plates should be minimal in fabrication requirements and utilise larger plates in stead.

Heavier gauge columns can save in stead of stiffners.

Sizing.

Sizing in beams depends on span, spacing and loading. If the beam carries more point loads, suggestions are even more difficult. In general for uniformly distributed loads the sizes are

Imposed load Spacing Span Size composite Size non composite

5 3 6 254x102xUB25 305x127xUB42

5 3 7.5 305x102xUB33 356x171xUB51

5 3 9 356x171xUB45 457x152xub60

5 3 12 457x191xUB67 610x229xUB101

5 3 18 754x266xUB147 762x267xUB103

(NB supporting beams will be 100 to 150 mm deeper than these above)

Column size is not something easily reduced and columns should be no less than 250 mm wide for ease of detailing

Trusses with centres of 3 to 6 meters carrying uniformly distributed is economic and reliable between one 12th to one 15th of the span.

Steel – Rules of Thumb

(Ref 13)

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Steel – Conclusion

Intended Office recommendations for design

• Steel corrugated sheets for office roofing.• Aluminium window framing• Roof framing system

Intended Warehouse recommendations for design

• Stainless Steel cable for tent structural support• Hollow Steel Section for central column.• Stainless steel fixings for exterior fixing requirements• Steel columns for mezzanine support• Steel roller doors for truck entry and exit

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Concrete - General Information

•Concrete technology was first developed by the Romans more than 2000 years ago using a mixture of fine volcanic ash with hydrated lime cement, broken brick and stone.

•Modern Concrete is an artificial stone produced in a plastic condition by mixing together aggregates (sand and crushed rock) and Portland cement and water in controlled proportions. The characteristics of concrete depend largely on the qualities and proportions of these ingredients.

•Due to the nature of the chemical bonds which form concrete it is extremely strong under compression but weak under tension. It is for this reason that concrete is reinforced with steel, a material which can under go high tensile forces with less permanent deformation

(Ref 42)

(Ref 43)

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Concrete – Structural Systems

Next

Footings

Strip footingsOverview• A strip of reinforced concrete is poured into a trench dug in the

foundations to support continuous walls.

Pros• Can be used independently or in a combination to support a range of

suspended flooring systems common on sites with steep slopes• Allows access to services after construction.

Cons• Can be used on flat sites but is a more expensive alternative to raft

slabs on flat sites.

Pad footing

Pad footingsOverview• A pad of reinforced concrete is poured into the foundations to support

distribute point loads from piers supporting the structure.

Pros• Can be used independently or in a combination to support a range of

suspended flooring systems common on sites with steep slopes• Allows access to services after construction.

Cons• Can be used on flat sites but is a more expensive alternative to raft

slabs on flat sites.

(Ref 44)

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Pier and Beam

Overview• On highly reactive sites and areas of collapsing or uncontrolled fill, piers or piles

may be used to support the above structure. Piers are excavated and then poured with steel reinforcement before the system above is attached.

Pros• Effective solution for building on uncontrolled fill

Cons• Labour and time intensive• Requires detailed design specifications by an engineer.

Raft slabOverview• A continuous slab of concrete is poured on the foundations with reinforcement to

evenly distribute loads over a large shallow area.

Pros• Easy to construct on flat sites• Minimum number of steps for access• Provides a good working platform• Low maintenance• Low long term movement• Robust and difficult to manage• Good thermal properties

Cons• Not suited to large sloping sites• Floor plan alterations difficult in the future (plumbing and other services)• Costly to repair

• Can not detect structural integrity of slab


Previous

(Ref 44)

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Roof StructureShell and barrel roof

Overview• A steel reinforced concrete barrel roof is cast on site after walls

are erected. Formwork must be erected and extensive calculations must be made by a structural engineer.

Pros• easily constructed if it permits use of standardised forms• can achieve long spans without column support internally• cast on site so no transportation costs Cons• Labour and time intensive• Extensive formwork required

Wall StructureTilt up

Overview• A concrete floor slab used as the principal casting bed and wall

panels are cast on site capable of bearing the load of the roof construction. These panels are usually cast full height, with no horizontal joints, on the floor slab and are then tilted to their vertical position when cured.

Pros• No transport costs• Easier lifting• Wide range of applied finishes available• Good acoustic properties• Time efficient• Can be used in either a load bearing or non-load bearing

capacity Cons• Limits usability of floor• Causes imperfections in floor finish due to the effects of bond

breakers• Must allow for crane access

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Previous

Pre castOverview• Reinforced concrete panels are cast off site capable of

bearing the load of the roof construction.• Like tilt up these panels are usually cast full height with

no horizontal joints and are most effective when used in repetition. These panels are then transported to the site and lifted to their vertical position using cranes.

Pros• Greater degree of accuracy achieved than through tilt

up method• Can be designed to serve almost any building capacity• Can be used in either a load bearing or non-load

bearing capacity• Good acoustic properties• Wide range of applied finishes available Cons• Transportation costs• Must allow for crane access

Pre StressedOverview• Steel reinforcement is stressed prior to pouring of concrete

the pre-stressing process aims to place a tensile stress into the tension steel prior to the load being applied

• The system can be used both in situ and pre-cast work, a common example of this system are T-beams.

Pros• Eliminates cracking due to shrinkage while drying• Deflection a member normally incurs under loading can be

greatly eliminated and the waterproofing and load bearing qualities of the concrete improved

Cons• The same heights and spans can be achieved more

effectively through used of steel members which are smaller in size

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Concrete – Envelope SystemsInternal

Next

Polished concrete

Overview• Concrete surface of slab on ground or suspended slab left

exposed as the final floor finish. Liquid polishes, latex coatings, chemical sealers, grinding and colouring agents can be applied to achieve a variety of finishes.

Pros• Variety of colours, textures and finishes are available.Easily

maintained, only regular cleaning required

Cons• Requires recoating at regular intervals depending on use of the

floor.• Structural integrity dependant on quality of concrete mix and

workmanship.

FlooringBondek

Overview•Steel structural formwork and reinforcement system for composite slabs and beams.•Used in combination with reinforced concreted to create a suspended slab.

Pros•Achieves thin, high strength slabs with minimal labour and time.•Is suitable for mezzanine floors•Acts as formwork and replaces bottom reinforcement.

Cons•Limited unsupported spaning capacitiesOnly available in standard lengths.

(Ref 45)

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Concrete – Envelope SystemsInternal

Previous

Wall Cladding

Fibro cement sheetingOverview• Single-faced cellulose fibre reinforced cement building boards are

available for use in exterior and interior cladding uses these are generally composed of Portland cement, ground sand, cellulose fibre and water.

Pros• Fire resistant• Termite resistant• When installed correctly is resistant to rot and warping• Resistant to permanent water damage

Cons• No allowance for acoustic insulation• Available in a limited range of lengths Ceilings

Fibre reinforced cement Overview• Single-faced cellulose fibre reinforced cement building boards are

available for fixing between rafters on ceilings these are generally composed of Portland cement, ground sand, cellulose fibre and water.

Pros• Fire resistant• Termite resistant• When installed correctly is resistant to rot and warping• Resistant to permanent water damage

Cons• No allowance for acoustic insulation

• Available in a limited range of lengths

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Concrete – Envelope SystemsExternal

Next

Wall claddingTilt up

Overview• A concrete floor slab used as the principal casting bed and wall

panels are cast on site capable of bearing the load of the roof construction. These panels are usually cast full height, with no horizontal joints, on the floor slab and are then tilted to their vertical position when cured.

Pros• No transport costs• Easier lifting• Wide range of applied finishes available• Good acoustic properties• Time efficient• Can be used in either a load bearing or non-load bearing

capacity Cons• Limits usability of floor• Causes imperfections in floor finish due to the effects of bond

breakers• Must allow for crane access

Pre cast Overview• Reinforced concrete panels are cast off site capable of bearing

the load of the roof construction.Like tilt up these panels are usually cast full height with no horizontal joints and are most effective when used in repetition. These panels are then transported to the site and lifted to their vertical position using cranes.

Pros• Greater degree of accuracy achieved than through tilt up

method• Can be designed to serve almost any building capacity• Can be used in either a load bearing or non-load bearing

capacity• Good acoustic properties• Wide range of applied finishes available

Cons• Transportation costs• Must allow for crane access

(Ref 52)

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Concrete – Envelope SystemsExternal

Previous

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks Overview• Standard sized blocks made from chemically produced and steam

cured lightweight concrete and are laid up using special adhesives.

Pros• Easily handled, accurate to shape and size, and can be cut and

shaped with normal hand tools• High fire resistance• Excellent thermal and acoustic insulating properties Cons• Easily damaged due to their softnes • Through cement rendering they can be made reasonably

resistant to normal abuses

Concrete tiles Overview•Concrete roofing tiles based on the Marseilles pattern without reinforcing. Pros•In locations such as ocean frontages they are not affected by salt spray.•Easily replaced as faults will most likely occur in one or two tiles at a time Cons•Generally heavier than terracotta products•Labour and time intensive to install•Only suitable for certain roof pitches ie unsuitable for flat or steep roof surfaces.

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Concrete – Drainage Systems

Steel Reinforced Concrete PipesOverview• steel reinforced concrete pipes made from coarse

and fine aggregates, cement and hard drawn deformed steel reinforcement, joined using either a flush joint or rubber joint.

Pros• Rubber Ring Joints provide concrete pipes with a

high degree of flexibility to accommodate ground settlement or deflections.

• Pipeline systems can allow for curved alignment without loosing water tight jointing.

• Can be tailor designed to meet the most drainage requirements.

• Can withstand high pressures whilst still maintaining structural integrity

• Available in a wide range of sizes in either standard or custom lengths.

Cons• Certain pipelines may require council approval

(Ref 55)

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Concrete – Rules of Thumb

Reinforced Concrete SlabsIn-situ slabs are generally not less than 125 to 150mm thick. If the

thickness is less it is difficult to get two layers of reinforcement in• Sensible spans for light weight and normal concrete on metal

deck or permanent formwork are 2.4 to 3.6m.One way spanning simply supported reinforced slabs. Sensible slab depths and spans are:150mm 3.0m250mm 6.0m300mm 7.2mAbove a 7.2m span it is economical to use a ribbed slab.

• Ribbed slab depths (ribs at about 600mm centres) and spans are:500mm 10.0m700mm 14.0mIt is not usual to go much beyond 14m without using a beam and slab system.

• Two way spanning and continuious slabs can be a bit thinner.Sensible slab depths and spans are:125mm 3.0m225mm 6.0m275mm 7.2mLarge span two-way slabs are not usually used.

• Flat slabs are always continuous but need to be a bit thicker than two way slabsSensible slab spans and depths are:150mm 3.0m250mm 6.0m300mm 7.2m

• Above a 7.2m span it is usually economic to use a waffle slab. Rib centres are usually in the range of 900 to 1500mm centres.Sensible waffle slab depths are:500mm 10.0m700mm 14.0mIt is not usual to go much beyond 14m.

Reinforced Concrete Walls•Walls should normally be at least 200mm thick. If the wall is thinner it is very difficult to get a vibrating poker down between two layers of reinforcement•Walls need tp be thicker than 200mm when the storey height is greater than normal.•Retaining walls need to e 250 to 300mm minimum and of a thickness appropriate to their vertical span.•Freestanding cantilever walls need to be more massive to resist overturning.

Reinforced Concrete Beams•For edge beams to slabs when the beam does not carry point loads from other beams or columns above. Sensible beam depths and spans are:

500mm 6.0m

600mm 7.2m

700mm 8.0m

Above this span allow “span divided by 10” for sizing of all beams.

Reinforced Concrete Columns•Allow 0.15 per cent of the floor area supported for sway-braced columns assuming the column length is not greater than 12 times the width. Columns should not be less than 250mm wide.

(Ref 13)

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Concrete – Fire Rating

Concrete column fire protection

(Ref 20)

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Concrete – Conclusion


• Tilt up walls for office space (south, east and west)• Raft slab footings


• Retaining wall/ footing system• Raft slab footing

•Concrete is a very versatile building material in that it can be cast in a wide variety of shapes and sizes to suit many building applications.

•Although concrete is weak under tensile stress when used in combination with steel in the form of reinforcement it is a strong building material.

•As concrete has a high resistance to the corrosive effects of water and minerals (with the use of admixtures) it can be used in a wide variety of building applications.

