reading/language arts framework for california public schools

Reading/Language Arts Frameworkfor California Public SchoolsKindergarten ThroughGrade Twelve

Developed by theCurriculum Development and SupplementalMaterials Commission

Adopted by theCalifornia State Board of Education

Published by theCalifornia Department of Education

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Publishing InformationWhen the Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools,Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve was adopted by the California State Boardof Education on December 10, 1998, the members of the State Board werethe following: Yvonne W. Larsen, President; Robert L. Trigg, Vice-President;Timothy Draper; Kathryn Dronenburg; Marion Joseph; Marion McDowell;Janet G. Nicholas; Gerti B. Thomas; Marina Tse; and Richard Weston.

The framework was developed by the Curriculum Development andSupplemental Materials Commission. (See pages x–xii for the names of themembers of the commission and the names of the principal writers and otherswho made significant contributions to the framework.)

This publication was edited by Edward O’Malley, working in cooperationwith Nancy Brynelson, Consultant, Elementary Education Division,Curriculum and Instructional Leadership Branch, California Departmentof Education. It was prepared for printing by the staff of CDE Press. Thecover and interior design were created and prepared by Cheryl McDonald.Typesetting was done by Jamie Contreras. The framework was published bythe California Department of Education, 721 Capitol Mall, Sacramento,California (mailing address: P.O. Box 944272, Sacramento, CA 94244-2720).It was distributed under the provisions of the Library Distribution Act andGovernment Code Section 11096.

© 1999 by the California Department of EducationAll rights reserved

ISBN 0-8011-1462-4

Photo CreditsPhotographs were provided by Glen Korengold, working in cooperationwith Mark Hopkins Elementary School, Sacramento City Unified SchoolDistrict, and the following schools in the Washington Unified School District:Bryte Elementary, Elkhorn Village Elementary, Golden State Middle,River City High, and Southport Elementary.

Ordering InformationCopies of this publication are available for $17.50 each, plus shipping andhandling charges. California residents are charged sales tax. Orders may besent to CDE Press, Sales Office, California Department of Education, P.O.Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95812-0271; FAX (916) 323-0823. See page 292for complete information on payment, including credit-card purchases, anda partial list of other educational resources available from the Department.

In addition, an illustrated Educational Resources Catalog describingpublications, videos, and other instructional media available from theDepartment can be obtained without charge by writing to the address givenabove or by calling the Sales Office at (916) 445-1260. Prices for allpublications are subject to change.

STATE

OF CALIFORNIA

DE

PA

RTMENT OF EDUCATION

Prepared for publicationby CSEA members

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Foreword viiPreface viiiAcknowledgments x

Introduction to theFramework 1

Goal and Key Componentsof Effective Language ArtsInstruction 10

Content Standardsand Instructional Practices,Kindergarten ThroughGrade Three 22

Kindergarten 30First Grade 44Second Grade 64Third Grade 80

Content Standardsand Instructional Practices,Grades Four ThroughEight 96

Fourth Grade 101Fifth Grade 118Sixth Grade 133Seventh Grade 151Eighth Grade 165

Content Standardsand Instructional Practices,Grades Nine ThroughTwelve 181

Ninth Gradeand Tenth Grade 183

Eleventh Gradeand Twelfth Grade 199

Note: The corresponding text from the English–LanguageArts Content Standards can be found at the end of eachgrade-level section.

Assessment ofProficiency in theLanguage Arts 215

Universal Accessto the Language ArtsCurriculum 225

Responsibilitiesand Support forProficiency in theLanguage Arts 237

Developmentand Evaluationof InstructionalMaterials 248

APPENDIX A

Matrix for the English–Language Arts ContentStandards, by Grade 259

APPENDIX B

Representative ContentStandards and InstructionalConnections for theLanguage Arts 262

Glossary of Selected Terms 276

Works Cited 281

Additional References 286

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3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Contents

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When parents bring theirchildren to the classroomdoor, they are entrusting our

schools with this nation’s most preciousresource. No more important publicservice exists than to ensure that whenchildren leave our schools as young adults,they are empowered with the languageskills they need to be successful, contribut-ing members of an information societythat relies increasingly on the power andrichness of language for effective commu-nication. We take this responsibilityseriously and invite you to participate withus as we implement a system that willensure that every student will be readingat least by the third grade and will gradu-ate with a full range of abilities in thelanguage arts.

Reading has been described as emanci-pation because it allows the mind access toall previously recorded human thought. Itscorollary, writing, allows us to communi-cate with the future. And listening andspeaking, tools of the present, allow us toconnect with people throughout theworld. Without the ability to read, write,listen, and speak well, our students willfind themselves lost in a world where evenbasic transactions assume facility withlanguage. The importance of our responsi-bility to teach students to read with

Foreword

comprehension and enthusiasm, to listenwith understanding and compassion, tospeak with conviction and effect, and towrite with clarity and persuasion cannot beoverstated.

To accomplish that ambitious task, weare providing a framework that offers ablueprint for implementation of thelanguage arts content standards adopted bythe California State Board of Education in1997. Those world-class standards, com-prehensive and balanced, may requirechanges in instructional programs, instruc-tional materials, staff development, andassessment strategies. A standards-basedsystem of curricular and instructionalprograms that accelerates and sustains theearly and continued achievement inreading and the language arts by allstudents in California’s public educationsystem, kindergarten through grade twelve,is described in this framework. That systemcannot and will not be implemented,however, without the participation andcontributions of teachers, administrators,parents, students, and all other stakeholdersin a literate society. Teaching our childrento use and enjoy the power of language is ashared responsibility. We look forward toworking with you to ensure that all stu-dents attain the highest possible levels oflanguage and literacy.

DELAINE EASTINState Superintendent of Public Instruction

YVONNE LARSENPresident, California State Board of Education

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Responsibility for ensuring that allstudents develop proficiency inthe language arts is not new. The

increasing social, economic, and techno-logical demands for students to be profi-cient in reading, writing, listening, andspeaking are urgent and unforgiving. Forhigh school graduates in California toproceed to institutions of higher educationor to be employable and meet the unprec-edented civic, economic, and technologi-cal challenges of the twenty-first century,they must be more than merely literate.They must be able to read all forms of textfluently and independently, communicateeffectively and creatively in oral andwritten form, and comprehend and delivercomplex forms of discourse. In addition tothose pragmatic and economic purposes oflanguage arts proficiency, the role ofCalifornia educators is to instill in stu-dents (1) a lifelong love of reading; (2) afacility and joy of communicating throughlanguage; and (3) a deep appreciation ofliterary and informational text and theways in which print expands our universeand our understanding of history andhumanity.

Our students will require higher levelsof literacy skills than ever before. Califor-nia has put in place a system of support torespond to that reality and to achieve thegoal that all students who graduate areproficient in the language arts. An integralcomponent of that system is the Reading/Language Arts Framework for CaliforniaPublic Schools, Kindergarten ThroughGrade Twelve. Content standards, well-designed materials, skilled teachers, and acomprehensive program of assessmentcomplete the system.

Preface

This framework is based on the rigor-ous English–language arts content stan-dards adopted by the State Board inNovember of 1997. Those standards formthe basis of curriculum development atevery grade level and a statewide assess-ment and accountability system. EducationCode Section 60605(f) requires that thisframework be aligned with the standards.

The Reading/Language Arts Frameworkreplaces the 1987 English–Language ArtsFramework and relies heavily on theconverging research base in beginningreading. It responds to the charge of theState Superintendent of Public Instructionand the State Board of Education toensure that all students can read at gradelevel at least by the end of the third grade.The framework observes the commitmentto a balanced and comprehensive languagearts program, defining balance as thedifferential instructional emphasis onspecific skills and strategies at strategicpoints in a learner’s instruction to ensureproficiency according to all language artsstandards.

This framework addresses reading,writing, speaking, listening, and writtenand oral English-language conventions forthe full range of learners and across thefull kindergarten through grade twelveeducational span. The standards and theframework give special emphasis tocontinuity and progression in the languagearts curriculum and to the reality thatstandards in the earlier grades are buildingblocks for proficiency in the later grades.Educators must make a commitment toprovide the necessary support to ensurethat all students reach proficiency. Theframework further recognizes and ad-

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dresses the critical linkages among curricu-lum, instruction, and assessment toenhance student learning. Effective, well-trained teachers and quality instructionalmaterials that select and sequence infor-mation to optimize learning and theretention of information are at the core ofeffective programs. The frameworkemphasizes the important content andinstructional connections that can andshould be made across domains andstandards to provide a coherent, effective,and efficient program of language artsinstruction.

The standards describe the contentstudents should master by the end of eachgrade level. The framework elaborates onthose standards and describes the curricu-lum and instruction necessary to helpstudents achieve the levels of mastery. Italso focuses on specific grade-level,standards-based instruction and, as such,has a purpose much different from

frameworks of the past. Most important,this framework focuses on developing thehighest levels of language arts proficiencyto enable students to participate fully insociety and the world of work and tounlock the power and pleasure ofcommunicating effectively in the Englishlanguage.

LESLIE FAUSSETChief Deputy SuperintendentEducational Policy, Curriculum, and

Department Management

SONIA HERNANDEZDeputy SuperintendentCurriculum and Instructional Leadership Branch

WENDY HARRISAssistant Superintendent and DirectorElementary Division

CATHERINE BARKETTAdministratorCurriculum Frameworks and Instructional

Resources Office

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required that the preliminary draft of theframework be revised to reflect a newfocus on the implementation of thestandards and the instruction studentsmust receive to meet those standardssuccessfully.

An invitation to bid was issued toobtain assistance in reshaping the prelimi-nary draft to meet the new criteria. Thedraft was submitted to new writers, whothen created a draft for field review thatwas aligned with the English–languagearts content standards and contained aninstructional context for those standards.More than 2,000 copies of the draftframework were distributed to educatorsand other experts across the state andnation during the field review process inJune and July 1998. The CurriculumCommission held two public hearings toreceive feedback on the draft in July andAugust 1998 and directed the writers andDepartment of Education staff to makenecessary revisions. The State Boardconducted two public hearings on theframework in fall 1998 and adopted theReading/Language Arts Framework forCalifornia Public Schools, KindergartenThrough Grade Twelve in December 1998.

The principal writers of the frameworkwere:

Edward J. Kame’enui, University ofOregon, Eugene

Deborah C. Simmons, University ofOregon, Eugene

Acknowledgments

Fifteen California educators selectedfrom 200 applicants were appoint-ed in 1996 by the Curriculum

Development and Supplemental MaterialsCommission (Curriculum Commission)and confirmed by the California StateBoard of Education to serve on theCurriculum Framework and CriteriaCommittee for English–Language Artsand English as a Second Language. Morethan half of the diverse group taughtstudents in kindergarten through gradetwelve. Other members were schoolprincipals, a coordinating field librarian,a reading specialist, county office curricu-lum coordinators, and universityeducators.

After more than a year of intensivemeetings and writing focused on creatinga comprehensive and balanced document,the committee produced a preliminarydraft. During the summer of 1997, thatdraft underwent an in-depth review andevaluation by a prominent Californiareading researcher to ensure that it wasgrounded in relevant research and prac-tice. Simultaneously, the newly developedEnglish–language arts content standardswere being finalized by the Commissionfor the Establishment of AcademicContent and Performance Standards. Inaddition, new legislation was enacted thatcalled for all frameworks to be fullyaligned with the corresponding contentstandards. Adoption of the standards bythe State Board and the new legislation

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The following members of the Subject-Matter Committee for English–LanguageArts and English as a Second Languagewere responsible for overseeing thedevelopment of the framework:

ChairLillian Vega Castaneda, California State

University, San Marcos

Vice-ChairMarilyn Astore, Sacramento County

Office of Education

MembersPatrice Abarca, Los Angeles Unified

School DistrictEleanor Brown, San Juan Unified School

DistrictKen Dotson, Turlock Joint Elementary

School DistrictLisa Jeffery, Los Angeles Unified School

DistrictSusan Stickel, Elk Grove Unified School

DistrictJean Williams (Retired), Fresno Unified

School District

The work of the Subject-MatterCommittee was greatly supported by theState Board of Education liaisons:

Kathryn DronenburgMarion Joseph

The other members of the CurriculumCommission were:

Kirk Ankeney (Chair, 1998), San DiegoCity Unified School District

Roy Anthony, Grossmont Union HighSchool District

Michele Garside, Laguna Salada UnionElementary School District

Viken Hovsepian, Glendale UnifiedSchool District

Joseph Nation, San RafaelRichard Schwartz, Torrance Unified

School District

Barbara Smith, San Rafael City Elemen-tary and High School Districts

Sheri Willebrand, Ventura UnifiedSchool District

The Curriculum Commission benefitedfrom the work of the Curriculum Frame-work and Criteria Committee forEnglish–Language Arts and Englishas a Second Language. The committeemembers were:

Kathy Allen, Palos Verdes PeninsulaUnified School District

Gladys Frantz, San Francisco UnifiedSchool District

Magdalena Ruz Gonzalez, Pacific OaksCollege

Dewey Hall, Rowland Unified SchoolDistrict

Carol Jago, Santa Monica-Malibu UnifiedSchool District

Nancy Kotowski, Monterey CountyOffice of Education

Kathy Marin, Whittier City SchoolDistrict

Jo Anne Polite, Los Angeles UnifiedSchool District

Marilyn Robertson, Los Angeles UnifiedSchool District

John Shefelbine, California State Univer-sity, Sacramento

George Sheridan, Black Oak MineUnified School District

Takako Suzuki, Los Angeles UnifiedSchool District

Jerry Treadway, San Diego State Univer-sity, Framework Committee Chair

Sharon Ulanoff, California State Univer-sity, San Marcos

Kami Winding, New Haven UnifiedSchool District

The writer for the committee wasLisa Ray Kelly, Ukiah.

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California Department of Educationstaff members who contributed to devel-oping the framework were:

Sonia Hernandez, Deputy Superinten-dent, Curriculum and InstructionalLeadership Branch

Catherine Barkett, Administrator,Curriculum Frameworks and Instruc-tional Resources Office

Christine Bridges, Analyst, CurriculumFrameworks and Instructional Re-sources Office

Nancy Brynelson, Consultant, Readingand Mathematics Policy and Leader-ship Office

Wendy Harris, Assistant Superintendentand Director, Elementary Division

Diane Levin, Language Arts Consultant,Curriculum Frameworks and Instruc-tional Resources Office

Christine Rodrigues, Consultant, Cur-riculum Frameworks and InstructionalResources Office

Nancy Sullivan, Administrator, EducationTechnology Office

Special appreciation is extended to:

Karen Buxton, Curriculum Specialist forLanguage Arts, Grades 7–12, San JuanUnified School District, for her assis-tance in revising the final version of theframework for grades seven throughtwelve

Marjorie DeBuse, University of Oregon,for her assistance in writing sections ofthe framework related to advancedlearners

Claude Goldenberg, California StateUniversity, Long Beach, for hisassistance in revising sections of theframework related to beginningreading

Robin Scarcella, University of California,Irvine, for her assistance in writingsections of the framework related toEnglish learners

The purpose of the CaliforniaReading/Language Arts Frameworkis to provide a blueprint for

organizing instruction so that every childmeets or exceeds the language arts contentstandards. It will guide the implementa-tion of the standards by specifying thedesign of instructional materials, curricu-lum, instruction, and professional devel-opment. The standards designate what toteach at specific grade levels, and thisframework provides guidelines andselected research-based approaches forimplementing instruction to ensureoptimal benefits for all students, includingthose with special learning needs(e.g., English learners, students withlearning disabilities and reading difficul-ties, and advanced learners).

1

Introductionto theFramework

1

The framework uses the English–language arts content standards asits curricular platform and alignscurriculum, assessment, instruction,and organization to provide acomprehensive, coherent structure forlanguage arts teaching and learning.

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Chapter 1Introductionto theFramework

Audiences for theFramework

The framework has two primaryaudiences: (1) teachers and other educa-tors involved in English–language artsinstruction; and (2) developers andpublishers of language arts programs andmaterials. Parents, members of thecommunity, and policymakers can beguided by the framework as they reviewlanguage arts programs at the local andstate levels. Educators will use this frame-work and the content standards as a roadmap for curriculum and instruction.Publishers must attend to the content andpedagogical requirements specified in thecontent standards and the framework toensure that all California students haveaccess to research-based instructional andpractice materials. Carefully articulatedcurricular sequences and quality instruc-tional materials enable teachers to investmore energy in delivering instruction andassessing the effectiveness of instructionfor the full range of learners in theirclassrooms.

The Context of theLanguage Arts

In a suburban elementary school,seven-year-old Joshua enters the secondgrade reading two correct words in aminute and scoring at the ninth percentileon a standardized measure of receptivevocabulary. He cannot read the wordsmom or can or identify pictures thatrepresent the meanings of group or pair.In the same second-grade classroom,seven-year-old Ricardo reads third-gradematerial fluently and provides a detailedand vivid recall of the story depicting therace between a tortoise and a hare. Judith,an eleven-year-old student with a readingdisability, is repeating the fourth grade in

an urban school in another part of thestate. She labors over each of the words ina history passage on the California GoldRush and has extreme difficulty in writingbasic sentences to summarize the majorpoints in the text.

Michael, an eighth-grade student in arural school, reads and comprehends Guyde Maupassant’s short story “The Neck-lace” with ease, carefully comparing andcontrasting the theme with that of othershort stories and communicating his ideasfluently and eloquently in writing. In asuburban high school on the coast, theinstructional diversity of an eleventh-gradeclassroom poses particular challenges asstudents with reading abilities that spanmore than six grade levels read Of Miceand Men by John Steinbeck and orallysupport their viewpoints and positionswith details from the text.

The individual differences of thestudents just mentioned are as varied astheir educational performances. Manyplausible factors can explain why Michaelexcels and Judith struggles. Previousinstructional experiences, prior knowledgeof concepts and content, the socioeco-nomic level of the family, and motivationare all part of the complex equation offactors that can determine children’sliteracy success. The common denomina-tor of the students is the need to developcompetence in the language arts to ensurethat they will be able to access informationwith ease, apply language skills at levelsdemanded in the twenty-first century,appreciate literature, and obtain the libertysociety offers to those who can use theEnglish language with facility. Themission of all public schools must be toensure that students acquire that profi-ciency to enhance their civic participationand their academic, social, personal, andeconomic success in today’s society andtomorrow’s world.

Teachers shouldnot be expectedto be thecomposersof the music aswell as theconductors ofthe orchestra.

Kathi Cooper,Sacramento CityUnified School District

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Chapter 1Introduction

to theFramework

The Challenge in theLanguage Arts

Facility in the language arts is theenabling skill that traverses academicdisciplines and translates into meaningfulpersonal, social, and economic outcomesfor individuals. Literacy is the key tobecoming an independent learner in all theother disciplines. Society has long recog-nized the importance of successful reading.But only recently have we begun to under-stand the profound, enduring consequencesof not learning to read well and the newlyfound evidence of the critical abbreviatedperiod in which to alter patterns of readingfailure (California Department of Educa-tion 1995; Juel 1988; Lyon and Chhabra1996). Most important, we recognize theconvergence of evidence to guide instruc-tion in the language arts (NationalResearch Council 1998).

One need not look beyond schooldropout data, prison rosters, or publicassistance rolls to find that the problemof illiteracy is pervasive and is especiallycommon to many who are not succeedingin a society whose literacy demandscontinue to exacerbate the divisionsbetween the haves and the have-nots.Studies of individuals who are resilient infacing personal and social adversity indicatethat the ability to read and write wellrenders powerful, far-reaching positiveeffects. Literacy levels are positively associ-ated with both higher annual income andlower unemployment. On the other hand,the absence of proficient reading andwriting skills is associated not only withacademic failure and dropping out ofschool but also with unemployment andinvolvement with the judicial system(Cornwall and Bawden 1992; Werner1993).

Stanovich (1986) observes that studentswho read early and successfully not only

reap the advantages of early literacy butalso accumulate experiences with printthat continue to differentiate good readersfrom poor readers throughout theiracademic careers. Unfortunately, the rich-get-richer phenomenon known as theMatthew Effect (see glossary) has beenverified in both the academic and theeconomic domains. Individuals who testat the least-proficient levels of literacy areoften unemployable because even low-skilljobs today demand adequate ability inreading (Whitman and Gest 1995).

In 1993 Peter Drucker described theadvent of the knowledge society in whichknowledge workers will replace blue-collarworkers as the dominant class in thetwenty-first century. According toDrucker society will demand moresophisticated print-oriented skills than arecurrently required of the Americanworkforce. America will be greatly chal-lenged in general to develop competitiveknowledge workers. In 1996 Simmonsand Kame’enui remarked that thosereferred to as vulnerable learners would beespecially challenged; that is, studentswho, because of their instructional,socioeconomic, experiential, physiological,and neurological characteristics, bringdifferent and often additional require-ments to instruction and curriculum.

The Chargeto Educators

Reading/language arts and relateddisciplines are the beneficiaries of anabundance of converging research thatproduces a professional knowledge baserelated to fostering and sustaining compe-tence in the language arts, particularlybeginning reading. Noteworthy advanceshave identified the features of curricularand instructional interventions to offsetnegative factors that can accompany

Students whoread early and

successfully notonly reap theadvantages of

early literacy butalso accumulate

experiences withprint that

continue todifferentiate good

readers frompoor readers

throughout theiracademic careers.

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children when they enter school (Hansonand Farrell 1995; Lipson and Wixson1986). As educational leaders it is ourcharge to use that knowledge base responsi-bly and strategically to ensure that allchildren educated in California publicschools will graduate with the knowledgeand skills that allow them to access andemploy the power of the printed word.Toward that end this framework isdesigned to provide a blueprint forcurriculum and instruction to enhance allstudents’ potential as producers and usersof language.

Guiding PrinciplesIn an effort to accelerate and sustain all

learners’ proficiency in the language arts,ten principles are used to guide thisframework and address the complexity ofthe content and context of language artsinstruction. The principles direct thepurpose, design, delivery, and evaluation ofinstruction. Accordingly, the framework:

• Uses the English–language arts contentstandards as its curricular platform andaligns curriculum, assessment, instruc-tion, and organization to provide acomprehensive, coherent structure forlanguage arts teaching and learning.The standards serve as curricularguideposts for teachers and provideclear-cut curricular goals for alllearners. Genuine alignment ofcurriculum, assessment, instruction,and organization rests at the schoollevel. There the components must beidentified, implemented, and ad-justed to fit the conditions andcontexts of the school and the needsof the learners.

• Stresses the importance of a balanced,comprehensive program. Balanced isdefined as the strategic selection andscheduling of instruction to ensure

that students meet or exceed thosestandards, and comprehensive isdefined as the inclusion of all contentstandards. Although more or lessemphasis is placed on particularstrands, depending on students’needs at a given time, all strands areto be developed simultaneously.

—Balanced does not mean that allskills and standards receive equalemphasis at a given point in time.Rather, it implies that the overallemphasis accorded to a skill orstandard is determined by itspriority or importance relative tostudents’ language and literacylevels and needs. For example, inkindergarten and the first grade,students first learn to apply andpractice decoding and word-attackskills in carefully controlled,decodable texts. Later in the firstgrade and in subsequent grades theemphasis on decodable texts shiftsto less-controlled passages andliterature as students developproficiency in the skills needed forreading in an alphabetic writingsystem.

