ream x ge productive end-use of mhp 28feb16
TRANSCRIPT
2/29/2016
Productive End-
Use of Micro-Hydro
Plants in Myanmar Patrick J. Pawletko
The views and opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily
reflect the views of Green Empowerment, the Renewable Energy Association Myanmar,
their affiliates, or their employees.
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 1
ABSTRACT
For nearly 30 years, entrepreneurial technicians and community-based innovators have been quietly
growing Myanmar’s micro-hydropower sector with very little outside support or guidance,
whether financial or technical. Today, hundreds of pico- and micro-hydropower projects now dot
the rolling landscape of Shan, Kachin, and Chin states. As a result, at various times since at least
2000, stakeholders from the Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, local private
sector, international aid agencies, and local & international non-governmental organizations have
reported on the importance of productive end-use as an important consideration when assessing
the socio-economic viability and sustainability of off-grid micro-hydropower projects.
Understanding rural productivity and cottage industries relating to sustainable renewable energy
projects is as pertinent now as ever, as the Government prepares to roll-out its World Bank-funded
National Electrification Project. Accordingly, under the direction of the NEP, the Department of
Rural Development will oversee the development of off-grid and “pre-electrification” mini-grid
projects to serve an estimated 31,000 and 155,000 households, respectively, over the next five years.
There is enormous potential in these off-grid and pre-electrification areas for micro-hydropower
(MHP) projects to serve a socio-economic driver by supplying community-owned cottage industries
with clean, affordable energy during daytime plant operation.
This study aims to amalgamate the findings and recommendations of case studies and policy
papers from the last 15 years, reinforced by a primary field study conducted in early January 2016.
EXCHANGE RATE
1 USD = 1238 MMK
as of
29 FEBRUARY 2016
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 2
Contents
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................ 3
POLICY BACKGROUND............................................................................................................................... 4
CURRENT SCALE OF MHP DEVELOPMENT IN MYANMAR .............................................................. 5
CHALLENGES FACING PEU IN MYANMAR .......................................................................................... 8
RECENT EFFORTS TO INCREASE PEU IN MHP ..................................................................................... 9
FINDINGS FROM FIELD SURVEY ............................................................................................................ 12
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................... 18
ANNEX 1: Current Electricity Tariff Structure in Myanmar ................................................................... 21
ANNEX 2: Programme of the Field Study ................................................................................................. 22
ANNEX 3: Brief Report on Sites Visited & Discussed .............................................................................. 23
ANNEX 4: Field Visit Photos ....................................................................................................................... 26
ANNEX 5: Previous PEU Case Studies....................................................................................................... 33
WORKS CITED .............................................................................................................................................. 35
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
DRD Department of Rural Development
GORUM Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar
EI Electrical inspection
HPNET Hydro Empowerment Network of South and Southeast Asia
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
MHP Micro-hydropower
MOBA Ministry of Border Areas
MOI Ministry of Industry
MOLFRD Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development
MOST Ministry of Science and Technology
NEES National Electrification Executive Secretariat
NEMC National Energy Management Committee
NGO Non-governmental organization
PAD Project Appraisal Document
PEU Productive end-use
REAM Renewable Energy Association Myanmar
RE Renewable energy
SME Small and medium enterprise
SPP Small power producer
TA Technical assistance
VA Village Administrator
VEC Village Electrification Committee
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POLICY BACKGROUND
Prior to 2013, the overall responsibility of the electrification of Myanmar’s off-grid areas fell upon
the Ministry of Industry, with support from a myriad of other departments including the
Department of Rural Development (formerly within the Ministry of Border Areas and presently
within the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development) and the Ministry of Science and
Technology (Republic of the Union of Myanmar, 2015, p. 37). With the 2013 transfer of MOI’s rural
electrification mandate to MOLFRD, however, most of these off-grid responsibilities have been
shifted solely to the DRD (The World Bank, 2015, p. 38), (Castalia Strategic Advisors, 2014, pp. vii,
44, 62), with the exception that the MOI, will still be responsible for electrical inspection1 of
consumption by productive end-use industries and small and medium enterprises (Global
Integrated Service, 2014). While it will no longer be directly responsible for village electrification
projects, per se, MOST will continue to play a key role in the NEP as a hub for research, knowledge
exchange, and technical assistance (The World Bank, 2015, p. 38), (Greacen, 2014, p. 11).
In recent years, MHP plants have also been implemented by the MOAI, in an effort (albeit an
uncoordinated one) to aid off-grid electrification for villages situated near existing irrigation
channels. By the time of a 2014 survey conducted by a Japanese joint venture, MOAI controlled 239
reservoir dams – about 100 of these systems use micro-hydropower for household electrification2
(Hokuriku Seiki Co., Ltd. & Infrustructure Development Institute, Japan, 2014, pp. 4-5).
At the highest policy level, the NEP’s National Electrification Executive Secretariat maintains a
coordination role over Ministerial involvement in implementing all aspects of the off-grid program,
while the National Energy Management Committee acts as the program’s roll-out oversight council
(Castalia Strategic Advisors, 2014, p. 45). The NEMC coordinates among seven key energy
ministries (including MOI, MOST, and MOLFRD); it is tasked, in part, with “systematically linking
the goals of the Energy Plan and the Industrial Development Plan” and “gathering information to
enable the effective use of energy and the efficient coordination of energy projects" (Ngwe, 2014, p.
8). At the ground level, the NEP’s strategy relies heavily on Village Electrification Committees and
Village Administrators to coordinate with local governments on financial arrangements and to
ensure the long-term sustainability (operation and maintenance, technical capacity building,
ownership, managing construction contracts, planning productive end-uses etc.) of government-led
off-grid and pre-electrification initiatives (Republic of the Union of Myanmar, 2015, pp. 22, 26), (The
World Bank, 2015, pp. 11, 19, 73).
