ASSIGNMENT A

1. What is ‘job analysis? As an HR Manager, how can you make use of the information it provides? Also discuss, in brief, the process of conducting a job analysis?

Ans:- Job analysis is the procedure through which you determine the duties of these positions and the characteristics of the people who should be hired for them. The analysis produces information on job requirements, which is then used for developing job descriptions (what the job entails) and job specifications (what kind of people to hire for the job).

A supervisor or HR specialist normally aims to collect one or more of the following types of information via the job analysis.

Work activities: Information is usually collected on the actual work activities performed. Such as cleaning, selling, teaching, or painting. Such a list may also indicate how, why, and when the worker performs each activity.

Human behaviors: Information on human behaviors like sensing, communicating, decision making, and writing may also be collected. Included here would be information regarding human job demands such as lifting weights, walking long distances, and so on.

Machines, tools. equipment, and work aids used: Included here would be information regarding products made, materials processed, knowledge dealt with or applied (such as finance or law), and services rendered (such as counseling or repairing).

Performance standards: Information is also collected regarding performance standards (in terms of quantity, quality, or speed for each job duty, for instance) by which an employee in this job will be evaluated.

Job context: Included here is information about such matters as physical working conditions, work schedule, and the organizational and social context-for instance, in terms of the number of people with whom the employee would normally have to interact. Also included here might be information regarding incentives for doing the job.

Human requirements: Finally, information is usually compiled regarding human requirements of the job, such as job-related knowledge or skills (education, training, work experience) and required personal attributes (aptitudes, physical characteristics, personality, interests).

Steps in Job Analysis:

The six steps in doing a job analysis are as follows:

Step 1: Identify the use to which the information will be put, since this will determine the types of data you collect and how you collect them. Some data collection techniques-like interviewing the employee and asking what the job entails and what his or her responsibilities are-are good for writing job description and selecting employees for the job. Other job analysis techniques (like the position analysis questionnaire described later) do not provide qualitative information for job description, but rather numerical ratings for each job; these can be used to compare jobs to one another for compensation purposes.

Figure 3.2 Process Chart for Analyzing a Job's Work Flow

Step 2: Review relevant background information such as organization charts, process charts, and job descriptions. Organization charts show how the job in question relates to other jobs and where it fits in the overall organization. The chart should identify the title of each position and, by means of its interconnecting lines, show who reports to whom and with whom the job incumbent is expected to communicate.

A process chart provides a more detailed understanding of the work flow than is obtainable from the organization chart alone. In its simplest form, a process chart (like the one in Figure 3.2) shows the flow of inputs to and outputs from the job under study. (In Figure 3.2 the inventory control clerk is expected to receive inventory from suppliers, take requests for inventory from the two plant managers, provide requested inventory to these managers, and give information to these managers on the status of in-stock inventories). Finally, the existing job description, if there is one, can provide a starting point for building the revised job description.

Step 3: Select representative positions to be analyzed. This is done when many similar jobs are to be analyzed, and it is too time-consuming to analyze, say, the jobs of all assembly workers.

Step 4: Next actually analyze the job by collecting data on job activities, required employee behaviors, working conditions, and human traits and abilities needed to perform the job. For this, you would use one or more of the job analysis techniques explained in the remainder of this chapter.

Step 5: Review the information with job incumbents. The job analysis information should be verified with the worker performing the job and with his or her immediate supervisor. This will help to confirm that the information is factually correct and complete. This "review" step can also help gain the employee's acceptance of the job analysis data and conclusions by giving that person a chance to review and modify your description of his or her job activities.

Step 6: Develop a job description and job specification. A job description and a job specification are usually two concrete products of the job analysis. The job description (to repeat) is a written statement that describes the activities and responsibilities of the job, as well as important features of the job such as working conditions and safety hazards. The job specifications summarizes the personal qualities, traits, skills, and background required for getting the job done; it may be either a separate document or on the same document as the job description.

2. Distinguish between ‘job description’ and ‘job specification’? What items are typically included in the job description?

Ans; - A job description is a written statement of what the jobholder actually does, how he or she does it, and under what conditions the job is performed. This information is in turn used to write a job specification that lists the knowledge, abilities, and skills needed to perform the job satisfactorily.

There is no standard format you must use in writing a job description, but most descriptions contain sections on:

1. Job identification

2. Job summary

3. Relationship, responsibilities, and duties.

4. Authority of incumbent

5. Standards of performance

6. Working conditions

7. Job specification

3. Do you agree that selection is a negative process? Yes or No, Why? Give your comments and also explain the process of selection you would prefer to follow if you were to select an HR Manager for your organization.

Ans:- The theory of testing in industry is based upon the individual differences among workers: Indeed, the purpose of the selection process is to take full advantage of such differences in order to select primarily those persons who possess the greatest amount of attributes important for success on the job.

Figure 2.4 diagrams the basic selection model. Each of the steps shown is important in developing a proper selection procedure.

Step 1 : Examination of the job (s) having vacancies. This step consists of detailed study of job analysis. Job analysis is a most critical and basic problem area in industrial phychology and is, or should be, the foundation of any industrial testing. A thorough knowledge and understanding of a job is of paramount importance and must precede the use of any test in the selection and placement of workers.