—A comprehensive program ensuresthat students learn to read andwrite, comprehend and compose,appreciate and analyze, andperform and enjoy the languagearts. They should spend timeimmersed in high-quality litera-ture and work with expositorytext, learn foundational skills inthe alphabetic writing system, andstudy real books. A comprehensiveprogram ensures that studentsmaster foundational skills as agateway to using all forms oflanguage as tools for thinking,learning, and communicating (BayArea Reading Task Force 1997).

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to theFramework

• Emphasizes that students must befluent readers at least by the end of thethird grade and that third-gradecompetence depends on the specificand cumulative mastery of skills inkindergarten through grade threetogether with the development ofpositive attitudes toward reading andwriting. Consistent with the contentstandards, the framework recognizesthat the advanced skills of compre-hending narrative and informationaltext and literary response andanalysis and the creation of eloquentprose all depend on solid vocabulary,decoding, and word-recognitionskills fostered in the early grades andsustained throughout the schoolyears.

• Describes the important skills, con-cepts, and strategies that students mustbe able to use after the third grade andattends specifically to those advancedhigher-order skills from grades fourthrough twelve that require explicitand systematic instruction.

• Provides guidance to ensure that alleducators and learners understand that(1) specific skills in reading, writing,speaking, and listening must betaught and learned; (2) the languagearts are related, reciprocal processesthat build on and strengthen oneanother; and (3) the language artscan be learned across all academicdisciplines.

• Promotes a preventive rather thanremedial approach. The most effec-tive instructional approach is toprevent reading/language artsproblems before they begin. The keyto success is to make the firstinstruction students receive theirbest instruction.

• Assumes that all learners will worktoward the same standards yet

recognizes that not all learners willacquire skills and knowledge at thesame rate. Intervention strategiesmust be in place to identify studentswho are not progressing adequatelyand to intervene at all levels as earlyand as long as necessary to supporttheir acquisition of learning in thelanguage arts.

• Addresses the full range of learners inclassrooms, with specific attentionbeing given to language arts instruc-tion and the learning needs ofEnglish learners, special educationstudents, students with learningdifficulties, and advanced learners.The framework addresses studentswith special needs at both ends of theacademic continuum; that is, thosewho enter with less-than-adequateskills and struggle to develop funda-mental competence and those whoenter with advanced skills thatrequire curriculum modifications tofoster optimal achievement.

• Assumes that virtually all students canlearn to read and that older strugglingreaders will benefit from refocusinginstruction on building the skills,strategies, and knowledge that are thefoundation for subsequent success inreading/language arts.

• Is designed to be useful to a wide rangeof consumers, including professionaldevelopers, reading specialists, librarymedia teachers, principals, districtand county leaders of curriculum andinstruction, college and universityteacher educators, teachers, parents,community members, and publish-ers. However, the framework is firstand foremost a tool for teachers and aguide for publishers and developersof educational materials.

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Organization of theFramework

The organization of this framework isbased on the content of the English–Language Arts Content Standards(California Department of Education1998a). Accordingly, the framework:

• Presents the goals and key compo-nents of an effective language artsprogram (Chapter 2)

• Describes the curriculum contentand instructional practices needed forstudents to master the English–Language Arts Content Standards(Chapter 3 for K–3, Chapter 4 forgrades 4–8, and Chapter 5 for grades9–12)

• Guides the development of appropri-ate assessment tools and methods toensure that each student’s progresstoward achieving specific knowledge,skills, and understanding in languagearts is measured (Chapter 6)

• Suggests specific strategies to pro-mote access to appropriately chal-lenging curriculum for students withspecial needs (Chapter 7)

• Describes the systems of support,including professional development,that should be in place for effectiveimplementation of a rigorous andcoherent language arts curriculum(Chapter 8)

• Specifies requirements for instruc-tional resources, including print andelectronic learning resources(Chapter 9)

Chapters 3, 4, and 5, which detailstandards-based curriculum content andinstructional practices for the major grade-level clusters (K–3, 4–8, and 9–12), arefurther organized according to (1) curricu-lum content overview for each grade-levelcluster; (2) overview of standards and

instruction for each grade; (3) classroomconnections indicating sample integrationpoints (K–8); and (4) curricular andinstructional profiles illustrating a selectedstandard for each grade. Note: The corre-sponding text from the English–LanguageArts Content Standards can be found at theend of each grade-level section.

Essential to the organization of thisframework is the structure of the standardsthemselves. They are categorized by do-main: reading, writing, written and oralEnglish-language conventions, and listeningand speaking. Within each domain, strandsand substrands are also used to categorizethe standards. The structure of the contentstandards is illustrated on the followingpage in the sample table for the first grade.Appendix A provides an overview of thedomain strands and substrands by grade.

The standards (e.g., 1.1–1.3) withinsubstrands and strands serve as benchmarksby which to gauge what students shouldlearn at designated points in time and overtime. The strands are not intended tosuggest that each standard is to be givenequal weight in a given year. Instead, theweight and emphasis of a particular strandmust be determined by (1) the role of thestandards within the strand to developingcompetence within a specific domain, suchas reading or writing; and (2) the perfor-mance of the learners. The English–language arts content standards illustrate thecomplexity of teaching the language arts,the multiple components that must beexamined and integrated to create a com-prehensive program, and the critical andintegral relation of earlier and later skills.

The standards are mastery standards,meaning that students should master or beproficient in the knowledge, skills, andstrategies specified in a particular standard,at least by the end of the designated grade.Instruction to develop such proficiency isnot, however, restricted to a specific grade.

The standards aremastery standards,meaning thatstudents shouldmaster or beproficient in theknowledge, skills,and strategiesspecified in aparticular standard,at least by the endof the designatedgrade.

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to theFramework

Publishers and teachers should consider theprerequisite skills and sequence of instruc-tion students will need to master a standardby the end of the grade and introduce andsequence instruction within and betweengrades to ensure mastery at least by thegrade in which the standard is identified.For example, Reading Standard 1.9 speci-fies that students will be able to dividesingle-syllable words into their components(e.g., /c/ /a/ /t/ = cat). This standard doesnot propose that students wait until thefirst grade to begin sequential segmentationbut that they master the skill at least by theend of the first grade.

In recognition that a substantial portionof the instructional day must be devoted tolanguage arts instruction, educators andpublishers of instructional materials shouldaddress the history–social science andscience content standards simultaneouslywith the language arts standards, particu-larly for kindergarten through grade three.

Two considerations regarding thetreatment of standards are that (1) thecomplexity of the language arts and thenumber of content standards preclude acomprehensive, detailed analysis of eachstandard in the framework; and (2) thediscussion of the standards in the frame-work parallels their organization by do-mains, strands, and substrands, whereas inpractice those features are interwoven. Noattempt is made to address every standardwithin the grade-level discussions; rather,standards important to understanding thedomains or standards new to a particular

grade are highlighted and discussed. Stan-dards may be paraphrased or restated toillustrate the descriptions. The full text ofthe English–Language Arts Content Stan-dards is included in the correspondinggrade-level sections. Similarly, the connec-tions between standards are not thoroughlyexplored in the descriptions of grade-levelstandards. Instead, they are addressed in(1) the samples of integration points in thegrade-level sections; and (2) the representa-tive content standards and instructionalconnections in Appendix B.

Curricular and instructional profilesserve as a starting point for curriculumplanning and instruction for a selectedstandard at each grade level. Profilesinclude critical dimensions that should becomponents of effective language artslessons. Ideally, the components would beincorporated into published commercialmaterials. But if the components are notfully developed in existing materials, theprofiles offer a model for teachers to use inmodifying and strengthening instructionfor the full range of learners. It is notsuggested, however, that profiles bedeveloped for all standards. Instead,designers will want to consider the interre-lationship of standards across domains andstrands in curriculum planning andinstruction and in the development ofinstructional resources. (See the following“Key to Curricular and InstructionalProfiles” for details on the elements of thecurricular and instructional profiles.)

1.0 Word analysis,fluency, andsystematicvocabularydevelopment

Concepts aboutprint

1.1 Match oral wordsto printed words.

1.2 Identify the title and authorof a reading selection.

1.3 Identify letters, words,and sentences.

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Reading

Essential to theorganization of

this framework isthe structure of

the standardsthemselves.

Structure of the Content Standards

8

Chapter 1Introductionto theFramework Key to Curricular

and InstructionalProfiles

Domain, Strand, Substrand, and Standard

Prerequisite or corequisite standards (or both) are listed at the beginning of the profile foreach grade.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Definitions of what is to be taught and learned.

Strategic selection and sequencing of information to be taught.Features of instructional design include what to teach, when tointroduce skills and concepts, how to select examples, how tointegrate standards, and how to teach for transference and generali-zation.

Procedures and strategies teachers use to develop students’ skills andknowledge. Materials should provide clear steps of how to introducethe skill or strategy. This dimension includes what teachers andstudents do. Modeling, pacing, reinforcement, questioning, correc-tions, and feedback are also included. It further involves the struc-ture of delivery, including teacher demonstration or modeling,guided practice, peer-mediated instruction, and independentpractice and application.

Three critical purposes are addressed:

1. Entry-level assessment for instructional planning: how to determinethe skill level of students through the use of meaningful indica-tors of reading and language arts proficiency prior to instruction

2. Monitoring student progress toward the instructional objective: howto determine whether students are making adequate progress onskills and concepts taught directly

3. Post-test assessment toward the standard: how to determine theeffectiveness of instruction and students’ proficiency afterinstruction

InstructionalObjectives

InstructionalDesign

InstructionalDelivery

Assessment

9


to theFramework

UniversalAccess

Although all learners work toward mastery of the same standards,curriculum and instruction are differentiated to meet students’needs. Some students may meet more than one of the followingdescriptions:

1. Students with reading difficulties or disabilities. Are the standardand objective appropriate for the learner in content and numberof objectives? Can students use the same materials? Or willmaterials need to be modified to accommodate the speaking,listening, reading, or writing competence of the learners?

2. Students who are advanced learners. Determine whether thecontent has been mastered by the student. Do the content andactivities need to be accelerated or enriched? Are the content andobjectives appropriate for the learners? If not, how can thematerials and requirements of the task be modified?

3. Students who are English learners. Is more extensive instruction ofvocabulary or other English-language features necessary toachieve the standard? Is the rate of introduction of new informa-tion manageable for learners? Is there sufficient oral and writtenmodeling of new skills and concepts and reinforcement ofpreviously taught information? Have linguistic elements in thelesson or materials been modified as appropriate for the profi-ciency level of the students?

Criteria to consider include the following:

1. Introduction of content, skills, and strategies is carefullysequenced.

2. Number and range of examples are adequate.3. Prerequisite skills are addressed, and materials provide sufficient

review of previously taught skills and strategies.4. Assessment tasks parallel the requirements of the standard.

InstructionalMaterials

10

Chapter 2Goal and KeyComponentsof EffectiveLanguage ArtsInstruction

10

The Reading/Language Arts Frame-work specifies the strategic andsystematic reading and language

skills and knowledge that students shouldlearn and teachers should teach to achievecompetence in the language arts. Aprimary assumption is that studentsmaster particular skills and knowledge atdesignated points in time and that earlierskills are foundational and requisite forlater, more complex higher-order skillsand knowledge. Those skills and knowl-edge are carefully mapped out in theEnglish–Language Arts Content Standards.A critical feature of the standards and thisframework is that gaps, delays, and deficitsin skills and knowledge experienced inprevious grades must still be addressedresponsively and responsibly.

Goal and KeyComponentsof EffectiveLanguage ArtsInstruction

The child’s first instruction must employthe most valid and effective methodsavailable to ensure mastery of the skillsthat lay the foundation for furtherreading achievement.

2

11

Chapter 2Goal and KeyComponents

of EffectiveLanguage Arts

Instruction

Goal of EffectiveLanguage ArtsInstruction

The knowledge and skills that enableeleventh- and twelfth-grade students toverify facts from public documents andcritique their truthfulness, write carefullyconstructed persuasive essays, and developand present a research question andsupporting evidence with multimedia donot begin in the eleventh grade butoriginate in the early grades throughcareful development of language artscompetence in specific and integrated skillsand knowledge. The task of Californiaschools, then, is to develop and deliver alanguage arts curriculum that is systematicand carefully articulated and establishesspecific, continuing standards leading tocompetence and alignment with theEnglish–Language Arts Content Standards.

The goal of developing lifelong readersand writers begins early in students’ livesand represents a unique balance of compe-tence, motivation, accessibility, andexperiences with print. When studentsdevelop competence in the fundamentalsof reading and writing, they increase theirmotivation to achieve. Educators should bekeenly aware of the inherent difficulty oflearning to read and write in English andof the integral linkage between proficiencyand motivation. Difficulties in masteringthe elements of reading, writing, listening,and speaking can easily and directly “stiflemotivation . . . [and] in turn hamperinstructional efforts” (National ResearchCouncil 1998, 316). The child’s firstinstruction must employ the most validand effective methods available to ensuremastery of the skills that lay the founda-tion for further reading achievement.

Key Componentsof Effective LanguageArts Instruction

Assumption: The effectiveness ofinstruction is measuredby student performanceaccording to valid, reliableassessment aligned withthe language arts contentstandards.

Knowledge gained over the past threedecades reveals the multiple contexts thatshape the quantity and quality of learning(Carroll 1963, 1989; Mosenthal 1984,1985). Effective language arts programsare dynamic and involve professionals,policies, instructional materials, andpractices that interact in complex ways.The best practices of any profession arenot gained in a vacuum but are imple-mented and sustained in environmentsthat support, enhance, and reinforce thosepractices and include several dimensions(Smith, Simmons, and Kame’enui 1998).

In 1995 the California Reading TaskForce identified four components that abalanced, comprehensive approach toreading must contain: (1) a strong litera-ture, language, and comprehensionprogram that includes a balance of oraland written language; (2) an organized,explicit skills program that includesphonemic awareness (sounds in words),phonics, and decoding skills to address theneeds of the emergent reader; (3) ongoingdiagnosis that informs teaching andassessment that ensures accountability;and (4) a powerful early interventionprogram that provides individual tutoringfor students at risk of failure in reading.

The key components of an effectivelanguage arts program (an expansion of

The goal ofdeveloping lifelong

readers andwriters begins

early in students’lives and

represents aunique balance of

competence,motivation,

accessibility, andexperiences

with print.

12


the four elements contained in Every Childa Reader [California Department ofEducation 1995]) are assessment, instruc-tion, instructional time, instructionalprograms and materials, instructionalgrouping and scheduling, differentiatedinstruction, classroom instructional andmanagement practices, professionaldevelopment, administrative practices,parent and community involvement,motivation, effort, and academic language.Each of the components is described inthe following sections. Note: Both thestrength of the components and theirstrategic integration are required foreffective instruction in the language arts.

Assessment in the Language Arts

Assessment anchored to importantlearning objectives should provide thebasis for instruction. Different types ofassessment used at strategic points (before,during, and after instruction) provideinformation critical to determining whatto teach, how much the students arelearning, and whether the students haveachieved mastery. Characteristics of theassessment component in an effectivelanguage arts program are as follows:

• Assessment of student performanceis used to determine what studentsneed to learn and what teachers needto teach. It is also used to determinewhat students have already learnedwell and what teachers do not haveto teach.

• Indicators of critical skills andstrategies are used to identifystudents at risk of difficulty and inneed of specialized instruction.

• Ongoing assessment of studentperformance is linked closely toinstruction and curriculum activitiesas well as school-site goals, districtand state standards, and stateassessments.

• Teachers receive training andsupport to manage assessment.Teachers or trained paraprofessionalscan make quick, focused checks ofan individual student’s progresswhile the remaining students areengaged in meaningful work.

• Formal and informal as well asformative and summative measuresare used to document studentperformance.

• Summative assessment assists sites,districts, and the state in monitoringthe effectiveness of establishedprograms.

Instruction in the Language Arts

High-quality instruction is at the heartof all good language arts programs. Acomprehensive, balanced language artsprogram in which curriculum and instruc-tion are differentiated according toassessed needs should be provided to allstudents. Characteristics of the instructioncomponent in an effective language artsprogram are as follows:

• The curriculum for reading and thelanguage arts in kindergartenthrough grade three provides explicitand systematic instruction anddiagnostic support in:

—Phonemic awareness—Phonics—Decoding—Word-attack skills—Spelling—Vocabulary—Comprehension skills—Writing skills and strategies and

their application—Listening and speaking skills and

strategies

• The curriculum for reading and thelanguage arts in grades four through

Assessmentof studentperformance isused to determinewhat studentsneed to learn andwhat teachersneed to teach.

13



Instruction

twelve provides explicit and system-atic instruction and diagnosticsupport in:

—Word-attack skills (e.g., decodingand structural as applied tomultisyllabic words)

—Spelling—Vocabulary—Comprehension skills, including

contextual skills—Text-handling and strategic

reading skills—Writing skills and strategies and

their application—Listening and speaking skills and

their application

• For students in grades four throughtwelve who do not demonstratecompetence in the skills and knowl-edge required in kindergartenthrough grade three, assessments areconducted and systematic instruc-tion is provided in the necessaryprerequisite skills, such as:

—Phonemic awareness—Specific instruction in decoding

and phonics—Fluency—Vocabulary and language develop-

ment—Comprehension strategies

• Teachers adapt learning contexts tochallenge and extend the skills ofadvanced learners. Opportunities foracceleration and enrichment areprovided.

• Even with the highest-qualityclassroom instruction, some studentshave difficulty progressing accordingto grade-level expectations. For thosestudents assessment tools to diagnosespecific instructional needs, togetherwith instructional support and age-appropriate materials, are essential toaddress foundational skill deficits.

Instructional Time

Opportunities for students to learn aredetermined in part by the amount and useof time allocated for instruction. Forproficiency in the language arts to beachieved, an adequate amount of timemust be allocated to instruction, and thattime must be protected from interruptions.Characteristics of the instructional timecomponent in an effective language artsprogram are as follows:

• At the primary level a minimum oftwo and one-half hours of instruc-tional time is allocated to languagearts instruction daily. This time isgiven priority and is protected frominterruption.

• In grades four through eight, twohours of instructional time areallocated to language arts instructiondaily through core instructionalperiods or within a self-containedclassroom.

• In grades nine through twelve, allstudents participate in a minimum ofone course per semester of languagearts instruction.

• Engaged academic time (the timestudents actively participate inappropriately challenging tasks) ismaximized.

• Classroom and school time areallocated to activities and contenthighly correlated with essentialreading and literacy skills.

• Students with special learning needsare provided additional instructionaltime and support. Additional time isallocated within the school day,before school, after school, andduring vacation periods as necessary.At the secondary level additionalcourses and opportunities outside theschool day and year are provided forstudents having difficulties withreading.

An adequateamount of time

must be allocatedto [language arts]

instruction, andthat time must be

protected frominterruptions.

14


• The school extends learning time forall students by promoting indepen-dent reading outside school in dailyat-home reading assignments andexpectations, use of summer readinglists, and family and communityliteracy activities.

Instructional Programsand Materials

Effective instructional programs andmaterials based on the English–languagearts content standards and current andconfirmed research can greatly influencethe amount and rate of learning inclassrooms. Characteristics of the instruc-tional programs and materials componentin an effective language arts program areas follows:

• Instructional materials incorporatespecific strategies, teaching/instruc-tional activities, procedures, ex-amples, and opportunities for reviewand application consistent withcurrent and confirmed research.

• Instructional materials prioritize andsequence essential skills and strate-gies in a logical, coherent mannerand demonstrate the relationshipbetween fundamental skills(e.g., decoding, vocabulary, andcomprehension).

• Instructional materials address orreinforce content-area standards inmathematics, science, and history–social science whenever feasible.

• Instructional materials includeactivities that relate directly to thelearning objectives. Extraneousmaterial is kept to a minimum.

• In support of practice and motiva-tion, students at every grade levelhave access to and are encouraged touse a collection of interesting andsuitable library books in addition totheir required texts.

• Curricular programs and instruc-tional materials provide specificsuggestions for special-needs stu-dents.

• Instructional materials for studentsin grades four through twelve whohave reading difficulties align withage-appropriate interests and offersystematic practice of needed skills.Materials are available on topics thatmotivate learners to read.

• Instructional materials for Englishlearners address the same curricularcontent described in this frameworkfor English speakers and giveadditional emphasis to the structuresand systems of English, includingphonology, morphology, syntax, andsemantics.

• A validated process is used to selectboth print and electronic instruc-tional materials to promote highlevels of achievement for the fullarray of learners.

Instructional Groupingand Scheduling

The purpose of instructional groupingand scheduling is to maximize opportuni-ties to learn. First of all, content mustgovern instruction. Then instructionalgrouping and scheduling are used toenhance learning opportunities. Charac-teristics of the instructional grouping andscheduling component in an effectivelanguage arts program are as follows:

• Instruction is provided in flexiblegroupings to maximize studentperformance. Whole-group instruc-tion or heterogeneous grouping maybe used when the objectives areappropriate for the range of learnersin the classroom. Homogeneousgrouping may be used to customizespecific instruction for assessedstudent needs.

Effectiveinstructionalprograms andmaterials cangreatly influencethe amount andrate of learningin classrooms.

15



Instruction

• Group size and composition areadjusted to accommodate and reflectstudent progress and instructionalobjectives (flexible and dynamicgrouping).

• Tutoring (peer or adult or both) isused judiciously to supplement (notsupplant) explicit teacher-deliveredinstruction. It aligns with classroomobjectives and instruction.

• Cross-class or cross-grade grouping isused when appropriate to maximizeopportunities to tailor instruction tostudents’ performance levels. Suchgrouping is appropriate when itfacilitates teaching students within asimilar age span and achievementrange. As a general rule, differencesshould be within one year in kinder-garten through grade three, two yearsin grades four through eight, andthree years in grades nine throughtwelve.

• Centers and independent activitiesare used judiciously and are alignedwith instructional goals and objec-tives focused on achieving grade-levelstandards.

Differentiated Instruction

All students are expected to meet orexceed the grade-level expectations set forthin the English–Language Arts ContentStandards. Differentiated instruction aimsto optimize learning opportunities andoutcomes for all students by tailoringinstruction to meet their current level ofknowledge and prerequisite skills. Studentswith a wide range of learning needs can beexpected in almost any classroom, andtheir needs are addressed more fully inChapter 7. Characteristics of the differenti-ated instruction component in an effectivelanguage arts program are as follows:

• Students with reading difficulties ordisabilities are provided with oppor-

tunities for more intensive, system-atic teaching and practice to learnthe skills and strategies needed formeeting the standards. Thosestudents with more intensive needsrequiring special education servicesmay need outside assistance andfurther instructional differentiationbased on their individualizededucation programs.

• Teachers adapt learning contexts tostimulate and extend the proficiencyof students who are advancedlearners. Opportunities for accelera-tion and enrichment are provided.

• English learners develop proficiencyin English and in the concepts andskills contained in the English–Language Arts Content Standards.Emphasis is placed on (1) instruc-tion in reading and writing; and(2) simultaneous instruction in theacquisition of academic vocabularyand the phonological, morphologi-cal, and syntactical structures ofEnglish already understood byEnglish speakers.

• Teachers adapt instruction forstudents with multiple needs(e.g., gifted English learners orstudents identified as gifted andeligible for special education ser-vices).

Classroom Instructional andManagement Practices

Classroom and instructional manage-ment practices promote student engage-ment and maximize instructional time andeffectiveness. Characteristics of theclassroom instructional and managementpractices component in an effectivelanguage arts program are as follows:

• Classrooms are highly interactiveand provide instruction, constructivefeedback, and high levels of engage-

All students areexpected to meet

or exceed thegrade-level

expectations setforth in the

English–LanguageArts Content

Standards.