Productive end-use activities must be inspected by its relevant sector ministry. For instance, a PEU
rice-mill must receive an industrial license from the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, an ice
making facility must be licensed by the Ministry of Health’s Food and Drug Administration
1 MOI EI also includes generation, distribution, and selling of electric power.
2 "The power generated is supplied free of charge to the villages while restricting its use to electric lights." (Hokuriku
Seiki Co., Ltd. & Infrustructure Development Institute, Japan, 2014, p. 5)
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 5
Department, and a sawmill must be licensed by the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and
Forestry.
Furthermore, a 2014 letter from MOLFRD identified support for SMEs in the energy paradigm:
The creation of SME Development Center (launched in April 2012) as a central committee for
SME development will ensure the availability of financial capital from the government and
private banks. It will establish network with local and foreign organizations to meet technical
requirements, encourage market development of SME from rural to urban areas, make SME
supporting industries from local and foreign investment to promote healthy development of
market chains [sic]. A new upcoming SME law will also be available. (Ministry of Livestock,
Fisheries, and Rural Development, 2014, p. 7)
CURRENT SCALE OF MHP DEVELOPMENT IN MYANMAR
No comprehensive or well-maintained record of Myanmar’s MHP plants exists. One audit of
Myanmar’s hydropower development was completed by JICA in 2003. The report identified a total
of 28 projects installed (6.081 MW cumulative capacity), one project under construction (0.320 MW
capacity), and 112 projects under study (29.227 MW cumulative capacity), all less than 1 MW
capacity. While private practitioners have often neglected to keep detailed records of their
commissioned projects, extensive interviews with the six member companies have led the survey
team to conclude that at least several hundred private or community-owned pico-, micro-, and
mini-hydropower sites have been commissioned in Myanmar since 1983. The operational status of
these plants today remains largely unknown, as does the prevalence of PEUs within these
communities.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Nu
mb
er o
f P
roje
cts
2003 Audit of Micro-Hydropower Projects Less than 1 MW
Installed Under Construction Under Study
Source: JICA 2003
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 6
44%
56%
Micro-Hydropower Resources Under Ministry of
Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI)
Operational Decommissioned
Source: MOAI 2016
As noted in the Policy Background section, until very recently, MOAI was perhaps the only
government entity developing MHP for household lighting. In a brief report to the NEMC on 18
February 2016, MOAI confirmed that a total 73 MHP plants have been established by the Ministry.
41 of those systems are no longer operational and the remaining 32 operational sites produce a total
of 911 kW. None of these MHP systems are known to support PEU activities and, due to the
formation of the DRD in 2012, MOAI is no longer developing new MHP sites.
Records from MOLFRD maintain that, as of January 2015, there are 2,426 mini-hydropower mini-
grids operating in Myanmar. Of this, the DRD claims to have commissioned 51 MHP projects
during the Fiscal Year 2013-2014 and 131 projects during FY 2014-2015 (Department of Rural
Development, Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rural Development, 2015).
A 2014 World Bank-commissioned study on Myanmar yielded the following financial data for six
MHP projects in Southern Shan State:
Project
Name Year
Initial
Investment
(MMK)
Annual
O&M cost
(MMK)
Power
Output
(kW)
Hours
Per
Day
Energy
Output
Per Day
(kWh)
Capacity
Factor
20 Year LCC
with 10%
Discount
Rate (MMK)
Capacity
Cost over
20 years
(MMK/kW)
Pan Oo
Tang 2002 60,000,000 1,100 75 15 1125 63% 1,132,700 23,256,000
Mong
In 2014 5,000,000 100,000.00 5 10 50 42% 551,800 12,083,000
Owe
Kong 2014 50,000,000 400,000.00 40 15 600 63% 202,400 6,650,000
Ming
In 2012 5,000,000 250,000.00 N/A 8 N/A N/A 1,005,900 8,812,000
Laouk
Lon 2011 10,000,000 750,000.00 20 8 160 33% 467,400 5,118,000
Table 1 Reproduction of MHP financial data for installed equipment (“present machine”) from 2014 World
Bank-funded study (Kumara, 2015, p. 32)
The Kumara study also reported on daily load curves for three government-owned MHP sites
(Kumara, 2015, pp. 70-72):
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 7
It is important to note, however, that the above load profiles are not necessarily representative of
similarly sized sites elsewhere in Myanmar or indicative of sectoral trends writ large.
0100200300400500
1:00
:00
AM
2:00
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AM
3:00
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4:00
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10:0
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Pow
er C
onsu
med
(kW
)
Composite Load Profile for Var MHP Site
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Day 10
Source: Ajith Kumara, 2015
0100200300400500600
1:00
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10:0
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Pow
er C
onsu
med
(kW
)
Composite Load Profile for Laivar MHP Site
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4
Source: Ajith Kumara, 2015
0
5
10
15
20
1:00
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AM
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10:0
0:00
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11:0
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12:0
0:00
AMP
ower
Con
sum
ed (
kW)
Composite Load Profile for Donvar MHP Site
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4
Source: Ajith Kumara, 2015
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 8
CHALLENGES FACING PEU IN MYANMAR
As of 2011, approximately 42% of Myanmar’s end-use of electricity is for “general purpose”,
comprising mainly of households, offices, and religious sites. The second most common end-use is
industry, at 36%. In turn, industrial activity makes up at least 26% of the country’s GDP (Global
Integrated Service, 2014). Challenges affecting the growth of cottage industries were elucidated by a
landmark study published in November 2014 by the Renewable Energy Association Myanmar
entitled, Assessment Report on Micro Hydro Practices in Myanmar, which concluded:
This assessment finds that there is a big gap in fulfilling Small and Medium Enterprise (SME)
development, which covered about 90% of the country’s economic production through the
utilization of micros hydropower. Most SME businesses based in the vicinity of villages,
especially many potential cottage industries of the community households, are found
demanding better quality and quantity power to enhance their income. This area of huge
potential in the socio-economic development of the country can be upgraded by supporting and
strategically targeting many micro-hydro electrification [sic] on a country-wide scale.
(Renewable Energy Association Myanmar, 2014, p. 21)
Furthermore, this study finds that "high and rising" community demand for firewood, to be used in
home industries and small industrial production, as a "critical threatening factor in the depletion of
micro hydro resources through the deterioration of the watershed" (Renewable Energy Association
Myanmar, 2014, p. 19).