•Concrete also has extremely good thermal and noise insulation properties, it is for this reason that it is often used in a load bearing or non load bearing capacity in wall systems.

•Although concrete is often seen as cold and unpleasant to the eye it is commonly used as it is cost and time effective and can easily be treated with a variety of colours and textures to make it more aesthetically pleasing.

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Timber – General Information

• Timber is a very popular material, as it is organic, renewable and generally assembled with simple tools.

• Parallel to the grain timber has a relatively equal compressive and tensile strength

• One downside to the use of timber is that its properties are generally not uniform, this is predominantly because of the variation in moisture content of the timber and the air, which can cause expansion and shrinkage of the timber.

• It is on the other hand fire resistant when used in large sections. (Ref 21)

• Another downside of timber is the fact that without the correct detailing and regular maintenance it will have a long or successful structural life.

• Laminated timber has less defects and irregularities than normal timber, and the effects of their defects are reduced. This is because the grain of the thin slices of timber run perpendicular to the one next to them (i.e. the grain no longer lines up), and therefore the defects would no longer line up.

• Some of the common defects are knots, shakes and gum veins

• Manufactured timber products used in construction– Plywood– Laminated timber– Laminated veneer lumber

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Timber – Structural Systems

• Portal Frames

• Timber is good for portal frames because timber has a good strength-to-weight ratio.• Laminated timber can span 10-30m, and can therefore be very useful in portal frame

construction.• Portal frames with curved knees are used as 3 pinned portals with spans up to 50m, with

minimum roof pitch of 15 degrees

• Timber portal frames can be added to easily in the future• For timber portal frames plywood or steel gussets are nailed at the moment joints (knee

and apex), for added strength, and act as a reaction to the moment force at that particular point

• When creating a gusset it is more efficient to use a piece of plywood with a more pronounced strength in one direction.

• Glued laminated timber is especially suited to portal frame production as there is a freedom of location of moment joints as well as the placement of secondary member attachments.

Typical Portal Frame (Ref 24)

Curved Knee (Ref 24)

Plywood

Gusset

(Ref 24)

Steel Gusset

(Ref 24)

Plywood Gusset (Ref 24)

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Structural Systems

Footings• Timber is not commonly used as part of

the footings on commercial construction

Construction• Timber on the whole is easy to handle,

and doesn’t require special tools unlike steel and concrete etc.

• When timber is used as the structural system for warehouses the majority of the construction process is carried out on site.

• Generally only a carpenter is needed when using timber in construction.

Trusses• Laminated timber is suitable for large

spans and/or heavy loaded trusses. (Ref 21)

Plywood Webbed Beams• Plywood webbed box beams are good for

large span structures as they have good lateral stability, along with increased buckling resistance. This occurs because the laminating process increases the strength of the timber member. (Ref 22)

Roofing• Plywood can also be used as a substrate

for roofing.

Flooring• Timber is commonly used as floor

structure in residential and some commercial construction. Used as floor joists, bearers and as flooring.

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Timber – Envelope SystemsInternal

• When timber is used as rafters you can decide to expose them, in turn giving the building or room a very different aesthetic quality.

• Timber can also be used as decorative internal lining, therefore making interior surfaces that are also aesthetically pleasing.

• Plywood can be used as a decorative internal lining.

• When using plywood as flooring large areas can be covered quickly, making the process of laying much simpler.

• It is also very common to use as flooring, particularly in commercial premises such as offices.

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Timber – Envelope SystemsExternal

• The most commonly used form of external cladding when referring to timber is timber boards (i.e. weather boards). It is for this reason that they come in a variety of profiles.

• When used externally timber can be left in its natural state, as there are some naturally durable species, or finished with a preservative, either clear, stained or opaque (i.e. Paint).

• It is for the reasons above that means that the external use of timber becomes integral part of the design.

• When used for external purposes especially there is a lot of maintenance required, as well as good detailing at joints, and adequate fixings.

• If timber is used as external cladding you also get the added advantage of extra stability, which is an asset in high quality work.

• While most timber products are suitable for external use laminated veneer lumber is not recommended for use in areas where permanent exposure to the weather is required.

(Ref 35) (Ref 35)(Ref 35)

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Plywood – when dealing with fixings

(Ref 36)

Timber– Rules of Thumb

•When dealing with timber in general the major concern, and therefore crucial rules of thumb is to do with the detailing of the joints, the finishes, and the quality of the fixings

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Timber– Fire Rating

Fire rating

• Main members (if solid timber) can be designed to support their design loads in even the severest of fires, as the surface of solid and laminated timber chars and then resists further burning

• According to the Boral Timber technical manual (July 98) visible timber based materials or components such as decorative wall or ceiling paneling and flooring which are accepted for use in building classed 2-9 should have a spread of flame index not more than 9, or a smoke development index not more than eight where the spread of flame index is more than 5.

•Timber Floors and Roofs–If half hour fire rating with load bearing capacity, integrity and insulation is required the internal lining needs to be 6mm thick, and you have 19mm tongue-and-groove flooring with a minimum 38mm joists at 600mm centres–If 1 hour fire rating with load bearing capacity, integrity and insulation is required, and you have concealed timber joists or exposed timber joists you will need 9mm thick internal lining, with insulation with a density of 60kg/m³ or greater and that is 40mm thick, along with timber floor boards that are 19mm thick.–If 2 hours of fire rating with load bearing capacity, integrity and insulation is required, you will need 2 x 12mm thick internal lining, with insulation that has a density of 60kg/m³ or greater and that is 50mm thick, along with timber floor boards that are 19mm thick.

Internal Partitions – Timber Studs–If half hour fire rating, integrity and insulation are required the internal lining on each side needs to be 6mm thick, with insulation that is 60mm thick and has a density of 23kg/m³, and therefore the nominal thickness of 75mm–If an hours fire rating, integrity and insulation is required the nominal thickness of partition should be 81mm, the internal lining on each side needs to be 9mm thick, with insulation that is 80mm thick and has a density of 23kg/m³.–If 1.5 hours fire rating, integrity and insulation is required the nominal thickness of partition should be 81mm, the internal lining on each side needs to be 9mm thick, with insulation that is 50mm thick and has a density of 100kg/m³ or more.–If 2 hours fire rating, integrity and insulation is required the nominal thickness of partition should be 87mm, the internal lining on each side needs to be 12mm thick, with insulation that is 60mm thick and has a density of 100kg/m³ or more.

Ref 20 (E 420.10 and E 460.10)

Timber column fire protection

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Timber– Conclusion

• Timber on the whole is versatile, in that one of its many features is the fact that a timber structure can be easily added to after completion.

• Timber also has the ability to absorb high impact loads for short periods of time without causing any adverse effects.

• Timber can also be manufactured into long lengths and large section sizes.

• It is also economical because generally only a carpenter is required, with no need for specialized tools.

• It is also because of its natural pleasing appearance that timber is so commonly used, with relation to flooring and other internal linings, and why in some cases it is a preference over steel.


• Exposed beam mezzanine hardwood floor• Hardwood stairs


• Aluminium faced plywood cladding

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• Polytetrafluoroethylene glass fibre coated fabric

General Description : Fabrics woven from continuous filament glass yarns and coated with PTFE to give a stiff, flexible, fairly smooth surfaced material that is chemically inert with excellent release

properties. (Ref 1) Envelope system

• Glass BlocksGeneral Description: small transparent glass bricks that can provide

fire protection, thermal properties, light transmission and sound

insulation. Envelope system

• Crystallised glass General Description: It is made by the highly sophisticated and

specialized technique of crystallization of glass. The crystallization process produces needle-shaped crystals called B-wollastonite (CaOSi02) and gives the glass a soft colour which results in the

marble-like texture of Neoparies. (Ref 2) Envelope system

• Plastic sheeting Rooflight Fibreglass General Description: Rooflite Fibreglass is a quality translucent fibre

reinforced polyester sheet. (Ref 4) Envelope system

Glass and Plastic – General Information

• Glass BalustradesGeneral Description: Bent, curved or straight glass

sheets supported by posts or free standing. Envelope systems

• Spider Tension Truss system Glass sheeting suspended by cables Envelope system

• Overhead Glazing Glass sheeting suspended by

cables overhead Envelope system

• Balastrade system Envelope system

Glass manufacture

Constituents of glass

• Sand

• Soda ash

• Limestone

• Dolomite

• Alumina

• Heat to 1500 C, float over tn bath, annealed to 500 C

Planar (structural glazing) General Description: Fully Fixed Pilkington Armourfloat®

toughened safety glass panels can be supported by fully-fixed support structures using the Pilkington Planar® system. These can take the form of space frames, structural metalwork, masonry, or any other

suitable structure. (Ref 5) Envelope system

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Glass and Plastic– Structural Systems

Glass is not structural, for glass to be structural it requires other materials see the construction processes

(Ref 8)

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Glass and Plastic – Envelope SystemsExternal(according to Ref 1)

Pro’s• used for permanent constructions• material has very high tensile resistance• Material is UV resistant, • non-combustible and • boasts a high reflective capability• membrane is washed clean every time it rains and therefore

normally does not require additional cleaning• 100% PVDF on the surface, it provides effective protection

against atmospheric pollution, soiling and climatic aggressions

• Solar Transmission 7%• Solar Reflectance 12%• Fire Performance• Non-combustibility of Substrate Pass (ASTM E-136)• Intermittent Flame Class A (ASTM E-108)• Spread of Flame Class A (ASTM E-108)• External Fire Exposure Roof Test Class AA (BS 476-Part 3)• Fire Propagation Class 0 (BS 476-Part 6)• Spread of Flame Class 1 (BS 476-Part 7)• Chemical Resistance• Electrical Properties• Physical Properties• Thermal Properties

Polytetrafluoroethylene glass fiber coated fabricIs fabric that is stiff, flexible, and has a fairly smooth surface that is chemically inert with excellent

release properties.

Con’s

- Toxic

Chemicals in the making of the material which may cause death or acute or chronic damage to health when inhaled, ingested or absorbed via the skin.

- Irritant

Non-corrosive chemicals in the making of the material which, through immediate, prolonged or repeated contact with the skin or mucous membrane may cause inflammation

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Chemical Resistance

Acids - concentrated Good

Acids - dilute Good

Alcohols Good

Alkalis Good

Aromatic Hydrocarbons Good

Greases and Oils Good

Halogens Fair

Ketones Good

Electrical Properties

Surface Resistivity ( Ohm/sq ) >1013

Volume Resistivity ( Ohmcm ) >1015

Physical Properties

Density ( g cm-3 ) 2.08

Thermal Properties

Lower Working Temperature ( C ) -190 to -60

Upper Working Temperature ( C ) 260

(Ref 1)

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Glass and Plastic – Envelope SystemsExternal

Pro’s• Thermal protection (see chart)• Sound insulation• Fire protection (see chart) • Glass Blocks can protect against fire and smoke,

achieving Fire Resistance Levels from -/60/- to -/90/90 in extreme cases

• Can be used as floors or walls• Need little maintenance • offer great versatility where fire protection is required,

but where natural light and/or transparency are desirable. • Glass block walls offer a high degree of light transmission,

up to 79% of vertically incident light. • - colourless block DT 190 x 190 x 80 generally gives light

transmission of approximately 80%• Glass block walls can reduce the heating of rooms

caused by direct sunlight in summer and warm rooms in winter by allowing heating from the sun while it is at a low angle

• Glass Block walls offer a high level of security, with steel reinforced joints acting as a security grill. Bullet resistant blocks are also available

• - Thermal Insulation and Energy transmission is equal to that achieved by standard double glazing

Glass Blocks (Ref 3)

General Description: small transparent glass bricks that can provide fire protection, thermal properties, light transmission and sound insulation.