Step 2 : Selection of criterion and predictor. The second step involves two parts - choosing an indicator which measures the extent of how "good" or successful a worker is (typically referred to as the criterion) and choosing a particular measure that can be used to predict how successful a worker will be on the job (typically referred to as the selection device or predictor). Criterion selection is an involved but basic problem; the solution decides how job success is defined and/or measured.

On the predictor side, the psychologist finds a wide variety of potentially useful devices which can be successful in discriminating between "good" and "poor" workers. Often used are such predictors as tests, interviews, application blanks, and letter of recommendation, among others.

Step 3 : Measurement of performance. Once the criterion and the predictor have been selected it is necessary to obtain measures on both from a sample of workers on the job. This can be done either by giving the predictor to present employees, and simultaneously obtaining criterion measures, or by giving the predictor to new hires and waiting a specified time before obtaining the criterion measures (thus allowing enough time for the new hires to establish themselves as successful or unsuccessful). Both methods are used, and each has its advantages and disadvantages. These will be covered in more detail when we discuss kinds of validity.

Step 4: Relating predictor to criterion. The fourth step in the selection process involves determining whether a true and meaningful relationship exists between employee scores on the predictor and the criterion. Only if such a relationship exists can the selection process be considered successful. Establishing the existence of such a relationship is called assessing the validity of a predictor. This is usually a statistical process which involves the use and understanding of co relational methods and significant tests.

Step 5: Deciding upon the utility of the selection device. Making the final decision as to whether to use the predictor to select new job hires depends not only upon the sire of thc relationship found (in step 4) and its significance, but also upon many other conditions: the number of applicants, number of job openings, proportion of present employees considered successful (the base rate), and respective variances of the successful and unsuccessful worker groups. All of these additional aspects concerning the use of a predictor are discussed in later portions of this chapter.

Step 6: Reevaluation. The fact that the predictive situation is a dynamic, ever-changing one should never be forgotten. What makes for good selection today may not be at all appropriate tomorrow; applicants change, job change, and employment conditions change. Thus any good selection program should be reevaluated periodically to make certain it is doing the job for which it has been designed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PREDICTORS:

The two paramount requirements for any predictor are validity and reliability. In the industrial setting different kinds or types of validity exist, although the one that is most preferred is called predictive validity.

There are also different types of reliability measures. The concern with reliability and validity is not limited to predictors but applies to criteria as well-however, the discussion of the criterion is deferred on Chapter 6.

VALIDITY:

The validity of a predictor can generally be defined as the extent to which the predictor achieves certain aims of the user by measuring what is supposed to be measured. The specific kind of validity involved thus depends upon the particular aim of the user in any situation.

Predictive Validity Concurrent Validity Content Validity Construct Validity Synthetic Validity Face Validity

RELIABILITY:

In general terms, the validity concept deals with what is being measured by a measuring device. A second and perhaps equally important characteristic of predictors is the need to know the consistency of the measure, regardless of what is being measured. Stated another way, we need to establish the degree of stability of any measuring device; the measurement obtained from a predictor must be consistent. The degree to which any measuring instrument is consistent or stable and would yield the same scores again and again if necessary is defined as the reliability of that test instrument.

Like validity, reliability is usually measured by means of the correlation coefficient. Since reliable measurement implies stability from one situation to another, reliable instrument should produce either the same scores or at least similar rankings of individuals in two situations. By computing the correlation we obtain a mathematical expression of the extent to which that occurs. Thus a reliable measuring instrument is one on which individuals receive the same score (or nearly the same) in repeated measurements. When the correlation coefficient is used to measure the similarity of scores for a group of people on two applications of the same measure, it is called a reliability coefficient.

Let us now proceed to examine each reliability method, keeping in mind the error sources so we can determine how each method treats each source.

Test -Retest Method Parallel Tests Method Subdivided Test Method

SELECTION RATIO AND PERCENT OF SUCCESSFUL EMPLOYEES:

Two other variables which play an important role in determining the utility of a predictor are the selection ratio and the percentage of present employees considered successful. The reader will recall that the utility of a predictor was defined as the improvement in quality of the hires obtained using a prediction device when compared with present methods of selection. Quality is typically defined in terms of (1) the average criterion score of the group, or (2) in terms of the proportion of people in that group who have criterion scores above some value that is considered to be minimal in order for one to be a successful employee. For any given obtained validity coefficient between criterion and the predictor, a manipulation of either the selection ratio and/or a change in the percent of present employees considered successful will result in marked changes in the resulting quality of the hired (selected) employees.

Selection Ration Simply described, the selection ratio (SR) may be expressed as:

n/N=SR

Where       n = number of job openings                   N = number of job applicants available for placement

4. Discuss in brief, the various techniques used for forecasting the demand for and supply of human resources in the corporate organizations.

Ans:- The process of manpower planning seeks to ensure that the right number and kinds of people will be at the right places at the right time in the future. This requires forecasting future needs, inventorying existing resources, projecting present resource into the future and comprising these projections with the forecasts, and finally planning ways to fill the identified gaps.