16


ment together with appropriateactivities and resources.

• Academic and social expectations arewell established and are explicitlytaught at the school and classroomlevels. Classroom and schoolwidediscipline plans and procedures areimplemented consistently by allstaff.

• The links between instruction,behavior, and the curriculum are soclear and strong that tasks andinstruction are assigned at appropri-ate levels, students have a highprobability of being successful,lessons are well paced, and theclassroom/school environment issupportive.

• Teachers plan and manage whole-class and small-group lessons,independent student work, assess-ment tasks, and instructionalmaterials efficiently and effectivelyso that the students are activelyengaged, instructional time ismaximized, and lesson objectives areachieved.

Professional Development

The preparation of teachers andongoing support for their continuingprofessional development are critical tothe quality of schools and increases instudent achievement. Characteristics ofthe professional development componentin an effective language arts program areas follows:

• Professional development forteachers focuses on student learning,with attention given to tailoringcurriculum and instruction tostudents’ needs, all of which iscompatible with current researchand the English–language artscontent standards.

• Educators participate in the plan-ning of their own professionallearning.

• Activities are designed to be ongoingand in-depth and include a variety ofstrategies to help educators applywhat they have learned and sustainimproved instruction.

• Time is allocated for educators toreflect, discuss, analyze, and refinetheir own professional practices andto plan and refine instructionaccordingly.

• The administration makes a com-mitment to ensure support, ongoingfollow-up, and evaluation of profes-sional development.

Administrative Practices

Administrative support of language artsinstruction reminds all those involved ineducation that reform efforts are notconsidered effective unless they contributeto increased student achievement. Stronginstructional leadership characterizeseffective schools and can help maintain afocus on high-quality instruction. Charac-teristics of the administrative practicescomponent in an effective language artsprogram are that administrators:

• Are knowledgeable about theEnglish–language arts contentstandards and effective language artsprograms. They work with teachersto create a coherent plan in theschool for language arts instructionthat is based on assessment andprovides access to such programs forall students.

• Maximize and protect instructionaltime for language arts and organizethe resources and personnel neededto support classroom assessment andinstruction.

The preparationof teachers andongoing supportfor theircontinuingprofessionaldevelopment arecritical to thequality of schoolsand increasesin studentachievement.

17



Instruction

• Support the development of explicitschoolwide, grade-level, and indi-vidual performance goals, are awareof school and classroom languagearts performance, institute practicesto provide school-level performanceinformation in a timely manner, andact to ensure that learning is ad-equate and is sustained over time.

• Ensure that all teachers are welltrained in reading and the languagearts and support teachers in theirimplementation of effective pro-grams.

• Allocate resources, time, and staff inall grades for students who have notdemonstrated competence onreading and writing standards. Acommitment and plan of action areestablished to ensure that all studentsread and write at or above gradelevel.

Parent and Community Involvement

Ensuring that California’s students areproficient in the language arts iseveryone’s concern. As stakeholders in thatgoal, parents, community members,college and university partners, andbusiness and industry can all makesignificant contributions toward expand-ing student learning opportunities anddesigning and implementing exemplarylanguage arts programs. Characteristics ofthe parent and community involvementcomponent in an effective language artsprogram are as follows:

• Parents are well informed about theEnglish–language arts contentstandards, the district’s curriculumand assessment program, and theprogress of their children in learningto read, write, speak, and listen.

• Parents are encouraged to involvethemselves in education and aresupported in their efforts to improve

their children’s learning in readingand the language arts.

• Materials and programs are orga-nized so that parents, siblings, andcommunity members can provideextended learning experiences.

• College and university partnerscollaborate with schools and districtsin designing and providing profes-sional development, tutoring, andother programs to support increasedstudent proficiency in language arts.

• The community is used as a class-room abundant in examples of howand why the language arts areimportant in our lives, our work,and our thinking.

Other ConsiderationsAll stakeholders in the promotion of

literacy should understand that theinclusion of the key instructional compo-nents described previously is the goal forall schools. Additional factors that areimportant in a successful language artsprogram are students’ personal attributes,such as motivation and effort, and devel-opment of academic language.

Motivation

Successful teachers help studentsdevelop fundamental skills in reading thatprovide the foundation for all later workin the language arts. As students begin todevelop those skills, effective teachersnurture the students’ desire or motivationto learn for a number of reasons, includingrecognition of the critical link between theamount of reading students do and theirvocabulary development. In language artsinstruction motivation not only enhancesthe learning process but is also a necessaryprecursor for students choosing to read ontheir own. Motivation to read is especiallyimportant in light of the English–language

Ensuring thatCalifornia’s

students areproficient in thelanguage arts is

everyone’sconcern.

18


arts content standards, which call forstudents to do a significant amount ofreading in addition to their regular schoolreading: by the fourth grade, one-halfmillion words annually; by the eighthgrade, one million words annually; and bythe twelfth grade, two million wordsannually.

The important dimensions of motiva-tion to read are an individual’s self-concept as a reader and the value placedon reading (Gambrell et al. 1996). Self-concept derives in large part from theindividual’s skill in reading; that is, bymastering standards in reading, thestudent becomes motivated. The value ofreading can be promoted by teachers inmany ways, such as by:

• Displaying their own enthusiasm forreading and appreciation of its value

• Providing appropriate readingmaterials (readable and interesting)

• Creating a stimulating learningenvironment

• Modeling positive reading behaviors(Ediger 1988)

• Encouraging students to take homebooks that are appropriate to theirreading levels

• Encouraging parents to read to theirchildren and to model the value ofreading at home for pleasure andinformation

Motivation and reading for pleasure aremutually reinforcing. Reading for pleasureshould be promoted in every classroom,and the school should supply a widevariety of interesting reading materials atthe students’ independent reading levels,allow time to read (Shefelbine 1991), andassign reading as homework. Motivation isalso linked to four key features of literacylearning: providing access to books,offering a choice of texts, establishingfamiliarity with a topic, and promoting

social interactions about books (Gambrellet al. 1996).

Reading programs should reflect adesire for students to “compose lives inwhich reading matters” (Calkins 1996,32–33). Encouraging the habit of inde-pendent reading is crucial in helpingstudents understand and appreciate thevalue of reading. Independent classroomreading, particularly in kindergartenthrough grade six, can serve as a practicalway of linking vocabulary and compre-hension and complementing otherinstructional approaches while expandingword knowledge in a realistic setting. Theteacher should schedule time for indepen-dent reading daily and should serve as amodel of how to read well as studentsengage in silent reading with booksselected by themselves or by the teacher.A balance of encouraging wide and variedreading as much as possible and of usingmodeling at appropriate times in clear,demonstrative, and motivational ways isvery beneficial (Sanacore 1988).

Effort

Together with motivation, studenteffort is an essential element for successfullearning. Research on high achievers—whether in mathematics, athletics, thearts, science, or business—reveals thatsuccessful people exert enormous effort(Gardner 1983; Bloom 1985). Of all thevariables affecting success, effort is the onemost within the control of the students.They must learn that in the language artsa direct relationship exists between effortand achievement, just as in sports, music,and every other discipline. Effectiveteachers teach that principle explicitly andcreate opportunities for students todemonstrate it (Hunter and Barker 1987).

Holding students to high standardsconveys respect for them as learners.

In language artsinstructionmotivation notonly enhancesthe learningprocess but isalso a necessaryprecursor forstudents choosingto read ontheir own.

19



Instruction

Feedback to students about failure on atask that could have been accomplishedwith more effort communicates to stu-dents that they have the abilities necessaryto succeed and need to exert them.Conversely, a teacher’s acceptance of lessthan standard work from students whileknowing that they are capable of moreserves only to convince students that theydo not have to try or that the teacher doesnot believe that the students can succeed(Hunter and Barker 1987).

Successful classrooms are places ofexpectation and responsibility. Youngpeople are expected to work hard, thinkthings through, and produce their bestwork. Teachers support students with arange of guides and structures, organizingthe curriculum to stimulate learning andthinking, inviting and answering ques-tions, providing positive and correctivefeedback, encouraging peer support andassistance, and creating a trusting class-room atmosphere. In successful classroomsstudents contribute to the flow of eventsand help shape the direction of discussion.

Proficiency in AcademicLanguage

Proficiency in decoding and encoding skills isnecessary but not sufficient for comprehend-ing and writing about academic subjectmatter. Students also have to understand,use, and ultimately live the academiclanguage of books and schooling.(Shefelbine 1998)

Academic language refers to the lan-guage of literacy and books, tests, andformal writing. Shefelbine proposes aframework of reading that includesacademic language as a key component ofreading comprehension (see the chart onthe following page).

A number of studies and researchershave shown that academic language

proficiency and its subcomponents arerelated to achievement in reading andwriting as early as the third grade. Vo-cabulary is a critical element of academiclanguage. In a study in which achievementtrends of low-income students beginningin the second grade through the seventhgrade were observed, a decline in word-meaning scores was identified after thethird grade and in oral and silent readingcomprehension in the sixth and seventhgrades. Difficulties with comprehensionwere attributed to the challenging textsthat “use more difficult, abstract, special-ized, and technical words; the conceptsused in textbooks also become moreabstract, and understanding them requiresmore sophisticated levels of backgroundknowledge and cognition” (Chall, Jacobs,and Baldwin 1990, 46).

Some researchers view academiclanguage as different enough from conver-sational speech to be considered a secondlanguage (Maylath 1994, cited in Corson1995). Shefelbine (1998) identifies severalinterrelated characteristics of academiclanguage that differ from conversationalspeech. Some of those aspects includelanguage function, vocabulary, back-ground knowledge, text structure, syntac-tic complexity, and abstract thinking.

Academic language is learned by beingrepeated and extended while learningsubject matter, including literature,science, and history–social science. It isdifficult to learn quickly because of itspeculiar characteristics, especially itsrequirement for extensive knowledge ofvocabulary and background. Key compo-nents of developing academic language arereading, writing, and talking about booksand school subject matter. Hearinglanguage is not enough for students to

Note: The content of this section on proficiency inacademic language has been provided by John Shefelbine,California State University, Sacramento.

Academic languagerefers to the

language ofliteracy and

books, tests, andformal writing.

20


learn academic language. They mustproduce it by speaking and writing it.Talking about text is necessary for themto develop their active vocabulary (Corson1995). They must use words rather thanjust receive them passively in order toretain new vocabulary. Four strategiessuggested for developing academiclanguage are the following:

1. Reading aloud to students. Readingaloud to students is a powerful wayto build language and vocabulary(Chall, Jacobs, and Baldwin 1990;Dickinson and Smith 1994; Wells1986). In doing so it is important toselect narrative and informationalbooks with content linguistically andconceptually challenging but stillengaging and understandable (Chall,Jacobs, and Baldwin 1990). Focusshould be placed on building lan-guage, vocabulary, and knowledge ofcontent rather than on developingknowledge of print or decodingstrategies. Larger proportions ofanalysis, prediction, and vocabulary-related talk by teachers and childrenare associated with higher gains invocabulary and comprehension(Dickinson and Smith 1994).Teachers should focus briefly on themeanings of certain words duringreading and ask questions thatrequire increased amounts of lan-guage and thinking from students.

2. Instructional discussions. Opportuni-ties for students to initiate andparticipate in discussions on instruc-tional topics build academic lan-guage. Suggested strategies forstructuring those discussions includeinstructional conversations(Goldenberg 1992-93) and question-ing the author (Beck et al. 1997).Both strategies employ open-endedquestions that require students tointerpret a text or topic. Studentsrespond to one another and to theteacher. In questioning the author,the teacher and students pose queriesthat facilitate group discussion aboutan author’s ideas and promptstudent-to-student interactions.

3. Reading by students. One of thestrongest predictors of readingcomprehension in general and ofvocabulary development in particularis the amount of time students spendreading (Anderson, Wilson, andFielding 1988; Corson 1995;Cunningham and Stanovich 1998).Although reading aloud to students ishelpful in developing academiclanguage, the central importance ofstudents reading widely at increas-ingly more challenging levels cannotbe overemphasized. High-interest,low-vocabulary texts, although oftenappropriate for building fluency, arenot as likely to produce growth in

Decoding Comprehension

Word recognition Academic Comprehensionstrategies Fluency language strategies

Con

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s ab

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prin

t

Phon

emic

awar

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s

Phon

ics

Sigh

t w

ords

Aut

omat

icity

Back

grou

ndK

now

ledg

e

Voc

abul

ary

Synt

ax-

- -

- -

Tex

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ruct

ure

Com

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onm

onito

ring

(Re)

orga

nizi

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xt

The centralimportance ofstudents readingwidely atincreasingly morechallenging levelscannot beoveremphasized.

21



Instruction

academic language. To obtain suchgrowth, students must read a greatdeal at school and at home. Class-room and schoolwide strategies toencourage and inspire studentindependent reading are essential.Students should master skills inreading early and well so that theywill be able to read independently.Those who are not fluent readers anddo not have the foundation skills tounderstand a variety of types of printdo not engage willingly and joyfullyin reading.

4. Writing by students. Students alsopractice and develop academic

language in their writing as theyrespond to and analyze literature andcompose essays and reports on avariety of topics. Incorporatingadvanced vocabulary and complexlanguage structures appropriately intotheir own writing is the eventual goalof development in academic lan-guage, and frequent opportunities towrite for a variety of purposes areessential to consolidating gains.Teachers should analyze and usestudent writing to guide furtherinstruction and application ofacademic language features andconventions.

22

Chapter 3Content Standardsand InstructionalPractices—KindergartenThrough GradeThree

22

The period spanning kindergartenthrough grade three is the mostcritical for instruction in the

language arts. During that time studentsacquire the foundational skills needed forlater academic, social, and economicsuccess. By the end of the third grade,students should be able to (1) readcomplex word forms accurately andfluently in connected texts and decodemultisyllabic words independently;(2) read grade-level narrative and exposi-tory texts and recall sequence, main ideas,and supporting details; and (3) writecompositions that describe familiar events

Although all the skills withinstrands are important, no greaterresponsibility exists for educators ofstudents in kindergarten throughgrade three than to ensure that eachstudent in their care leaves thethird grade able to read fluently,effortlessly, independently, andenthusiastically.

Content Standardsand InstructionalPractices

KindergartenThroughGrade Three

3

23

Chapter 3Content Standards

and InstructionalPractices—

KindergartenThrough Grade

Three

and experiences and construct complete,correct sentences to communicate theirideas. In addition, they should be able notonly to respond to questions but also tomake well-organized oral presentationscentered on major points of information.As a result of their new skills, they arebeginning to enjoy the richness of ideasexpressed in books. Achievement of thoseskills by the end of the third grade is thegoal for all students. Students achievethose skills by building on a progressionof carefully specified and strategicallysequenced content standards and instruc-tion that begins in kindergarten.

Proficiency is based on critical buildingblocks in each grade. Some of the buildingblocks (e.g., vocabulary development,analysis of narrative text) span kindergar-ten through grade three, and others(e.g., phonemic awareness, concepts aboutprint) are mastered in specific grades. Thebuilding blocks and their importance tooverall language arts success in kindergar-ten through grade three are profiled in thischapter. An overview is followed by grade-specific summaries and instructionalanalyses for kindergarten through gradethree.

Reading Word Analysis,Fluency, andSystematic VocabularyDevelopment

The standards for word analysis,fluency, and systematic vocabularydevelopment are a key part of develop-ment in kindergarten through grade three.Although readers access words in manyways (whole words, decoding, word parts,and context), research has found thatdecoding, or the ability to apply knowl-edge of letter-sound correspondences toidentify words, is fundamental to indepen-dent word recognition. Good readers rely

primarily on the letters in a word ratherthan context or pictures to identifyfamiliar and unfamiliar words (Ehri1994). The fluency good readers havewith word recognition makes us thinkthey read whole words at a time. In fact,fluent readers process virtually every letterin a word (Adams 1990). The speed andfacility with which they recognize wordsdifferentiate good readers from lesssuccessful readers.

Automaticity is the ability to recognize aword (or series of words in text) effortlesslyand rapidly. The foundations of automaticword recognition begin in kindergartenthrough developing phonemic awarenessand learning the sounds associated withletters as well as concepts about print.Phonemic awareness, the ability to hearand manipulate the sounds of language, isa key indicator for students who learn toread easily versus children who continueto have difficulty. Instruction in phonemicawareness begins in kindergarten andconcludes with more complex activities bythe middle of the first grade. By themiddle of kindergarten, students shouldbe tested on phonemic awareness. Begin-ning in kindergarten and continuing intothe first grade, children should be explic-itly taught the process of blending indi-vidual sounds into words. For example,the printed word man is converted into itscomponent letters (m a n), then into itscorresponding sounds, each sound beingheld as readers progress to the next sound(mmmmmaaaaannnn). This explicitblending process is temporary yet criticalas children advance in the word-recogni-tion process.

In the late first grade and continuingthrough the second and third grades,students focus on two dimensions of wordrecognition—advanced word recognitionskills and automaticity. In the first gradethey progress from vowel-consonant and

Research hasfound that

decoding, or theability to applyknowledge ofletter-sound

correspondencesto identify words,is fundamental to

independent wordrecognition.

24


consonant-vowel-consonant word typesto consonant blends, vowel digraphs, andr-controlled letter-sound associations.Inflected endings and word roots areadded to extend word-recognition abili-ties. In the second grade decoding andword-recognition skills take on greatersophistication with the addition ofmultisyllabic words and more complexspelling patterns. In both the second gradeand the third grade, more advanceddecoding strategies focus on how to breakup multisyllabic words and employmorphemic analysis (analyzing affixes andword roots). The second-grade and third-grade curriculum also focuses on ortho-graphic knowledge; that is, recognizinglarger, more complex chunks of letters(e.g., ight, ierce) to enhance fluency.

Proficient readers, writers, and speakersdevelop fluency with the fundamentalskills and strategies. Fluency is defined asthe accuracy and rate with which studentsperform reading tasks. In oral reading itincludes additional dimensions thatinvolve the quality of such reading (e.g.,expression and intonation). To be consid-ered fluent readers, students must performa task or demonstrate a skill or strategyaccurately, quickly, and effortlessly.

Fluency in kindergarten through gradethree involves a wide range of skills andstrategies (e.g., identifying letter names,producing sounds associated with letters,blending letter-sounds into words, readingconnected text, spelling words, andwriting sentences). Instruction in develop-ing fluency must focus first on explicitopportunities for the student to learn theskill or strategy. Once a skill is learned,fluency develops as a result of multipleopportunities to practice the skill orstrategy with a high rate of success. Forearly decoding in the first grade, studentsread stories in which there is a highpercentage of words composed of taught

letter-sound correspondences and a fewpreviously taught sight words.

An important feature of language artsinstruction in kindergarten through gradethree is vocabulary development, begin-ning in kindergarten with direct instruc-tion in specific categories of words andprogressing to understanding the relationsof such words as synonyms and antonymsand the importance of structural featuresof words (affixes) to word meaning. Widereading is essential to learning vocabularyand must be an integral component ofinstruction. At first the teacher shouldread literary and expository texts tostudents, exposing them to vocabularythey are not yet able to read. As studentsdevelop proficiency in word recognition,they are taught independent word-learning strategies, such as learningmeanings from context and using dictio-naries and glossaries as instructionalresources.

The primary means by which studentslearn new words is through independentreading. The volume of that reading iscrucial (Cunningham and Stanovich1998). The authors acknowledge thestrong relationship between decoding andvocabulary, noting that decoding skillmediates reading volume and thus vocabu-lary size. Therefore, one of the mosteffective strategic strikes educators canmake in helping students develop vocabu-lary growth is to teach them to becomefluent readers and encourage them to readextensively. In a study of independentreading, Anderson, Wilson, and Fielding(1988) found that the difference betweenchildren scoring at the ninetieth percentilein the amount of out-of-school indepen-dent reading and those scoring at thesecond percentile was approximately 21minutes of independent reading per day.By the fourth grade students should readone-half million words of running text

The primarymeans by whichstudents learnnew words isthroughindependentreading.

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Three

independently (see Chapter 4, page 114).Therefore, the process and benefits ofindependent reading must begin in theearlier grades.

Reading ReadingComprehension

An important building block inkindergarten through grade three isinstruction in strategies related to readingcomprehension, including how to predictwhat will happen in a text, how to com-pare information between sources, andhow to answer essential questions. Thefoundation for this proficiency begins inkindergarten, when students receiveexplicit instruction and opportunities toanswer simple questions about who andwhat. More abstract why and what ifquestions are mastered in the first andsecond grades. Although kindergartennonreaders use the strategies orally inresponse to the teacher reading the text,more proficient readers also apply thestrategies to the text they themselves read.Direct teaching and modeling of thestrategies and readers’ application of thestrategies to the text they hear and readincrease the ability of students to developliteral and inferential understanding,increase vocabulary, and make connec-tions between parts of a text, betweenseparate texts, and between text andpersonal experience.

Most students require explicit instruc-tion in strategies related to readingcomprehension, just as they do fordecoding. Before the students listen to orread a story or informational passage, theteacher must bring to bear relevantstudent experiences and prior knowledge,develop knowledge of the topic, and teachcritical, unfamiliar vocabulary. And thestudents should engage in predictions

about upcoming text that are based ontitles and pictures. While the students arereading, the teacher should introducequestions strategically to focus attentionon critical information and encourage thestudents to monitor comprehension byself-questioning and returning to the textto fill in gaps in comprehension. Whenthe students have finished reading, theyshould engage in analysis and synthesis,retelling, summarizing, and acting oninformation, such as placing events insequential order. Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through GradeEight (California Department of Educa-tion 1996a) lists high-quality, complexmaterials to be read by students.

Reading Literary Responseand Analysis

In kindergarten through grade three,students develop their ability to analyzeliterature and distinguish between thestructural features of narrative text(e.g., characters, theme, plot, setting) andthe various forms of narrative (e.g., myths,legends, fables). They learn the common-alities in narrative text and develop aschema or map for stories. Again, thestandards progress from kindergarten,where analysis focuses on the characters,settings, and important events, to moresophisticated story elements (e.g., plot inthe first grade, comparison of elements inthe second grade, and theme in the thirdgrade). Although kindergartners and earlyfirst graders also develop the strategiesorally in response to text that has beenread aloud, older students increasinglydevelop comprehension strategies throughtext they read and in conjunction withdirect teaching and modeling of strategies.

Most studentsrequire explicit

instruction instrategies related

to readingcomprehension,

just as they dofor decoding.

26


Writing Writing Strategiesand Applications

Students in kindergarten through gradethree develop foundational writingstrategies, applications, and conventions.They begin by forming uppercase andlowercase letters and using their knowl-edge of letters and sounds to write words.That knowledge of the alphabetic prin-ciple continues in the first grade asstudents write sentences. By the secondgrade writing extends to paragraphs, andby the third grade students write para-graphs with topic sentences. In penman-ship students progress from legibleprinting in the first grade to the use ofcursive or jointed italic in the third grade.

The systematic progression of instruc-tion and application from kindergartenthrough grade three prepares students towrite clear and coherent sentences andparagraphs that develop a central idea.Their writing shows clear purpose andawareness of audience as they refine theirability to use writing to describe andexplain objects, events, and experiences(see page 93 in this chapter).