Con’s• Non load bearing - should not take anything but their own

weight• reinforcement is required• must be fixed on two opposite sides, so that the horizontal

forces from the wall are safely distributed• Suitable expansion and sliding joints must be provided to

ensure that wall movements, as well as compressive forces, are absorbed. Sliding joints must be provided at the perimeter, while expansion joints must be filled with a durable and weatherproof elastic material. The latter must be a minimum of 10 mm thick

• Vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall be spaced at a maximum of 600 mm centres

- glass can be scratched - Panel Dimensions should be limited depending on the

method of installation

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(Ref 3)

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Pro’s• marble like texture• is brighter, smoother and more uniform in texture than

marble• superior to marble and granite in strength and resistance to

weathering• formation into curved surfaces because it can be softened

and bent when heat is applied• is used for exterior and interior walls of buildings, floors, and

for counter tops and table tops• Neopariés is superior to marble and granite in resistance to

acid and alkali• a zero-percent water absorption rate• This makes this material about 30% lighter in weight than

natural stone materials

• (Ref 2)

Crystallised glass General Description: Neopariés is a versatile building material having a

marble-like texture and greater strength and resistance to weathering than granite. It is used for exterior and interior walls of buildings, floors, and for counter tops and table tops. Neopariés can also be formed into columns and curved corners, as it requires only a simple process to make a curved panel. It is most cost effective. (Ref 2)

Con’s• Non load bearing• Needs structural support

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Pro’s• Used where maximum light with minimum heat is required• heat reduction of up to 70%.• where improved smoke properties are required• for easy and rapid installation• Rooflite Polycarbonate can withstand a temperature range

of -30°C to +120°C without losing any of its physical properties.

• by a co-extruded UV layer• capacity of shielding up to 99% of the sun's rays• See fig 1 and fig 2 for specifications

Plastic sheeting Rooflight Fibreglass

General Description: Rooflite Fibreglass is a quality translucent fibre reinforced polyester sheet. (Ref 4)

Con’s• light transmission of 38%

The following indices have been achieved:for AS 1530 Part 3

•Ignitability Index: 15 •Heat evolved Index: 10

•Spread of flame Index: 9 •Smoke Developed Index: 7

Physical Properties•Barcol Hardness 45

•Flexural Strength 90MPA

•Flexural Modulus 7GPA

•Compressive Strength 139MPA

•Shear Strength 90MPA

•Impact Strength 531CJ/M2

•Thermal expansion 1.9x105CM/°C

•Specific Gravity 1.45GMS/CC

•Water Absorption (24hrs) 0.24

•Service TemperatureRecommended: -20°C to 75°C Light & Solar Transmission

Rooflite Fibreglass

COLOUR LIGHT TRANSMISSION HEAT TRANSMISSION

Clear 85% 89%

Opal 55% 65%

Based on 2400gsm. Total Solar Transmission is the % of incident solar radiation transmitted by an object

which includes the direct solar transmission plus the part of solar absorption re-radiated inwards.

Fig 1

Fig 2

(Ref 4) (Ref 4)

(Ref 4)

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Pro’s• can provide a complete glass envelope for a building

structure without the use of conventional frames or mullions..

• It is engineered to permit glazing in any plane, enabling flush glazing to sweep up walls, slopes and over roofs on one continuous surface vertically or horizontally, or

• they can act in suspension manufactured in Australia to conform with Australian Standard 2208 "Safety Glazing Materials for use in Buildings

• vertical fins which may be either cantilevered downwards from the top support, cantilevered up and down from intermediate floors, or continuous for the full height of the assembly

• Aesthetic function can be achieved • Has been used throughout the world, including areas which

are prone to earthquakes, typhoons and hurricanes • Vertical fins can be placed in different ways for a desired

affect• differential movement is allowed for between the glass

façade and the fins


Planar (structural glazing)

General Description: Fully Fixed Pilkington Armourfloat® toughened safety glass panels can be supported by fully-fixed support structures using the Pilkington Planar® system. These can take the form of space frames, structural metalwork, masonry, or any other suitable structure. (Ref 5)

Con’s• Heat transmission• Lack of insulation

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Glass and Plastic – Envelope SystemsGlass Balustrades

Pro’s• Armourview® Balustrades

• Pilkington ArmourView® Balustrading is ideal wherever a barrier protecting a difference in level must also maximize views and daylight:

• Stairways and landings.

• Commercial and retail premises, including atrium & light wells.

• Housing decks (viewing decks).

• High-rise apartments.

• Mezzanines, and changes in floor levels.

• Observation decks.

• Theatre boxes and cinema balconies.

• Windbreaks.

• Free-standing - eliminates the need for any form of frame structure allowing unrestricted views

• Low-maintenance

• Structurally tested

• Easy installation

• Heat Soak Treatment

Glass Balustrades

General Description: Bent, curved or straight glass sheets supported by posts or free standing.

Con’s• Maximum height- 1200

• Glass length minimum 1000mm.

• Max length- 2500

• Design does not account for Panic loads that may be required, refer AS1170.1.

• Construction dust, leachate from concrete and rusting from steel can contribute to the formation of mild chemicals which may stain or otherwise damage the glass.

• Avoid causing extreme temperature changes as this may lead to thermal fracture of the glass, i.e. do not splash hot water on cold glass or freezing water on hot glass.

(according to Ref 5)

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Glass and Plastic – Envelope SystemsSpider Tension Truss System according to (Ref 9)

Pro’s• Completely flush external appearance, uninterrupted by

frames. • Suspended point fixed glass with high tension stainless steel

vertical rod trusses as wind bracing.• Trusses are tensioned between the concete floor slab and roof• 4m x 3m Tested with 5kPa wind pressure• flexibility allows the austvision Spider Austfix Tension Rod

Truss System designed as vertical and or horizontal truss support

• removes heavy wall structures and replaces it with a lightweight tension truss system

• can withstand specified earthquake and typhoon conditions• Available for monolithic and double glazing installation unit.• Available using tempered laminated without outside face

having holes.• Design freedom for mechanical fixtures to be small and neat to

suit aesthetic objectives• can be up to 6m high suspended glass wall structurally

supported by a 19mm thick x 380mm wide glass fin• For Frameless glass- overhead glazing including slope glazing

and canopy the glass panel is point supported at and near its corners when under loading the glass panel to flex and bend, twist and shear at the fixing points

• Spider glass wall a system that allows the glass to move independently from the structure avoiding any twisting or bending of the glass

• Can have glazing from the floor to the ceiling• All glass fully tempered and heat soaked, assuring safety and

reliability

Con’s

- Special requirements and specifications compliance as to the glass itself

- Its support

- fittings

- tightness of the façade system

- installation and maintenance

- builders (everyone involved) must work in very close cooperation from the very start of the project

CALCULATED MAX.CAPACITY OF 316 GR. S.S. SPIDER FITTINGConfirmed by Tests(fy=220MPa) Safety Factor 2.0

SPIDER FITTING

LATERAL CAPACITY VERTICAL CAPACITY

PER ARM kN

ARM'S DEFLECTIO

N mm

PER ARM kN

ARM'S DEFLECTION mm

443/2 4.20 1.95 3.10 1.10

443/4 1.25 2.10 1.90 1.20

446/2M 6.50 2.00 3.70 4.00

446/4M 3.75 4.45 2.30 4.00

446/2C 2.95 1.95 1.90 2.40

446/4C 2.22 4.35 1.45 2.80

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Glass and Plastic – Envelope SystemsOverhead Glazing

Pro’s• glass panel can flex freely up to 7 degrees in any direction.• All glass fully tempered and heatsoaked, assuring safety

and reliability • Aesthetically pleasing effect achieved

Con’s• Special requirements and specifications compliance as to the

glass itself• Its support• fittings• tightness of the façade system• installation and maintenance• builders (everyone involved) must work in very close

cooperation from the very start of the project

(Ref 9)

(Ref 9)

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Glass and Plastic – Envelope Systems

Balustrade system Pro’s• Frameless glass balustrade minimum 10mm thick glass

panel designed to • resist impact load acting inward, outward or downward. • Conditions designed to meet the SAA loading code

Australian Standard AS1171 Part 1.

Con’s• High maintenance concerning appearance

Balustrade Elevation Balustrade Section

(Ref 9)

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• Construction dust, leachate from concrete and rusting from steel can contribute to the formation of mild chemicals which may stain or otherwise damage the glass.

• Use only cleaning material free of grit and grime (to avoid scratching and marking of glass surface)

• Use only detergents and cleaning solutions which are recommended glass cleaners. Mild detergents are preferable.

• Extra care is necessary where high performance reflective glass is installed. The coated surface can be susceptible to stains and scratches and therefore requires vigilance during the full construction process.

• Temporary screens may need to be installed if welding, sandblasting, floor sanding, cutting or other potentially damaging construction practices are used near glass.

• Glass installations which are adjacent to concrete (e.g. concrete slab floors) require extra care and cleaning due to the abrasive nature of concrete dust.

• Advise all tradesmen to beware of damaging glass and windows.

WHAT NOT TO DO

• Do not store or place other material in contact with the glass. (This can damage the glass or create a heat trap leading to thermal breakage). • Never use abrasive cleaners on glass. Scouring pads or other harsh materials must not be used to clean windows or other glass products.

Powder based cleaners are to be avoided. • Avoid causing extreme temperature changes as this may lead to thermal fracture of the glass, i.e. do not splash hot water on cold glass or

freezing water on hot glass.

• Some tapes or adhesives can stain or damage glass surfaces. Avoid using such materials unless they are known to be easily removed.

Glass and Plastic – Rules of Thumb (according to Ref 5)

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• PRODUCT COMPARISONS

• CONSTRUCTION COST COMPARISONS

• Solar Control - High performance glass minimising solar heat gains. Providing less heat gain than skylights, due to better shading co-efficient and vertical wall location

• Windowclad® • Pilkington Windowclad™ is a low cost glass wall cladding system, that has been padcaged for new industrial buildings and the refurbishment of

factories and warehouses.

Glass and Plastic – Fire Rating

Wall Cladding Glass Steel3 Concrete1

Daylight

- Transmission Up to 20% 0% 0%

- Reflectivity Less than 20% Variable 2 Variable 2

Insulation 6.1W/m2 OC 7.14W/m2 OC 4.5W/m2 OC

Noise Reduction STC 34 STC 30 STC 44

Weight 25Kg/m2 4.9Kg/m2 300Kg/m2

1. Concrete panel 125mm Thick

2 Steel and concrete reflectivity is variable and dependant on surface finish

3. 0.48mm Steel

Wall Construction (relative premium - per m 2 Floor Area)

with WINDOWCL

AD

with WINDOW

CLAD &

Skylights

Precast concrete walls (not fire rated)

0.7% 1.4%

Precast concrete walls to 2m high 2.3% 3.0%

Steel cladding colour coated 4.3% 5.0%

(Ref 5)

(Ref 5)

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• Glass is an adaptable and a aesthetically pleasing material• It is versatile, and provides access for natural light although also allows heat to enter the building• It is generally brittle and therefore requires support from other materials• In its different forms it can be used for flooring, walling, roofing, and even table tops also many other applications• It needs to be insured that the correct type of glass is used for the correct job.

Glass and Plastic– Conclusion


• Full double glazed and tinted glass windows for North wall• Glass balustrade for office wall. • Glass top for reception desk


• N.A.

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(Ref 6)

Construction Process - glass bricks

(Ref 2)

FIRE RATED PANEL INSTALLATION

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Construction Process - Crystallised glass (according to Ref 7)

To meet the requirements of modern architecture, optimum methods of construction using Neopariés have been worked out, based on concepts that differ from those of conventional architecture using natural stone materials.*The important point in the construction methods using Neopariés is the avoidance of its direct contact to the structure on which work is being done. The idea ' is to provide for some flexibility, in order to prevent transmission of the structure's expansion and shrinkage as well as its vibration to Neopariés . Exterior Wall Construction Method

The illustration shows how Neopariés . is used as an exterior wall material. With the back surface pasted with a glass fiber mat, Neopariés . is attached to the base structure by means of stainless steel fastener. No mortar is used.

Exterior Wall (Reinforced Concrete Structure)

Panel-by-panel attachmentEach panel is attached by metal fastener as an independent entity. This totally eliminates the possibility of panels in upper layers weighting down those in lower layers.

Independence from deformation of base structureThe use of metal fastener keeps the base structure and Neopariés . mutually independent of effects of deformation. Should some deformation occur in the base structure, Neopariés is not affected in any way.

Mortar-less application method The absence of mortar as an adhesive eliminates generation of efflorescence and the resulting staining of surfaces. Also eliminated are the possibilities of accidents caused by mortar expansion and explosions caused by freezing.

Glass fiber mat liningThanks to the glass fiber mat lining, Neopariés . cannot fall off the base structure, even if broken into pieces. This is because the pieces remain firmly adhered to the glass fiber lining.