In the opinion of W.S. Wickstrom, manpower planning consists of a series of activities as follows:

a) Forecasting future manpower requirements, either in terms of mathematical projections of trends in the economic environment and development in industry, or in terms of judgemental estimates based upon the specific future plans of a company;

b) Making an inventory of present manpower resources and assessing the extent to which these resources are employed optimally;

c) Anticipating manpower problems by projecting present resources into the future and comparing them with the forecast of requirements to determine their adequacy, both quantitatively and qualitatively; and

d) Planning the necessary programmes requirements, selection, training, development, utilisation, transfer, promotion, motivation and compensation to ensure that future manpower requirements are properly met.

Another way to study this process is as follows: The process of manpower planning may be summarised in three stages as shown in figure:

1. Investigating stage is crucial since the main purpose of manpower planning is to avoid the situations of overstaffing and understaffing; and for this purpose a stock of existing manpower is to be assessed.

Manpower inventory refers to the assessment of the present and the potential capabilities of present employees quantitatively and qualitatively. Inventory is a term often used in relation to the counting of tangible objects such as raw materials, goods in progress, or finished product. In manpower inventory, however, the items involved are intangible. The manpower inventory is not simply the counting of number of persons availablc prcsently, but it includcs a cataloguing of present and potential abilities and aptitudes. The inventory should include key positions presently, as well as present executives, because a great deal of shifting from position to position will undoubtedly occur during the future period. Preparation of manpower inventory comprises four steps:

a) Determination of personnel to be inventories;

b) Cataloguing of factual information on each individual;

c) Systematic and detailed appraisal of each individual;

d) Detailed study of those individuals deemed to possess potential for development.

Studying the employee turnover is essential for estimating the future needs of the workforce. From the available stock of manpower, a discount should be allowed for employee turnover during the period of planning. Employee turnover may be caused by death, disability, dismissal, resignation, promotions, transfers, etc. The study of turnover requires a lot of experience and the records regarding work conditions, morale, job satisfaction, competitive situations, etc.

Human resource auditing is an intensive, analytical and comparative process. Audits are systematic searches that gather, compile and analyse data related to production, products, labour, and competition, etc. in depth for an extended period of time-usually a year. Most audits are designed to compare information about an individual organisation with norms, standards and composite reports from other similar organisations. Manpower audit csscntially involves the issue of workforce quality, skills inventory, expected losses, and internal moves like promotions, demotions and transfers.

Examining the present quality of the work force is done through employment records and performancc appraisal documents. Skills inventory contains data about, cach employee's skills, abilities, work preferences and other items of information that indicate an employee's overall value to the organisation.

The data and information required in skills inventories usually includes items like age, occupation, education, experience and skills, career places and preferences.

Information gathered through skills inventories helps in knowing "what exists in stock" and "what is needed to be added to that stock", taking into account the capability, qualifications, experience, skill. knowledge and promotional potential of employees.

The first stage of investigating or preparing human resource audit can be summarizcd as shown in the following figure:

2. Forecasts and Plans which constitute the second are important basic premises for manpower planning. Human resource forecasting is very similar to human resource auditing except that forecasting emphasizes the similar to human resource auditing except that forecasting emphasizes the future while auditing is concerned with the present. Again, human resource auditing focuses on internal organisational adjustments whereas human resource forecasting concentrates on organisational adaptations resulting from external pressures and changes.

Forecasting of future manpower requirement, both qualitatively and quantitatively, depends upon various factors like amount of production, technological changes, supply and demand conditions, and careers planning.

Formulating coherent forecasts and plans to determine personnel strategy for the organisation is crucial part of manpower planning and there are various techniques available to assist in preparting forecasts-ranging from sophisticated statistical models to basic managerial judgement. The methods used will depend on the back-up data available, the size and nature of the organisation and the degree of expertise available.

The manpower plan will normally be sub-divided on a basis similar to that outlined below:

Recruitment: the number and types of employees required over the period of the plan together with details of any potential supply problems.

Training: the amount and types of training required for both new recruits and existing employees.

Employee development: closely linked to training, this programme must provide for projected promotions and transfers.

Productivity: methods for maintaining or improving productivity including work methods, incentives, productivity bargaining and other methods of improving motivation.

Redundancy: specific plans regarding the number of potential redundancies and how these will be dealt with.

Accommodation: plans for expansion, contraction or re-location including buildings, equipment and for improving working conditions.

3. Utilisation and control constitute the third stage of the process of manpower planning. Here the focus is on ensuring that the plans will materialise. Manpower control is a system for measunng achievements in terms of utIlisation against what was expected in order to check that things are keeping up with the expectations. Constant monitoring of information flow helps in warning the organisation when forecasts or targets of utilisation are going awry so that corrective action may be taken.

It has been rightly observed that manpower planning is a strategic approach to managing human resources at work. It is in practice an organised flow of information feeding a continuously updated picture of future manpower needs and availabilities through which the various aspects of manpower management (recruitment, selection, training, promotion, career development, remuneration and productivity) can be integrated into a cohesive manpower strategy linked to the economic and ethical objectives of the organisation.