These findings were substantiated in 2015 with the public disclosure of the World Bank's Project
Appraisal Document for the National Electrification Project. In it, the most cited hindrances to SMEs
were the low quality of electricity and the unpredictable tariffs associated with MHP projects.
Overall, however, the report found that…
…even among the [most affected] group of businesses…feedback focused on improvement in
quality of service rather than in reduction of the tariffs. The main recommendation made by all
three groups [of SMEs] was to reduce power fluctuations, increase voltage capacity and ensure a
24-hour stead supply. With these conditions met, business owners would be able to drastically
reduce their expenditures to diesel, which were considered more burdensome than electricity
prices3. Overall, 85% of businesses interviewed regularly use generators (100% of those in Chin
[State]). (The World Bank, 2015, p. 75)
More broadly, the present weakness of Myanmar's banking sector, has a causal relationship with
the often unpredictable and unsustainable village tariff schemes, which, in turn, dissuades would-
be PEU activities from taking advantage of the MHP resources available:
3 For Medium-sized industrial enterprises, “generators are still needed to address gaps in electricity supply (fluctuations
in capacity and brief black-outs)… The most common coping strategy reported was to increase prices for the consumer
when this was possible. Medium businesses coped by laying off some staff, reducing production and no longer holding
stocks (i.e. producing only when they had a specific order).” (The World Bank, 2015, pp. 78-79)
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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The Myanmar banking system is poorly developed. No banks in Myanmar offer loans for
periods of more than 2 to 3 years, and re-financing of existing debt is extremely difficult. We
understand that Village Electrification Committees often are only able to borrow for 3 to 6
months to spread the cost of connecting ones village if needed. Hence, any finance that could be
obtained from the Myanmar banking system would require rapid amortization through tariffs or
subsidies (Castalia Strategic Advisors, 2014, p. 11).
Companies installing off-grid systems lack investment capital and working capital including
access to trade finance. Consumers have no access to financing for electrification which are
considered as consumptive activities. Overall, Myanmar’s banking sector is severely
constrained, with limited products, services, and outreach. The sector is largely confined to
fixed deposits and one-year fixed-rate loans with collateral requirements. While over 100
micro-finance license holders (of 236 licenses in total) are active in the country, they
primarily focus on easier-to-access peri-urban and dry-zone areas. Myanmar’s 2011 legal
framework for microfinance institutions (MFIs) has several challenges, including limited
differentiation between deposit and non-deposit MFIs, low capital requirements for deposit-
taking institutions, and an interest rate ceiling of 30% per year.49 Micro-finance for off-grid
electricity systems is in embryonic stages with only one company, Proximity Designs,
offering micro-financing in limited areas for solar lanterns. (The World Bank, 2015, p. 42)
In summary, the NEP PAD identifies the following challenges as prerequisite to the incubation of
cottage industries in rural areas (The World Bank, 2015, p. 42):
- Untested business models
- Lack of institutional capacity
- High cost of mini-grids versus the willingness of SMEs to pay
- Poor quality equipment/installations/electricity and lack of quality assurance
- Poor access to finance
- Lack of consumer awareness
RECENT EFFORTS TO INCREASE PEU IN MHP
Long before the NEP had taken shape, and more than a decade before the DRD was established,
JICA’s 6-volume study on renewable energy for rural areas took a serious look at PEUs for MHP
systems, and conducted brief feasibility reports for several sites. Those studies are reproduced here
in Annex 5. The study concludes by recommending both cross-subsidies and step-wise annual
membership fees to VECs:
In the comparison of economic benefit, both the night-time users and daytime users pay far less
than the economic value. There is a clear distinction, however, in that the night-time users are
small in terms of consumption but large in the number of customers, whereas the industrial
users consume large amount but are small in the number of customers.
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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In consideration of this, the annual fee, which differs between night-time only users and daytime
users in terms of contract renewal or member-ship fees of the village electrification committee or
association, may be worth [sic]. (Nippon Koei Co., Ltd., 2003, p. 3.48)
There has been growing support for PEU activities in recent years from both government and
private sector, in line with future mini-grid planning, but a coordinated, integrated strategy
involving PEU and MHP has not yet manifested in any overarching off-grid strategy. Not long after
a new Government was seated in April 2011, policy makers approved the Rural Development and
Poverty Alleviation initiative which outlined eight priority areas (SNV Netherlands Development
Organisation, 2012, p. 11):
- Agriculture
- Livestock and fisheries
- Rural productivity and cottage industry
- Micro saving and credit enterprises
- Rural cooperatives
- Rural socio economy
- Rural renewable energy
- Environmental conservation
In April 2014, the Deputy Minister for MOST sent a letter to the CTF Trust Fund Committee
requesting support for “scaling up [the] renewable energy program”. In it, he identifies “access to
energy and productive end use of energy” as one of the key criteria for program and project
selection (Ngwe, 2014, p. 4).
In response to the challenges identified in the Assessment Report on Micro Hydro Practices in
Myanmar, a practice-to-policy workshop was organized by REAM and the Hydro Empowerment
Network of South and Southeast Asia to leverage regional hindsight by introducing best-practices
from Indonesia, Nepal, and Sri Lanka to Myanmar policy makers:
Participants identified a number of issues which must be accounted for if MHP market
opportunities are to be proven sustainable. Most notably, these include accounting increased
energy use from appliances (commonly rice cookers), the identification of large consumers (e.g.
cell and radio signal towers), the aggregation of a market for MHP equipment services, grid-
readiness of isolated systems, tie-ins with local market opportunities (e.g. agro-processing),
secondary workshop enterprises (e.g. vehicle repair and miscellaneous tooling for local clients),
tariffs with possible amperage subscription, ownership schemes (e.g. private vs. community
management and/or ownership). Participants concluded that MHP market sustainability is
subject to either adequate load or people who are willing to pay high tariffs. Chances of success
are high if MHP is developed around a productive use that can pay for energy and contribute to
rural economic growth. Lastly, grid-readiness of systems is a strong indicator of long-term
financial and market viability. (Hydro Empowerment Network of South and Southeast Asia,
2014, p. 17)
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Following up on the practice-to-policy workshop, PEU was again featured prominently during a
July 2015 workshop as a tool to "promote economic development without negatively impacting the
environment or land rights" (Bureau of Energy Resources, U.S. Department of State, 2015, p. 4).