Exterior Wall (Steel Structure)

Next

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Construction Process - Crystallised glass (according to Ref 7)

Previous

Interior Wall and Roof Construction MethodApplication of Neopariés to interior walls and floors does not differ from that of ordinary stone materials.

Interior Wall

PC MethodNeopariés -finished PC panels are easy to manufacture in factories. They are installed in exactly the same way as other materials, but certain flexibility is provided between Neopariés and PC panels. Stainless steel clamps are used to fix Neopariés to concrete surfaces, and a pendant is attached to the center of Neopariés . The back surface of Neopariés is lined with a glass fiber mat, which keeps this material separated from the concrete and provides flexibility.

PC Method

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Construction Process - Plastic sheeting Rooflight Fibreglass

General

General (Ref 4)

DrillingHoles should be pre-drilled using a sharp metal working bit. The diameter of the hole should be drilled 5mm larger than the diameter of the fastener to allow for expansion.

CuttingFor best results use a circular saw with a fine tooth blade, ensuring the sheet is held securely in place. The use of a dust mask is recommended

Rooflite Fibreglass

Rooflite Fibreglass Translucent sheeting is manufactured to match steel roll

formed roof sheeting, it can generally be fixed utilizing the same fasteners per AS/NZS 1562.3:1996. Positive fixed profiles should be fastened in the rib or crest of the sheeting. In the wall cladding through the pan or valley. Fasteners should be fixed through every rib at the end purlins and laps, and alternative ribs at intermediate purlins. Fasteners for side laps are recommended for purlins and girt spans exceeding 1200mm.

Galaxy Rooflite recommends the use of weatherlok washers or similar under the head of each roof fastener, also bulb tite rivets for side lap fasteners or equivalent. End laps should be a minimum of 300mm for roof and 200mm for walls.

Safety Mesh should be used under all industrial sheeting installed in roofs, using foam tape or protection strips to cushion the fibreglass sheet. When stored all materials should be under cover, in a dry and ventilated area on a horizontal flat surface. The sheet under no circumstances is to come in contact with the ground or be exposed to sunlight during storage.

Fixing specifications should be in accordance with AS/NZS 1562.11996 design and installation of sheet roof and wall cladding.

(Ref 4)

Translucent sheeting is manufactured to match steel roll formed roof sheeting

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Construction Process - Planar (structural glazing) according to (Ref 5)

(Ref 4)

•SUPPORT STRUCTURES (Ref 5):The following systems and structures can be used to support Pilkington Armourfloat® toughened safety glass panels using the Pilkington Planar® or patch system depending on the particular application fittings.

Fully Fixed Pilkington Armourfloat® toughened safety glass panels can be supported by fully-fixed support structures using the Pilkington Planar® system. These can take the form of space frames, structural metalwork, masonry, or any other suitable structure.

These structures can support the panels in any orientation from vertical through to the horizontal. Glass fins may also be used as a fully-fixed support with Pilkington Planar® fittings, but such a system would normally be limited to vertical applications only and where live load movement is small.

Suspended Where large live load movements are involved, Pilkington Armourfloat® tempered glass panels can be suspended from a support structure at the top (head) only, by means of suspension hangers.

Such a system is for vertical applications only, and the support structure must be capable of withstanding the sustained vertical weight of the panels as well as the loads imposed by wind pressure.

Lateral loadings must be accommodated by mullions or transoms. These mullions or transoms can take the form of space frames, structural metalwork/masonry, or Pilkington Armourfloat® toughened safety glass fins.

Construction details are variable to suit the particular application.

• The fins are firmly fixed to the supporting structure by means of right angle steel sections or a similar approved method. • This structural detailing can be subsequently hidden by a false ceiling,. In some cases (such as fins cantilevered up from the floor), • it is necessary to allow for differential movement between the glass façade and the fins. As the façade is suspended down from the top of the structure it expands downwards, whereas the fins, fixed at the base, expand upwards. • Allowance for this movement is made quite simply by means of sliding fittings at the point where the fins are jointed to the façade.

Further allowance for expansion is made at the bottom edge and sides of the façade where the glass is sealed into peripheral channels by means of neoprene strips or non-setting glazing compound. These methods of allowing for expansion also permit seismic and dynamic forces to be taken into account.

Sill SupportedPilkington Armourfloat® toughened safety glass panels can be assembled to form sill supported glass systems up to a normal maximum height of 2 panels or 8 metres. Such systems will normally require some form of structural lateral support such as Pilkington Armourfloat® fins.

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Construction Process - Glass Balustrades according to (Ref 5)

Description:The Pilkington ArmourView System consists of 10mm, 12mm or 15mm Pilkington Armourfloat® glass panels set upright either in a groove in the structural concrete, or in a steel channel.

The glass panels are set on neoprene setting blocks in the groove and a special grout is used. The grouting is capped off with silicone sealant and gaps between adjacent panels of glass can be similarly sealed if required.

The channel must be adequately designed to withstand the turning moments applied to the balustrade.

Alternatively, the glass can be bolted into the floor system using Pilkington Planar® fittings.

ARMOUR VIEW BALUSTRADE SYSTEM

Design Load(3) Glass ThicknessMaximum

HeightMaximum Length (2)

Deflection under Load

N/m mm mm mm mm

Residential 400 10mm 1000 1500 < 2500 23

600(1) 10mm 1000 1500 < 2500 34

400 12mm 1200 < 1500 23

600 (1) 12mm 1100 < 1500 27

Commercial 750 12mm 1100 2500 36

750 15mm 1200 2500 22

FULLY FRAMED BALUSTRADES - Where glass acts as an infill panel.

TOUGHENED LAMINATED

Nominal Thickness in mmArea (4) in

m2 Nominal Thickness in mm Area (4) in m2

Infill Panel 6 4.0 6.76 3.0

8 6.0 8.76 5.0

10 8.0 10.76 7.0(Ref 5)

Free-standing - eliminates the need for any form of frame structure allowing unrestricted views.

•Complies with the B.C.A. -(Building Code of Australia) requirements for balustrades loadings and areas.

•Low-maintenance - offering long life and durability.

•Structurally tested - and proven in-situ performance.

•Safety - by a solid, yet transparent barrier.

•Can be customised - with decorative permanent ceramic frits.Readily available in Clear or choice of tints.

•Easy installation.

•Heat Soak Treatment - We recommend all (structural) glass balustrading be Heat Soaked to ensure the highest quality Toughened Glass.

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Construction Process - Spider Tension Truss System according to (Ref 9)

(Ref 4)

The Austvision Tension Rod Truss Glass Façade System is supplied with suspended point fixed glass with high tension stainless steel vertical rod trusses as wind bracing. The tension rod system utilises two pre-stressed catenaries that carry inward and outward wind loading. Loads are transferred from the glass through Austfix countersunk screws to compression struts. The dead load of the glass is carried by the top hung vertical tension rods connected to the point fixed castings. The truss junctions consist of a combination of machined and cast components.

The trusses are tensioned between the concrete floor slab and the steel roof structure. The system pretension loading and sizing of the tension rod is determined from the thermal load, dead load, creep, seismic loading and wind loading conditions specific to the supporting structure.

Tension & Compression Tests on Spiders 446//4M

(Ref 9)

Specifications

according to Ref 9

Installation according to Ref 9

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• 1. Setup the jig layout with the center to center dimensions of the spars and the end center fixing dimension as per drawings provided.

• 2. Unpack and check all components supplied by A.G.A.

• 3. Familiarize and check the tension truss detail and assembling drawings.

• 4. Check all the pre assembled tension truss components dimensions before connecting to the spars.

• 5. Place the pre-assemble Spar / node assemblies on to the specified position of the jig.

• 6. Connect Stainless Steel Rods to the spars.

• 7. Check final rod dimension and if adjustment is necessary turn the stainless steel rods until the required length is achieved.

• 8. Erect the truss into its correct position and tighten rods until the system is stiff and rigid.

• 9. Tighten the T-Brackets to the structure to achieve final tensioning.

• 10. Installation of glass panel on to the spiders and tension truss.

Typical Sequence of Installation

(Ref 9)


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Specifications3. The glass entrance area shall include:

3.1 Structural suspended tempered heatsoak tested glass, with intermediate vertical mullions on interior and Austvision Spider fittings. The Austvision fittings are to be designed to be flush on the exterior surface. The design of the system is the sole responsibility of the Glazing Subcontractor and the Supplier. The system shall be designed to prevent high stress concentration at the hole positions and must comply with all requirements of this section.

3.2 Glass thickness of façade elements and (separately) of mullion elements shall be determined as required to meet the specified criteria and shall be uniform throughout each visually separated area except where, in the opinion of the Architect, a thickness change will not affect either the performance or the appearance of the final installation. Minimum glass thickness shall be 12mm for face glass and 19mm for fins, the contractor shall determine glass thickness based on requirements of this section.

3.3 Glass systems shall be complete with all supporting steel, stainless steel cappings and framing, clamping or fixing devices, resilient pads and separators, as well as closures, gaskets and sealants as required for a complete installation in strict accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions.

3.4 Assembled façade glass shall float within peripheral metal glazing channels. Adequate clearance shall be provided within these channels to prevent metal to glass contact under any combination of loads and movements including, but not limited to design wind loads, floor deflections, gravity and gravity loads of system, thermal expansion and contraction.

3.5 Exposed metal fittings shall be manufactured from type 316 stainless steel supplied by Australian Glass Assemblies, finished to match approved samples, and shall be designed with capability to adjust and align façade and accommodate building movements and applied forces.

3.6 Mullion restraint boxes shall be recessed flush with the surrounding finish work. Coordinate with surrounding finish work as required for accessibility for glazing or reglazing. Furthermore, the mullion restraint box shall be concealed and flush with the floor level or top of concrete curb as required. Coordination with concrete work is required.

3.7 Fasteners shall be of type 300 stainless steel, of strength and type appropriate to their use, and shall be tightened (where necessary) to specific torques with calibrated wrenches.

3.8 All exposed metal framing, cappings, trim, closures, etc., for the glass mullion wall systems shall be clad with or manufactured from AISI type 316 stainless steel.

3.8.1 All exposed stainless steel surfaces shall have a #4 finish or as approved by the Architect.

3.8.2 To the extent possible, cladding elements shall be shop assembled. Field measurements shall be taken where required to assure proper fit and to minimize field joints and splices.

3.8.3 Assembly fasteners shall be concealed.

3.8.4 Components shall be designed to allow for building movements as well as thermal movements without causing buckling, loss of flatness or finished surfaces, excessive opening of joint or over stressing of welds and fasteners.

3.8.5 Exposed-top-view surfaces which exhibit pitting, seam marks, roller marks, lack of visual flatness or "oil canning", stains, discolorations or other imperfections on the finished units will not be acceptable.

4. Unless otherwise defined by Contract Documents, appearance of exposed elements, including width and depth, shall be consistent throughout project.

5. Unless otherwise defined by Contract Documents, overall thickness of each glass type, and component thickness of multiple layer glass types, shall be consistent throughout project.


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Construction Process - Spider Glass Fin System according to (Ref 9)

(Ref 9)

Technical Data

Spider Glass Fin System offers total frameless glass vision without obstruction and yet provides the freedom of creativity with the latest 'Spider' Austfix technology.

Austvision Glass Fin System offers a total practical solution backed up by the assurance of ISO09002 quality and A.G.A. performance.

Spider Austfix tested under static and dynamic loadings.

CALCULATED MAX. CAPACITY OF 316 GR. S.S. SPIDER FITTINGConfirmed by tests(fy=220MPa) Safety Factor 2.0

SPIDER FITTING

LATERAL CAPACITY VERTICAL CAPACITY

PER ARM kN

ARM'S DEFLECTI

ON mm

PER ARM kN ARM'S DEFLECTION

mm

444/2 2.25 2.00 1.60 2.20

444/4 1.97 4.50 1.90 1.60

445/2M 3.95 1.28 2.46 1.82

445/4M 3.33 1.77 2.45 2.65

430/4 3.95 1.25 2.47 1.79

Prop. Cant. 1Cant. 1 & Entry (Ref 9)

(Ref 9)

INSTALLATION INSTRUCTIONS SUSPENDED GLASS ASSEMBLY

SUMMARY OF ERECTION AND INSTALLATION COMPONENTS SUPPLIED BY AUSTRALIAN GLASS ASSEMBLIES.