4. Career Planning & Succession Planning

Systematic career planning and succession planning of employees reveals the extent of current and potential utilisation of manpower and proves to be an important input in the manpower planning process. Personnel function has a typical responsibility for matching the career expectations of the employees to the requirements of the organisation as well as making certain that the individual employee's experience and training are suitable for possible promotions and transfers.

Career planning is important for several reasons:

a) In order to build commitment between the individual and the organisation. b) In order to develop long-range perspective.c) In order to reduce personnel turnover expenses.d) In order to lessen employee obsolescence.e) In order to ensure the effectiveness of the organisation.f) In order to allow the individual to achieve personal and work-related goals.

Career planning significantly helps the organisation to be successful in translating its goals and objectives into meaningful tasks that will ultimately lead to high quality performance of individual employees.

Career as a concept has very broad meaning as "a lifelong sequence of professional, educational, and developmental experiences that project an individual through the world of work".

Career is viewed as a sequence of positions occupied by a person during the course of his life time. This is the objective career. Career may also be viewed as an amalgam of changes in values, attitudes and motivation that occur as a person grows older. This is called the subjective career. Both of these perspectives have their focus on the individual. The individual better understands his own career expectations and his assets and

liabilities. He can make critical decisions to influence his destiny over time and can adjust in a manner that would help him to advance along the best career path. Career planning is important because it helps the individuals to explore, choose and strive to derive satisfaction with his own career objectives.

Career planning is the process or activities offered by the organisation to individuals to identify strengths weaknesses, specific goals and jobs they would like to occupy.

Succession planning is the process or activities connected with the succession of persons to fill key positions in the organisation hierarchy as vacancies arise. The focus of attention is towards which person. In career planning the organisation is concerned with strategic questions of career development, distinguished from succession planning because the concern is less with the individual employee and more with the type of person required to fill a particular post. For instance, in succession planning the concern is with such questions as who will be the next Chief Executive Officer or what will happen if the Marketing Manager retires in March and so on. In career planning, on the other hand, the concern is whether the organisation should employ more graduates, more engineers, more scientists, or more accountants, whether the Chief Executive Officer should be an accountant or a marketing expert and so on.

Succession planning focuses on identification of vacancies and locating the probable successor. It provides succession chart in respect of a particular position. Career planning provides picture of succession plan for employees as per organisational needs. It focuses on who on the basis of performance, experience, could be placed where, when and how.

Thus both career planning and succession planning constitute an important input to manpower planning process. Thus, it becomes easier to have planned programmes for internal HRD than outside recruitment, when need arises suddenly due to any reason or retirement. It becomes convenient to map the careers of employees in the organisation suitable to their ability and skill, and to gain their willingness to be trained and developed for higher positions. Individual employee comes to know in advance the level to which he can rise if he has the ability and aptitude for it. He also feels happy when he realizes that the organisation is taking care of his talents and aspirations. This helps in generating loyalty towards organisation and improved motivation and morale of individual employees. Organisation gains stable workforce and low employee turnover. Ultimately the organisation becomes successful in accomplishing its goals effectively and efficiently.

Career planning is essentially a process of integrating the employees needs and aspirations with organisational requirements. This is most challenging task which has assumed great importance today since organisations are becoming increasedly interested in attracting, retaining and utilising the potential of highly talented, technically specialised, professionally trained experts. This is how the stream of qualified personnel is kept flowing into the organisation. Career planning and succession planning act as an important tool for harnessing the human potential; and HR managers play a major role.

5. How do firms make use of information technology to facilitate its recruitment process? Quote some examples also.

Ans:- Recruitment is the field where IT provides the widest range of possible applications. Some IT programs are designed to provide a scalable solution, from standalone behavioral profiling, through networked assessments, up to a completely integrated recruitment package.

At whatever level you approach automation in recruitment, you can expect IT to give you some key advantages that will not only help to streamline the process itself, and offer new ways of looking at the practice of recruitment itself. Examples of these key advantages include:

←

EfficiencyNot only are IT solutions highly effective in their own right, but they’re designed to be as intuitive and understandable as possible. So, profiling IT into the recruitment process is a painless and seamless experience. AdaptabilityEvery organization has its own practices and procedures in recruitment, and IT solutions are designed to complement and expand on these. The applications are flexible enough to adapt to a wide range of requirements, and our more sophisticated solutions even offer customization services to match your exact needs. ObjectivityUsing an automated system helps to ensure a level of absolute fairness and objectivity to your applicant assessment programme. Different IT recruitment products only consider a candidate’s quantifiable advantages for a role. IntegrationThough automation can bring some important advantages to recruitment, the process is ultimately about human communication. Information technology helps to integrate and streamline recruitment, connecting decision makers and providing them with a unique

range of insights and information.

ASSIGNMENT B

1. How does psychological testing help in the selection process? Also explain the role of Myers Brief Type Indicator (MBTI) in this regard.

Ans:- The term psychological testing is often interchanged with the terms occupational testing or psychometric testing. These terms are used to describe tools which are essentially sophisticated devices designed to measure individual difference in a number of areas such as intelligence and ability.

Tests are used for a number of purposes in various circumstances including:

career counselling team building development and recruitment.