Shortly thereafter, the NEP PAD outlined an off-grid subsidy strategy to encourage economic
growth and to incentivize investment in off-grid energy infrastructure, but this is considered only a
short-term solution – “expected to phase out gradually as access to commercial micro-finance
increases over time” – and will play its most prominent role during the first five years of the NEP
rollout (The World Bank, 2015, p. 13). A “social discount” of 10%4 would be applied to MHP
systems, bringing the average tariff rate down to an estimated $0.16 per kWh; the average
willingness to pay for residential usage in remote areas was found to be $0.21 per kWh 5 (The World
Bank, 2015, p. 16).
In September 2015, a group of private sector MHP developers organized as the Small Hydro Power
Association Myanmar (operating as a REAM affiliate) proposed to the DRD a comprehensive and
integrated geo-referenced data management system for understanding MHP potential, as part of a
larger, sectoral framework. Included in this concept note was the request for a preliminary demand
survey based on number of households in a given community and potential cottage industries
relative to agricultural land-use (Small Hydro Power Association Myanmar, 2015, p. 6).
Nevertheless, with or without regulatory support, the private sector seems keen to move forward
with PEU and MHP. As recent as October 2015, the state-owned enterprise Myanmar
Telecommunications Network (MTN) approached SHPAM seeking to use captive pico-hydropower
plants to power cell towers in remote areas of Kachin and Shan States. So far, this interest from the
private sector to capitalize on decentralized energy infrastructure, in tandem with PEU activities,
seems to follow a trend forecasted by Global Integrated Service Group of Companies in a
November 2014 briefing:
Small-scale hydropower, mini-grids and value-added agricultural facilities represent three
complementary business opportunities that can be jointly developed to reduce risk and
guarantee fair returns for investors while simultaneously delivering higher-quality, lower-cost
electricity to end users. (Global Integrated Service, 2014)
Despite strong evidence of multi-stakeholder interest in promoting and advancing PEUs in general, no
one organization or institution has yet been successful in sustaining a scalable link between PEU
incubation and Myanmar’s stratified MHP activities.
4 “The economic analysis does not take account of the positive environmental externalities associated with hydropower-
based electricity supply, such as the greenhouse gas emission reduction.” (The World Bank, 2015, p. 88) 5 It is worth noting that the NEP PAD does not consider PEU for MHP mini-grids explicitly; only village-scale MHP
systems for a few hundred households, not exceeding 100 kW were taken into account. “The analysis covers a typical
village-scale micro-hydro system with an installed capacity of 50 kW to serve 200 households over 15 years.” (The
World Bank, 2015, p. 16)
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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FINDINGS FROM FIELD SURVEY
Between late December 2015 and early January 2016, a 10-day field survey was undertaken by
Green Empowerment’s Myanmar Projects Officer, in partnership with REAM and SHPAM, to
analyze benefits of PEU activities in poverty alleviation, minimizing gender disparities, and
improving rural livelihood for projects supporting cottage industries. The programme for this field
study, a brief synopsis of sites visited or discussed, and relevant photos is available in Annex 2,
Annex 3, and Annex 4, respectively. Through field visits to various sites in Eastern Shan State, and
informal interviews with local practitioners, the team ascertained the following:
- PEU activity in tandem with MHP development is a relative rarity in Myanmar. Only a minority
of village-scale sites feature any form of productive activities requiring three-phase power. Most
systems cater to household demand, relying on a flat-fee tariff structure. The survey team could
not find any instance of a captive MHP power plant being used in PEU applications. Due to
substandard record-keeping practices, the number of PEU activities in Myanmar, as well as the
true number of operational MHP systems, remains unknown and speculative at best.
- The arrival of the national grid to the site of a MHP system has profoundly different effects on
existing or prospective PEU activities depending on the quality and cost of the MHP system
itself. A summary of these cases and conditions can be found in Tables 1-4 below.
- The majority of community MHP systems rely on flat rate tariffs, whereas the larger, mini-
hydropower plants use analogue meters6. Only on the largest systems surveyed were there
digital electric meters. MHP operators should better understand the end-uses of power
generated in their system. More data elucidating the day-to-day load profile might then inform a
holistic PEU strategy.
- During the interviews, MHP practitioners who described their past experiences with PEUs, as
well as those who expressed a future interest in PEUs, indicated that the resultant value chains
would be primarily targeting export markets (e.g. markets outside of the local community) to
sustain the productive industry or industries, as opposed to PEUs geared toward local
consumption. They cited the requisite degree of business model understanding, value chain
analytics, and logistical management as precluding factors to PEU development.
- The present weakness of Myanmar’s private banking sector makes access to sustainable
financing for PEUs and/or MHP systems extremely difficult. Access to financing was noted as a
significant barrier in nearly every interview and is considered a lynchpin for more concerted and
scalable MHP/PEU activities to unfold.
- VECs may not reach consensus about how revenue from a community-owned system should be
used and, therefore, may not agree to reinvest the earnings as a revolving door fund for PEU co-
development.
- With or without a small power producer (SPP) regulatory framework, the symbiosis between
MHP and rural PEU will likely be a key to sustaining both sectors through the rollout of the NEP
over the next 15 years.
- While the effects of PEU activities on “big picture” development goals such as poverty
alleviation, minimizing gender disparities, rural livelihoods are well-documented in other South
and Southeast Asian countries such as Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia, these findings could not
be independently assessed during this Myanmar study due to the relative lack of existing
6 It was noted in one interview that the poor quality analog meters only register 30W loads and up, which created some
problems in households using many fluorescent bulbs.