1. Measure and mark the centre lines of all the glass fin locations and provide holes for anchor bolt fixings.

2. Measure and mark the locations of all the patch fittings located on the side of the columns.

3. Prepare and install all rebate channels, sill rails. including preparation of spacer and packing pieces and setting block pieces if required. These items are not supplied by A.G.A. Pty. Ltd.

4. Prepare and provide slots and/or holes in overhead structure for installation of glass panels suspension hangers as described in Section 3 and carry out same for glass fins.

5. Sub-assembly of top glass panel with hanger bracket as described in Section 3.

6. Erection of glass fins are described in Section 4.

7. Erect glass panels as described in Section 3 herein.

8. Check alignments of glass spacings and gap between panel and glass fin and check correct allowances for gap between:-

(a) panel to panel 5 to 6 mm(b) panel to fin 6 to 10 mm(c) panel to door panel vertical gap 4 to 6 mm(d) transom panel to door panel horizontal gap 5 to 8 mm(e) central panel and bottom panel 5 to 8 mm

9. Apply glass to glass silicone sealant to all glass joints, glass fins and façade panel joints.

10. Finally apply approved sealant to all rebated channels, (not supplied by A.G.A. Pty. Ltd.)

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Construction Process – Overhead Glazing according to (Ref 9)

Prop. Cant. 1

(Ref 9)Frameless glass overhead glazing is subject to wind, live seismic and snow loads. These loadings cause vertical and sideways movements of the building elements including glazing. It is essential at the design stage that the above factors are taken into account.

Frameless glass overhead glazing point supported glazing system – i.e. each glass panel is point supported at and near its corners when under loading the glass panel to flex and bend, twist and shear at the fixing points.

To avoid undue stress build-up concentrated at the point supported corners of the glass panel, an articulated swivel head assembly is fixed at the supported point.

Insulated Glass Point Supported UnitThe ET laminated glass panel is successfully made into Insulated

Glass Units (IGU) or Double Glazed Units (DGU).

(Ref 9)

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Construction Process – Balustrade system according to (Ref 9)

(Ref 9)

(Ref 9)

(Ref 9)

Technical Data

1. Austvision Free Standing System

Frameless glass balustrade minimum 10mm thick glass panel designed to resist impact load acting inward, outward or downward. Conditions designed

to meet the SAA loading code Australian Standard AS1171 Part 1.

Loads

kN

Glass Thickness

10mm 12mm 15mm 19mm

Glass Height 1000mm x

1.0 1500mm 1800mm 2000mm 2400mm

1.5 1300mm 1500mm 1800mm 2100mm

2.0 1200mm 1350mm 1600mm 1800mm

3.0 0 1000mm 1400mm 1600mm

Typical Fixings

Frameless glass balustrade minimum 10mm thick glass panel designed to resist impact load acting inward, outward or downward. Conditions designed to meet the SAA loading code Australian Standard AS1171 Part 1.

(Ref 9)

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Masonry - General Information

Stone has been a favoured material for permanent buildings for the last 5000years

It holds a great resistance to fire, weather, insects and most chemicals, it is high in compressive strength (Ref 56)

Raw materials for bricksClays and shales

Always contain “secondary or water-containing minerals produced by the action of weathering agents (water and air) on primary or igneous rock minerals such as feldspars or micas” (Ref 42)

Eg, alumina, silica and water, with minor amounts of lime, magnesia, soda or potash, & iron components (Ref 56)

Manufacturing processThree stages:

• Winning the raw materials;

• Shaping the brick shape; and

• Drying and firing

Winning the raw materials is done using mechanical equipment

Materials are cursed, milled and screened

Brick veneer walls consist of an outer leaf of brickwork tied to a steel or timber supporting frame. The brickwork provides insulation fire protection to the supporting framefrom an external fire source. (Ref 12)

Product

Characteristic Unconfined

Compressive Strength - f'uc MPa

Characteristic Expansion

mm/m 15yrs

Durability Class

*Bowral Blue >15 <0.5mm/m EXP

*Bowral Brown >10 <0.5mm/m EXP

*Capitol Red >10 <0.5mm/m EXP

*Charolais Cream >10 <0.5mm/m EXP

*Gertrudis Brown >6 <0.5mm/m EXP

Guernsey Tan >10 <1.0mm/m GP

Hereford Bronze >6 <1.0mm/m GP

Limousin Gold >10 <0.5mm/m GP

*Murray Grey Select >10 <1.0mm/m EXP

*St Paul's Cream >10 <0.5mm/m EXP

*Shorthorn Mix >6 <1.0mm/m EXP

Simmental Silver >6 <1.0mm/m GP

Light Red Mottle >8 <2.0mm/m GP

Red Mottle >5 <1.0mm/m GP

Light Choc Mottle >8 <1.0mm/m GP

Dark Choc Mottle >15 <0.5mm/m EXP

(Ref 11)

The brick diaphragm wall is simply a wide cavity wall where the cavity is 1 to 2 bricks deep and the leaves of 102.5 mm brickwork are braced by cross ribs (also of 102.5 mm brickwork) at 1-1.5 m centres (Ref13)

(Ref 13)

Cause of Deterioration (Ref 16)

•Rising damp from subsurface moisture sources.

•Windblown moisture in the form of rain.

•Condensation due to lack of ventilation.

•Moisture infiltration through deteriorated moisture joints.

•Moisture accumulation from the encroachment of vegetation.

•Moisture from inadequate surface drainage.

•Improper maintenance.

•Improper coatings that trap moisture.

•Failure of waterproofing, roofing, or protective coatings.

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Masonry – Structural Systems

•Pro’s (Ref 13)

•Full Brick Advantages

•Low maintenance (less painting)

•Superior weather insulating qualities

•Better fire resistance

•Better resistance to termites etc.

•Superior sound insulation qualities

•Greater resale value

•Child proof (less damage to walls etc.)

•Visually appealing

•Less contractors required

•No skirting boards required

•Thermal properties

•Pipe work / plumbing through bricks

•many different bricks available to choose from to suit different problems

Con’s

• Movement

1. External

(a) Brick expansion due to temperature or growth(b) Foundation and footings movement(c) Frame movement(d) Temperature Movement(e) Frame Shortening

2. Internal

(a) Horizontal Movement(b) Vertical Movement

• MOST COMMON PROBLEMS WITH EXPANSION GAPS DUE TO INADEQUATE SEALING:(a) Inadequate sealing.(b) Failure to ensure that gaps were clean and that no hard materials such as mortar droppings are left before sealing.(c) The use of joint fillers that are too rigid which have compressive strengths high enough to transfer forces across the joint.

- need articulation joints every few meters- Wall ties- Weep holes- Gaps for water- Protection from wood- Bricks expand (bricks are porous) - Stain with salt- Suffer from expansion- Require lintels above doors and windows- Damp proof courses- Dags of mortar must be struck off and cleaned before setting - Brick veneer requires support by timber posts- Brick piers are required to be above 150 from the ground- Sub floor ventilation required in some areas- Very low value for tensile stress (only about one–twentieth of its compressive

resistance) (Ref 13)(Ref 13)

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(Ref 12)

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Masonry – Envelope SystemsExternal

Technical Information according to (Ref 10)• Control Joints:

Should extend for the full height of the wall and be spaced at a maximum distance of 6 metres apart where walls are not interrupted by full height doorways or window openings (Refer Australian Standards).

• Standards:All C&M concrete brickwork is manufactured to AS2733 and laying practices should conform with AS3700. Mortar should be accurately batched and conform to AS123 and AS3700.

• Joint Reinforcements: Masonry mesh is recommended at height intervals of 600mm, and in the two courses above and below all openings. Lap mesh at least 150mm at all joints and intersections, except at control joints where a slip joint must be provided.

• Cleaning: Care should be taken to keep bricks/blocks as clean as possible during laying . A weak acid mixture is recommended for cleaning down at no stronger than 1 part in 15 parts water. Walls should be wet thoroughly before application and washed thoroughly with clean water after application, high pressure water is not recommended.

• Bricks are manufactured to be of strength greater than 15Mpa. Higher strength grades are available to order.

• 80% of bricks have a frog and 20% are solid. Frogs should be laid upwards.

(Ref 14)

(Ref 15)

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Masonry – Rules of Thumb

Rules of thumb according to (Ref 13)• For internal walls, the thickness of the wall will need to be at least one-15 th of the height • If the wall is not restrained at the top, it will be at least one-30 th of the height if restraint provided.• For external cavity walls subject to wind loads, each skin will need to be at least 100mm thick. • For high–rise buildings, brick cladding will generally need concrete backing walls in order to avoid very thick

brickwork or block work. It is difficult to support stone cladding on masonry, so in-situ or precast concrete is normally used.

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Masonry – Fire Rating

(Ref 10)

Structural adequacy for the fire resistance period

For width of brick walls:

Single 90Single 110

Single 140Single 150

Single 110Single 140

Single 150Double 190

Double 230Double 90

Double 230Double 110

2.7 Protection of structural steelwork

The minimum thickness for masonry used to provide fire protection tostructural steelwork is 90 mm. (Ref12)

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Masonry construction has been used and developed over the last 5000y it comes in many shapes and forms to suit different applications

Masonry can be used for internal and external cladding for aesthetic looks, it can be used for flooring and in necessary roofing although this is less common these days

It possesses great thermal properties, sound insulation qualities, fire resistance, a resistance to termites and has superior weather insulating qualities. Also to install it masonry requires Less contractors.

Masonry – Conclusion


N.A


N.A.

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Construction Process • Once the soil has been leveled and the footing has been prepared, the Mason’s line is set

out and anchored by steel posts.• Flashing is fixed to the lower section of the wall frame and the outer edge is mortared into

the brickwork• Weep holes are spaced along this brick course at regular intervals• A Damp Proof Course is placed in the brickwork above ground level (close to the footings)

to direct any water away• As the brick courses are laid wall ties are fixed to the timber frame and mortared (these

provide lateral strength to the veneer)• Articulation joints are placed at regular intervals to prevent cracking• Brick veneer is essentially brick cladding over a timber or steel frame the brick is non-load

bearing but provides a weather barrier for the frame• Before the mortar sets the dregs need to be struck off and wall ties cleaned.

Masonry – Construction Process

Construction Process according to (Ref 17)

(Ref 17)(Ref 17)

1. Lay the first course of stretcher bricks in the mortar. Beginning with the second brick, apply mortar to the head joint end of each brick, and then shove the bricks into place firmly so that the mortar is squeezed out of all side of the joints. Use a level to check the course for correct height, then place it on top to make sure that all the bricks are plumb and level.

2. Make sure that the head joint thicknesses correspond with your chalk marks. When you have to move a brick, tap it gently with a trowel handle; never pool on it because this breaks the bond. Be sure to trim off any excess mortar for the sides of the bricks.

3. Throw another mortar line alongside the first course, then begin laying the second, or backup, course. Use the level to make sure that the two courses are equal height, but do not mortar them together

4. Use the two half bricks to begin the second, or header, course. This will ensure that the first two courses are staggered for structural purposes

5. To finish the second course of the lead, lay three header bricks and make sure that they are plumb and level. As seen in the photo, the third and fifth courses consists of stretchers similar to the first course; the fourth course begins with single header, followed by stretchers. Use the level to make sure that the lead is true on each course.

6. Build another lead on the other end of the foundation. As the mortar begins to set, it is best to stop laying bricks and use a concave jointer to finish the mortar joints. Work along the vertical joints first; this will help as improve the appearance of the wall.

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Other - General InformationAluminium •Strength-to-weight ratio

-Lightness benefits-Lightness combined with strength accounts for its wide use

•Workability-Most versatile of all the metals-Can be rolled to any thickness down to foil thinner than tissue paper-There’s no limit to the different cross-sectional shapes in which aluminium may be extruded-Any method of joining can be applied to aluminium-Normally requires no form of coating to preserve its structural integraty, although finishes can be applied

•Corrosion Resistance -Due to the very thin, hard protective film of aluminium oxide that forms instantly when bare metal is exposed to air

-If oxide gets damaged it will reform•Thermal Conductivity

-High-Rapid transmission of heat from areas of higher temperatures to areas of lower temperature

•Reflectivity-Aluminium is highly reflective both to visible light and to heat energy

•Properties of aluminium

-Surface attack-Although highly reactive, aluminium is remarkably stable in air because of its capacity to form instantly on

exposure a very thin, tight, and adherent oxide film-Resistant to attack by the common acids, but readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid and is rapidly attacked

by alkali hydroxides •Building Construction

-Aluminium is used because:-Appearance-Corrosion resistance-Formability-Finishing potential-Very high strength-to-weight ratio

-Used in profiled roofing and wall cladding-Extruded shapes are used for windows, doors, entrances, etc.