However, the most common use of tests is in the process of selecting individuals at the point of entry into an organisation. Testing has been in use for more than 50 years, but there has been a significant rise in test use in the last decade and, as the selection process becomes ever more sophisticated, testing has assumed a more and more prominent role for a number of organisations. Testing is also more frequently taking place online.

Psychological tests are tests which can be systematically scored and administered, which are used to measure individual differences (for example in personality, aptitude, ability, attainment or intelligence). They are supported by a body of evidence and statistical data which demonstrates their validity and are used in an occupational setting.

Other forms of testing may be designed in-house and include:

in-tray exercises job sampling team-building exercises structured discussions.

However, they are outside the above definition and therefore not covered by the guidance contained in this factsheet.

THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR One of the most widely used personality frameworks is called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MDTI). It is essentially a 100 question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations.

Based on the answers individuals give to the test, they arc classified as extroverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and perceiving or judging (P or J), which are then combined into 16 personality types.

To illustrate, let's take several examples. INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes. They're characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often stubborn. ESTJs are organizers. They're practical, realistic, matter-of-fact, with a natural head for business or mechanics. They like to organize arid run activities. The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is quick, ingenious, and good at many things. This person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging problems, but may neglect routine assignments. A recent book that profiled 13 contemporary business people who created super successful firms like Apple Computer, Federal Express, Honda Motors, Microsoft, Price Club, and Sony found that all 13 are intuitive thinkers (NTs). This is particularly interesting, since intuitive thinkers represent only about 5 percent of the population.

2. Write short notes on the following:a) FIRO b) The structured interview c) The Global talent search

Ans:- a) FIRO: The Fundamental Interpersonal

Relations Orientation

In 1958, Will Schutz published The Interpersonal Underworld (FIRO) (Schutz, 1966), containing his new theory of interpersonal behaviour. FIRO (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation) theory continues to be an important tool for human resource development specialists, consultants, and therapists. Although the theory concerns individual orientations, it has application to all interpersonal and group work.

FIRO Theory and Behavior

Schutz theorized toot people's behavior in interpersonal relationships is based on three dimensions. These are :

Inclusion: Being allowed contact with others; the issue of acceptance or rejection by others.

Control: Having control or influence over other people; the question of power and authority.

Affection / Openness: The original term, "affection", meant giving and receiving love, affection, friendship, etc. Schutz later decided (Schutz, 1982, 1989) that affection was a feeling dimension, not a behavioral one, and changed the term to "openness" to reflect its behavioral aspect.

Openness is the degree to which one is comfortable sharing one's thoughts and feelings with others.

Next, Schutz stated that each of these three dimensions of behavior has two manifestations: expressed (how we say that we behave toward others) and wanted (how we say that we want others to behave toward us). Based on his research with his FIRO-B instrument, he later expanded these concepts so that each was a continuum:

Expressed-Received: How we act toward others and how they act toward us. Perceived-Wanted: What we think is happening and what we say we want to

happen. Differences in these areas indicates that what we say we want and and what we really want from others often are two different things.

THE INSTRUMENTS:

Schutz's original instrument, the FIRO-B (behavior), measures both an individual's behavior and the behavior of others with whom the individual interacts. The instrument is an effective tool for showing people the differences between what they say they want from others and what they actually express as wants or needs.

To broaden FIRO theory to the organizational level, Schutz developed The Schutz Measures: An Integrated System for Assessing Elements of Awareness (University Associates. 1982). He extended the FIRO-B's interpersonal-relationship components to five areas or "elements" of life: Behavior, Feelings, Self-Concept, Relationships, and Job.

USE OF THE INSTRUMENTS:

Schutz's work is valuable not only on an interpersonal level (as used by trainers, psychologists, counselors, etc.) but also in organizations (in team-building sessions and to facilitate change. for example), because it has been found that people who have a greater understanding of themselves and of others are more likely to get along. to work together harmoniously, and to experience fewer misunderstandings. Designed to be administered by a trainer or consultant. The Schutz Measures can be used for personal growth (employee and leadership training) to provide insight about the respondents' self-

concepts, their behavior and feelings toward others, their relationships. and their interpersonal fit on the job. As part of training aimed at change, the instruments can help to "infreeze" individuals by providing information they can use to set goals. The instruments also are valuable as pre-and post-training measurements to track changes in behavior and feelings as a result of training programs. Combining elements allows in-depth exploration of issues such as motivation, communication, and job.

b) Structured Interviews

A structured interview (also known as a standardized interview or a researcher-administered survey) is a quantitative research method commonly employed in survey research. The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interviewee is presented with exactly the same questions in the same order. This ensures that answers can be reliably aggregated and that comparisons can be made with confidence between sample subgroups or between different survey periods.

Structured interviews are a means of collecting data for a statistical survey. In this case the data are collected by an interviewer rather than through a self-administered questionnaire. Interviewers read the questions exactly as they appear on the survey questionnaire. The choice of answers to the questions is often fixed (close-ended) in advance, though open-ended questions can also be included within a structured interview.

A structured interview also standardises the order in which questions are asked of survey respondents, so the questions are always answered within the same context. This is important for minimising the impact of context effects, where the answers given to a survey question can depend on the nature of preceding questions. Though context effects can never be avoided, it is often desirable to hold them constant across all respondents.