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 13
literature and/or raw data. This was exacerbated by a lack of representative examples during the
field visit. As noted in Annex 3, the only truly operational PEU arrangement was in Kyaing
Tong. Beyond household lighting, the Nam Khun and Nam So hydropower facilities in Kyaing
Tong electrified a host of SMEs (hotels, restaurants, etc.) and PEUs (saw mill, stone crusher, brick
maker, rice mill, etc.), but all of these businesses and industries operated at a medium- to large-
scale in a relatively urbanized area. From this sole example, no clear correlation could be
deduced, let alone extrapolated, with regards to poverty alleviation, gender equality, or rural
livelihoods.
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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CASE I
National grid has arrived to a
MHP-viable area with an
existing mini-grid
CASE II
National grid has arrived to a
MHP-viable area without an
existing mini-grid
CASE III
National grid has not arrived;
isolated mini-grid exists in a
MHP-viable area
CASE IV
National grid has not arrived;
no mini-grid exists in a MHP-
viable area
CONDITION I
Reliable power
supply from national
grid and reliable
power supply from
mini-grid
1. Most consumers may
choose to connect to the
national grid upon arrival,
favoring lower tariffs. The
existing mini-grid may then
be (A) liquidated, (B) used
to electrify only the most
remote area residents, or (C)
repurposed as a captive
power plant for PEU
(assuming 3-phase
distribution).
2. Most consumers may
choose to connect to the
national grid upon arrival.
A mini-grid or captive
power plant may be
developed if (A) there is
enough forecasted demand,
and willingness-to-pay,
from remote household
consumers unreached by
national grid, and/or (B)
there is enough forecasted
demand from local existing
or upstarting PEUs
(assuming 3-phase
distribution).
3. Most consumers may
choose to connect to the
existing mini-grid. PEUs
may connect if the supply of
3-phase power is available.
4. A mini-grid and/or captive
power plant may be
developed if there is enough
time for assets to fully
amortize before the national
grid arrives (if the site is in
the demarcated grid-
extension territory), and if
(A) there is enough
forecasted demand, and
willingness-to-pay, from
household consumers,
and/or (B) there is enough
forecasted demand, and
willingness-to-pay from
local existing or upstarting
PEUs (assuming 3-phase
distribution).
Table 2: Cases affecting the viability of PEU under the condition that reliable power is available from the national grid and reliable power is available from the
mini-grid. NOTE: This table does not consider the case for grid interconnection, as there is no SPP regulatory framework in Myanmar at the time of writing.
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 15
CASE I
National grid has arrived to a
MHP-viable area with an
existing mini-grid
CASE II
National grid has arrived to a
MHP-viable area without an
existing mini-grid
CASE III
National grid has not arrived;
isolated mini-grid exists in a
MHP-viable area
CASE IV
National grid has not arrived;
no mini-grid exists in a MHP-
viable area
CONDITION II
Reliable power
supply from national
grid and unreliable
power supply from
mini-grid
5. Most consumers may
choose to connect to the
national grid upon arrival,
favoring lower tariff and the
more reliable power supply.
The existing mini-grid may
then be (A) liquidated, (B)
used to electrify only the
most remote area residents,
or (C) upgraded for use as a
captive power plant for
PEU (assuming 3-phase
distribution).
6. Most consumers may
choose to connect to the
national grid upon arrival.
A mini-grid or captive
power plant may be
developed if there is
enough forecasted demand,
and willingness-to-pay,
from remote household
consumers unreached by
national grid. It is unlikely
that PEUs will develop on
the mini-grid without an
improvement to the
reliability of the mini-grid
power supply.
7. Most consumers may
choose to connect to the
existing mini-grid for
household lighting, but it is
unlikely that PEUs will
develop on the mini-grid
without an upgrade to the
mini-grid infrastructure and
power quality.
8. A mini-grid for household
lighting may be developed if
there is enough time for
assets to fully amortize
before the national grid
arrives (if the site is in the
demarcated grid-extension
territory), and if there is
enough forecasted demand,
and willingness-to-pay,
from household consumers.
It is unlikely that PEUs will
develop on the mini-grid
without the use of high-
quality mini-grid
infrastructure and
generation equipment.
Table 3: Cases affecting the viability of PEU under the condition that reliable power is not available from the national grid and reliable power is available
from the mini-grid. NOTE: This table does not consider the case for grid interconnection, as there is no SPP regulatory framework in Myanmar at the time of
writing.
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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CASE I
National grid has arrived to a
MHP-viable area with an
existing mini-grid
CASE II
National grid has arrived to a
MHP-viable area without an
existing mini-grid
CASE III
National grid has not arrived;
isolated mini-grid exists in a
MHP-viable area
CASE IV
National grid has not arrived;
no mini-grid exists in a MHP-
viable area
CONDITION III
Unreliable power
supply from national
grid and reliable
power supply from
mini-grid
9. Most consumers living or
operating near to the
national grid may choose to
connect upon arrival,
favoring lower tariffs. It is
unlikely that existing mini-
grid customers would
disconnect from the mini-
grid. The national grid may
only provide a few hours of
usable power each day at
peak load times. This
arrangement would be
unsuitable for PEU
activities, which require a
near-constant supply of
high-quality daytime
electricity to operate
necessary machinery. PEU
enterprises may, therefore,
(A) maintain connectivity
with both the national grid
upon arrival and the
existing mini-grid, or (B)
choose to rely on the
existing mini-grid alone.
10. Most consumers may
choose to connect to the
national grid upon arrival,
but it is unlikely that PEUs
will develop on the national
grid without burdensome
backup generators ready on
standby. A mini-grid or
captive power plant may
therefore be developed if
(A) there is enough
forecasted demand, and
willingness-to-pay, from
remote household
consumers unreached by
national grid, and/or (B)
there is enough forecasted
demand from local PEUs
(assuming 3-phase
distribution).
11. Most consumers may
connect to the existing mini-
grid. PEUs may connect if
the supply of 3-phase power
is available.
12. A mini-grid and/or captive
power plant may be
developed if there is enough
time for assets to fully
amortize before the national
grid arrives (if the site is in
the demarcated grid-
extension territory), and if
(A) there is enough
forecasted demand, and
willingness-to-pay, from
household consumers,
and/or (B) there is enough
forecasted demand, and
willingness-to-pay from
local PEUs (assuming 3-
phase distribution).