(Ref 32)

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Other – Structural SystemsRetaining Walls

Next

Concrib retaining wall systemsOverview• Walls are constructed from interlocking precast concrete components. When erected the walls are filled with free draining

material and earth backfill, eliminating the hazards of hydrostatic pressure build up behind the wall.

Pros• Does not require skilled labor• open web construction and use of free draining material eliminates build up of hydrostatic pressure and the destructive pressure

of tree root systems • Requires little or no maintenance• Can be constructed to follow gentle curves, slopes and undulating terrains.

Cons• Rigid structures can not be built on top of a Concrib wall with reliance on the wall to support the structure• Maximum height of three metres

(Ref 46)

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Other – Structural SystemsRetaining Walls

NextPrevious

Soil PanelOverview• Stability and structural support is given to a slope by nailing

the newly excavated face and bolting heavily galvanised steel cages to the protruding nails across the exposed face.

Pros• Variety of face finishes; vegetated or stone• Assured establishment and sustainable growth of vegetation• Protection of structural elements in the event of collision or

fire damage• No special foundations required• Minimises muck away, saves on Landfill Costs• Factory assembled units and latest construction techniques

for speed and economy

Cons• Not suitable for retaining wall systems in water surrounded

areas.

(Ref 46)

(Ref 46)

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Other – Structural Systems

Hollow Core Block WallingOverview

• Concrete product retaining wall system composed of interlocking hollow concrete blocks which incorporate drainage, setback and reinforcement.

Pros

• Superior drainage.

• Faster drying in wet environments.

• Better resistance to freeze-thaw cycles.

• Improved efflorescence control.

• Easier handling, faster installation, lower labor costs.

• Block-to-block interlock from granular infill material.

• Lower production and freight costs.

• Fluid curves are easily achievable.

• Mortar less construction allows the wall to be dismantled and reconstructed.

Cons

• Maximum height of continuous wall is 3.7m

Previous

(Ref 53)

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Other – Drainage Systems

Agricultural Pipes and Geo textiles•A combination of pipeline systems and geo textiles are commonly used to discourage water pressure on retaining walls.•An example of this is the use of a geo textile such as filter wrap in conjunction with a perforated pipeline system such as agricultural pipe.

(Ref 47)

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Other – Drainage Systems

PolydrainOverview•Allows free flowing drainage using a continuously slotted pipe resulting in the unrestricted in-flow of water. •Water captured is drained to either

an existing gutter, drain or stormwater connection. •For convenience it is often easier to use the unslotted Polydrain

Pros•Light weight•Resists corrosion in harsh weather conditions•Designed to flex

Cons•Not suitable for use in applications requiring high pressure tollerances.

(Ref 48)

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Other – Rules of ThumbRetaining Walls

Surcharge Loading Backfill Type Wall Setback

Near Vertical 1:8 Setback

No Surcharge Loading Poor 700 800

Average 800 1000

Good 900 1200

15 degree Poor 600 700

Sloped backfill Average 700 900

Good 800 1100

Driveway/Carpark Poor 400 500

Loading (5kPa) Average 500 600

Good 600 800

(Ref 50)

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Other – Fire Rating

Suspended Ceiling

• If a 2hr fire rating with integrity is required the ceiling lining needs to be 9mm thick. This would give a 2hr protection or integrity to general building services.

• For fire separation of general building services from protected lobby and corridor, a 2hr fire rating with integrity and insulation from fire above and below is required. Therefore 2 x 9mm thick ceiling lining is used together with insulation that is 80mm thick and has a density of 100kg/m³ or 100mm thick with an 80kg/m³ density.

(Ref 20)

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Using the retaining wall as a footing for the steel cables

Other – Conclusion


N.A.


Concrete retaining wall

Agricultural pipe and drainage system for the retaining wall

Aluminium faced plywood cladding

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• After slab is laid and cured columns (usually mild steel universal beams) are dyno bolted to the slab.• Rafters (usually mild steel universal beams) are then attached to the columns• MS plate cleats are welded to rafters to provide clearance for purlins from rafter (10mm required)• 20mm diagonal cross bracing is attached to the rafters• Purlins (Z, C section, cold formed) are attached to rafters• Girts (Z, C section, cold forms) are attached to columns• Wall bracing attached as required• Safety mesh for working on roof is attached to rafters• Sarking and insulation are attached as required• Roof cladding is installed (often corrugated steel sheeting)• Exterior cladding installed (Ref 61)

Construction Process - Steel

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Construction Process - Timber

Fixings and Detailing

Things to consider:

• maintenance is crucial

• timber has to be isolated from masonry

• when timber components are joined together, and brought in to contact with other structural members or materials, care must be taken to avoid trapping water at the joint

• external cladding sheets must be joined on studs

• timber cladding on walls should finish at least 150mm above ground level

• cladding should be fixed so that the boards are free to shrink and swell therefore reducing the chance of cupping, cracking and splitting

• nails mustn't fix adjacent boards together

• needs to be effectively protected against weathering

Fixings for the isolation

of timber from masonry

(Ref 24)



(Ref 24)



(Ref 24)

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• Trusses are derived from triangular geometry• Compression, tension and thrust forces are resolved internally within the

truss• Trusses are also designed to resist bending moments • Top and bottom truss members are called are called top and bottom chords• Members between chords are web members• Plain trusses have all members in a single plane• Trusses are generally more economical than beams and girders when

dealing with long span construction

• Rules of thumb– Roof trusses at 3 to 6m centres carry only uniformly distributed loads– Trusses can be as shallow as 1/20 of the span– Reasonable depth of trusses is around 1/12 or 1/15 of the span– If the span is 80-100m the truss should be 1/10 of span – Trusses carrying columns need to be deeper

(Ref 13)

Construction Methods

Trusses

(Ref 21)

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Space trusses

• Space trusses have members in 3D configuration

• Space trusses are known as space frames, they span in two directions and have pinned and rigid connections

• Space trusses are achieved by staggering top and bottom chords in both directions to get inclined trusses with common chords

(Ref 27)

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Portal Frames

• By using portal frames the need for internal columns can be eliminated, therefore large clear spaces can be provided

• The rigid base type is the most economical choice

• When planning: main roof beams span the shortest length

• Portal frames are easily fabricated, and rapidly erected

• Using portal frames allows roof decking to be fixed at an early stage

• Side walls can be light weight

• Portal or rigid frame construction is extremely adaptable to architectural expression

• Portal frames work well in resisting lateral loads (i.e. the loads caused by the wind)

(Ref 24)

(Ref 24)

(Ref 24)(Ref 24)

(Ref 24)

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Construction Process - Concrete

Footings1. An appropriate footing system is selected according to requirements of the structure and the

site.

2. The site is prepared and trenches are dug out for the services, concrete beams and trench mesh.

3. Service pipes are put into place and buried.

4. Formwork and reinforcement are put into place

5. The concrete is then poured, leveled and left to cure

(Ref 44)

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Tilt Up Construction1. Plans for the panels are drawn up by the engineer

2. Once the foundations have been laid the casting bed is prepared with release agent and all the embedded items and lifting and bracing inserts are placed.

3. The concrete is then placed in the panels, it must be evenly vibrated to ensure structural integrity and uniform finishes on the faces of the panels. The upside of the panel can be screed-, trowel- or broom-finished as desired.

4. Panels are then left to cure

5. When cured bond breakers are applied to the panels to release them from the casting bed

6. Craneage systems are attached to the lifting inserts and the panels are lifted free of the casting bed.

7. Panels are lowered into place and connected with the footings

8. Temporary bracing is erected to provide lateral support against winds and other forces

9. When all panels are in place they are joined using steel brackets and permanent bracing is fixed

(Ref 49)

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Pre Cast Construction1. Plans for the panels are drawn up by the engineer

2. Panel formwork is laid out to precise calculations and all the embedded items and lifting and bracing inserts are put into place

3. Concrete is then poured into the formwork, vibrated, leveled and left to cure

4. Once cured panels are transported to the site and lifted into place using cranes.

5. Temporary bracing is erected to provide lateral support against winds and other forces

6. When all panels are in place they are joined using steel brackets and permanent bracing is fixed

(Ref 49)

Construction and Structures 2

Jeremy J. Ham

Attachment to Columns

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Construction Process – Retaining WallsKeystone Retaining Walls1. The site is excavated and the base level is prepared by

creating a level pad of compacted clean sand or 12-20mm crushed stone.

2. The first course of Keystone units are laid side by side over the prepared base.

3. For curved walls the first course is laid with a small gap between adjacent units. This gap / overlap will decrease with placement of additional courses.

4. High strength fibreglass connecting pins are placed into each keystone unit, these pins guide the position of the next course of units.

5. Backfill to 300mm behind each course of units using a 12-20mm clean, free draining granular material.

6. Additional courses are placed.

7. Cut sections of geogrid are hooked over the pins in the keystone to ensure secure connection.

8. The geogrid unit is pulled taut to eliminate loose folds and is staked before continuing backfill and compaction. The next units are installed.

9. Gravel drainage is placed in and behind Keystone units.

10. Backfill material is compacted to a minimum of 95% standard compaction.

11. Capping units are laid and backfill is completed to the required grade.

(Ref 9)

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Carpet

Pro’s

• Insulating• Fire retardant• Acoustic insulation • Prevents wear on other surfaces • Protects under surface• Aesthetically pleasing

Con’s

• Requires weekly vacuuming • Collects dirt• Colour fades• Wears out over time• Needs replacing when becomes thread-bare

(Ref 18)

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Plasterboard

Pros (according to Ref 19)• Can be suited to fire-rated or non-fire rated construction• Designed to withstand lateral (wind) pressures• Manufactured in accordance with A.S 2588-1983• Lightweight (can provide up to 75% dead load reduction when

compared with finished concrete masonry construction thus reducing structural framing and foundation requirements

• Fast assembly• Fire resistance of up to 3 hours• Prefabrication available • High acoustic ratings• Thermal insulation values• Walls can be constructed to heights in excess of 9 metres and can

be designed to come with wind loads

Con’s• Needs timber or steel support

(Ref 34)

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Plywood

Pro’s• It is strong, durable and comes in a variety of thicknesses• Suitable for structural and non-structural flooring• Superior strength and durability (lasts more than 50 years)• To a certain extent plywood is insect resistant• Plywood can also be used as flooring in wet areas and as decking• It too can be used in areas of high humidity and condensation if

treated correctly• Sheet layout

– Place face grain at right angles to the supports

Fixing of sheets•7mm or 3 fasteners dimeters form the sheet edges•Fix no more than 15mm from sheet edges•Fasteners should be corrosion resistant

(Ref 24)

Plywood I beam

Plywood box beam

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Fire protection of columns • Crucial, as the performance of steel can be significantly

reduced (up to 50%)

Steel columns– Columns need to be encased to the full height by

either 1,2 or 3 layers of wall lining panels, depending on the size of the columns, and how long it is require to remain standing in a fire

Concrete columns• Column should be fully encased so that it

achieves the desired fire rating

Timber column– Protection for timber columns ranges form ½ and

hour to 2 hours, and it is this time duration that determines the thickness and no. of layers of plaster board that needs to be attached.

(Ref 34)

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Bunnings Warehouse Corio

Ray’s Tent City

VISY Recycling Plant

Leopold Primary School Multi Purpose Room

Deakin University Printing and Packaging Centre Waurn Ponds

Todd’s Road Service Centre

Sydney Myer Music Bowl

The Laminex Group Corio

Hypothetical

Case Studies

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Pictures

1

2

3

4

5

6

Case Studies – Bunnings Warehouse Corio

• Spanning a total of 50 metres, with a central column at 25 metres. Therefore 2 x 25 meter spans. • 450ub for outside columns at 8 metre spacings• 150 SHS for central column

This was a study of an existing building using a rigid steel frame system with column support at the apex.