Specific goals and questions for the interview are detailed before it commences. This provides guidelines and therefore a structure.

o Advantages

A structured interview is a question and answer session which is recorded in some way. The interview is one that the knowledge engineer has planned with structure and specific questions and objectives. They are easier to prepare and manage. The expert is given a series of questions and asked how to solve them. Most of the data collected is r elated, and this approach provides more detailed information on the problem. The expert is required to explain what facts are being considered and how they are being treated, as the problem is solved. General rules and problem-solving strategies involving the different concepts can be uncovered.

o Disadvantage

This technique can only be used by an engineer with some familiarity with the domain. Other issues unrelated, but important to the main topic may not arise during the interview. Therefore the questions asked in the interview must be clear and unambiguous so that the expert can understand what is being asked. It provides only weak insight to pr ocedural knowledge such as rules of problem-solving strategies

3. Identify the main methods of performance appraisal and give a detailed account of 360 degree feedback.

Ans:- The following are the main methods of performance appraisal:

There are several techniques of performance appraisal, each with some strong points as well as limitations. Oberg (1972) has summarized some of the commonly used performance appraisal techniques.

(i) Essay appraisal method

The assessor writes a brief essay providing an assessment of the strengths, weaknesses and potential of the subject. In order to do so objectively, it is necessary that the assessor knows the subject well and should have interacted with them. Since the length and contents of the essay vary between assessors, essay ratings are difficult to compare.

(ii) Graphic rating scale

A graphic scale 'assesses a person on the quality of his or her work (average; above average; outstanding; or unsatisfactory).' Assessment could also be trait centred and cover observable traits, such as reliability, adaptability, communication skills, etc. Although graphic scales seem simplistic in construction, they have application in a wide variety of job responsibilities and are more consistent and reliable in comparison with essay appraisal. The utility of this technique can be enhanced by using it in conjunction with the essay appraisal technique.

(iii) Field review method

Since individual assessors differ in their standards, they inadvertently introduce bias in their ratings. To overcome this assessor-related bias, essay and graphic rating techniques can be combined in a systematic review process. In the field review method, 'a member of the HRM staff meets a small group of assessors

from the supervisory units to discuss each rating, systematically identifying areas of inter-assessor disagreement.' It can then be a mechanism to help each assessor to perceive the standards uniformly and thus match the other assessors. Although field review assessment is considered valid and reliable, it is very time consuming.

(iv) Forced-choice rating method

Unlike the field review method, the forced-choice rating method does not involve discussion with supervisors. Although this technique has several variations, the most common method is to force the assessor to choose the best and worst fit statements from a group of statements. These statements are weighted or scored in advance to assess the employee. The scores or weights assigned to the individual statements are not revealed to the assessor so that she or he cannot favour any individual. In this way, the assessor bias is largely eliminated and comparable standards of performance evolved for an objective. However, this technique is of little value wherever performance appraisal interviews are conducted.

(v) Critical incident appraisal method

In this method, a supervisor describes critical incidents, giving details of both positive and negative behaviour of the employee. These are then discussed with the employee. The discussion focuses on actual behaviour rather than on traits. While this technique is well suited for performance review interviews, it has the drawback that the supervisor has to note down the critical incidents as and when they occur. That may be impractical, and may delay feedback to employees. It makes little sense to wait six months or a year to discuss a misdeed, a mistake or good display of initiative.

(vi) Management by objectives

The employees are asked to set or help set their own performance goals. This avoids the feeling among employees that they are being judged by unfairly high standards. This method is currently widely used, but not always in its true spirit. Even though the employees are consulted, in many cases management ends up by imposing its standards and objectives. In some cases employees may not like 'self-direction or authority.' To avoid such problems, the work standard approach is used.

(vii) Work standard approach

In this technique, management establishes the goals openly and sets targets against realistic output standards. These standards are incorporated into the organizational performance appraisal system. Thus each employee has a clear understanding of their duties and knows well what is expected of them. Performance appraisal and interview comments are related to these duties. This makes the appraisal process objective and more accurate. However, it is difficult

to compare individual ratings because standards for work may differ from job to job and from employee to employee. This limitation can be overcome by some form of ranking using pooled judgment.

(viii) Ranking methods

Some of the important forms of ranking for performance appraisal are given below, based on Oberg, 1972; and Monga, 1983:

(a) Alteration ranking method The individual with the best performance is chosen as the ideal employee. Other employees are then ranked against this employee in descending order of comparative performance on a scale of best to worst performance. The alteration ranking method usually involves rating by more than one assessor. The ranks assigned by each assessor are then averaged and a relative ranking of each member in the group is determined. While this is a simple method, it is impractical for large groups. In addition, there may be wide variations in ability between ranks for different positions.

(b) Paired comparison The paired comparison method systematizes ranking and enables better comparison among individuals to be rated. Every individual in the group is compared with all others in the group. The evaluations received by each person in the group are counted and turned into percentage scores. The scores provide a fair idea as to how each individual in the group is judged by the assessor.