Table 4: Cases affecting the viability of PEU under the condition that reliable power is available from the national grid and reliable power is not available
from the mini-grid. NOTE: This table does not consider the case for grid interconnection, as there is no SPP regulatory framework in Myanmar at the time of
writing.
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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CASE I
National grid has arrived to
a MHP-viable area with an
existing mini-grid
CASE II
National grid has arrived to
a MHP-viable area without
an existing mini-grid
CASE III
National grid has not
arrived; isolated mini-grid
exists in a MHP-viable area
CASE IV
National grid has not arrived;
no mini-grid exists in a MHP-
viable area
CONDITION IV
Unreliable power
supply from national
grid and unreliable
power supply from
mini-grid
13. Most consumers living or
operating near to the grid
may choose to connect,
favoring lower tariff, but
not without weighing the
connection costs.
Customers may choose to
keep their mini-grid
connection to share peak
load demand between two
power providers. The
national grid and the mini-
grid may both only
provide a few hours of
usable power each day at
peak load times. This
arrangement would not be
suitable for PEU activities,
as in Box 9. The mini-grid
may be upgraded to
support peak household
demand and daytime PEU
activities.
14. Most consumers living or
operating near to the grid
may choose to connect,
favoring lower tariff, but
not without weighing the
connection costs.
15. Most consumers may
choose to connect to the
existing mini-grid for
household lighting, but it
is unlikely that PEUs will
develop on the mini-grid
without an upgrade to the
mini-grid infrastructure
and power quality.
16. A mini-grid for household
lighting may be developed
if there is enough time for
assets to fully amortize
before the national grid
arrives (if the site is in the
demarcated grid-extension
territory), and if there is
enough forecasted
demand, and willingness-
to-pay, from household
consumers. It is unlikely
that PEUs will develop on
the mini-grid without the
use of high-quality mini-
grid infrastructure and
generation equipment.
Table 5: Cases affecting the viability of PEU under the condition that reliable power is not available from the national grid and reliable power is not available
from the mini-grid. NOTE: This table does not consider the case for grid interconnection, as there is no SPP regulatory framework in Myanmar at the time of
writing.
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the above literature review and field survey, the following is a list of policy
recommendations to further facilitate mutually beneficial MHP and PEU activity:
1. Targeted subsidies (or donor financing) to support the use of smart meters in all rural
electrification systems, especially MHP. The costs for smart meter technology, while more
expensive than traditional analog and digital meters, is not exorbitant and the influx of real-time
end-use data, which can then be analyzed, modeled, and optimized from a remote location,
would allow more informed policy decisions about high-quality MHP generation and PEU
incubation in the immediate future. This is arguably the easiest, cheapest, and most progressive
means of evaluating a mini-grid’s load profile.
2. The increased use of smart meters would help to ween consumers off of flat-rate tariffs, which
have been shown to discourage PEUs in similar markets (Tenenbaum, Greacen, Siyambalapitiya,
& Knuckles, 2014, pp. 266-267), and opens up opportunity to fine-tune cross-subsidized tariffs7,
even for a relatively small mini-grid. There would, however, also need to be a regulatory
environment that explicitly allows for cross-subsidies by SPPs. With this policy implemented,
PEUs would be greatly valued by the community as well as the utility, as increased industrial
usage would result in reduced household tariffs. As noted in the NEP PAD, however, studies
must be undertaken to determine “the extent to which tariff cross subsidies – for example from
business and industrial consumers to residential consumers – while lessening subsidy
requirements may inhibit economic development by expansion by industry.” (Castalia Strategic
Advisors, 2014, pp. 57-58)
3. Implementation of the following on-bill financing model for PEU support. Donors or private
banks could provide mini-grid operators with initial seed capital to create a revolving fund
to finance community PEU startups. This arrangement is a win-win-win for the mini-grid
operator (who receives double benefit from the return on investment and the increased
industrial power consumption), the PEU owner, and the local economy as a whole. As
described by Tenenbaum et. al.:
We think that extended payment programs operated by mini-grid operators should be
expanded beyond just connection costs. For example, ‘on-bill financing’ could also be
used to finance electrical equipment for productive uses (grain mills, and so on), to pay
for internal household wiring, or even to make improvements to a potential customer’s
house, such as adding a metal roof—which is sometimes a minimum requirement to
receive electricity…Similarly, if mini-grid operators could also finance the purchase of
7 “In most general discussions, cross-subsidies are defined to mean a tariff structure where some customers pay more
than their costs of supply and other customers pay less than their costs of supply. In developing countries, the three most
common forms of cross-subsidies are industrial customers subsidizing residential customers, high-usage residential
customers subsidizing low-usage customers, and urban customers subsidizing rural customers.” (Tenenbaum, Greacen,
Siyambalapitiya, & Knuckles, 2014, p. 137)
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 19
productive-use machinery for their commercial customers, this, too, would lead to more
sales. We think that expanding extended payment programs would lead to a win-win
outcome because more rural households could be connected, more businesses could
expand their income-producing activities, and the mini-grid operator would increase
sales and be able to achieve financial viability sooner…The expansion of on-bill financing
requires both regulatory changes and the availability of financing. (Tenenbaum, Greacen,
Siyambalapitiya, & Knuckles, 2014, pp. 135-136)
SPPs should be allowed to recover the administrative and financing costs of providing
loans to actual or potential customers that will allow the customers to connect to the SPP
system and to facilitate productive uses of electricity. The loans could be repaid through
extended payment plans implemented through on-bill financing. The regulatory
language that has been suggested to implement this proposal would be:
The retail tariff structure may include as an allowed component of tariffs any interest
subsidies and administrative costs for on-bill financing such as financing of connection
charges, financing of internal wiring, construction of upgrades to dwellings necessary to
meet minimum electrification requirements, and the costs of purchasing electrically
powered equipment for productive uses.