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Bracing on both wall and roof

Roof framing system

Roof cross bracing

Cement loading dock

Large area for trucks to be unloaded

At least 6m to back fence

Fly bracing on wall

Attached to concrete wall

Concrete wall only half way up the shed for protection from forklifts

Electric fence surrounding the premises allows for storage of some materials outside

Drive through loading bay Rigid Joint

Pipes fixed to beam

Previous Next

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Roof framing system

Roof bracing connection

Support for insulation

Overlapping of rafters

Joint of apex

Joint of supporting column to apex

Roof bracing

Sky lighting Short wall bracing

Column from the apex

Stacking shelves for the timber

Sky lighting strips

Height advisory bars for forklifts and other machinery

Previous Next

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Fencing used as walling

Not necessary to have weather protection for the timber

Electric fence along fence

Support for electrical wires to support the cash registers and other signage

Fly bracing for roof system

Previous Next

Electrical wiring track

pipes

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Attachment of column to ground

Imbedded into the slab

Sky lighting

Fly bracing

Joint of rafters (overlapping)

Office above to view store

Previous Next

Electricity and wires for cash

registers coming down

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Support for electrical cablesElectricity box

Height comparison of center beam

Shelving can be roof height

Storage on top of shelves

(plastic wrapped and lifted up by the fork lift)

Electricity station

Plumbing Office above reception desk

Double glazed windows

Can view store

Previous Next

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Electricity tracks around the store

Small office below reception for incoming goods

Joint by ceiling for Bunnings

Bunnings is brought to site and is put together like a Meccano set

Previous

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Case Studies – Rays Tent City Corio

total span approx 35 meter continuous span.

outside columns = 300 and 350 UB at 6 meter spacings.

Central column = 450 UB

Intermediate columns under mezzanine 120 CHS

Timber portal frame was 1 metre deep at base and approx 100 mm profile.

20 metre span

Divided into two main sections:

Timber portal frame with steel roof

Steel portal frame

Pictures

1

2

3

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Structural

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Flybracing

Steel structure connection

lighting

Rigid joint detail

Insulation

Electrical wiring

Timber connection to carry services

Connection of plumbing

Track for electrical wiring (same as used in Bunnings)

Masonry wall that extends to roof height

Roof system

Roof bracing

Lighting in the same formation as Bunnings and Laminex Group

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Steel roof structure

Connection of rafters to purlins

Plywood gusset

Connection of plywood portal frame to steel roof system

Detail of steel joints in roof system

Timber bracing joint

Electrical wiring

Timber portal frame span

Roof bracing

Note no supporting columns for apex

Detail of column and rafter joint

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Timber fly bracing detail

Note galvanised steel braquets

Joining of timber portal frame to timber purlins

Apex of portal frame

Attachment of portal frame to floor

Wall bracing

Plywood gusset

Fly bracing

Roller door attachment

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Case Studies - VISY Recycling Plant

Plans

1

2

Photos

1

This was a large steel frame building using a steel truss system capable of spanning considerable distances.

(Acc. 2)

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Detail of truss joining to main framing system

Truss system

Detrail of truss system

Fly brace to rafters

Insulation in the roof

Previous

Joining of steel column to concrete walls

Joining of truss to wall column

Bracing c connection Protective concrete wall

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Case Studies - Leopold Primary School Multi Purpose Room

Pictures

1

2

This study was a timber and steel framed primary school multi purpose room under construction.

Site could not be accessed

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Timber stud wall

Colourbond cladding

Timber stud wall

Temporary bracing

Bracig for outer edge in steel

Steel joint

Steel frame

Tempoary bracing

Main entry to building

Steel frame enclosing opening

Previous Next

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Windows marked for tradies to see that there is glass there

Brick then rendered cement

Corner detail

Note lintel above door

Metal bracing of wall

Joint to metal column

Footing

Ant cap

Timber footings

Previous

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Case Studies - Deakin University Printing and Packaging Centre Waurn Ponds

Photos

This study was on a considerable slope

Dealt with issues of entry, exit and loading

This was a steel construction

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Structural

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Note slope of land

Retaining wall at back

Infill on front

Empty pallets stacked

Receiving office to sign in goods

Timber detailing representing pallets

Roller doors

Loading area

Forklift filling shelves

Idea of scale

Forklift

Previous

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Case Studies - Todd’s Road Service Centre

Picture

1

2

3

4

This study was of a cable and mast construction in the form of covering for a service station and food outlet

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Detail of cable connection to mast

Canvas sails

Footing for mast connection

Mast and supporting cables

Large tensioning column

Footing for cable connection

Previous Next

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Mast and tensioning cables

Tent structure above service centre

Canvas connection to mast

Double connection detail of canvas to mast

Connection deail of canvas to mast

Footings for cable connection

Previous Next

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Connection detail of canvas to large column

Connection detail of cables to central mast

Connection detail of canvas to mast

Central mast of tent structure

Connection of tent system to central tower above service station

Connection of canvas to large column

Previous Next

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Footing for mast

Adjustable mast and footing

Previous

Connection detail of canvas to mast

Connection of tent system to central tower above service station

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Case Studies - Sydney Myer Music Bowl

• The Sidney Myer Music Bowl was designed by Yuncken Freeman, with assistance from Bill Irwin, an engineer, and many other scientific consultants aided in its completion in 1958.

• When designed and constructed it was an experiment with the use of structural steel and the architectural expression of structural form. (Ref 29)

• The vast tent like roof is open along one side. The main cable along this open edge of the canopy comprises of 7 ropes, each about 9cm in diameter and 173m long, that are then anchored deep into the ground in concrete blocks. Within the structure there are longitudinal cables that hold the roof up while transverse cables hold it down. (Ref 28)

• The canopy itself consists of a thin membrane (half an inch weather proofed plywood sheeted on both sides with aluminium) that is then attached to the cobwebbed frame of steel cables, which is then supported by 21.3m masts pivoted to the earth. (Ref 28)

• The vast free form roof has a total area of 4055m², and acts as a “large scale sound shell” (Ref 29) that is both sophisticated and bold. It is this soft, rounded form of the shell that blends well with the rolling contours of the surrounding terrain, creating a totally unique construction.

(Ref.30)

(Ref. 29)

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Sidney Myer Music Bowl

(Ref 23) (Ref 23)

Previous

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Case Studies – The Laminex Group Corio

Pictures

1

2

3

4

This was a study of an existing building using a steel truss system with no column supports.

References


Process

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Structural

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Case

Studies

Office

Joint of truss system

Wall bracing

Roof bracing

Sky lighting (not as much as Bunnings)

Free span bracing at Apex

Fly bracing over truss system

Roof bracing attachment to trusses

Previous Next

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Fully asphalted loading area

Lines marked for designated areas

Allowed for access of fork lifts from both sides of the truck

(Bunnings the truck had to turn around)

Wall fly bracing

shelving

Attachment of column to tilt-up wall

This bolted connection allows for the expansion and shrinkage of the tilt-up wall

Attached to slab with bolts

Previous Next

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Roof to wall fly bracing

Truss and column connection

Roof truss system

Corner detail of exterior facade

Aesthetically noticeable front

Made of Laminex paneling

Roller door attachment Wall to roof fly bracing

Previous Next

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Footing connection by roller door

Corner connection

Free-span truss system

Fly bracing to roof

Column free

Pre-cast concrete facade

Faulty connection

Didn’t align the connection or could be cause of settling of building

Apex connection

Showing purlins and roof bracing

Previous

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Hypothetical Case studies

Pictures

1

2

3

4

5

Table Comparison

Comparison of different sized hypothetical steel sheds (Acc 1)

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Hypothetical Case Study 1Span 9m

Overall dimensions

12 x 9m4 bays @ 3m spacing

Eaves height

3.3m

Apex height 5.9m

Roof slope 30 deg

Rafter 10 of single C20019 @ 4.77m

Column 10 of single C20019 @ 3.9m

End mullion 2 per end of C20019

Fascia Girt 6 of TS06410 @ 3.1m long

Purlin 4 rows of TS06410 @ 3.1m long and 1.27m spacing

Side girt 2 rows of TS06410 @ 3.1m long and 1.51m spacing

End girt 3 rows of TS06410 @ 3.1m long and 1.51m spacing

Roof cladding

Corrugated 0.42 CB @ 5.25m

Wall cladding

Monoclad 0.42 CB @ 3.3m

Knee brace C10010 @ 1.5m long

Apex brace C10010 @ 3m long

Bracing Bracing strap (per 50m roll) 32 x 1.6 diagonally.Flybracing included at 2.5m centres for purlins and girts

Down pipes C/B 100 x 50

Mezzanine ----

Footings Concrete block locally under each column 650x650x650mm-suitable for A,S, or M soil, and load of 100kPaColumns embedded in mass concrete – 400mm min. depth

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Hypothetical Case Study 2Span 7m

Overall dimensions

9 x 7 m3 bays @ 3m spacing

Eaves height

3.0 m

Apex height

6.56m

Roof slope Mansard

Rafter 12 of double C15019 @ 2.41m

Column 12 of double C15019 @ 3.6m

End mullion

1 per end of C15019





Roof cladding


Wall cladding

Monoclad 0.42 CB @ 3m

Knee brace

C10010 @ 1.5m long

Apex brace

C10010 @ 2.33m long

Bracing Bracing strap (per 50m roll) 32 x 1.2 diagonally

Down pipes

C/B 100 x 50

Mezzanine Bearers C30030 @ 3m spacingJoists Z15015 @ 400mm spacingMax. 3kPa


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Hypothetical Case Study 3

Span 6m

Overall dimensions

9 x 6m2.4m high3 bays @ 3m

Eaves height 2.4m

Apex height 2.98m

Roof slope 11 deg



End mullion 1 per end of C15012





Roof cladding


Wall cladding

K-panel 0.35 CB @ 2.4m

Knee brace Not used

Apex brace Not used

Bracing Not required


Mezzanine -----


References


Process

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Hypothetical Case Study 4

Span 35m

Overall dimensions

100 x 35mBays 5.6m spacing

Eaves height

7.0 m

Apex height

10.4m

Roof slope

11 deg

Rafter 72 of double C40030 @ 17.22m

Column 72 of double C40030 @ 7.53m

End mullion

4 per end of C40030

Fascia Girt

36 of C15024 @ 5.56m long

Purlin 14 rows of TS12090 @ 6.01m long and 1.26 spacing

Side girt 4 rows of TS12090 @ 6.01m long and 1.67 spacing

End girt 5 rows of TS12090 @ 7.24m long and 1.67 spacing

Roof cladding


Wall cladding

Monoclad 0.42 CB @ 7m

Knee brace

C30030 @ 4.9m long

Apex brace

C30030 @ 11.67m long


Down pipes

C/B 100 x 50

Mezzanine

----

Footings Concrete block locally under each column 1200 x 1200 x 1300mm-suitable for A,S, or M soil, and load of 100kPaColumns embedded in mass concrete – 600mm min. depth

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Hypothetical Case Study 5 Span 7.5m

Overall dimensions

10.5 x 7.5mBays 3.5m spacing

Eaves height

4.2m

Apex height

4.93m

Roof slope 11deg



End mullion

1 per end of C15019





Roof cladding


Wall cladding

K-panel 0.35 CB @ 4.2m

Knee brace C10010 @ 1m long

Apex brace C10010 @ 2.5m long



Mezzanine Bearers 2C25024 @ 3.5m spacingJoists Z15015 @ 400mm spacingMax 3 kPa

Footings 150mm slab thickened locally under each column by 300x300x400mm -suitable for A,S, or M soil, and load of 100kPa

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Span 6m 7m 7.5m 9m 35m

Overall dimensions

9 x 6m2.4m high3 bays @ 3m

9 x 7 m3 bays @ 3m spacing

10.5 x 7.5mBays 3.5m spacing

12 x 9m4 bays @ 3m spacing

100 x 35mBays 5.6m spacing

Eaves height 2.4m 3.0 m 4.2m 3.3m 7.0 m

Apex height 2.98m 6.56m 4.93m 5.9m 10.4m

Roof slope 11 deg Mansard 11deg 30 deg 11 deg

Rafter 8 of single C15012 @ 2.81m 12 of double C15019 @ 2.41m 8 of single C15019 @ 3.57m 10 of single C20019 @ 4.77m 72 of double C40030 @ 17.22m