In the first grade another essentialbuilding block is introduced; that is,writing as a process. The act of writing ismade up of a set of thinking and compos-ing processes used selectively by a writer.Students learn that writing consists ofseveral iterative phases (i.e., prewriting,drafting, revising, editing, andpostwriting) that vary depending on thepurpose and audience for writing. Stu-dents are also taught, however, that theyare not limited to using the various phasesall the time or in any fixed order. Instruc-tion continues in the second and thirdgrades and beyond. Throughout thosegrades the dimensions of organization,grammar, sentence structure, spelling,basic punctuation and capitalization, and

handwriting are introduced and extendedprogressively.

With its emphasis on planning andrevising for clarity, the writing processhelps students understand that writing isnot the same as speech written down.Direct instruction in more specific writingstrategies also helps students understandhow to go beyond writing down conversa-tion. Of particular interest here are ideas,organization, voice, word choice, sentencefluency, and conventions. The first fiveinvolve content (rather than spelling andmechanics) and directly address aspects ofdecontexualized communication thatmany students find challenging. They arediscussed fully in Spandel (1998).

Written and Oral English-Language Conventions

In kindergarten through grade three,written and oral English-language conven-tions are integrated with the respectivestrands (writing applications, speakingapplications) where they are most directlyapplied. Over the course of the four-yearspan, students learn to write and punctu-ate declarative, interrogative, imperative,and exclamatory sentences.

Spelling instruction and proficiencyprogress in the first grade from phoneticstages, during which children learn torepresent all of the prominent phonemesin simple words, to more advancedphonetic, rule-governed, and predictablepatterns of spelling in the second andthird grades (Moats 1995). Kindergartenand first-grade students will progress fromprephonetic to phonetic stages of spellingas they begin to write. The NationalResearch Council (1998, 8) states thattemporary spellings, specifically those usedin the phonetic stage, can be “helpful fordeveloping understanding of the identityand segmentation of speech sounds and

The systematicprogression ofinstruction andapplication fromkindergartenthrough gradethree preparesstudents to writeclear and coherentsentences andparagraphs thatdevelop acentral idea.

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Three

sound-spelling relationships. Convention-ally correct spelling should be developedthrough focused instruction and practice.Primary children should be expected tospell previously studied words and spellingpatterns correctly in their final writingproducts.” Fundamental skills in sentencestructure, grammar, punctuation, capitali-zation, and spelling become buildingblocks for more advanced applications.

Listening and SpeakingListening and SpeakingStrategies and SpeakingApplications

In kindergarten through grade three,students develop listening and speakingstrategies and speaking applications thatparallel and reinforce instruction in theother language arts. For example, asstudents learn to identify the majorelements in stories, they practice retellingstories and include characters, settings,and major events. When speaking, theyneed systematic opportunities to use thevocabulary introduced in reading andwriting. Students are taught to listen andfollow instructions that begin as one-stepdirections in kindergarten and progress tothree and four steps in the second andthird grades.

Making Connectionsfor Students

Instructional materials must helpstudents make connections betweenstandards and between skills and strate-gies. For example, students must learn notonly to hear and manipulate the sounds inwords but also to practice skills andintegrate them into beginning reading andspelling activities. However, if they

practice writing sentences with correctpunctuation and capitalization but neverapply those skills in larger contexts or forauthentic purposes, instruction is frag-mented and the skills without purpose.The goal in language arts instructionmust, therefore, be to ensure that compo-nent parts (skills, strategies, structures) areidentified; are carefully sequenced accord-ing to their complexity and use in moreadvanced writing applications; are devel-oped to mastery; and are progressively andpurposefully connected and then incorpo-rated with authentic learning exercises,including those presented in the study ofhistory–social science, mathematics, andscience.

A transformation takes place in learnersbetween kindergarten and the third grade.A typical kindergartner enters school withlittle formal knowledge of academicrequirements and uses of language. Exitingthird graders who have mastered the codeare able to access, comprehend, compose,discuss, and enjoy a wide range of litera-ture and informational text. Their trans-formation comes from the systematic andstrategic design and delivery of instructionanchored to the English–language artscontent standards. Students who acquirenecessary skills and knowledge early have ahigh probability of continued academicsuccess. But students who fail to learn thefundamental skills and knowledge of thealphabetic writing system by the thirdgrade will find themselves in relentlesspursuit of the standards and will needextra support to arrive at grade level.Critical to the task are well-trainedclassroom teachers and teaching specialistswho plan and implement lessons andassessments based on standards andcurrent research and who are tireless intheir efforts to teach all children to read,write, speak, and listen well.

Exiting thirdgraders who have

mastered thecode are able toaccess, compre-hend, compose,

discuss, and enjoya wide range of

literature andinformational

text.

28


Teaching Studentsto Read: A SpecialPriority

Although all the skills within strandsare important, no greater responsibilityexists for educators of students in kinder-garten through grade three than to ensurethat each student in their care leaves thethird grade able to read fluently, effort-lessly, independently, and enthusiastically.Each student must understand the relationof print to speech, the sound structure oflanguage, and the alphabetic principle andbe able to apply those abilities to grade-level text. Effective instruction in readingnurtures both comprehension and fluencyin word recognition. Concentration onthe skills that build word recognition arecritically important in the early primarygrades.

Learning to read is the most importantskill that students develop during theirearly academic years. Moreover, converg-ing evidence reveals that the kindergartenthrough grade three span is the optimalperiod of time for such learning. Studentswho fail to read fluently by the end of thethird grade have only a minimal chance ofachieving literacy competence withoutspecific interventions (Juel 1988; Feltonand Pepper 1995).

What is particularly intriguing andelusive about reading is that despite itscomplexity, skillful reading looks like aneasy and natural thing to do. On thecontrary, reading requires deliberate andsystematic human intervention andcontext (Kame’enui 1996). The process ofreading is learned. Although some stu-dents become skillful readers withoutsystematic instruction, many others needintense, systematic instruction in readingto succeed—a need that has not been fullyrecognized or addressed. Scientific re-

search has made considerable progress ingaining an understanding of what thecomponents of reading instruction shouldbe and how many more students can behelped to learn to read successfully. Ourknowledge is not yet absolute in someareas, and many important questionsremain to be answered. Nevertheless, weknow that learning to read in an alphabeticwriting system requires that we attendtenaciously to the features of that writingsystem and make explicit and conspicuousthe key features of the system. Otherwise,large numbers of students will be at risk ofnot learning to read well.

Becoming a fluent and skillful readerrequires extensive engagement with theEnglish language, including:

• Listening to words and to the soundsinside of words

• Hearing and talking about stories• Gaining facility with the concepts of

print• Understanding the sounds that make

up our language• Manipulating the sounds and

relating the specific sounds to printedletters and words

• Connecting words with events,actions, things, and ideas andexpressing those ideas in writing

• Learning about the connectionbetween sounds, letters, syllables,words, and concepts

• Gaining an understanding of thestructure of stories and informationaltext and relating events to personalexperiences

Reading as a process is more than itappears to be. Because it does not comenaturally to many students, the parts,especially the important parts, must betaught strategically and intentionally as anabsolute priority. To improve readingachievement, we must fully understand

No greaterresponsibilityexists foreducators ofstudents inkindergartenthrough gradethree than toensure that eachstudent in theircare leaves thethird grade ableto read fluently,effortlessly,independently, andenthusiastically.

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Three

and appreciate the complexity andprimacy of early reading instruction. Thedimensions of beginning reading are likethe strands of a strong rope. Like such arope, the strength of the reading processdepends on the strength of the individualstrands, the strategic integration of all thestrands, and the effective binding orconnecting of the strands (Chard,Simmons, and Kame’enui 1998). First, itis critical that the strands, includingvocabulary acquisition, concepts aboutprint, phonemic awareness, decoding andword recognition, knowledge of thestructure of stories, and listening compre-hension are robust, stable, and reliable.Next, the strength of the reading processdepends on strategic integration of thestrands to produce readers who can applytheir skills in a variety of contexts andtasks.

An important principle in early readinginstruction is that skills from all strandsmust be part of the students’ readingprograms from kindergarten on. Emphasison particular skills will differ over timeand from student to student. For example,word-recognition skills should be trans-

ferred and applied, first with decodabletext where students can apply and practicethe skills reliably and then with qualityliterature and informational texts asstudents demonstrate an ability to applyskills and strategies successfully.

A second essential principle is that newskills must be integrated across strands toreinforce and extend learning. For ex-ample, words learned in word-readingexercises can be used in writing, andvocabulary from a story can be incorpo-rated with speaking. Systematicallyestablishing connections between newskills and authentic applications andbetween skills in one strand and applica-tions in another is essential to retentionand generalization.

The following sections profile andsummarize the content of the languagearts program for each grade level inkindergarten through grade three. Eachgrade-level description includes a sum-mary of the content, relevant instructionalanalyses, content connections acrossdomains, and curricular and instructionalprofiles.

30


Reading

1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency,and Systematic VocabularyDevelopment

2.0 Reading Comprehension3.0 Literary Response and Analysis

Writing

1.0 Writing Strategies


1.0 Written and Oral English-LanguageConventions

Listening and Speaking

1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and

Their Characteristics)

Standards andInstruction

Kindergarten

Students enter kindergarten with awide range of individual differencesin prior opportunities to hear, see,

and learn the English language andalphabetic writing system. Thus, thechallenge for educators is to determinethe essential skills kindergartners mustmaster and the way to organize and deliverinstruction of maximum effectiveness andefficiency that addresses the range of(1) the skills and knowledge to be taught;and (2) the capacity of the learners.Instruction in kindergarten is focused ondeveloping foundational skills that preparestudents for later learning in the languagearts. The strands to be emphasized at thekindergarten level are listed in the adjacentcolumn under the appropriate domains.

Each of the strands is addressedseparately in the following section withthe exception of the written and oralEnglish-language conventions strand,which is integrated into appropriatesections.

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Concepts About Print

A primary focus of language artsinstruction in kindergarten is makingsense of the alphabet and its role inreading. Familiarity with the letters of thealphabet is a powerful predictor of earlyreading success (Ehri and McCormick1998). Moreover, letter-sound knowledgeis not optional in an alphabetic writingsystem. By the end of kindergarten,students should be able to name alluppercase and lowercase letters and matchall letters with their associated sounds.

Whether to teach letter names or letter-sound relationships first remains un-settled. Some reading programs recom-mend introducing letter names firstbecause they are typically easier and morefamiliar to children. Others teach letter-sound relationships before letter names.Likewise, the treatment of uppercase andlowercase letters has varied. In someprograms both uppercase and lowercaseletters are introduced concurrently; inothers the introduction of capital lettersdissimilar to their lowercase letters isdelayed.

The kindergarten experience shouldalso expose students to a range of printforms and functions. Students learn to useconventions of print not only to negotiateprint but also to aid comprehension(e.g., Reading Comprehension Standard2.1). A recommended sequence is topresent (1) the particular concept of print(e.g., books are read front to back, printmoves from left to right), as would bedone with any other basic concept; and(2) a learning activity in which booksare used.

Phonemic Awareness

The most essential element of languagearts instruction in kindergarten is thedevelopment of phonemic awareness; thatis, teaching students the sound structureof language. Seven content standards(Reading Standards 1.7–1.13) progres-sively address phonemic awareness andits multiple dimensions. Phonemicawareness is:

1. The ability to hear and manipulatethe sounds in spoken words and theunderstanding that spoken wordsand syllables are made up ofsequences of speech sounds (Yopp1988). Early phonemic awareness isall auditory; it does not involveprint.

2. Fundamental to later mappingspeech to print. If a child cannothear that man and moon begin withthe same sound or cannot blend thesounds /rrrrruuuuunnnn/ to run,that child typically has difficultyconnecting sounds with theirwritten symbols.

3. Essential to learning to read in analphabetic writing system becauseletters represent sounds or pho-nemes. Without phonemic aware-ness, phonics makes little sense.

4. A strong predictor of early readingsuccess.

Instruction in phonemic awareness canspan two years, kindergarten and firstgrade. But in this aspect of teaching as inothers, the teacher must be guided by thestudents’ developing competencies. Somestudents require little training in phone-mic awareness; others might require quitea bit. Although early phonemic awarenessis oral, the teacher must be careful not todelay in providing learning opportunitieswith print. Learning phonics and learningto decode and write words all help

Kindergarten


32


students continue to develop phonemicawareness. In addition, students who havedeveloped or are successfully developingphonemic awareness should not have tospend an unnecessary amount of timebeing instructed in such awareness.Adequate, ongoing assessment of studentprogress is essential. Oral activities inkindergarten should focus on such simpletasks as rhyming, matching words withbeginning sounds, and blending soundsinto words. Midyear screening of allstudents to determine their phonemicawareness and need for further instructionis also important.

In a review of phonemic awarenessinterventions to enhance the early readingachievement of students with and withoutdisabilities, the following instructionalstrategies were found effective (Smith,Simmons, and Kame’enui 1998):

1. Modeling phonemic awarenesstasks and responses orally andfollowing with students’ produc-tion of the task

2. Making students’ cognitive ma-nipulations of sounds overt byusing concrete representations(e.g., markers, pictures, andElkonin boxes) or auditory cuesthat signal the movement of onesound to the next (e.g., claps)

3. Teaching skills explicitly andsystematically

4. Adding letter-sound correspon-dence instruction to phonologicalawareness interventions afterstudents demonstrate early phone-mic awareness

5. Progressing from the easier phone-mic awareness activities to themore difficult—from rhymingand sound matching to blending,segmentation, and manipulation

6. Focusing on segmentation or thecombination of blending andsegmenting

7. Starting with larger linguistic units(words and syllables) and proceed-ing to smaller linguistic units(phonemes)

8. Focusing beginning instruction onthe phonemic level of phonologicalunits with short words (two tothree phonemes; e.g., at, mud, run)

9. Focusing first on the initial sound(sat), then on the final sound (sat),and lastly on the medial sound (sat)in words

10. Introducing several continuoussounds first (e.g., /m/, /r/, /s/)before introducing stop sounds(e.g., /t/, /b/, /k/) because stopsounds are more difficult to isolate

11. Providing brief instructionalsessions (Significant gains inphonemic awareness are oftenmade in 15 to 20 minutes of dailyinstruction and practice over aperiod of 9 to 12 weeks.)

Decoding and Word Recognition

In kindergarten students begin to workwith words in three important ways:decoding, spelling, and writing. Decodingis of primary importance. The studentslearn the prerequisites (phonemic aware-ness, letter-sound correspondences) andrequisites (blending individual letter-sound correspondences to read wholewords) of decoding. The ability to associ-ate consonant and vowel sounds withappropriate letters is fundamental toreliable decoding and will be the focus ofthe curricular and instructional profilepresented later in this section.

The selection, sequencing, review, andpractice of letter-sound correspondencesrequire careful analysis to optimize

Kindergarten


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Three

successful early reading. Selected guide-lines include:

• Scheduling high-utility letter soundsearly in the sequence (e.g., /m/, /s/,/a/, /r/, /t/)

• Including a few short vowels early inthe sequence so that students can useletter-sound knowledge to form andread words

• Sequencing instruction, separatingthe introduction of letter soundsthat are easily confused (e.g., /p/,/b/, /v/; /e/, /i/)

• Using student knowledge of letter-sounds to help them read and spellwords (The difficulty of the wordsstudents spell should parallel thedifficulty of the word patterns theyread. Further specifications for theprocedures for teaching wordreading are found in the first-gradepresentation.)

Vocabulary and Concept Development

Curriculum and instruction in kinder-garten must also develop understanding ofconcepts and vocabulary as buildingblocks of language: categories of color,shape, and words used in kindergarteninstruction (e.g., group, pair, same).Vocabulary is developed through directinstruction in specific concepts andvocabulary and exposure to a broad anddiverse vocabulary while listening tostories. For students who enter kindergar-ten with limited knowledge of vocabulary,special instruction in concept and lan-guage development should be provided tohelp close the widening vocabulary gapbetween them and their peers.

Teachers should identify vocabularywords critical to listening comprehensionand teach those words directly. Factorsthat influence the learning of vocabularyare (1) providing multiple exposures to

words; (2) selecting and teaching wordsthat are important to understanding astory or are high-utility words; (3) havingstudents process words deeply and inmultiple contexts; and (4) providingdefinitional and contextual support.


Most students are not able to readsophisticated stories in kindergarten ontheir own but learn to identify and usestrategies to comprehend the stories thatare read to them daily. In the kindergartencurriculum important strategies forteaching comprehension as students listento stories are (1) using pictures and contextto make predictions; (2) retelling familiarstories; and (3) answering and askingquestions about essential elements.

Factors to be considered when introduc-ing comprehension strategies are:

1. Easing into instruction, beginningwith stories containing obviousinformation and considering thecomplexity of the text

2. Controlling the difficulty of thetask initially by introducing thestrategy first in sentences andparagraphs and then in stories

3. Modeling multiple examples andproviding extensive guided practicein listening-comprehension strate-gies

4. Inserting questions at strategicintervals to reduce the memory loadfor learners when introducingstrategies in stories. (For example,have students retell the importantevents after each page rather thanwait for the end of the story.)

5. Using both narrative and expositorytext

Kindergarten


34



One of the most powerful structuresstudents learn in kindergarten is theschema or map of stories. The elements ofstory grammar (see glossary) can be appliedto most stories and provide students withan important anchor when listening tostories, recalling them, and eventuallywriting their own. Story grammar can beused as a framework for beginning to teachhigher-level comprehension skills. Studentswho have learned story grammar can beginto summarize by using the elements toretell the story. In kindergarten threeelements are introduced: setting, charac-ters, and important events. The remainingelements are gradually introduced insuccessive grades. Suggested strategies forteaching story elements are to:

• Introduce stories where elements areexplicit (e.g., setting is describedspecifically).

• Focus on only a few importantelements and introduce additionalelements when the students canreliably identify those previouslytaught.

• Model and guide the studentsthrough stories, thinking out loud asthe elements are being identified.

• Have students discuss the elementsorally and compare with other stories.

• Use elements of story grammar as astructure for recalling and retellingthe story. Model retelling, using thesetting, characters, and importantevents as recall anchors. Providepicture cues to help students learn theessential elements.

• Provide plentiful opportunities tolisten to and explore a variety of textforms and to engage in interactivediscussion of the messages and

meanings of the text. As studentsretell stories or answer questionsabout stories, they are provided withmodels of oral English-languageconventions together with opportuni-ties to produce complete, coherentsentences.

Writing WritingStrategies

Kindergarten students learn not only torecognize, identify, and comprehend butalso to write letters, words, and beginningnarratives. The connections in contentbetween reading and writing are importantin reinforcing essential skills. As studentsstudy the sound structure of language andlearn how to read phonetically regularwords and to write letters, they begin to usethat knowledge to document their ideas inwords. The National Research Council(1998, 187) states that “at the earlieststages, writing may consist of scribbling orstrings of letter-like forms. If opportunitiesto write are ample and well complementedby other literacy activities and alphabeticinstruction, kindergartners should be usingreal letters to spell out words phoneticallybefore the school year is out. The practiceof encouraging children to write and spellwords as they sound (sometimes calledtemporary spelling) has been shown tohasten refinement of children’s phonemicawareness and to accelerate their acquisi-tion of conventional spelling when it istaught in first grade and up.”

Listening and SpeakingListening and SpeakingStrategies; SpeakingApplications

Kindergarten instruction focuses on thedevelopment of receptive and expressive

Kindergarten


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language. Initially, preschool studentslearn to process and retain sentence-levelinstructions. Eventually, they begin to usetheir knowledge of sentence structure toproduce their own clear, coherent sen-tences. To do so, the students must havemodels of such sentences and opportuni-ties to produce them. For some, instruc-tion begins first with statement repetitionand progresses to statement production.Instruction in this focus area must becarefully organized to include:

1. Explicit modeling of standardEnglish

2. Carefully constructed linguisticunits that progress from shortsentences to longer sentences

3. Frequent opportunities to repeatsentences

4. Additional, gentle modelingemphasizing specific elements ofsentences omitted or pronouncedincorrectly

5. Strategically designed instructionthat shifts from statement repeti-tion to statement production

6. Structured statement productionwhereby students first generateresponses to questions frompictures or prompts and thengenerate questions or responseswithout prompts

Kindergarten students expand theirspeaking skills by reciting poems, rhymes,and songs. They make brief oral presenta-tions about familiar experiences orinterests and learn to describe people,places, things, location, size, color, shape,and action.

Content and InstructionalConnections

The following activities integratestandards across domains, strands, andacademic disciplines. Teachers may wish to:

1. Read aloud and discuss qualityliterature to extend students’ oralvocabulary, concepts about print,and understanding of characters,settings, and important events.

2. Begin letter-sound instruction whenstudents demonstrate some phone-mic awareness. Then incorporateinstruction in letter sounds andsimple decoding to help phonemicawareness develop further.

3. Use only previously taught lettersand letter-sound associations to spellwords.

4. Use words students can read inwriting activities.

5. Incorporate words from vocabularyinstruction throughout the day andacross subject disciplines.

6. Provide multiple opportunities forstudents to hear and practice newvocabulary.

7. Provide opportunities for studentsto retell stories and model retellingfamiliar stories, emphasizingEnglish-language conventions.

8. Read aloud and discuss expositorytext consistent with the kindergartenscience, mathematics, and history–social science standards.

Please see Appendix B for examples ofstandards that span domains and strands.

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36


Prerequisite or corequisite standards. Kindergarten Word Analysis, Fluency, andSystematic Vocabulary Development Standards 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9.

Standard 1.6: Recognize and name all uppercase and lowercase letters.

Standard 1.7: Track and represent the number, sameness or difference, and orderof two and three isolated phonemes.

Standard 1.8: Track and represent changes in simple syllables and words with twoand three sounds.

Standard 1.9: Blend vowel-consonant sounds orally to make words or syllables.


Reading Standard 1.14



Decoding andword recognition

1.14 Match all consonantand short-vowelsounds to appropriateletters.

Reading

1. Determine whether letters and letter sounds will be introducedsimultaneously or separately. This consideration is extremelycritical for students who have difficulty acquiring and retain-ing information.

2. Define the task for learners. Match implies that studentsproduce the sound in response to a letter.

3. Determine when each letter-sound correspondence will belearned. To enable students to accomplish Reading Standard1.15 (Read simple one-syllable and high-frequency words;i.e., sight words), the teacher must introduce more than justone letter-sound per week.


Kindergarten

Curricular andInstructionalProfile

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Three

1. Schedule the introduction of letter sounds to optimize learning.

2. Separate easily confused letters and sounds.

3. Introduce early in the sequence those letter sounds that occurin a large number of words.

4. Introduce early those letter sounds that relate to letter names(e.g., /s/, /r/, /m/) to facilitate learning.

5. Include a few short vowels early to allow students to buildwords easily.

6. Use several continuous sounds early that can be stretched(e.g., /m/, /n/, /s/) rather than stop or abrupt sounds (e.g., /t/,/b/, /d/) because continuous sounds facilitate blending.

7. Review letter sounds cumulatively to promote retention.

8. Determine whether students can handle uppercase and lower-case letters simultaneously. If so, introduce those letters inwhich uppercase and lowercase are similar (e.g., S s, P p, C c)before ones that are different (e.g., D d). For dissimilar letterswithhold introducing the uppercase letter until later in thesequence.

9. Teach students to use letter sounds in simple word reading assoon as they have a group of letter sounds (four to six) fromwhich to build words.

10. Include a phonemic awareness objective and parallel instructionfocused on the phoneme level (e.g., Reading Standards 1.7,1.8, 1.9).

11. Introduce simple word reading (e.g., vowel-consonant, as in an,or consonant-vowel-consonant, as in sat) once students havemastered a small number of letter-sound correspondencescontained in those words.