If implemented, this could lead to a more rapid increase in the number of customers and
their average electricity usage. By providing a source of financing that might not
otherwise be available, it would provide a way to increase the SPP’s sales revenues and
allow it to become commercially viable at an earlier time. So it would be a win-win
outcome for both the SPP and its customers. However, simply changing the regulatory
rules by itself is not likely to accomplish very much. The problem is that most SPPs are
not likely to have the funds needed to establish such a line of credit for their customers.
Therefore, it has been recommended that bilateral and multilateral donors in Tanzania
should provide funding to SPPs through loans or grants that SPPs can use to establish a
line of credit for their customers. The customers would be allowed to use this line of
credit to finance expenditures that would allow potential household customers to get
connected and potential and existing business customers to purchase electrical
machinery that would increase their productivity. (Tenenbaum, Greacen,
Siyambalapitiya, & Knuckles, 2014, p. 258)
4. Incentives should encourage more captive use of MHP power plants, particularly in areas
where the national grid has already arrived, to optimize the use of MHP resources, bolster
the local village economy, and ensure that existing systems are not abandoned when the
grid arrives.
5. In addition to cross-subsidies, policies should be drafted to support step-wise annual
contract renewals and/or membership fees for the VECs8.
8 See Section III.
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6. Finally, individual power purchase agreements between MHP plant owners/operators and
village SMEs should be deregulated, and “the terms and conditions of the power sales
contract need not be reviewed and approved by the regulator…The rule would eliminate
any requirement for regulatory approval for sales to businesses that are deemed to be
eligible customers.” (Tenenbaum, Greacen, Siyambalapitiya, & Knuckles, 2014, pp. 257-258)
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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ANNEX 1: Current Electricity Tariff Structure in Myanmar
Consumption (kWh/month) Kyat/kWh
USD/kWh
(exchange rate as of
late December 2015)
0-100 35 0.0266
101-200 40 0.0304
201++ 50 0.0380
Table 6: On-grid tariff rates for residential, SMEs, public buildings, and street lights
Source: (The World Bank, 2015, p. 94)
Consumption (kWh/month) Kyat/kWh
USD/kWh
(exchange rate as of
late December 2015)
0-500 75 0.0570
501-10,000 100 0.0760
10,001-50,000 125 0.0950
50,001-200,000 150 0.1141
200,001-300,000 125 0.0950
300,001++ 100 0.0760
Table 7: On-grid tariff rates for industrial and large commercial
Source: (The World Bank, 2015, p. 94)
Note: According to preliminary interviews with various decentralized renewable energy
actors, current off-grid tariffs for private projects range from about 300-600 kyats/kWh
(0.23-0.46 USD/kWh). These reports are substantiated by a World Bank scoping study
conducted in 2015 which revealed the levelized cost of energy to be between 220-860
kyats/kWh (0.17-0.66 USD/kWh) (Kumara, 2015).
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
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ANNEX 2: Programme of the Field Study
31 December 2015
05.00-10.40 Travel from Yangon to Kyaing Tung
10.40-12.30 Interview with U Ye Naing9
13.00-20.00 Visit Nam Khun and Nam So mini-hydropower plants
21.00-22.00 Interview with U Ye Naing
01 January 2016
08.00-11.00 Interview with U Ye Naing and U Kyi Thein10
11.00-17.00 Visit Nam Su mini-hydropower plant
17.00-21.00 Travel from Kyaing Tung to Tachileik, interview U Zaw Min11
02 January 2016
08.00-13.00 Travel From Tachileik to Wan Nar micro-hydropower plant
14.00-15.00 Travel to monastery micro-hydropower plant near Tachileik
15.00-20.00 Interview with U Zaw Min
03 January 2016
09.00-11.00 Interview with U Zaw Min
11.00-14.00 Travel from Tachileik to Kyaing Tung, request immigration approval to stay in Mong
Ping
16.00-21.00 Travel from Kyaing Tung to Mong Ping, check in at immigration
04 January 2016
08.00-09.00 Interview with U Zaw Min
09.00-11.00 Assist KSW with Mong Ping site survey
13.00-18.00 Travel from Mong Ping to Kyaing Tung
05 January 201612
12.00-15.00 Interview with U Ye Naing
06 January 2016
07.00-17.00 Travel from Kyaing Tung to Taunggyi, via Tachileik
18.00-21.00 Interview with U Khun Kyaw13
07 January 2016
09.00-13.00 Interview with U Khun Kyaw
18.00-20.00 Interview with U Khun Kyaw
08 January 2016
10.00-14.00 Visit to Taunggyi Industrial Zone
18.00-20.00 Interview with U Khun Kyaw
09 January 2016
10.00-15.00 Interview with U Khun Kyaw
16.00-11.59 Travel from Taunggyi to Yangon
10 January 2016
00.00-07.00 Travel from Taunggyi to Yangon
Table 8: Programme of REAM/Green Empowerment field survey
9 Kyaing Tong Energy Co., Ltd. (KTE)
10 KTE and Kyi Thein Family & Co., Ltd.
11 Kyaw Soe Win Hydropower Co., Ltd. (KSW)
12 This day was meant to be spent in Mong Ping, but immigration issues precluded this from happening.
13 Rural Development & Hydro Electric Implementation Group
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 23
ANNEX 3: Brief Report on Sites Visited & Discussed
Name Location Notes
Nam Khun &
Nam So
Kyaing Tong Township,
Eastern Shan State
These two mini-hydropower sites, Nam Khun and Nam
So, producing each 3 MW and 1.8 MW, respectively,
maintain an Independent Power Producer arrangements
with the city of Kyaing Tong. Since completion of the
project, company shareholders have been investing in
SMEs (hotels, restaurants, etc.) and PEUs (saw mill, stone
crusher, brick maker, rice mill, etc.) in response to the
new supply of high-quality power supply. The Shan
Government retains ownership over generating assets,
while supply is controlled by the Myanmar Electricity
Supply Enterprise, the state-owned national grid utility.
The tariff rate for consumers is 100 kyats per kWh for
households and 160 kyats per kWh for industrial uses.