Column 8 of single C15012 @ 2.9m 12 of double C15019 @ 3.6m 8 of single C15019 @ 4.2m 10 of single C20019 @ 3.9m 72 of double C40030 @ 7.53m

End mullion 1 per end of C15012 1 per end of C15019 1 per end of C15019 2 per end of C20019 4 per end of C40030

Fascia Girt 6 of TS06475 @ 3.1m long 6 of TS06410 @ 3.1m long 6 of TS06410 @ 3.6m long 6 of TS06410 @ 3.1m long 36 of C15024 @ 5.56m long


3 rows of TS06410 @ 3.1m long and 1.09m spacing



14 rows of TS12090 @ 6.01m long and 1.26 spacing











Roof cladding Corrugated 0.42 CB @ 3.09m Corrugated 0.42 CB @ 2.63m Corrugated 0.42 CB @ 3.86m Corrugated 0.42 CB @ 5.25m Corrugated 0.42 CB @ 17.88m

Wall cladding K-panel 0.35 CB @ 2.4m Monoclad 0.42 CB @ 3m K-panel 0.35 CB @ 4.2m Monoclad 0.42 CB @ 3.3m Monoclad 0.42 CB @ 7m

Knee brace Not used C10010 @ 1.5m long C10010 @ 1m long C10010 @ 1.5m long C30030 @ 4.9m long

Apex brace Not used C10010 @ 2.33m long C10010 @ 2.5m long C10010 @ 3m long C30030 @ 11.67m long

Bracing Not required Bracing strap (per 50m roll) 32 x 1.2 diagonally

Bracing strap (per 50m roll) 32 x 1.2 diagonally

Bracing strap (per 50m roll) 32 x 1.6 diagonally.Fly bracing included at 2.5m centres for purlins and girts

Bracing strap (per 50m roll) 32 x 1.6 diagonally

Down pipes C/B 100 x 50 C/B 100 x 50 C/B 100 x 50 C/B 100 x 50 C/B 100 x 50

Mezzanine ----- Bearers C30030 @ 3m spacingJoists Z15015 @ 400mm spacingMax. 3kPa

Bearers 2C25024 @ 3.5m spacingJoists Z15015 @ 400mm spacingMax 3 kPa

---- ----


Concrete block locally under each column 600x600x600mm-suitable for A,S, or M soil, and load of 100kPaColumns embedded in mass concrete – 400mm min. depth

150mm slab thickened locally under each column by 300x300x400mm -suitable for A,S, or M soil, and load of 100kPa

Concrete block locally under each column 650x650x650mm-suitable for A,S, or M soil, and load of 100kPaColumns embedded in mass concrete – 400mm min. depth

Concrete block locally under each column 1200 x 1200 x 1300mm-suitable for A,S, or M soil, and load of 100kPaColumns embedded in mass concrete – 600mm min. depth

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Regulations

Regulations according to the Building Code of Australia

• Exits – Paths to exits need to be clear– Doors must be self closing with the latch located between 1.5 and 1.65m above the floor. (D2.21)– Distance to travel to an exit is 20 m– Height throughout exit must be no less than 2m except for the unobstructed height of doorway which can be reduced to

1980 mm– Path to exit and exit itself, (except for doorway) can be no less than 1m or 1.8 in a corridor or ramp used for the

transportation of patients or beds (BCA D1.6)– If storey accommodates between 100 and 200 people the unobstructed width (except doorways) must be 1m plus 250 mm

for each person in excess of 100 or 1.8m where transport of beds is required (D 1.6)– Access to exits is vital, an occupant should be able to reach an exit without having to pass through another sole-

occupancy unit (D 1.2)– For class 5-9 buildings at no point on the floor should be more than 20m from an exit, and if there are two exits available in

different directions the max distance to one of the exits must be no more than 40 m

• Sprinklers– Sprinklers are required when paint, varnish and solvent products are being used, as they are hazardous. They are also

required when combustible goods with an aggregate volume exceeding 2000m3 and stored to a height greater than 4 m • Combustible goods

– Foam rubber or plastic– Paper products– Plastic, rubber, vinyl in other sheets in the form of off cuts and random pieces– Textiles– Timber products

– Required in warehouses

• Fire control centres– Needed in a building with an effective height of more than 25m (E 1.8)

• Fire precautions during construction– After building reaches an effective height of 12m working fire hydrants and fire hose reels that are on storeys recovered by

the roof or the floor structure above, except the 2 upmost storeys (E1.9)

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Regulations according to the Building Code of Australia (Continued)

• Car parking– Spaces for people with disabilities– Space needed for each person (D 3.5)

• Factory – Machine shop 5m2 /person– Fabrication areas 50m2/person– Space in which layout and natural use of fixed plant or equipment determines the number of persons that occupy a space

during work hours (area / person determined by use) (D1.13)

• Protection of Openings in external walls– 3m from boundary– 6m from far boundary (or road)– 6m from another building– Can have doorways in fire walls if the correct precautions are taken (C3.2)– Adjoining buildings need separations of firewall (C2.7)

• Large Isolated Buildings– Automatic fire protection– Automatic smoke exhaust system– Automatic smoke and heat vents (C2.3)

• Fire doors Partitions and Ceilings – All must be fire safe if a form of an exit– Fire partitions need to be full height of wall (floor to ceiling)– Services within fire escape routs must be enclosed.

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Unloading of truck

Roller door at back

Unloading of trucks

Lifting up of both sides of truck possible

Forklift for great heights

‘Bendie’ fork lift

By using this less space between the shelves is possible

The thinnest isle needed is 1900mm

The maximum height is 3660

The maximum weight lifted is 1.8T

The weight of the forklift is 6040kg

Manual Pallet jack

Truck size (in comparison to Andrew)

Stacking of empty pallets

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Ref 1 http://www.shade-to-order.com.au/technical.php?i=No_Triangles date accessed 07.03.04

Ref 2 http://www.glassblocks.com.au/ date accessed 12.03.04

http://www.selector.com.au/index.php?pid=10460&e=A&a=&target=normal&sp=&t=1

Ref 3 http://www.obeco.com.au/ date accessed 12.03.04

Ref 4 http://www.galaxyrooflite.com.au/ date accessed 13.03.04

Ref 5 http://www.pilkington.com.au/Australasia/Australia/English/default.htm date accessed 13.03.04

Ref 6 http://www.obeco.com.au/sys_mort.html date accessed 23.03.04

Ref 7 http://www.selector.com.au/index.php?pid=10460&e=D&a=&target=normal&sp=&t=1 date accessed 12.03.04

Ref 8 http://www.belron.com/resources/smashed+glass.jpg date accessed 04.04.04

Ref 9 http://www.buildingindex.com/company/austglas.htm date accessed 04.04.04

Ref 10 http://www.cmbrick.com.au/bricks_techinfo.html date accessed 25.03.04

Ref 11 http://www.bowralbricks.com.au/ date accessed 18.03.04

Ref 12 http://www.brickbydesign.com/downloads/publications/cbpi_manual_5.pdf date accessed 16.03.04

Ref 12 http://www.brickbydesign.com/downloads/publications/cbpi_manual_5.pdf date accessed 16.03.04

Ref 13 Compilation of Deakin university, Construction & Structures 2 Reader, Deakin University, Geelong, 1998

Ref 14 http://www.30504.com/Nederland_web/friesland/Brick_wall.jpg date accessed 20.03.04

Ref 15 http://www.cnn.com/interactive/style/9912/saladino.entrance/4.jpg date accessed 20.03.04

Ref 16 http://www.nps.gov/goga/history/seaforts/chap9&10/brick.htm date accessed 04.04.04

Ref 17 http://www.quikrete.com/diy/BasicBrickConstruction.html date accessed 31.03.04

Ref 18 http://www.selector.com.au/index.php?pid=10824&target=subproduct&e=I&subdirectory=01 date accessed 03.04.04

Ref 19 Boral Plasterboard 3.03, Boral plasterboard for a technical solution, May 1995.

References and Acknowledgements (the majority of resources were web-sites because the books found were general out of date)

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20. Promat, Passive Fire Protection, 98/99E 420.10, E460.10, E 450.10, E465.30

21. Timber Manual: Design and specifications 1, National Association of Forest Industry Ltd, 1989, p.2, 9-1122. www.oak.arch.utas.edu.au By: Peter J. Yttrup and Tom Evansaccessed on 12/3/0423. Drew, Philip. Tensile Architecture. Granada Publishing Ltd., St. Albans, Herts, 1979, p.169-17224. Timber Manual: Design and specifications 2, National Association of Forest Industry Ltd, 1989, p.8, 1025. Moore, Fuller. Understanding Structures, McGrawtlill Companies Inc. USA, 1999, p.37, 46, 23326. Vandenberg, Maritz. Cable Nets: Detailing in Building, Academy Editions, Great Britian, 1998, p. 14, 19, 29, 74, 7927. Lin, T. Y., Stotesbury, S. D. Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers, John Wiley & Sons Inc., USA and Canada, 1981, p. 111, 196, 294-299, 456-461 28. www.vicartscentre.com.au/sidneymyermusicbowl/index.htm accessed on 17/3/0429. www.architecture.com.au accessed on 17/3/0430. www.oncueonline.com.au accessed on 16/3/0431. www.findarticles.com accessed on 16/3/0432. Aluminium Development Council of Australia, Aluminium Technology, Book 1: Aluminium the metal, Ronald Sinclair Associates Pty Ltd, Sydney. 1971 p.16-19, 7533. Information Booklet, Asphalt Basics, Australian Asphalt Pavement Association, 199634. Boral Plasterboard manual, issue no 2, Jan 9635. Weathertex, Weathertex Pty Ltd, NSW, 200436. Flooring Manual, Carter Holt Harvey, Engineered Wood Products, 1997

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37. www.redskyshelters.com/ tensilehistory.html date accessed 06.04.04

38. http://www.christellefv.com/holidays/holland/photos/46-Jan04-Efteling-Entrance.jpg date accessed 06.04.04

39. http://www.rvib.org.au/eventscal/carols_images/bowl_1998.jpg date accessed 06.04.04

40. http://www.chenbros.com.tw/image/p1-1.jpg date accessed 06.04.04

41. http://www.contemporasteel.com/images/03r2.jpg date accessed 06.04.0442. Ward-Harvey, Ken. Fundamental Building Materials, Royal Australian Institute of Architects, ACT, 1997.43. Cement and Concrete Association of Australia, Guide to Concrete Constrution, Standards Australia, Sydney,

2002.

44. Cement and Concrete Association, The Housing Concrete Handbook, pdf file, p. 7-8, 18-19.

45. www.bluscopesteel.com.au, Bluescope Steel, accessed on 25/3/04.

46. www.concrib.com.au, Concrib Retaining Walls, accessed on 3/4/04.

47. www.allanblock.com.au, Allan Block, accessed on 3/4/04.

48. www.ppi.com.au, PPI Corporation Pty Ltd, accessed on 5/4/04.

49. Ham, Jeremy, Tilt Up, Deakin University lecture notes.

50. www.boral.com.au, Boral Ltd, accessed on 25/3/04.

51. http://www.buildingindex.com/extras/ceind3.html, accessed on 5/4/04

52. http://www.concrete.net.au/, accessed on 18/3/04

53. http://www.hollowcore.com.au/, accessed on 18/3/04

54. http://www.cement.org/, accessed on 18/3/04

55. http://www.humes.com.au, accessed on 3/4/04

56. Lecture notes from Building Material Science,

57 Australian Steel Construction, Economical Structural Steelwork, 1997

58 Harris, James B, Li, Kevin P, Structures in Architecture, Architectural Press, Oxford 1996

59 Ronstan Architectural Rigging Systems catalogue. Viewable at www.ronstan.com

60 Ham, Jeremy, Steel construction, Deakin University lecture notes

61 Ham, Jeremy, Portal Frames, Deakin University lecture notes

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Acknowledgments

Acc 1. David, Add-A-Shed & Garage Pty Ltd

Acc2. Carl Findlay, Max Findlay & Associates Pty Ltd

People we would like to thank:

Bunnings Warehouse Corio

Ray’s Tent City Corio

VISY Recycling Plant

Lyons Construction

Deakin University Printing and Packaging Centre Waurn Ponds

The Laminex Group Corio

A special thank-you to:

David from Add-A-Shed & Garage

Carl Findlay from Max Findlay & Associates