1. Model the process of producing the sound and matching itwith the letter. Ensure that sounds are correctly pronounced andnot turned into nonexistent syllables (not muh but mmm).

2. Use and allow students to use a variety of media (chalkboard,magnetic letters, magic slates, and sounds written on chartpaper) to reinforce letter-sound practice.

3. Divide instruction into (a) new letter-sound instruction; and(b) discrimination practice in which previously introducedletter-sounds are reviewed and distinguished from the newlyintroduced sound. If students do not know the sound, modelthe sound, provide an opportunity for them to identify ormatch the sound, and return to the letter sound later in thelesson to reinforce and review.

InstructionalDesign


Kindergarten

Curricular andInstructional

Profile

38


4. Teach letter sounds explicitly, using a teacher model, guidedpractice, and independent practice sequence.

5. Provide frequent, short periods of instruction and practiceduring the day.

6. Relate letter-sound instruction to the standard of hearingsounds in words (phonemic awareness). Discuss the connectionof hearing sounds (aural) and mapping those sounds to print(alphabetic).

1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning

a. Before instruction assess student knowledge by showing anarray of all the letters ordered randomly on a page. Analternative is to order the letter sounds in the sequence tobe introduced in the instruction.

The font should be large enough that the letters can beeasily distinguished. Model the task on a couple of lettersounds. Show a row or column of letters and ask the childto tell you the sound of the letter. If the child tells you thename, say, “That’s the name of the letter. Can you tell methe sound it makes?” Continue until the student hascompleted the task or you have sufficient informationabout the student’s knowledge of letter sounds. If thestudent misses five consecutive sounds, stop testing.

b. This stage of assessment is important because it providesdirect information for instruction. Examine the letter-sound profiles of students in the class to determine whetherconsistent errors on specific letter-sound correspondencesare evident.

c. Determine whether you are assessing for accuracy or forfluency. Accuracy measures simply document whether lettersounds are identified correctly or incorrectly.

An alternative measurement procedure is to assess forfluency of letter-sound knowledge. Provide the student apage of letter-sound correspondences arranged in rows inrandom order on the page. Ask the student to say the soundfor each letter on the page. Allow one minute for theexercise. Record the letter-sound correspondences correctlyidentified and those in error. Subtract the errors from thetotal. The resulting score will be the number of lettersounds per minute. This method allows you to monitorstudent growth over time by periodically administeringone-minute assessments of letter-sound fluency.

Assessment

Entry-LevelAssessment

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Three

d. Knowledge of letter-sound correspondence is an importantindicator for establishing flexible skill-based instructionalgroups. Review the class profile to determine whichstudents have considerable knowledge, moderate knowl-edge, or limited knowledge. Design flexible groupings toaccommodate instruction to the learners’ entry perfor-mance level.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective.This assessment phase is designed to determine students’progress and mastery of letter-sound knowledge. The optionsavailable are:

a. Maintaining a set of letter sounds that have been taughtand assessing student performance at least biweekly toevaluate progress on those sounds. Document lettersounds students can and cannot identify.

b. Monitoring progress toward the long-term goal of knowl-edge of all letter-sound correspondences. Use a formatsimilar to the entry-level assessment and monitor progressat least once every two weeks. Document performance(numbers of correct letter sounds and those in need offurther instruction). Again, if a student makes five con-secutive errors, discontinue the assessment.

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. On completion ofletter-sound instruction, assess student performance accordingto the procedures used to assess entry-level performance. Thefocus at this point should be on letter-sound fluency, and thegoal of instruction is that students identify letter soundsaccurately and automatically, enabling the students to applyletter sounds to read simple vowel-consonant (VC) or conso-nant-vowel-consonant (CVC) words. A target for achievementis for students to read letter-sound correspondences at a rateof one per second. Post-test assessment should include afluency rate if it was not part of entry-level assessment.Note: Instruction in word reading can begin once studentshave learned a small number of consonants and vowels thatenable them to read words.

1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities

a. Determine whether the rate of introduction is acceptablefor students with special needs. If the pace is too rapid,provide additional instruction, such as an extrapreteaching period (before the lesson). If students aregrouped heterogeneously, the entire group is given extrascaffolded instruction. Homogeneous groups will allow

UniversalAccess

MonitoringStudentProgress

Post-testAssessment

ReadingDifficultiesor Disabilities

Kindergarten


Profile

Assessment(Continued)

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the teacher to preteach only those students who need theextra help.

b. For students having difficulty in retaining letter-soundknowledge, schedule a booster session sometime during theday. Review troublesome letter sounds or newly introducedinformation for one to two minutes.

2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Assess students for bothaccuracy and fluency. Keep in mind that when many advancedlearners enter kindergarten, they may be reading at three tofour or more grade levels above their age peers and may notneed instruction in this skill area. Suggested procedures tofollow are to:

a. Provide explicit instruction if many letter sounds areunfamiliar to students. Keep in mind that some studentsmay acquire letter-sound knowledge very quickly. Acceler-ate movement through instructional materials if appropri-ate.

b. Design an instructional schedule to address any unknownskills if students have mastered the majority of letter-soundcorrespondences.

c. Assess higher-level reading skills if students are proficientin all letter sounds (i.e., can produce the sounds accuratelyand fluently). On the basis of a thorough assessment, theyshould be placed at an appropriate instructional level thatprovides academic challenge. For advanced students whohave already mastered the language arts standards forkindergarten, grouping those students with first graders forlanguage arts instruction is a simple and inexpensive way toprovide the appropriate level of instruction. Their rate oflearning should be subject to ongoing monitoring toensure that they are learning at a rate commensurate withtheir ability.

3. Students Who Are English Learners. The following suggestionsassume that students will begin language arts instruction inEnglish and that literacy instruction will be augmented byconcurrent formal linguistic instruction in English (English-language development). If language arts instruction is providedin part in a primary language, instruction in the primarylanguage should be designed according to the same standardsand principles indicated for language arts instruction in thisframework. Suggested procedures to follow are to:

a. Ensure that students have had sufficient opportunitiesthrough prior activities in phonemic awareness to hear,distinguish, and produce sounds being introduced.

AdvancedLearners

English Learners

Kindergarten


UniversalAccess(Continued)

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Three

Teachers should be aware of phonological differencesbetween English and the students’ primary language andprovide additional exposure to and practice with thedifficult sounds.

b. Provide students with additional systematic guidance andpractice if they are unable to match all consonant andshort-vowel sounds to appropriate letters.

c. Schedule additional brief practice sessions for Englishlearners who have difficulty in learning letter-soundcorrespondences. They should benefit from additionalreview and practice of particularly difficult letter sounds.

d. Ensure that (1) students receive instruction or have hadexperiences (or both) with the words to be used in simpleword reading; and (2) they understand the meaning of thewords.

e. Encourage English learners to take home age-appropriatematerials (e.g., flash cards, decodable text, handouts) relatedto the teaching objective.

1. Sequence the introduction of letter-sound correspondences,strategically separating easily confused sounds (e.g., /p/, /b/, /v/and vowel sounds, especially /e/ and /i/) and introducing high-utility sounds first.

2. Scan the introduction of letter sounds for potential problems.The goal of letter-sound instruction is to provide the toolsneeded for word reading. Instructional texts should firstintroduce letter sounds in isolation. Then sounds that havebeen taught should be incorporated into words.

3. Include entry-level and progress-monitoring measures as well asassessments that allow teachers to identify advanced learners.

4. Ensure that similar skills (e.g., phonemic awareness and wordreading) are correlated and that connections are made ininstructional materials and instruction.

5. Proceed to simple instruction in word reading once studentsdevelop a set of letter sounds that allow them to read vowel-consonant or consonant-vowel-consonant words (not necessar-ily all sounds).


Kindergarten


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English–Language ArtsContent Standards

Kindergarten

Reading


Students know about letters, words, andsounds. They apply this knowledge to readsimple sentences.


1.1 Identify the front cover, back cover, andtitle page of a book.

1.2 Follow words from left to right and fromtop to bottom on the printed page.

1.3 Understand that printed materialsprovide information.

1.4 Recognize that sentences in print aremade up of separate words.

1.5 Distinguish letters from words.1.6 Recognize and name all uppercase and

lowercase letters of the alphabet.

Phonemic Awareness

1.7 Track (move sequentially from sound tosound) and represent the number,sameness/difference, and order of twoand three isolated phonemes (e.g., /f, s,th/, /j, d, j/).

1.8 Track (move sequentially from sound tosound) and represent changes in simplesyllables and words with two and threesounds as one sound is added, substi-tuted, omitted, shifted, or repeated(e.g., vowel-consonant, consonant-vowel, or consonant-vowel-consonant).

1.9 Blend vowel-consonant sounds orally tomake words or syllables.

1.10 Identify and produce rhyming words inresponse to an oral prompt.

1.11 Distinguish orally stated one-syllablewords and separate into beginning orending sounds.

1.12 Track auditorily each word in a sentenceand each syllable in a word.

1.13 Count the number of sounds in syllablesand syllables in words.


1.14 Match all consonant and short-vowelsounds to appropriate letters.

1.15 Read simple one-syllable and high-frequency words (i.e., sight words).

1.16 Understand that as letters of wordschange, so do the sounds (i.e., thealphabetic principle).


1.17 Identify and sort common words in basiccategories (e.g., colors, shapes, foods).

1.18 Describe common objects and events inboth general and specific language.

2.0 Reading Comprehension

Students identify the basic facts and ideas inwhat they have read, heard, or viewed. They usecomprehension strategies (e.g., generating andresponding to questions, comparing newinformation to what is already known). Theselections in Recommended Readings in Litera-ture, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight (Califor-nia Department of Education, 1996) illustratethe quality and complexity of the materials to beread by students.

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Structural Features of InformationalMaterials

2.1 Locate the title, table of contents, nameof author, and name of illustrator.

Comprehension and Analysis ofGrade-Level-Appropriate Text

2.2 Use pictures and context to makepredictions about story content.

2.3 Connect to life experiences theinformation and events in texts.

2.4 Retell familiar stories.2.5 Ask and answer questions about

essential elements of a text.

3.0 Literary Response and Analysis

Students listen and respond to stories based onwell-known characters, themes, plots, andsettings. The selections in RecommendedReadings in Literature, Kindergarten ThroughGrade Eight illustrate the quality and complex-ity of the materials to be read by students.

Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text

3.1 Distinguish fantasy from realistic text.3.2 Identify types of everyday print

materials (e.g., storybooks, poems,newspapers, signs, labels).

3.3 Identify characters, settings, andimportant events.

Writing


Students write words and brief sentences thatare legible.

Organization and Focus

1.1 Use letters and phonetically spelledwords to write about experiences,stories, people, objects, or events.

1.2 Write consonant-vowel-consonantwords (i.e., demonstrate the alphabeticprinciple).

1.3 Write by moving from left to right andfrom top to bottom.

Penmanship

1.4 Write uppercase and lowercase letters ofthe alphabet independently, attendingto the form and proper spacing of theletters.

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Kindergarten


Standards

Written and Oral EnglishLanguage Conventions

The standards for written and oral Englishlanguage conventions have been placed betweenthose for writing and for listening and speakingbecause these conventions are essential to bothsets of skills.

1.0 Written and Oral EnglishLanguage Conventions

Students write and speak with a commandof standard English conventions.

Sentence Structure

1.1 Recognize and use complete, coherentsentences when speaking.

Spelling

1.2 Spell independently by using pre-phonetic knowledge, sounds of thealphabet, and knowledge of letter names.


1.0. Listening and SpeakingStrategies

Students listen and respond to oral communica-tion. They speak in clear and coherent sentences.

Comprehension

1.1 Understand and follow one- and two-steporal directions.

1.2 Share information and ideas, speakingaudibly in complete, coherent sentences.

2.0. Speaking Applications (Genresand Their Characteristics)

Students deliver brief recitations and oralpresentations about familiar experiences orinterests, demonstrating command of theorganization and delivery strategies outlined inListening and Speaking Standard 1.0.

Using the listening and speaking strategies ofkindergarten outlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0, students:

2.1 Describe people, places, things (e.g., size,color, shape), locations, and actions.

2.2 Recite short poems, rhymes, and songs.2.3 Relate an experience or creative story in a

logical sequence.

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First-grade students extend theirknowledge of language arts insignificant and exciting ways as they

learn skills that enable them to read andwrite more independently. Instructionshould be focused on helping studentsimprove the skills they had begun todevelop in kindergarten. An instructionalpriority must be that the students learn toread and exit the grade with the ability todecode and recognize increasingly complexwords accurately and automatically.Moreover, they should be able to write andspell those words and use them to commu-nicate ideas and experiences. Concurrently,students must have broad and rich experi-ences to expand their knowledge ofvocabulary and concepts and extend theirexposure and understanding of literaryforms. As they write and speak, they shouldbe able to apply the conventions andstructures of sentences.

Of foremost importance is the availabil-ity of quality instructional materials that

will allow students to achieve and applydifferent standards in the first grade.Specifically, students will need decodabletexts with which to practice the decodingskills they are learning. In addition, theywill need a broad array of high-qualityliterature and informational texts for theteacher to read to them as they developlistening comprehension skills prerequisitefor reading comprehension. The separateforms of text are necessary because neitherby itself is suitable or adequate to developthe full range of skills expected of firstgraders. Each type of text has a distinctand significant role in beginning readinginstruction.

The strands to be emphasized at thefirst-grade level are listed on the followingpage under the appropriate domains.

Each of the strands is addressed sepa-rately in the following section, with theexception of the written and oral English-language conventions strand, which isintegrated into appropriate sections.


First Grade

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First-grade students refine their under-standing of the relationship between printand language and extend that understand-ing to more specific applications. Specifi-cally, they should be able not only todiscriminate letters from words and wordsfrom sentences but also to match a spokenword (e.g., cat) with a printed word. Thisawareness of words and their relation tospeech is reinforced by instruction andpractice in phonemic awareness.

First graders further their understand-ing of books and stories by learning thestandard conventions of print, includingtitles and authors. Instruction in concepts

about print is focused on teaching studentsto (1) match oral words with printed words;(2) learn the conventions of stories, books,and other forms of literature (titles, au-thors); and (3) discriminate letters, words,and sentences. A recommended instruc-tional method is to teach a particularconvention of print (e.g., title) as any otherbasic concept, using a wide range ofexamples. Once students learn the basicconcept, it should be incorporated into awide array of text forms and be reviewedsystematically.

Phonemic Awareness

The first-grade curriculum and instruc-tion in phonemic awareness prepare learnersby making explicit the relationship betweenthe words they hear and the phonemicstructure of the language. Students mustpossess phonemic awareness if they are tounderstand the relationship between speechand print and therefore develop proficiencyin reading and writing increasingly complexwords and word types. Instruction inlanguage at the phoneme level and studentproficiency in that area are the hallmarks ofthe curriculum standards for the first grade.Through systematic instructional sequences,students should become not only phone-mically aware but also phonemicallyproficient in identifying and producing arange of phonemic awareness skills.(Note: For a more complete discussion ofphonemic awareness and its relation to earlyreading and spelling success, see the kinder-garten section in this chapter.)

First-grade students should be providedwith systematic and extensive instructionand practice in:

• Learning to analyze words at thephoneme level (i.e., working withindividual sounds within words)

• Working with phonemes in allpositions in words (initial, final,medial)

Reading



Writing

1.0 Writing Strategies2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and







First Grade


46


• Progressing from identifying ordistinguishing the positions ofsounds in words to producing thesound and adding, deleting, andchanging selected sounds

• Allocating a significant amount oftime to blending, segmenting, andmanipulating tasks

• Working with increasingly longerwords (three to four phonemes)

• Expanding beyond consonant-vowel-consonant words (e.g., sun) tomore complex phonemic structures(consonant blends)

• Incorporating letters into phonemicawareness activities

• Aligning the words used in phone-mic awareness activities with thoseused in reading

Instruction in phonemic awareness canspan two years, kindergarten and firstgrade. But in this aspect of teaching as inothers, the teacher must be guided by thestudents’ developing competencies. Somestudents require little training in phone-mic awareness; others might require quitea bit. Although early phonemic awarenessis oral, the teacher must be careful not todelay in providing learning opportunitieswith print. Learning phonics and learningto decode and write words all helpstudents continue to develop phonemicawareness. In addition, students who havedeveloped or are successfully developingphonemic awareness should not have tospend an unnecessary amount of timebeing instructed in such awareness.Adequate, ongoing assessment of studentprogress is essential.


Students who enter the first gradeshould possess two critical skills:(1) fundamental understanding of thephonemic structure of words; and(2) association of letters and sounds. Some

students combine the two skills intuitivelythrough alphabetic insight; that is, theprocess of hearing sounds in words andusing the sequence of letters in words andtheir associated sounds to read words. Apriority of the first-grade curriculum mustbe to ensure that all students developalphabetic insight and extend their abilityto decode words independently and readwords automatically. Automaticity comesfrom reading many decodable texts inwhich most words are composed of taughtletter-sound correspondences and somewords are taught directly as sight words.Decodable text should be used as anintervening step between explicit skillacquisition and the student’s ability toread quality trade books. It should containthe phonic elements with which studentsare familiar. However, the text should beunfamiliar to the student so that they arerequired to apply word-analysis skills andnot reconstruct text they have memorized.

A review of the content standardsindicates that in the first grade studentsprogress from being able to generate thesounds for all consonants and vowels toreading compound words, words withinflectional endings, and common wordfamilies. Decoding plays an essential rolein this evolution from a time whenstudents enter with limited knowledge ofhow to recognize words to a time whenthey leave fully able to recognize unfamil-iar words. Beginning decoding (or moretechnically, phonological recoding) is theability to (1) read from left to rightsimple, new regular words; (2) generatesounds from all the letters; and (3) blendthose sounds into a recognizable word.Explicit instruction and attention tospecific letters in words and repeatedopportunities to practice words success-fully result in automaticity—the ability torecognize a word effortlessly and rapidly.Decoding is essential to reading unfamiliar

First Grade


Decoding isthe key studentsuse to unlockunfamiliar words.

Marion Joseph

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Three

words and reading words independentlyand is a critical benchmark in a student’sreading development.

Because the English language is alpha-betic, decoding is an essential and primarymeans of recognizing words. English hastoo many words for the user to rely onmemorization as a primary strategy foridentifying words (Bay Area Reading TaskForce 1997). In the first grade the skillsand strategies learned in decoding andword recognition are extended in thestandards for writing conventions. Forexample, as students learn to read com-pound words and contractions, economyin instruction can be gained by having thestudents write the words and use them inspeaking. Similarly, as students learn toread three- and four-letter short-vowelwords and sight words, they should begiven instruction and opportunities topractice spelling those words.

Decoding instruction in the first gradeshould:

• Progress systematically from simpleword types (e.g., consonant-vowel-consonant) and word lengths(e.g., number of phonemes) andword complexity (e.g., phonemes inthe word, position of blends, stopsounds) to more complex words.

• Model instruction at each of thefundamental stages (e.g., letter-sound correspondences, blending,reading whole words).

• Sequence words strategically toincorporate known letters or letter-sound combinations.

• Provide initial practice in controlledconnected text in which students canapply their newly learned skillssuccessfully.

• Include repeated opportunities toread words in contexts in whichstudents can apply their knowledgeof letter-sound correspondences.

• Use decodable text based on specificphonics lessons in the early part ofthe first grade as an intervening stepbetween explicit skill acquisition andthe students’ ability to read qualitytrade books. Decodable text shouldcontain the phonics elements andsight words that students have beentaught. However, the text should beunfamiliar to students so that theyare required to apply word-analysisskills and not simply reconstruct textthey have memorized.

• Teach necessary sight words to makemore interesting stories accessible.

First-grade instruction in word analysisshould teach students high-frequencyirregular words systematically. Words withhigh utility should be selected and usedjudiciously in early reading. Teachersshould point out irregularities whilefocusing student attention on all letters inthe word and should provide repeatedpractice. The number of irregular wordsintroduced should be controlled so thatthe students will not be overwhelmed.High-frequency words (e.g., was, saw;them, they, there), often confused bystudents, should be strategically separatedfor initial instruction as well.

Instruction in word families and wordpatterns (i.e., reading orthographic units oftext, such as at, sat, fat, rat) should beginafter students have learned the letter-soundcorrespondences in the unit (Ehri andMcCormick 1998). Teaching students toprocess larger, highly represented patternswill increase fluency in word recognition.However, the instruction should becarefully coordinated and should build onknowledge gained from instruction inletter-sound correspondence.

The benchmark for facile word readersin the first grade is their ability to readaloud fluently in a manner that resemblesnatural speech. Although important in its

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48


own right, fluency has significant implica-tions for comprehension. A primaryreason for its importance is that if studentsare not fluent, automatic decoders, they willspend so much mental energy decoding wordsthat they will have too little energy left forcomprehension (Stanovich 1994). Compre-hension clearly involves more than fluentword recognition but is dependent onfluent word recognition. On average, firstgraders increase their reading fluencyapproximately 2.10 correct words perminute per week (Fuchs et al. 1993). Afteran estimated 30 weeks of instruction,students should leave the first gradereading approximately 60 words perminute correctly. Practice in fluency ismost appropriate when students areaccurate word readers. One technique thathas been used to increase fluency isrepeated readings of the same text todevelop familiarity and automaticity(Samuels 1979).


The curriculum and instruction offeredin the first grade extend the understandingof concepts and vocabulary in English.Instruction should focus on two types ofvocabulary development, basic categoriza-tion of grade-appropriate concepts(e.g., animals, foods) and the wordsstudents hear and read in stories andinformational text that are instrumental tocomprehension. Vocabulary developmentoccurs through both direct instruction inspecific concepts and words and throughexposure to a broad and diverse range ofwords in stories and informational textthat have been read.

In addition to learning specific vocabu-lary, first-grade students also learn to usecontext and surrounding text to under-stand the meaning of unknown words.They are provided instruction and oppor-tunities that prepare them to use new and

descriptive vocabulary in their speakingand writing.


Reading comprehension can be devel-oped through listening and reading. Forkindergarten students and all other stu-dents whose decoding and word-recogni-tion skills do not yet allow them access tostory-level passages, systematic opportuni-ties must be provided to listen to storiesand answer comprehension questionsorally. The oral readings should have morecomplex vocabulary, syntactic structures,and story lines than are found in the textused for decoding and word recognition.

Key comprehension strategies for firstgraders include:

• Identifying text that uses sequence orother logical order

• Following one-step written instruc-tions

• Responding to or posing who, what,when, where, and how questions

• Recognizing the commonalities thatoccur across stories and narrative text

• Using context to resolve ambiguitiesabout the meaning of words andsentences

• Confirming predictions by identify-ing supporting text

• Relating prior knowledge to textualinformation

• Retelling the central ideas of simpleexpository or narrative passages

Instruction in comprehension isdesigned with the same precision asinstruction in word recognition. Forcomprehension to occur, the words in thetext, along with their meanings, must firstbe accessible to the learner. Initial readingcomprehension is practiced with textsstudents can read at their level. When

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appropriate, the complexity of compre-hension instruction may be simplified byallowing students to learn and practice thestrategy from information presented inspeech or in pictures. If the forms ofpresentation are not appropriate, initialinstruction in comprehension can beginwith manageable textual units (e.g., sen-tences, short paragraphs before longerpassages, and complete stories).