(c) Person-to-person rating In the person-to-person rating scales, the names of the actual individuals known to all the assessors are used as a series of standards. These standards may be defined as lowest, low, middle, high and highest performers. Individual employees in the group are then compared with the individuals used as the standards, and rated for a standard where they match the best. The advantage of this rating scale is that the standards are concrete and are in terms of real individuals. The disadvantage is that the standards set by different assessors may not be consistent. Each assessor constructs their own person-to-person scale which makes comparison of different ratings difficult.

(d) Checklist method The assessor is furnished with a checklist of pre-scaled descriptions of behavior, which are then used to evaluate the personnel being rated (Monga, 1983). The scale values of the behavior items are unknown to the assessor, who has to check as many items as she or he believes describe the worker being assessed. A final rating is obtained by averaging the scale values of the items that have been marked.

(e) Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) This is a relatively new technique. It consists of sets of behavioral statements describing good or bad performance with respect to important qualities. These qualities may refer to inter-personal relationships, planning and organizing abilities, adaptability and reliability. These

statements are developed from critical incidents collected both from the assessor and the subject.

(f) Assessment centers This technique is used to predict future performance of employees were they to be promoted. The individual whose potential is to be assessed has to work on individual as well as group assignments similar to those they would be required to handle were they promoted. The judgment of observers is pooled, and paired comparison or alteration ranking is sometimes used to arrive at a final assessment. The final assessment helps in making an order-of-merit ranking for each employee. It also involves subjective judgment by observers.

A performance appraisal system could be designed based on intuition, self-analysis, personality traits, behaviourial methods and result-based techniques. Different approaches and techniques could be blended, depending on the goals of performance appraisal in the organization and the type of review. For example, management by objectives, goal-setting and work standard methods are effective for objective coaching, counselling and motivational purposes. Critical incident appraisal is best suited when supervisor's personal assessment and criticism are essential. A carefully developed and validated forced-choice rating can provide valuable analysis of the individual when considering possible promotion to supervisory positions. Combined graphic and essay form is simple, effective in identifying training and development needs, and facilitates other management decisions.

360 degree feedback: In human resources, 360-degree feedback, also known as 'multi-rater feedback', 'multisource feedback', or 'multisource assessment', is employee development feedback that comes from all around the employee. "360" refers to the 360 degrees in a circle. The feedback would come from subordinates, peers, and managers in the organizational hierarchy, as well as self-assessment, and in some cases external sources such as customers and suppliers or other interested stakeholders. It may be contrasted with upward feedback, where managers are given feedback by their direct reports, or a traditional performance appraisal, where the employees are most often reviewed only by their manager.

The results from 360-degree feedback are often used by the person receiving the feedback to plan their training and development. The results are also used by some organizations for making promotional or pay decisions, which is sometimes called "360-degree review."

Rater accuracyA study on the patterns of rater accuracy shows that how long the rater has known the person has the most effect on the accuracy of a 360-degree review. The study shows that subjects in the group “known for one to three years” are the most accurate, followed by “known for less than one year,” followed by “known for three to five years” and the least accurate being “known for more than five years.” The study concludes that the most

accurate ratings come from knowing the person long enough to get past first impressions, but not so long as to begin to generalize favorably (Eichinger 24).

Effects of 360-degree feedbackA study on 360-degree feedback to leaders conducted by Arizona State University has supported the hypothesis that improvement in a leader’s consideration and employee development behaviors will lead to positive changes in employees' job satisfaction and engagement, and reduce their intent to leave (Brett 582-583).

Strategic DataWhile the value of 360-degree feedback is often seen in terms of individual development, aggregate reporting of all recipients' results can provide valuable data for the organization as a whole. It enables leaders to

Take advantage of under-utilized personnel strengths to increase productivity Avoid the trap of counting on skills that may be weak in the organization Apply human assets data to the valuation of the organization Make succession planning more accurate Design more efficient coaching and training initiatives Support the organization in marketing the skills of its members

Assignment ‘C’

1. Once is job analysis undertaken, the data reviewed is:a) Job specification b) Job descriptionc) Both a & b d) None of the above

2. Data cannot be collected through:a) Personal observation b) Personal interviewsc) Written narratives d) Haggling

3. Who of the following is not the source of job information?a) State b) Job holdersc) Interview d) Independent observers

4. Job analysis is not useful in:a) Selection b) Dismissalc) Human resource planning d) Maintaining good industrial relations

5. Job specification does not includes:a) Mental requirements b) Educational requirementsc) Behavioral requirements d) Material requirements

6. Job description does not include:a) Compensation to be paid b) Hazards summaryc) Physical disability permitted d) Job summary

7. Which of the following statements regarding job description is not true?a) It describes the contents of a job.b) It tells us, how it is done and why?c) It is a broad statement about the scope of a jobd) None of the above

8. Which of the following is not a step in the process of job analysis?a) Data collection b) Filling job descriptionc) Selection of the best alternative d) Getting find approval

9. Job analysis does not provide information regarding:a) Job identification b) Job relationshipc) Motivation d) Required personal attributes

10. Recruitment is a) A negative conceptb) A positive conceptc) Concerned with the integration in the organizationd) Concerned with the performance appraisal

11. Which of the following is not a psychological test?a) Achievement test b) Interest testc) Academic test d) Rorscach Bolt Test

12. Which of the following is not an external source of human resource supply?a) Advertisingb) Recommendation of the present employeesc) Leasingd) Demotion

13. Which of the following statements regarding internal sources of human resources supply is not true?a) They reduce rate of labour turnoverb) They motivate the present employees to prepare themselves for higher postsc) They create the problem of people coming in by one door of the organization

while highly is talent leaves by another.d) They do not avoid the disadvantages of inbreeding.