Nam Su Kyaing Tong Township,
Eastern Shan State
The 900 kW off-grid mini-hydropower system at Nam
So, located about 40 minutes outside of Kyaing Tong
proper, has been privately developed by Kyi Thein
Family & Co. Power is generated by two turgo-type
impulse turbines with mechanical governor flow control.
The mini-grid is currently being used as a test-bed for the
viability of PEU rice-milling cottage industry. One 80 kW
rice milling workshop has been established along the 3-
phase gridline, but, having never become viable as a
standalone PEU, it is only now being shown to investors
as a model project. The tariff rate for consumers on the
mini-grid is 200 kyats per unit. There is a 3-4 lakh
surcharge for new connections.
Wan Nar Tachileik Township,
Eastern Shan State
The 25 kW site at Wan Nar, located along the Mekong
River on the border of Thailand, has been in operation
for over nine years. In the beginning, an ice-producing
factory was established as a PEU to balance out daytime
and nighttime loads, but this enterprise was relocated
upon arrival of the national grid with high-quality
electricity sourcing from Thailand via Tachileik.
Mong Ping Mong Ping Township,
Eastern Shan State
The 500 kW site near Mong Ping is currently under
development by KSW Hydropower, expected completion
in 2016. There is an existing mini-grid distribution
network, developed by JICA. The distribution network
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 24
reaches most of the 1280 households, as well as a water
purification plant, an ice production facility, two
workshops, two automotive repair shops, one tire repair
shop, one print shop, and three fuel pumping stations.
Electricity is provided to those consumers for only a
couple hours per day from large diesel generators. There
is room for PEU expansion, as potential has been
identified to start a sugar cane processing plant once the
more reliable MHP system comes on-line. Right now,
financing is being sought from private banks and
international donors, but banks are clearly unfamiliar
with the business functionality of MHP systems. In
addition to strict bank loan terms, it is expected that the
national grid will arrive to Mong Ping by the year 2020.
The combination of these two factors puts great pressure
on the developer to start collecting tariffs soon as
possible.
Taung Chae Nyaungshwe Township,
Southern Shan State
The 100 kW MHP mini-grid at Taung Chae served
approximately 250 households since being commissioned
in the early 2000s. In 2015, the national grid arrived to the
Taung Chae site and the power plant was repurposed to
provide electricity solely to a large dam construction
project. With six rice mills in this village, there is
enormous future PEU potential to upgrade the MHP
system and establish a captive power plant arrangement.
Paung Paing Nyaungshwe Township,
Southern Shan State
The 75 kW MHP mini-grid at Paung Pine was
operational for nearly a decade before the national grid
arrived. Upon arrival, the MHP assets were sold by the
VEC, at good profit, to a private sector captive load
(whiskey distilling and sugar refining). The private
sector is now considering upgrading the MHP system for
future captive PEU activities. Brick-making has also been
identified as a potential PEU industry in this village
because bricks must be conventionally imported from
lower Burma or Mandalay at 100 kyats per brick. The
road conditions are good for hauling bricks between
Paung Paing and the nearest economic hub, Taunggyi, so
the supply chain could be maintained.
Near Lashio Lashio Township,
Northern Shan State
This 110 kW micro-hydropower mini-grid outside of
Lashio has been in operation since 2003. The national
grid arrived in this area in 2013, but provides only
intermittent power. The national grid goes offline
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 25
regularly, particularly during the rainy season. Outages
last between half a day and one whole day. There are
some SMEs which purchase electricity from both the
national grid line and the mini-grid line, but there are no
PEU industries in this village. The quality from both the
micro-hydropower system and the national grid is not
suitable for PEU activities.
Table 9: Field notes from site visits and interviews
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 26
ANNEX 4: Field Visit Photos
Figure 1: Three turgo-type turbines generate 3 MW at Nam Khun for Kyaing Tung Township.
Figure 2: Storage pond at Nam Khun holds enough water to meet 3-4 hours of peak load demand
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 27
Figure 3: Penstock under construction at Nam So, outside of Kyaing Tung
Figure 4: Stone crushing facility located outside Kyaing Tung uses power generated by Nam Khun
and, upon completion, Nam So
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 28
Figure 6: Civil works at Nam Su, outside of Kyaing Tung
Figure 5: 80kW productive end-use model facility on the privately owned and operated Nam Su mini-
grid
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 29
Figure 7: 80kW productive end-use model facility on the privately owned and operated Nam Su mini-
grid
Figure 8: Digital (left) and analog (right) meters used on the private Nam Su mini-grid
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 30
Figure 9: U Zaw Min, director of KSW Hydropower, describes the Wan Nar electromechanical
equipment. Turbine and drive system are shown at left and the control panel is shown at right.
Figure 10: U Zaw Min conducts a flow survey in early January 2016 in Mong Ping Township, the
site a future 800 kW site to power households and PEUs
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 31
Figure 11: U Khun Kyaw points out the location of Paung Paing village during an interview in early
January 2016
Figure 12: U Khun Kyaw leads a tour of a workshop in the industrial zone of Taunggyi Township
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 32
Figure 13: Mini-grid lines (left) and national grid lines (right) sit across the street from one another at
a site near Lashio. All or most businesses and homes in the area maintain connections with both grids.
When the national grid power supply cuts out, local households and businesses switch over to the
mini-grid using the switchgear shown below.
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 33
ANNEX 5: Previous PEU Case Studies
Figure 14: Reproduction
of MHP Project Sheet
with identified PEU
activities.
NOTE: The Nam Lan
Rural Electrification
Project was discussed
in great detail in a 52-
page report embedded
in Volume 5 (pages 3-1
to 3-52) of the Study on
Introduction of
Renewable Energies in
Rural Areas in
Myanmar. In it, the
economics of
incorporating PEU into
the MHP system are
described at great
length
Source: (Nippon Koei
Co., Ltd., 2003)
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 34
Figure 15:
Reproduction of MHP
Project Sheet with
identified PEU
activities.
Source: (Nippon Koei
Co., Ltd., 2003)
Productive End-Use of Micro-Hydro Plants in Myanmar
2/29/2016 35
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