Additional instruction in comprehen-sion may include:

• Modeling multiple examples andproviding extensive guided practicein comprehension strategies

• Helping students recognize thefeatures of text that facilitate com-prehension

• Brainstorming central ideas from thetext (e.g., What do we know aboutwhat frogs eat? What do we knowabout where they live? What do weknow about their appearance? Whatelse would we like to know aboutfrogs?)

The text for initial instruction incomprehension should (1) begin withlinguistic units appropriate for the learner;(2) use familiar vocabulary; (3) be basedon a topic with which the learner isfamiliar; and (4) use simple syntacticalstructures. Instruction in comprehensionshould also require students to determinewhich strategy to use and why and provideextensive opportunities for students toread and apply the strategies throughoutthe year. For example, instruction de-signed to teach children to answer who,what, when, where, and how questions(Reading Comprehension Standard 2.2)would consist of determining which typeof question to ask first. Who and whatquestions are typically easier to answerthan when and where questions. For whenand where questions, instruction in how toidentify the when and where in text may

be necessary. These examples would bepresented orally because the wording maybe too difficult for first graders to decode:

After the baseball game tells when.

On Saturday tells when.

On the table tells where.

In San Francisco tells where.

When students can correctly identifyand discriminate between when andwhere, they learn to answer questionsfrom sentences. Example:

Text: “Nick went home after thebaseball game.”

Question: “When did Nick go home?”(After the baseball game)

A simple instructional design wouldteach each type of question separately.After one type is clearly understood andapplied (e.g., who), a second type(e.g., what) would be introduced. Afterboth types are understood, who and whatquestions can be combined in an instruc-tional session.

At the very beginning of instruction,first-grade students should be given alinguistic structure they can comprehend.Sentences are, therefore, a plausiblestarting point because they provide amanageable unit of language that conveysinformation. Once students can answerquestions at the sentence level, the teachercan proceed to multiple sentences andeventually to paragraphs. Students whoare more advanced can be prompted toask and answer the questions.


First-grade students should extend theirschema or structure of stories to theorganizational structure that narrative texthas a beginning, a middle, and an end. In

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addition, they should learn the sequenceor logical order of informational text.They use those structures to comprehendtext as well as retell stories. The elementsof plot are added to the previously taughtsetting, characters, and important events.For a description of instructional designfor elements of story grammar, see thekindergarten section in this chapter.

The importance of understanding thestructures of text is reflected in thenumber of related standards. For LiteraryResponse and Analysis Standard 3.1, forexample, students read about and learnthe elements of stories. They also learnthat stories have a beginning, middle, andend. These structures are directly con-nected to Writing Application Stan-dard 2.1, for which students write briefnarratives describing an experience.Further related is Speaking ApplicationStandard 2.2, the objective of which is forstudents to retell stories, using basic storygrammar elements.

Content standards in mathematics,history–social science, and science can beaddressed simultaneously as students read(or have read to them) stories or exposi-tory text that develop concepts andvocabulary in those academic areas.Economic, effective curricular programsand instruction will draw upon thoserelationships to expedite and reinforcelanguage arts learning across the curri-culum.

Strategies recommended in teachingorganizational sequences of text (informa-tional or narrative) are:

• Ensuring that students have aconceptual understanding of begin-ning, middle, and end

• Introducing text where the compo-nents of text are explicit (beginning,middle, and end being obvious)

• Beginning with short passages toreduce the memory load for learners

• Focusing on only one component ata time (e.g., beginning)

• Introducing an additional compo-nent when students can reliablyidentify those previously taught

• Guiding students through sampletext in which teachers think out loudas they identify the components

• Having students discuss the elementsorally and make comparisons withother stories

• Using the beginning, middle, andend as a structure for recalling andretelling the story or information

Writing Writing Strategiesand WritingApplications

First-grade writing combines theimportant skills of idea formation anddocumentation, penmanship, and spell-ing. Spelling assumes increased impor-tance as students are responsible forcommunicating their ideas throughrecognized conventions. At this stagespelling instruction takes three forms.Students should be taught explicitly howto use their knowledge of the phonemicstructure of words and letter-soundcorrespondences to spell the words they donot know. As students begin to read words,they should be taught to spell the wordsthey can read. In addition, students needto learn to spell high-frequency wordscorrectly. The ability to use phoneticspelling, although temporary, indicatesthat children “have achieved an essentialmilestone toward mastery of decoding inreading” (Moats 1995).

Moats reports that although somestudents easily learn to spell correctly,many others do not. Guidelines for

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instruction in spelling for students who donot easily learn to spell correctly include:

1. Systematic, teacher-directedinstruction and practice withcontrolled amounts of new infor-mation

2. Regulation of the amount ofinformation presented at one time(Introduce smaller sets of words asopposed to entire lists at one time.)

3. Plentiful opportunities to practicenewly introduced spellings

4. Presentation of only one spellingrule or generalization at a time

5. Provision of immediate correctivefeedback

6. Organized, sequential instructionthat builds on phonologicalawareness and letter-sound corre-spondences and regular one-syllablepatterns.

Students in the first grade are intro-duced to writing as a means of communi-cating. They begin to understand thatwriting is a process and learn to apply theprocess appropriately to write briefnarratives and brief descriptions of objects,persons, places, or events. As studentslearn to apply process writing to narrativeand descriptive structures, they also learnthe different types of sentences along withthe conventions for recording their ideas(e.g., capitalization, punctuation). Theylearn to apply writing conventions, withparticular emphasis being placed on thefundamentals of grammar, punctuation,and capitalization.

General guidelines for writing instruc-tion include:

1. Selecting and emphasizing thosesentence types most useful forcommunicating ideas

2. Focusing on one form of punctua-tion until learners achieve mastery

and then introducing a secondform

3. Sequencing student writingactivities so that they first see goodmodels, edit other writing, andthen generate their own sentencesor text

As students learn the various stages ofwriting as a process (prewriting, drafting,revising, editing, and publishing), theyshould have a structure for incorporatingvarying combinations of the stages intotheir writing that is based on the purposeof a specific piece of writing. Using a storygrammar structure or a simple structurefor descriptive text helps students applythe stages of writing.

Listening and SpeakingListening and SpeakingStrategies and SpeakingApplications

First-grade students are increasinglyresponsible for comprehending informa-tion presented orally, communicatingtheir ideas through speaking and writing,recalling important information fromnarratives and informational text, andanswering questions. Their responsesshould incorporate greater diversity intothe words they use and greater mastery ofgrammatical structures. To respond to orproduce complete, coherent sentences thatuse descriptive words or correct singularand plural nouns, students need models ofthose structures along with many opportu-nities to produce their own sentences.

Instructional considerations to improvesentence production include:

1. Providing explicit models2. Eliciting student responses that

progress from identification toproduction

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3. Carefully selecting, sequencing, andscheduling instructional targets thatallow learners to master one form(e.g., my) before progressing to thenext (e.g., his/her or your/yours)

4. Providing frequent opportunities torepeat sentences

5. Strategically integrating instructionrequiring students to discern thecorrect usage (e.g., his/her, your/yours)

In addition to learning sentence-levelstandards for listening and speaking,students should learn to comprehend andreconstruct sequences of information,including multiple-step directions, poems,songs, and stories. Incremental instructionin which students are taught to recallincreasingly longer units should build onthe sentence-level guidelines previouslyoutlined.


The following activities integratestandards across domains, strands, andacademic disciplines. Teachers may wish to:

1. Use known letters, phonemicawareness, letter-sound associations,and encoding skills to read, write,and spell words.

2. Reinforce the connections betweenphonemic awareness, translating aprinted word into its letter-soundcorrespondences, reading the wholeword, and spelling. Use words thatstudents can read in spelling andwriting activities.

3. Introduce words from stories invarious instructional activities.Provide frequent opportunities forstudents to hear and practice newvocabulary.

4. Provide ample opportunities forstudents to hear stories read aloudand then discuss those stories.

5. Provide opportunities for studentsto retell stories based on theirknowledge of story elements.Model how to retell familiarstories, emphasizing coherentEnglish-language conventions.

6. Use the story grammar structure tocomprehend, retell, and composestories.

7. Have students read (and read tothem) stories and informationaltext that address the first-gradecontent standards in mathematics,science, and history–social science.


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Prerequisite standard. Kindergarten Word Analysis, Fluency, and SystematicVocabulary Development Standard 1.14: Match all consonant and short-vowel soundsto appropriate letters.

Prerequisite or corequisite standards. First-Grade Word Analysis, Fluency, and SystematicVocabulary Development Standards 1.8, 1.9.

Standard 1.8: Blend two to four phonemes into recognizable words.

Standard 1.9: Segment single-syllable words into their components.

Corequisite standard. First-Grade Written and Oral English-Language ConventionsStandard 1.8: Spell three- and four-letter short-vowel words and grade-level-appropriatesight words correctly.


First Grade




Decodingand wordrecognition

1.10 Generate the soundsfrom all the letters andletter patterns, includingconsonant blends and long-and short-vowel patterns(i.e., phonograms), andblend those sounds intorecognizable words.

Reading


1. The standard addressing the year-end goal of being able toblend all letters and letter patterns into words involves aminimum of three skills:

a. Knowledge of some letter-sound correspondencesb. Ability orally to blend and segment words of three to four

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c. Ability to blend letter-sound correspondences taken fromwritten words

Assessment, instruction, and practice should address each ofthe components.

2. Before teaching students to recognize the sounds associatedwith each letter and blend those sounds into a word, deter-mine whether students have the prerequisite skills (see 1a and1b). Students do not have to know all the letter sounds beforeinitiating blending and word reading. However, to satisfy theprerequisite for this standard, they must know some lettersounds and be able to blend and segment words auditorily.

3. Blending is a focused and distributed instructional priority.That is, during initial instruction there is an intense focus onthis strategy. Teachers provide extensive instruction (deliveredin short increments) and practice in learning to blend easyword types. Instruction and practice in blending must bereintroduced when new word types are introduced. Althoughthis instructional period may be brief, students must under-stand that blending is used not only with short words(e.g., sun) but with longer words as well (e.g., splash).

Successful word reading depends largely on:

1. Systematic selection and sequencing of letters in the words tomaximize students’ ability to blend

2. Progression of word difficulty based on length and configura-tion of consonants and vowels within the word

3. Explicit instruction and modeling in how to blend lettersounds into words

4. Sufficient practice in transitioning from reading each lettersound at a time to reading the whole word

5. Explicit instruction in how to “sound out words in your head”

Systematic Selection and Sequencing of Letters in Words

Letter sounds in words have properties that can enhance or impedeblending and word reading. For initial instruction in blending, theletters in words should be:

• Continuous sounds because they can be prolonged orstretched (e.g., /m/, /s/)

• Letters students know• Used in a large number of words for high utility• Lowercase unless the uppercase and lowercase letters have

highly similar shapes (e.g., S s; V v)

Note: Visually and auditorily similar (e.g., /b/ and /d/) letter soundsshould not be in the same initial blending activities.

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Progression of Word Difficulty Based on Lengthand Configuration of Consonants and VowelsWithin the Word

Words used in blending instruction and practice should:

• Progress from the short vowel-consonant and consonant-vowel-consonant (two- or three-letter words in which lettersrepresent their most common sounds) to longer words (four-or five-phoneme words in which letters represent their mostcommon sounds).

• Reserve consonant blends (e.g., /st/, /tr/, /pl/) until the stu-dents are proficient in working with consonant-vowel-conso-nant configurations.

• Begin with continuous sounds in early exercises to facilitateblending. Stop sounds (sounds that cannot be prolonged inthe breath stream, such as /t/, /p/, and /ck/) may be used in thefinal positions of words.

• Represent vocabulary and concepts with which students arefamiliar.

Progression from Oral Blending to Oral Whole-Word Readingto “Sounding It Out in Your Head”

• Orally blending the letter-sound associations of a word is afirst step in word reading. In this process students produceeach sound orally and sustain that sound as they progress tothe next. This process focuses student attention on the indi-vidual letters in the word and on their importance.

• Once proficient in blending the individual sounds orally,students are taught to put those sounds together into a wholeword. This important step must be modeled and practiced.

• The final step in this sequence involves students sounding outthe letter-sound correspondences “in their head” or silentlyproducing the whole word.

This systematic progression is important because it makes public thenecessary steps involved in reading a whole word.

Orally Blending Individual Letter Sounds

1. Model the process of blending the sounds in the word(“I’ll read this word, blending the soundsmmmmmmmmaaaaaaannnnnn”). Do not stop between thesounds. Make certain that the sounds are not distorted as youstretch them out. You may want to use language that helpsmake the process more vivid (stretching out the sounds,keeping the sounds going).

2. Use your finger or hand to track under each letter as you sayeach individual sound.

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3. Hold each sound long enough for the students to hear itindividually. Stop sounds cannot be prolonged withoutdistortion. When introducing words that begin with stopsounds (such as t, k, and p), teach the students that thosesounds should be pronounced quickly and should not bestretched out.

4. Use an explicit teaching sequence in which you model ex-amples first and then have the students blend the words withyou. Finally, the students should blend the words on theirown.

5. Include a sufficient number of examples to assess students’proficiency. This instructional segment should be relativelybrief (five to ten minutes) in the daily language arts lesson.

Producing the Whole Word

1. Introduce the whole-word step in which students say the wordat a regular pace once they can blend the sounds in the word.

2. Provide sufficient time for students to put the sounds together.The sequence involves orally blending the individual lettersounds in the word and then saying the whole word.

Internalizing the Blending Process

1. In the final step of the blending process, students sound outthe word to themselves and then produce the whole word.

2. Two important dimensions of this phase are:a. Showing students how to internalizeb. Providing sufficient time for all students to blend the word

in their head and say the word3. On average, students should be able to blend sounds and

retrieve a word at a rate of a maximum of one second per lettersound in the word. If they require more time, they may nothave mastered the prerequisite skills.Because blending is now an overt process, teachers must usestrategies to show students the transition steps. Teachers mightwish to model how to trace a finger under each sound,subvocalizing the sounds of the word.

General Design

1. Provide frequent, short periods of instruction and practice onblending. Examples should include newly introduced lettersounds and newly introduced word types—consonant-vowel-consonant-consonant (e.g., rest).

2. Relate blending instruction to spelling when students masterblending and reading words at a regular rate. Teachingstudents the relationship between reading and spellingstrengthens alphabetic understanding and the connectionsbetween reading and writing.

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a. Assess student knowledge of letter sounds to identify lettersounds to use in initial blending and word-reading instruc-tion. Students should be fluent in some letter-sound corre-spondences prior to beginning word-reading instruction.

b. Assess students’ phonemic blending ability (e.g., the abilityto blend three to four phonemes into a word).

c. Determine whether students can read words in lists of wordtypes or in passages containing high percentages of wordsthat are phonetically regular. Identify word types (lengthand consonant-vowel configuration) that students can readand begin instruction at that point.

d. Use nonsense words or pseudo words as measures to assessblending ability. Nonsense words are phonetically regularbut have no commonly recognized meaning (e.g., rin, sep,tist). With nonsense words you can determine students’knowledge of individual letter-sound correspondences andblending ability.

e. Most first graders will have a limited repertoire of wordsthey can read depending on the kindergarten instructionthey have received. Many students may have a core of sightwords they can identify and may look like readers. However,they may not have adequate decoding skills.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective

a. This assessment phase is designed to determine students’progress and mastery of letter-sound knowledge. Theoptions available are:

• Maintaining a set of taught letter sounds and word types.To evaluate progress, assess student performance at leastonce every two weeks on words containing familiar lettersounds. Record performance and document particularletter sounds or blending patterns with which they havedifficulty (e.g., stopping between sounds; not being ableto read whole words).

• Monitoring progress toward the long-term goal with a listof words selected randomly from the first-grade curricu-lum. Although all word types will have beenintroduced during the early months of the academic year,this measure provides a common measure by which toevaluate students’ change in word-reading ability overtime.

b. Once students are reading individual words at a rate of oneword per three seconds or less, introduce connected text asan assessment tool.

Assessment



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First Grade


3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard

a. Blending is a temporary and distributed instructionalpriority. Students may be able to blend some word typesbut not others. Therefore, there may be ongoing post-testsdepending on the word type being studied.

b. Post-tests should be distributed throughout the year. Toassess overall growth, administer a test that measuresfluency through the use of a nonsense-word measure todetermine entry-level skills. Or have the students read apassage that represents the range of word types and blend-ing requirements for the year.


a. These students need a firm understanding of prerequisiteskills before beginning blending. If they cannot blendsounds auditorily or know only a few letter-sound corre-spondences, provide appropriate instruction before intro-ducing blending.

b. Some first graders will continue to stop between the soundsin a word. Provide extra models of not stopping betweenthe sounds and provide sufficient waiting time for studentsto process the sounds into the whole word.

c. Assess whether the rate of introduction of new letter soundsinto blending or new word types is manageable for studentswith special needs. If the pace is too rapid, provide addi-tional instruction.

d. If students have difficulty in retaining the blending strategy,schedule a booster session sometime during the day for oneto two minutes.

2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners

a. Use entry-level assessment to determine the need forinstruction in blending. Keep in mind that some studentsmay have memorized a large repertoire of words but stilllack blending strategies. Use the nonsense words measureto assess their ability.

b. Determine the word type(s) for which students needinstruction. They may learn the blending strategy andimmediately generalize to more complex word types,making further or extensive instruction in blending unnec-essary.

c. If isolated word types are unfamiliar to students, design aninstructional schedule to address the missing skills. If thestudents are proficient in decoding phonetically regularwords, proceed to introductory passage-reading standards.

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d. Provide explicit instruction in targeted skill areas, keepingin mind that the students may acquire the blending strategyvery quickly. Accelerate movement through instructionalobjectives.

e. If the students can demonstrate mastery of the grade-levelstandards, consider grouping the students within or acrossgrade levels to work on the second-grade standards.

Because many advanced learners enter the first grade reading wellabove grade level, the teacher should determine their overall readingability in addition to their performance in specific skill areas. On thebasis of a comprehensive assessment, give students challenginginstructional materials and monitor their progress carefully to ensurethey are learning at a rate commensurate with their abilities.Note: Unnecessary drill and practice in areas of high performance canbe very discouraging for advanced learners because they are being askedto learn something they already know.

3. Students Who Are English Learners

The following suggestions assume that students will begin languagearts instruction in English and that literacy instruction is augmentedby concurrent formal linguistic instruction in English (English-language development). If instruction is provided in part in theprimary language and that language is alphabetic, the instruction inthe primary language should be designed according to the samestandards and principles established for language arts instruction inthis framework. It is suggested, therefore, that the teacher:

a. Reassess the students’ knowledge of letter-sound correspon-dences and phonological awareness of the sounds includedin the lesson before teaching English learners to blendsounds. Additional phonological and letter-sound instruc-tion should be provided as needed. Teachers should beaware of phonological differences between English and thestudents’ primary languages and provide additional expo-sure to and practice with the difficult sounds.

b. Provide additional modeling and practice for those Englishlearners who need further assistance. Appropriate modelingcan be provided by the teacher or by native English-speaking peers. Be sure to provide sufficient waiting time toprocess and produce sounds.

c. Assess whether the rate of introduction of new letter soundsinto blending or of new word types is manageable. If notmanageable for some students, determine a way to provideadditional systematic, guided instruction so that they willbe able to catch up with their classmates and accomplishthe lesson objective.

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d. Ensure that students have had previous instruction orexperiences (or both) with the words included in theinstruction and that they understand their meaning.

e. Assess what knowledge is assumed before each unit ofinstruction. That is, determine what knowledge the typicalEnglish speaker already brings to the classroom and providepreteaching of key concepts.

f. Have English learners who have acquired literacy skills intheir first language draw on those skills in English. Teach-ers can build on the knowledge of reading skills thatstudents have acquired in their first languages whenteaching English letter-sound correspondences.

g. Provide English learners with explicit models of the letter-sound correspondences that students are expected to knowand correct errors as would be done for other learners.Correction of errors should always be conducted in a waythat encourages students to keep trying and helps them seethe progress they are making.

1. Texts should contain explicit instruction in the blendingprocess as well as in the transition from blending to thereading of whole words.

2. The letter-sound correspondences included in the words andthe word types should be carefully selected.

3. Measures for assessing entry level and progress throughoutinstruction should be included in curricular materials.

4. Related skills (e.g., phonemic awareness, spelling) should becorrelated, and connections should be made in instructionalmaterials and instruction.

5. Decodable texts should be provided as an intervening stepbetween explicit skill acquisition and the student’s ability toread quality trade books. Decodable texts should contain thephonics elements with which students are familiar. However,the text should be unfamiliar to the student because thestudent should apply word-analysis skills, not reconstruct textalready memorized.

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First Grade

Reading1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency,

and Systematic VocabularyDevelopment

Students understand the basic features ofreading. They select letter patterns and knowhow to translate them into spoken language byusing phonics, syllabication, and word parts.They apply this knowledge to achieve fluentoral and silent reading.


1.1 Match oral words to printed words.1.2 Identify the title and author of a

reading selection.1.3 Identify letters, words, and sentences.

Phonemic Awareness

1.4 Distinguish initial, medial, and finalsounds in single-syllable words.

1.5 Distinguish long- and short-vowelsounds in orally stated single-syllablewords (e.g., bit/bite).

1.6 Create and state a series of rhymingwords, including consonant blends.

1.7 Add, delete, or change target sounds tochange words (e.g., change cow to how;pan to an).

1.8 Blend two to four phonemes intorecognizable words (e.g., /c/a/t/ = cat; /f/l/a/t/ = flat).

1.9 Segment single syllable words into theircomponents (e.g., /c/a/t/ = cat; /s/p/l/a/t/=splat; /r/i/ch/ = rich).


1.10 Generate the sounds from all the lettersand letter patterns, including consonantblends and long- and short-vowelpatterns (i.e., phonograms), and blendthose sounds into recognizable words.

1.11 Read common, irregular sight words(e.g., the, have, said, come, give, of).

1.12 Use knowledge of vowel digraphs andr-controlled letter-sound associations toread words.

1.13 Read compound words and contrac-tions.

1.14 Read inflectional forms (e.g., -s, -ed,-ing) and root words (e.g., look, looked,looking).

1.15 Read common word families (e.g., -ite,-ate).

1.16 Read aloud with fluency in a mannerthat sounds like natural speech.


1.17 Classify grade-appropriate categories ofwords (e.g., concrete collections ofanimals, foods, toys).


Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They draw upon avariety of comprehension strategies as needed(e.g., generating and responding to essentialquestions, making predictions, comparinginformation from several sources). Theselections in Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight

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illustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students. In addition totheir regular school reading, by grade four,students read one-half million words annually,including a good representation of grade-level-appropriate narrative and expository text(e.g., classic and contemporary literature,magazines, newspapers, online information).In grade one, students begin to make progresstoward this goal.


2.1 Identify text that uses sequence or otherlogical order.

Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text

2.2 Respond to who, what, when, where,and how questions.

2.3 Follow one-step written instructions.2.4 Use context to resolve ambiguities

about word and sentence meanings.2.5 Confirm predictions about what will

happen next in a text by identifying keywords (i.e., signpost words).

2.6 Relate prior knowledge to textualinformation.

2.7 Retell the central ideas of simpleexpository or narrative passages.


Students read and respond to a wide variety ofsignificant works of children’s literature. Theydistinguish between the structural features ofthe text and the literary terms or elements(e.g., theme, plot, setting, characters). Theselections in Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eightillustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students.


3.1 Identify and describe the elements ofplot, setting, and character(s) in a story,as well as the story’s beginning, middle,and ending.