14. Which of the following is not a method of recruitment?a) Individual method b) Direct methodc) Third party method d) Indirect method

15. Direct method of recruitment does not include:a) Intermediatesb) Sending recruiters to conference & seminarsc) Recruiting at the gate of factoryd) Campus interviews

16. Which of the following is not a third party of recruitment method.a) Advertising through televisionb) Public employment agencyc) Casual applicantsd) Leasing

17. Selection is a:a) Subjective concept b) Negative conceptc) Positive concept d) Static concept

18. Which of the following is not a step in the process of selection?a) Screening of applicationsb) Advertisementc) Preliminary interviewd) Application Blank

19. Psychological tests are not useful in:a) Recruitment b) Placementc) Training & Development d) Vocational guidance

20. Which of the following is not a reliability method?a) Test-Retest method b) Upward tests methodc) Parallel tests method d) Sub-divided test method

21. Which of the following is not a correct term in the context of validity?a) Predictive validity b) Context validityc) Synthetic validity d) Constraint validity

22. To which of the following areas, Schutz had not extended the FIRO-B’s interpersonal-relationship components?a) Behavior b) Self-conceptc) Job d) Training and development

23. Which of the following is not one of five basic personality dimensions (5 factor model of personality which underlines all others)?a) Extraversionb) Agreeablenessc) Consciousnessd) Openness to experiencee) Straightforwardness

24. Which of the following is not a characteristic features of Type A personality?a) Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place.b) Can cope with leisure timec) Strive to think or do two arrange things simultaneouslyd) Is obsessed with numbers

25. Where of the following is not a characteristic feature of Type B personality?a) Can relax without guiltb) Feel no need to display their achievementc) Suffer from a sense of time urgencyd) Play for fun and relaxation.

26. Which of the following statements is correct in respect of performance appraisal?a) Performance appraisal and potential appraisal are one and the same thingb) Reference appraisal and potential appraisal are two different thingsc) The objective of performance appraisal and potential appraisal are commond) Performance appraisal necessarily leads to immediate rise in the output of the

27. Performance appraisal is not done for the purpose of a) Determining promotionb) Reviewing the employees work related behaviorc) Determining the potentially of the employeed) Doing the career planning

28. Graphic rating scalea) Aims at combining the benefits of narrative critical incidents and quantified

ratings by anchoring a quantified SCALE with specific narrative examples of good and poor performance

b) Is similar to grading on a curve; pre-determined percentage of ratees are placed in various performance categories.

c) Lists a number of traits and a range of performance for each. The employee is then related by identifying the score that best describes his level of performance for each trait.

d) Ranks employees by making a check of all possible pairs of the employees for each trait and indicating which is the better employee of the pair.

29. Which of the following is not performance appraisal method?a) Forced distribution methodb) Factor comparison methodc) Point systemd) Check-list method

30. In the process of BARS, which of the following steps is not included?a) Generating of critical incidentsb) Developing performance dimensionc) Scaling incidentsd) Re-allocating performance dimensione) Developing final instrument

31. Which of the following is not a step in the process of MBO programme?a) Setting the organizations goalsb) Setting the departmental goalsc) Defining the expected resultsd) Comparing the compensation paid for worke) Measuring the results

32. Which of the following types of questions are not the types of questions commonly used in structured interviews?a) Situational questions b) Worker requirements questionsc) Job knowledge questions d) Physique concerned questions

33. Performance appraisal does not includes:a) Identification of the work areab) Measurement of the actual performancec) Rewarding the performanced) Managing the performance appraisal

34. On which of the following types of performance data, performance measurement systems are not classified?a) Trait data b) Socio-economic datac) Outcome data d) Behavioral data

35. Which of the following statements with regard to performance appraisal from employee perspective is not correcta) Improvement in performance does not require assessmentb) Performance feedback is needed and desiredc) Fairness requires that differences in performance levels across worker be

measuredd) Evaluation and recognition of performance levels can be instrumental in

making the workers more productive

36. Which of the following is not a challenge to effective performance?a) Rate error and biasb) Organizations politicsc) Legal issuesd) Economic issues

37. Which of the following is not a form of range restriction?a) Leniency errors b) Central tendency errorsc) Flexi errors d) Severity errors

38. In performance appraisal, feedback of whom of the following is less or not important?a) Peers b) Subordinatesc) Clients d) Self

39. Which of the following types of employees should be retained by an organizationa) Employees having a retributory or get-even attitudeb) Employees having loner tendenciesc) Employees having paranoid tendenciesd) Employees having tendency not to over react to criticism

40. Job analysis is the procedure through which you do not determine:a) What the job entails?b) What kind of people to hire for the job?c) What are the duties of the job and the characteristics of the people who should

be hired for the job?

d) What will be the required output?