3.2 Describe the roles of authors andillustrators and their contributions toprint materials.

3.3 Recollect, talk, and write about booksread during the school year.

Writing


Students write clear and coherent sentencesand paragraphs that develop a central idea.Their writing shows they consider theaudience and purpose. Students progressthrough the stages of the writing process(e.g., prewriting, drafting, revising, editingsuccessive versions).


1.1 Select a focus when writing.1.2 Use descriptive words when writing.

Penmanship

1.3 Print legibly and space letters, words,and sentences appropriately.

2.0 Writing Applications (Genresand Their Characteristics)

Students write compositions that describe andexplain familiar objects, events, and experi-ences. Student writing demonstrates acommand of standard American English andthe drafting, research, and organizationalstrategies outlined in Writing Standard 1.0.

Using the writing strategies of grade oneoutlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:

2.1 Write brief narratives (e.g., fictional,autobiographical) describing anexperience.

2.2 Write brief expository descriptions of areal object, person, place, or event,using sensory details.

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The standards for written and oral Englishlanguage conventions have been placedbetween those for writing and for listening andspeaking because these conventions areessential to both sets of skills.


Students write and speak with a command ofstandard English conventions appropriate tothis grade level.

Sentence Structure

1.1 Write and speak in complete, coherentsentences.

Grammar

1.2 Identify and correctly use singular andplural nouns.

1.3 Identify and correctly use contractions(e.g., isn’t, aren’t, can’t, won’t) andsingular possessive pronouns (e.g., my/mine, his/her, hers, your/s) in writingand speaking.

Punctuation

1.4 Distinguish between declarative,exclamatory, and interrogativesentences.

1.5 Use a period, exclamation point, orquestion mark at the end of sentences.

1.6 Use knowledge of the basic rules ofpunctuation and capitalization whenwriting.

Capitalization

1.7 Capitalize the first word of a sentence,names of people, and the pronoun I.

Spelling

1.8 Spell three- and four-letter short-vowelwords and grade-level-appropriate sightwords correctly.


1.0 Listening and SpeakingStrategies

Students listen critically and respond appropri-ately to oral communication. They speak in amanner that guides the listener to understandimportant ideas by using proper phrasing,pitch, and modulation.

Comprehension

1.1 Listen attentively.1.2 Ask questions for clarification and

understanding.1.3 Give, restate, and follow simple

two-step directions.

Organization and Delivery of OralCommunication

1.4 Stay on the topic when speaking.1.5 Use descriptive words when speaking

about people, places, things, and events.

2.0 Speaking Applications (Genresand Their Characteristics)

Students deliver brief recitations and oralpresentations about familiar experiences orinterests that are organized around a coherentthesis statement. Student speaking demon-strates a command of standard AmericanEnglish and the organizational and deliverystrategies outlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0.

Using the speaking strategies of grade oneoutlined in Listening and Speaking Standard1.0, students:

2.1 Recite poems, rhymes, songs, andstories.

2.2 Retell stories using basic story grammarand relating the sequence of storyevents by answering who, what, when,where, why, and how questions.

2.3 Relate an important life event orpersonal experience in a simplesequence.

2.4 Provide descriptions with carefulattention to sensory detail.

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Before they enter the second grade,most students have already learnedthe foundational skills of word

analysis and have a rudimentary under-standing of the elements of narrative text.They are able to spell three- and four-letter short vowel words and some com-mon sight words (e.g., the, have, said,come, give, of). In addition, they possessbasic skills in penmanship and in the useof writing to communicate knowledge andideas. In the second grade the languagearts curriculum and instruction arefocused on enhancing word-recognitionfluency, extending understanding ofdimensions of narrative and informationaltext, and increasing proficiency in writtenand oral communication.

The second-grade curriculum andinstruction should emphasize increasingstudents’ facility with the alphabeticwriting system and with larger and morecomplex units of text and on applyingknowledge of letter-sound correspon-dences to decode unfamiliar words.Further efforts should be made to helpstudents link phonemic awareness ofwords and knowledge of letter-sounds tobuild lexicons of familiar words; useknowledge of spelling patterns, prefixes,and suffixes; and increase sight vocabularythrough extensive practice. Adequate

initial reading instruction requires thatstudents use reading to obtain meaningfrom print and have frequent opportuni-ties to read.

They should extend their repertoire ofreading-comprehension strategies for bothnarrative and informational text withinstructional adjuncts (e.g., graphs,diagrams) and more sophisticated tech-niques for analyzing text (e.g., comparisonand contrast). Initial skill in editing andrevising text must be developed at thisgrade level, and increased emphasis shouldbe placed on legible and coherent writing.Students should continue to work onwritten and oral English-language conven-tions as they develop their awareness ofthe parts of speech and the correct spellingof more complex word types. Listeningcomprehension and speaking expectationsincrease as second graders learn to para-phrase, clarify, explain, and report oninformation they hear, experience, andread.

The strands to be emphasized in thesecond grade are listed on the followingpage under the appropriate domains.

Each of the strands is addressedseparately with the exception of thewritten and oral English-language conven-tions strand, which is integrated withinappropriate sections.


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Reading Word Analysis, Fluency,and SystematicVocabularyDevelopment


At the beginning of the second grade,students should be able to (1) generate thesounds for all consonants, consonantblends, and long and short vowels;(2) recognize common sight words; and(3) process word families and inflectionalendings of words.

Development of word-analysis andword-recognition skills in the second gradeproceeds systematically, building on first-grade skills and extending those funda-mental understandings purposefully andinterdependently. Instruction shouldcarefully sequence the introduction of newskills and strategies. If students lackproficiency in prerequisite skills, those

skills must be taught before more advancedword structures are presented.

Early in the second grade, decodingoperations are mechanical and not auto-matic for many learners. During this yearstudents typically make great strides indecoding fluency (Ehri and McCormick1998). Over the course of the year, theydevelop fluency through instruction inadvanced phonics units (e.g., vowel diph-thongs) and in the use of larger ortho-graphic units of text, such as onset andrime. (Onset is the consonant or conso-nants that come before the first vowel; rimeis the remainder of the word beginningwith the first vowel [e.g., h-ill, p-ill] to readwords.) Redundancy in letter sounds andorthographic units in words allows studentsto process words more efficiently. Theylearn to read phonetically regular wordsmore fluently as they become familiar andfacile with chunks of text. Note: Studentshave not merely memorized the larger unitsbut, when necessary, can apply theirknowledge of letter-sound correspondencesto work their way through the words.

Students in the second grade should alsocontinue instruction and practice inlearning reliable rules to assist in decoding.For example, learning that an e at the endof a word usually causes the medial vowelto be long (or say its name) is a rule thatadvances word-analysis skills. A primarygoal of second-grade word-analysis instruc-tion is to increase systematically students’ability to read words because of theirknowledge of more complex spellingpatterns.

Another essential component of fluencydevelopment is the opportunity for stu-dents to practice unfamiliar words manytimes in text, allowing them to use theirdecoding skills with a high degree ofsuccess. Text that students practice shouldbe at their instructional level, with no morethan one in ten words read inaccurately.

Reading

1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, andSystematic Vocabulary Development


Writing








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Advanced instruction in decoding ismore effective if it relies on the followingprinciples of design and delivery. Sug-gested procedures to follow are to:

• Teach the advanced phonic-analysisskills as explicitly as was done for theearlier letter-sound correspondences:first in isolation, then in words andconnected text, and, when thestudents become proficient, in tradebooks.

• Avoid assuming that learners willautomatically transfer skills from oneword type to another. When intro-ducing a new letter combination,prefix, or word ending, modeleach of the fundamental stages(e.g., letter-combination, prefixes),blending the word and then readingthe whole word.

• Separate auditorily and visuallysimilar letter combinations in theinstructional sequence (e.g., do notintroduce both sounds for oosimultaneously; separate ai, au).

• Sequence words and sentencesstrategically to incorporate knownphonics units (e.g., letter combina-tions, inflectional endings).

• Ensure that students know thesounds of the individual letters priorto introducing larger orthographicunits (e.g., ill, ap, ing).

• Provide initial practice in controlledcontexts in which students can applynewly learned skills successfully.

• Offer repeated opportunities forstudents to read words in contextswhere they can apply their advancedphonics skills with a high level ofsuccess.

• Use decodable text, if needed, as anintervening step between explicitskill acquisition and the student’sability to read quality trade books.

• Incorporate spelling to reinforceword analysis. After students canread words, provide explicit instruc-tion in spelling, showing studentshow to map the sounds of lettersonto print.

• Make clear the connections betweendecoding (symbol to sound) andspelling (sound to symbol). At thispoint students have three powerfultools to facilitate word learning:ability to hear sounds in words,knowledge of the individual lettersounds or letter-sound combina-tions, and knowledge of the letters.Teach and remind students to relyon those skills and strategies whenthey encounter unfamiliar words orneed to spell a word. However,ensure that students understand thatsome words are not spelled as theysound. The spelling of those wordsmust be memorized at this stage.

• Teach decoding strategies initially,using words with meanings familiarto students.

Multisyllabic word reading. As studentsprogress in word-analysis skills, theyencounter more complex words, particu-larly words with more than one syllable.In the second grade students learn therules of syllabication. Two strategies aidmultisyllabic word recognition—breakingthe word into syllables and learningprefixes and suffixes.

Sight-word reading. Second-grade word-analysis instruction must systematicallyteach children sight-word recognition ofhigh-frequency words. When sight words(high-frequency irregular words) are beingtaught, it is important for the teacher to:

1. Select words that have high utility;that is, words that are used fre-quently in grade-appropriateliterature and informational text.

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Three

2. Sequence high-frequency irregularwords to avoid potential confusion.For example, high-frequency wordsthat are often confused by studentsshould be strategically separated forinitial instruction.

3. Limit the number of sight wordsintroduced at one time (five toseven new words).

4. Preteach the sight words prior toreading connected text.

5. Provide a cumulative review ofimportant high-frequency sightwords as part of daily readinginstruction (two to three minutes).

Fluency. The benchmark of fluentreaders in the second grade is the ability toread grade-level material aloud andaccurately in a manner that sounds likenatural speech. The essential questions tobe asked: What should second-gradespeech sound like? How do we definefluency for second graders? Researchstudies indicate that students reading atthe fiftieth percentile in spring in thesecond grade read 90 to 100 words perminute correct orally (Hasbrouck andTindal 1992) and that, on average, theyincrease their reading fluency approxi-mately 1.46 correct words per minute perweek (Fuchs et al. 1993).


In the second grade curriculum andinstruction extend the understanding ofconcepts and vocabulary in four primaryways:

• Knowledge and use of antonyms andsynonyms

• Use of individual words in com-pounds to predict the meaning

• Use of prefixes and suffixes to assistin word meaning

• Learning multiple-meaning words

Two emphases in vocabulary develop-ment initiated in kindergarten should

carry through into the second grade:(1) direct instruction of specific conceptsand vocabulary essential to understandingtext; and (2) exposure to a broad anddiverse vocabulary through listening to andreading stories and informational texts.

Of the new vocabulary skills introducedin the second grade, the use of prefixes andsuffixes to aid in word meaning is a skillthat students may use frequently as theyread more complex and challenging texts.When teaching prefixes and suffixes toassist in word meaning, teachers shouldemphasize those that occur with thegreatest frequency in second-gradematerial. Prefixes and suffixes that are mostuseful in understanding word meaningshould be introduced before less usefulones.

In presenting instruction in prefixes andsuffixes, the teacher should:

1. Introduce the prefix or suffix inisolation, indicating its meaning andthen connecting it in words.

2. Illustrate the prefix or suffix withmultiple examples.

3. Use examples when the roots arefamiliar to students (e.g., remakeand replay as opposed to record andrecode) (Cunningham 1998).

4. Integrate words into sentences andask students to tell the meaning ofthe word in the sentence.

5. Review previously introduced wordscumulatively.

6. Separate prefixes that appear similarin initial instructional sequences(e.g., pre, pro).


In the second grade informational textgains greater prominence than before asstudents learn to (1) use conventions ofinformational text (e.g., titles, chapter

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headings) to locate important informa-tion; (2) ask clarifying questions; and(3) interpret information from graphs,diagrams, and charts. Concurrently,students learn the importance of readingin locating facts and details in narrativeand informational text and recognizingcause-and-effect relationships.

Given the great number of comprehen-sion skills and strategies to be learned,instruction should be organized in acoherent structure. A question that mightbe asked here is, Which skills and strate-gies should be used during prereading,reading, and postreading?

Instruction in reading comprehensionis the intentional teaching of informationor strategies to increase a student’s under-standing of what is read. When thesecond-grade standards are considered inconjunction with the big picture ofinstruction in reading comprehension, it isimportant to recognize that such instruc-tion consists of three phases. In theacquisition phase the skill or strategy istaught explicitly with the aid of carefullydesigned examples and practice. Thisphase may consist of one or more daysdepending on the skill or strategy beingtaught. The focused application phaseshould continue across several instruc-tional sessions to illustrate the applicabilityand utility of the skill or strategy. Thestrategic integration phase, occurring overthe course of the year, is designed toconnect previously taught skills andstrategies with new content and text.Curriculum and instruction shouldcumulatively build a repertoire of skillsand strategies that are introduced, applied,and integrated with appropriate texts andfor authentic purposes over the course ofthe year. As students begin to developreading-comprehension skills, effective

teachers foster interest and motivation toread and assist students in developing anappreciation of the rewards and joys ofreading.


In the second grade students workextensively in analyzing the elements ofnarrative text and comparing and contrast-ing elements within and among texts.Building on their prior schemata ofstories, students read versions of storieswritten by different authors to gain anunderstanding of the influence of thewriter and the culture. They use thenarrative text structure to write briefnarratives (Writing Applications Standard2.1) and retell stories (Listening andSpeaking Standard 2.1). Emphasis oncomprehension is centered on teachingstudents to analyze narratives, compareand contrast, and generate alternativeendings. The connections with thelistening, speaking, and writing domainsare clear in this strand. Instructionaleffectiveness and efficiency can be gainedby employing inherent connections incontent.

As students learn to compare andcontrast, many will benefit from a struc-ture specifying the dimensions that will becompared and contrasted. The storygrammar structure works elegantly in thisinstance as a tool for prompting informa-tion to compare and contrast, organizinginformation, and grouping related ideas tomaintain a consistent focus (WritingStrategies Standard 1.1). This feature willbe the focus of the instructional andcurricular profile that appears at the endof the second-grade section.

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Three

Writing Writing Strategies andWriting Applications

Students become more comfortable andfamiliar with writing when it is a regularand frequent activity. In the second gradewriting progresses to narratives in whichstudents move through a logical sequenceof events. They learn to write about anexperience in the first grade and to writefor different audiences and purposes in thesecond grade. The narrative structure andrequirements expand in the second gradeto multiple paragraphs that integrateknowledge of setting, characters, objec-tives, and events to develop more complexand complete narratives. In addition,second graders learn an additional textstructure, the friendly letter, as a form ofwritten communication.

Applications of narrative and letterwriting depend on well-developed writingstrategies, including grouping of relatedideas, facility with various stages ofwriting, and legible handwriting. In thesecond grade students focus on learning torevise text to improve sequence andincrease descriptive detail. Concurrently,they require instruction in distinguishingbetween complete and incomplete sen-tences, extending grammatical proficiencywith parts of speech, applying correctcapitalization and punctuation, andexpanding their repertoire of correctlyspelled words. Spelling instructionprogresses to include inflected endings andirregular or exception words (e.g., said,who, what, why). The instructionalguidelines for systematic instructionintroduced in the first grade are equallyimportant in the second grade. Theyconsist of small sets of words that areintroduced explicitly, reviewed frequently,and integrated into writing exercises.

The standards on which writingstrategies and applications are based may

be conceived as discrete skills that learnersapply. Alternatively, and more effectively,the individual skills can be conceptualizedin strands. Within a single writing lesson,instruction might occur along each of themajor strands in writing strategies(e.g., organization, penmanship, revision)and written and oral English conventions(e.g., sentence structure, grammar,punctuation, capitalization, spelling).Instruction in each strand can address thespecific dimensions of grammar andpunctuation appropriate to the individualstudent.

In instruction according to strands,incremental and progressive skills andstrategies within and across a range ofstrands related to a larger domain areintroduced and learned to provide aprecise, coherent course of study. Suchinstruction, both specific and related,which focuses on specific skills andstrategies and incorporates them intoexercises once learners are proficient withindividual skills, is especially appropriatefor writing. Features of this instruction areas follows:

1. Dimensions of a complex task areanalyzed, and the strands areidentified (e.g., organization,grammar, sentence structure, andstages of writing).

2. Specific objectives within a strandare identified and sequencedindividually.

3. Cross-strand skills are integratedonce learners are proficient inindividual strand skills and strate-gies.

4. Previously taught skills andstrategies are reviewed cumula-tively.

5. The instructional analysis of thecontent and proficiency of thelearner will prescribe the length ofthe instructional sequence.

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In the second grade the students’ profi-ciency in speaking and listening expandsquantitatively and qualitatively. Thestudents are responsible for comprehendinglarger amounts of information presentedorally (e.g., three- to four-step instructions)and for communicating their ideas withincreased attention to detail and substance(e.g., reporting on a topic with supportivefacts and details). Speaking strategies areapplied in two primary formats—recount-ing experiences or stories and reporting ona topic with facts and details.

Narrative experiences or stories andreports, which are the focus of second-grade instruction, have identifiable andgeneralizable structures taught in readingand writing and can be used to communi-cate ideas orally. Although students may bequite facile in identifying the commonelements of stories by the second grade,identifying or recognizing is a simpler taskin most cases than generating and produc-ing the elements of text in oral reports.Instruction to prepare students to recallstories or experiences or to report on a topicshould proceed from (1) the reading of textfor which students know the elements(e.g., characters, setting, problem, impor-tant events, resolution to the problem,conclusion); to (2) the identification ofthose elements in stories and topics; and(3) the production or generation of theelements.

Students should be introduced to thesimple strategy of organizing both narrativeand expository texts chronologically. Thattype of organization is particularly appli-cable to language arts activities that rein-force the history–social science standardsfor this grade level. In addition to under-

standing chronological organization,students can build on the who, what, when,where, and how strategy learned in the firstgrade as another way of organizing oral andwritten communication.


The following activities integrate stan-dards across domains, strands, and aca-demic disciplines. Teachers may wish to:

1. Reinforce the connections betweenphonemic awareness (hearing thesounds in words), phonologicalrecoding (translating a printed wordinto its letter-sound correspon-dences), and translating sounds intoprint (spelling).

2. Extend the words that students canread (e.g., special vowel spellings,plurals) into their spelling andwriting.

3. Incorporate words taken fromvocabulary instruction (e.g., syn-onyms, words with prefixes) intoexercises providing systematicopportunities to use words insentences throughout the day.

4. Incorporate comprehension strate-gies into other content areas(e.g., reading a science textbookwhen appropriate) and practicethose strategies.

5. Use story grammar elements as acommon structure for comprehend-ing, retelling, and composing stories.

6. Select appropriate content standardsin science, mathematics, andhistory–social science to addresswithin the instructional time allottedfor instruction in the language arts.


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ThreeCurricular andInstructionalProfile

Second Grade

Prerequisite standards. Kindergarten Literary Response and Analysis Standard 3.3:Identify characters, settings, and important events.

First-Grade Literary Response and Analysis Standard 3.1: Identify and describe theelements of plot, setting, and characters in a story as well as the story’s beginning, middle,and ending.



3.0 Literacyresponseand analysis

Narrative analysisof grade-level-appropriate text

3.1 Compare and contrastplots, settings, andcharacters presentedby different authors.

Reading

1. Identify the major events (plot), settings, and characters ofstories.

2. Compare and contrast those elements.

Successful comparison and contrast of story elements depend on theability to identify the major elements of individual stories. In thisstandard second graders use the literary elements of stories toidentify similarities and differences between and among a wide,varied sampling of children’s literature.

Comparing and contrasting textual elements involve a host offactors that make this task either manageable or extraordinarilydifficult. Initial instruction is likely to be most effective and efficientif it adheres to the following guidelines. Teachers may wish to:

1. Begin with a review and practice of identifying story grammarelements (e.g., setting, characters, problems, attempts to solve


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the problem or sequence of events, and resolution of theproblem or conclusion).

2. Support readers’ identification of story grammar elements witha think sheet or story note sheet that outlines the elementsstudents should identify.

3. Select stories with parallel structures that adhere to conven-tional story lines.

4. Use stories in which elements are explicit and clearly identifi-able.

5. Do not proceed to a comparison and contrast analysis untilstudents can identify elements of individual stories reliably.(Provide additional practice if necessary.)

6. Model how to compare and contrast explicitly, focusing onspecific elements.

7. Begin with an oral comparison and contrast analysis. Have thestudents read the same story as a group and use a comparisonand contrast version of the story grammar elements to indicatewhether elements are the same or different.

8. Include stories in which some elements are comparable andsome are different.

9. Begin with shorter stories and proceed to longer ones.10. Use stories with largely familiar vocabulary. Stories that are

not presented orally should be within the readability level ofstudents.

11. Support learners in initial analyses by providing a concrete,overt strategy for comparing and contrasting elements thatdesignates similarities and differences.

12. Provide sufficient practice in both components of instruction:(a) identifying elements; and (b) comparing and contrastingelements between and among stories.

Progression of Examples for Comparison and Contrast Analysis

• First teaching sequence: two stories, relatively brief, with explicitstory grammar elements. Some elements in both stories should becomparable and some should differ (e.g., Peter Rabbit andCurious George are both “curious, mischievous”).

• Second teaching sequence: two stories of moderate length, withexplicit story grammar elements. Some elements in both storiesshould be comparable, and some should differ.

• Third teaching sequence: two or three stories that parallel thereading requirements of second graders. Elements are explicit.

Note: Each teaching sequence may require several days of instructionand practice for students to become proficient. This sequence is notintended to connote that this range of proficiency can be masteredin three days.

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Three

1. Begin the instructional sequence with a review of the elementsof an individual story in which the students identify setting,characters, problems, attempts to solve the problem or se-quence of events, and resolution of the problem or conclusion.One of the stories should be included in the subsequentcomparison and contrast analysis.

2. Identify explicitly for the students the critical elements; that is,read a section of the story and talk students through theprocess of identifying individual elements (see the previousdescription). If the students have difficulty with specificelements, provide further practice with additional stories.

3. Follow up teacher-directed identification of the elements withguided practice during which the students (as a whole class orin respective reading groups) identify the elements with theteacher’s assistance.

4. Conclude this segment of instruction with independentpractice. Students should use story note sheets or summarysheets to identify the elements of a story.

5. Model the process of comparing and contrasting story ele-ments by using a structured tool. Walk students through thecomparison and contrast process, thinking out loud as youmodel. (For example, “In Peter Rabbit the story takes place ina small garden in the country. In Curious George the storytakes place in a busy city. The settings of these stories aredifferent.”) Continue modeling through all the elements in thestory.

6. Explain the steps in the strategy: “When you read stories, theyoften have the same parts or elements. We are going to look atthose parts to see how the stories are the same and how theyare different.”

7. Model multiple examples.8. Guide students through the process of using the story elements

to compare and contrast stories, using questions: “Where dothese stories take place? Who are the characters? How are theythe same? How are they different?” Provide corrective feed-back. In this phase decrease prompts and assign greaterresponsibility to students.

9. Test students, using the same text format as in the teachingsequences. Do so immediately after the last teaching exampleto determine whether the students have acquired the strategy.

10. If students cannot use the strategy to compare and contraststory elements, analyze their responses to determine(1) whether the difficulties are specific to certain elements orare more generic; or (2) whether the difficulties are specific tocertain students. Provide appropriate instruction and practice.

11. Present additional examples to assess student understanding.


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a. The most important entry-level assessment information forthis standard is the extent to which students are alreadyfamiliar with the elements of stories. The most directassessment is for students to read a story and identify theelements either in response to a list of elements or on theirown.

b. Determine whether further instruction is needed in theidentification of the basic elements of story grammar.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective.This assessment phase is designed to determine the effective-ness of instruction and students’ mastery of what has beentaught. By designing tasks that align with the sequence ofinstruction, student performance can be used to determinewhether to proceed to the next phase of instruction or toconduct further instruction and practice at the current phase.

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. Analyzing stories bycomparing and contrasting critical elements is a strategy thatbegins in the second grade and continues for many grades.This strategy should not be seen as a discrete skill that istaught and assessed at one time of the year. Narrative analysisshould be distributed throughout the second grade to assessstudents’ retention of the skill and to demonstrate the broadutility of the strategy. Published materials should emphasizethis strategy and distribute its use across literature read in thesecond grade.

For a summative analysis a grid may be used that compares andcontrasts story elements. Or students can be assigned to write acomposition comparing and contrasting stories.


a. Students reading below grade level will require readingselections taken from below-grade-level literature. At thisstage the goal is for students to learn the elements of storygrammar and the comparison and contrast analysis strategy.This strategy can be introduced, discussed, and applied tostories that are read aloud to students. They can then usethe analysis strategies with texts they read on their own.

b. Students with disabilities or learning difficulties may needmore extensive instruction in comparison and contrast.Materials should include examples of elements easilyidentifiable for basic comparison and contrast exercises.

Assessment

Post-testAssessment



UniversalAccess


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Three

c. Students may need scaffolded story sheets that not onlyidentify the story grammar elements, such as setting orresolution, but also define setting—where and when thestory takes place; and resolution—how the problem wassolved.

d. Instructional materials should provide a range of examplesto allow more extensive practice.


a. Advanced learners who have demonstrated above-grade-level comprehension skills and who have extensive readingexperience may be grouped and given higher-level materialsand a more sophisticated analysis of story elements. Regard-less of how they are grouped, the teacher should substitutean advanced assignment for the regular lesson.

b. Advanced students might develop their own stories, orallyor in writing, that compare and contrast a given storyprovided in class. They might compare and contrast twoversions of the same story by different authors. Or theymight rewrite a portion of a story to illustrate differences.These students may make connections that vary from theexpected, given their ability to think creatively and ab-stractly and to generalize at an age earlier than that of theirchronological peers.


a. Through carefully designed instruction students shouldlearn the process of identifying elements of stories andcomparing and contrasting those elements. For studentswhose primary language is not English (English learners), aforemost problem can be the vocabulary used in the stories.The concepts and vocabulary may require more extensivedevelopment than is necessary for other students.

English learners can be helped to develop vocabularythrough preteaching; providing vocabulary instruction;modeling the pronunciation of words; scaffolding(e.g., through summary sheets, visuals, realia, and compareand contrast sheets); and encouraging the students to usethe vocabulary from the stories in class discussions andwriting assignments. These students should learn morethan the meaning of words. To accomplish grade-levelobjectives, they need to know how to use in their writingthe words they have learned. To do so, they must learn thegrammatical rules governing the use of words. Whenteaching words, the teacher should make sure to providestudents with numerous examples of sentences containing

AdvancedLearners

English Learners

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the words, encourage them to use words in their speech andwriting, and provide corrective feedback when appropriate.

b. English learners may require more extensive instruction incomparison and contrast. Resources should include explicitinstruction in words and expressions used to compare andcontrast (“In comparison with . . . , X is different from Ybecause . . . ; both X and Y have a similar setting”).

c. English learners benefit from extensive exposure to narrativemodels, comparison and contrast analyses, and multipleopportunities to use story elements to compare and contraststories.

d. The teacher should select some texts that children of diversecultures can relate to easily. Whenever possible, the textsshould be authentic. Simplified texts should be used onlywith students with weak proficiency in English. Studentswho use the simplified texts need intensive English-language instruction to enable them to catch up withtheir peers.

1. Instructional materials should contain explicit instruction instrategies for comparing and contrasting stories. Enoughselections should be made available at each level of instructionto ensure student mastery of the strategy.

2. Texts should be carefully selected and should contain criticalfeatures, including explicitness of the elements, length,familiarity of vocabulary, and readability.

3. Materials should include a range of selections and a corre-sponding set of assessment tasks to evaluate student perfor-mance at each stage of learning.

4. Materials should further include reproducible scaffolds orsupports for students, including summary sheets that outlinethe story grammar elements and grids that use story grammarelements for comparison and contrast.


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Three


Second Grade

Reading




1.1 Recognize and use knowledge ofspelling patterns (e.g., diphthongs,special vowel spellings) when reading.

1.2 Apply knowledge of basic syllabicationrules when reading (e.g., vowel-consonant-vowel = su/per; vowel-consonant/consonant-vowel = sup/per).

1.3 Decode two-syllable nonsense wordsand regular multisyllable words.

1.4 Recognize common abbreviations(e.g., Jan., Sun., Mr., St.).

1.5 Identify and correctly use regularplurals (e.g., -s, -es, -ies) and irregularplurals (e.g., fly/flies, wife/wives).

1.6 Read aloud fluently and accurately andwith appropriate intonation andexpression.


1.7 Understand and explain commonantonyms and synonyms.

1.8 Use knowledge of individual words inunknown compound words to predicttheir meaning.

1.9 Know the meaning of simple prefixesand suffixes (e.g., over-, un-, - ing, -ly).

1.10 Identify simple multiple-meaningwords.


Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They draw upon avariety of comprehension strategies as needed(e.g., generating and responding to essentialquestions, making predictions, comparinginformation from several sources). Theselections in Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eightillustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students. In addition totheir regular school reading, by grade four,students read one-half million words annually,including a good representation of grade-level-appropriate narrative and expository text(e.g., classic and contemporary literature,magazines, newspapers, online information).In grade two, students continue to makeprogress toward this goal.


2.1 Use titles, tables of contents, andchapter headings to locate informationin expository text.


2.2 State the purpose in reading (i.e., tellwhat information is sought).




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2.3 Use knowledge of the author’spurpose(s) to comprehend informa-tional text.

2.4 Ask clarifying questions aboutessential textual elements of exposition(e.g., why, what if, how).

2.5 Restate facts and details in the text toclarify and organize ideas.

2.6 Recognize cause-and-effect relation-ships in a text.

2.7 Interpret information from diagrams,charts, and graphs.

2.8 Follow two-step written instructions.

3.0. Literary Response and Analysis



3.1 Compare and contrast plots, settings,and characters presented by differentauthors.

3.2 Generate alternative endings to plotsand identify the reason or reasons for,and the impact of, the alternatives.

3.3 Compare and contrast differentversions of the same stories that reflectdifferent cultures.

3.4 Identify the use of rhythm, rhyme, andalliteration in poetry.

Writing




1.1 Group related ideas and maintain aconsistent focus.

Penmanship

1.2 Create readable documents with legiblehandwriting.

Research

1.3 Understand the purposes of variousreference materials (e.g., dictionary,thesaurus, atlas).

Evaluation and Revision

1.4 Revise original drafts to improvesequence and provide more descriptivedetail.



Using the writing strategies of grade twooutlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:

2.1 Write brief narratives based on theirexperiences:

a. Move through a logical sequence ofevents.

b. Describe the setting, characters,objects, and events in detail.

2.2 Write a friendly letter complete withthe date, salutation, body, closing, andsignature.



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Three



Sentence Structure

1.1 Distinguish between complete andincomplete sentences.

1.2 Recognize and use the correct wordorder in written sentences.

Grammar

1.3 Identify and correctly use various partsof speech, including nouns and verbs,in writing and speaking.

Punctuation

1.4 Use commas in the greeting and closureof a letter and with dates and items in aseries.

1.5 Use quotation marks correctly.

Capitalization

1.6 Capitalize all proper nouns, words atthe beginning of sentences andgreetings, months and days of the week,and titles and initials of people.

Spelling

1.7 Spell frequently used, irregular wordscorrectly (e.g., was, were, says, said, who,what, why).

1.8 Spell basic short-vowel, long-vowel, r-controlled, and consonant-blendpatterns correctly.




Comprehension

1.1 Determine the purpose or purposes oflistening (e.g., to obtain information, tosolve problems, for enjoyment).

1.2 Ask for clarification and explanation ofstories and ideas.

1.3 Paraphrase information that has beenshared orally by others.

1.4 Give and follow three- and four-steporal directions.


1.5 Organize presentations to maintain aclear focus.

1.6 Speak clearly and at an appropriatepace for the type of communication(e.g., informal discussion, report toclass).

1.7 Recount experiences in a logicalsequence.

1.8 Retell stories, including characters,setting, and plot.

1.9 Report on a topic with supportive factsand details.



Using the speaking strategies of grade twooutlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0, students:

2.1 Recount experiences or present stories:a. Move through a logical sequence

of events.b. Describe story elements

(e.g., characters, plot, setting).

2.2 Report on a topic with facts and details,drawing from several sources ofinformation.

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The curriculum and instructionoffered in the third grade shouldenable students to (1) read grade-

level fiction and nonfiction materialsindependently with literal and inferentialcomprehension; (2) develop a knowledgeof common spelling patterns, roots, andaffixes; (3) use conventions of spelling andconventions of print (e.g., paragraphs,end-sentence punctuation); (4) clarify newwords, make predictions, and summarizereading passages; (5) answer questions thatrequire analysis, synthesis, and evaluationof grade-level narrative and informationaltext; and (6) support answers to questionsabout what they have read by drawing onbackground knowledge and specific detailsfrom the text.

The third grade is often considered thelast period of formal instruction indecoding for students who still need it,although they continue to recognize newwords beyond this grade level. At the endof this pivotal year, instruction in phonicsis phased out from the formal curriculumas a focal point for students who havelearned to decode. Increased and extendedemphasis is placed on vocabulary acquisi-tion, comprehension strategies, text


Third Grade

analysis, and writing. Students are alsotaught to use context as an independentvocabulary strategy.

Instruction in identifying the mainidea, prior-knowledge connections, andliteral and inferential comprehensionassumes greater prominence, as doesincreased variety in the narratives selectedfor reading (e.g., fairy tales, fables, text-books). Building strategies for writingsentences and paragraphs is also empha-sized. Students learn formal sentencestructure, the four basic types of sentences,and the use of the sentences in writtenparagraphs. Finally, students take a bigstep forward, learning how to use speakingstrategies and applications and how todeliver prose, poetry, and personal narra-tives and experiences with fluency,intonation, and expression. The strands tobe emphasized at the third-grade level arelisted on the following page under theappropriate domains.

Each of the strands is addressedseparately with the exception of thewritten and oral English-language conven-tions strand, which is integrated withinappropriate sections.

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Reading Word Analysis, Fluency,and VocabularyDevelopment


Specific decoding instruction in theearlier grades and redundancy of exposurethrough repeated practice have developeda stable and reliable strategy for analyzingwords. As with earlier instruction indecoding and word recognition, studentswill need explicit instruction for wordfamilies (phonograms). Many of the sameprinciples for selecting and sequencinginstruction in the early grades apply here:(1) separating word parts that are highlysimilar (e.g., ight and aight); (2) introduc-ing word parts that occur with highfrequency over those that occur in only afew words; and (3) teaching the wordparts first and then incorporating thewords into sentences and connected text.

The word-recognition substrand in thethird grade emphasizes reading harder andbigger words (i.e., multisyllabic words)and reading all words more fluently.Students further their word-analysis andfluency skills through instruction centeredon orthographically larger and morecomplex units (e.g., ight, aught, own).They may learn to apply the orthographicunit ight first in such simple words as(pl)ight, (m)ight, and (sl)ight. Whenstudents are successful in reading simplerwords with ight, word analysis should beextended to more complex words in whichight occurs in different positions (e.g.,lightning, overnight, brightness, forthright,delight, and knight).

In the third grade students will alsoneed to learn strategies to decodemultisyllabic words. They can be taught touse the structural features of such wordparts as affixes (e.g., pre-, mis-, -tion) to aidin word recognition. Economy can beachieved by teaching both the word part(e.g., un) and its meaning (not), thenapplying the strategy to words that followthe rules. In this structural analysis of theword, students are taught to look for theaffix(es) and then find the root or baseword.

Guidelines for reading big ormultisyllabic words (Nagy et al. 1992,cited in Cunningham 1998) call for:

1. Providing explicit explanations,including modeling, “think-alouds,” guided practice, and thegradual transfer of responsibility tostudents

2. Relying on examples more thanabstract rules (Begin with familiarwords. Show “nonexamples.” Useword parts rather than havestudents search for little wordswithin a word. Examples: depart,report.)

Reading

1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, andSystematic Vocabulary Development


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3. Teaching what is most useful4. Making clear the limitations of

structural analysis5. Using extended text in opportuni-

ties for application

Cunningham provides a model forreading big words that combines reading,meaning, and spelling and extends thesteps by teaching (1) prefixes that areuseful from a meaning standpoint(e.g., re-); (2) suffixes that are most useful(e.g., -ly, -er, -ful); and (3) a few usefulroots (e.g., play, work, agree). Students arealso taught to spell words that have highutility for meaning, spelling, and decod-ing.

In addition to being taught structuralanalysis, students should be taughtstrategies to confirm the fit of the word incontext. Although contextual analysis haslimited usefulness as a single word-recognition strategy, it expands students’capacity for word analysis and recognitionwhen used to confirm the accuracy ofwords identified by decoding and struc-tural analysis. Words identified throughthe decoding of letter sounds or lettercombinations are followed by recognitionof larger units of words, including onsetsand rimes and common word parts, suchas prefixes and suffixes. After decodingand structural analysis have occurred,contextual analysis can be used to verifythe accuracy and fit of the word in thesentence.

Extended word-analysis skills andample opportunities to practice skills inconnected text should enable third-gradestudents to read grade-appropriate textaccurately and fluently. A study addressingtarget rates found that in third-gradeclassrooms students typically read 79correct words per minute in the fall and114 in the spring (Hasbrouck and Tindal1992). Markell and Deno (1997) found

that a minimum threshold for acceptablecomprehension was an ability to readcorrectly 90 words per minute. That is,students who read 90 or more words perminute correctly scored 80 percent orabove on a measure of comprehension.On average a third grader’s weekly readingfluency increases approximately 1.08words per minute (Fuchs et al. 1993). Asstudents learn to recognize words auto-matically, they should have opportunitiesto hear and practice reading text aloud,emphasizing pacing, intonation, andexpression. Fluency or facility with printfrees up cognitive resources for compre-hension.


In the early grades students learnapproximately 3,000 new words per yearif they read one-half million to onemillion words of running text per year.Obviously, it is educationally impossiblefor students to learn even a sizable portionof the 3,000 words through direct instruc-tional approaches alone. Students in thethird grade further their knowledge ofvocabulary in significant ways, primarilythrough independent reading but alsothrough independent vocabulary-learningstrategies. In addition to direct instructionin synonyms, antonyms, and so onand explicit strategies for teaching thehierarchical relationship among words(e.g., living things/animal/mammal/dog),students are introduced to two strategiesfor independent learning of vocabulary.The first strategy is to learn to use thedictionary to understand the meaning ofunknown words—a complex task withspecial constraints for third graders. Thewords in the dictionary definition areoften more difficult than the target worditself. Dictionary usage should be taughtexplicitly with grade-appropriate dictio-

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naries that allow students to access andunderstand the meaning of an unknownword. Moreover, understanding thedefinition of words alone has limitedstaying power unless the words are used incontext and are encountered frequently.

A second independent vocabularystrategy introduced in the third grade isusing context to gain the meaning of anunfamiliar word. Context includes thewords surrounding the unfamiliar wordthat provide information to its meaning.Because not all contexts are created equal,however, initial instruction must bedesigned carefully to enable learners toacquire this important vocabulary strategy.Students should learn to use contexteffectively because most word meaningsare learned from context. The third-gradecurricular and instructional profile focuseson that strategy. In addition to theindependent word-learning strategies, thethird-grade curricula and instructionextend the understanding of concepts andvocabulary of the English languagethrough (1) learning and using antonymsand synonyms; (2) using individual wordsin compound words to predict themeaning; (3) using prefixes and suffixes toassist in word meaning; and (4) learningsimple multiple-meaning words.

Two vocabulary emphases initiated inkindergarten should carry through in thethird grade; that is, direct instruction inspecific concepts and vocabulary essentialto understanding text and exposure to abroad and diverse vocabulary throughlistening to and reading stories. Of thenew vocabulary skills introduced in thethird grade, using prefixes and suffixes toaid in word meaning is one that studentswill use frequently as they read morecomplex and challenging text. (See theearlier discussion for guidance in teachingprefixes and suffixes.)


In the third grade emphasis is placed onnarrative and expository texts and literaland inferential comprehension. Third-grade students expand comprehensionskills and strategies by:

• Using conventions of informationaltext (e.g., titles, chapter headings,glossaries) to locate importantinformation

• Using prior knowledge to askquestions, make connections, andsupport answers

• Recalling major points in text andmodifying predictions

• Recalling main ideas from expositorytext

• Demonstrating comprehension byidentifying answers in the text

• Extracting information from text• Following simple, multiple-step

instructions

A major advancement in comprehen-sion for the third grade focuses on identi-fying and recalling the main idea andsupporting details of expository texts. Inwriting there is a related standard (Writ-ing Standard 1.1) according to whichstudents write paragraphs that includetopic sentences (i.e., main ideas) andsupporting facts and details. Expositorytext is typically more difficult to compre-hend than narrative text. The ability tocomprehend expository text is essential forachievement in school, especially in thelater elementary grades and in the middleschool years.

Successful instruction in complexcomprehension strategies, such as findingthe main idea, depends largely on thedesign of the information taught. Well-designed text enables readers to identifyrelevant information, including main ideas

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and the relations between ideas(Seidenberg 1989). In a review of text-processing research, Seidenberg (1989)found that general education studentsfrom elementary school through collegedemonstrated difficulty in analyzing themain ideas in textbooks, especially if themain ideas were implied rather than statedclearly.

For initial instruction in the acquisitionof main ideas, the teacher should consider:

• Beginning with linguistic unitsappropriate to the learner; forexample, using pictures and a set ofindividual sentences before present-ing paragraph or passage-level text tohelp students learn the concept ofmain idea

• Using text in which the main idea isexplicitly stated and is clear and inwhich the ideas follow a logical order

• Using familiar vocabulary andpassages at appropriate readabilitylevels for learners

• Using familiar topics• Using familiar, simple syntactical

structures and sentence types• Progressing to more complex

structures in which main ideas arenot explicit and passages are longer


The third-grade curriculum andinstruction are focused on (1) broadeningthe type of narrative texts students readand study (e.g., fairy tales, fables);(2) distinguishing literary forms (poetry,prose, fiction, and nonfiction); and(3) deepening students’ understandingof elements in narrative text.

In the third grade students read a widevariety of literature (poems, fiction,nonfiction) and narrative text structures

(fairy tales, legends). They should alsobegin to examine the commonalities(e.g., plots, characters, settings) in storystructure, particularly the plots in differenttypes of stories and the uniqueness of eachstory. The structural element of theme isadded to the story elements to extend theschema for the comprehension of stories.Students should begin to identify thespeaker and articulate the purpose.

Particular emphasis should be placedon extending the understanding ofcharacter development by studying whatcharacters say and do. The actions,motives, attributes, and feelings of charac-ters may be abstract concepts for manythird graders. Just as students need aframework such as basic story grammar toaid in the comprehension of the basicelements of stories, they may also needprompts or structures to assist in theidentification and analysis of character.This framework or map may be a simplestructure that makes visible and obviousthe features of characters to which stu-dents should attend. For example, in thechart on the following page, the maincharacters from Charlotte’s Web (White1952) are identified, and critical characterfeatures are specified. The sections in thechart serve to allow students to tracechanges in characters over the course ofthe text.

As in all well-designed instruction incomprehension, a carefully designedsequence of examples should be providedwhen students are in the acquisition phaseof learning to extend their understandingand facility with character development.The sequence should first be modeled andthen guided by the teacher and, finally,practiced by the students. Opportunitiesfor corrective feedback should also beprovided.

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Writing Writing Strategies andWriting Applications

In the third grade students extend theirwriting strategies by (1) creating a singleparagraph with a topic sentence andsupporting details; (2) refining thelegibility of their writing; (3) learning toaccess information from a range ofreference materials (e.g., thesaurus,encyclopedia); (4) revising drafts toimprove coherence and progression ofideas; and (5) progressing through thestages of the writing process.

Using these strategies, students con-tinue to advance skills in written conven-tions as they learn to use declarative,interrogative, imperative, and exclamatorysentences. Advanced grammatical conven-tions, particularly subject-verb agreementand use of the tense, are the focus of third-grade instruction, along with continueddevelopment in capitalization, punctua-tion, and spelling.

As students learn to read words withdouble consonants, inflected endings,y-derivatives (e.g., baby/ies), and so forth,they are ready to learn to spell the words.Guidelines outlined in the first grade forspelling instruction are applicable in thisgrade. Homophones (i.e., words that soundalike but have different spellings andmeanings: their, there, and they’re) poseparticular spelling problems. Homo-

phones should be introduced a few at atime. It is recommended that a singlehomophone be introduced first. Aftermastery of that homophone, another maybe presented. Once both homophones aremastered, they may be used in discrimina-tion exercises in which meaning andcontext are emphasized.

In practice students apply thosestrategies and conventions as they learnand extend proficiency in writing narra-tives, descriptions, and personal andformal correspondence. This strategicintegration of skills, strategies, andstructures requires (1) explicit instructionin each of the individual components(e.g., sentence types, writing of para-graphs, use of tense); and (2) systematicconnections of components to demon-strate the utility of the individual partsand communicate to students the bigpicture of writing. A common flaw ininstructional materials is that they oftenfail to make the important connections forstudents. For example, students may learnto write declarative sentences but do notpractice them or integrate them into otherwriting activities. Similarly, if studentspractice writing sentences with correctpunctuation and capitalization but neverapply the skills in larger contexts or forauthentic purposes, instruction is frag-mented. The skills are seemingly withoutpurpose.

Character Section Section Section

Charlotte How she feels: Changes: Changes:How she acts: Changes: Changes:How she looks: Changes: Changes:

Wilbur How he feels: Changes: Changes:How he acts: Changes: Changes:How he looks: Changes: Changes:

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The goal in writing instruction must,therefore, be to ensure that componentparts (skills, strategies, structures) are(1) identified; (2) carefully sequencedaccording to their complexity and use inmore advanced writing applications;(3) developed to mastery; and (4) progres-sively and purposefully connected withinand across content standards in the fouracademic areas and then incorporated intoauthentic writing exercises.


In the third grade emphasis is placed onlistening and speaking strategies and onspeaking applications. Fourteen standardssignify the importance of students’speaking and listening development, theamount and type of information theyshould comprehend, and the formats andmethods they should use to communicatetheir knowledge and ideas.

The connections across the languagearts domains (reading, writing, listening,and speaking) have been stressed in othersections of this framework but bearrepeating because they have particularsignificance for developing students’speaking and listening skills. Just asstudents need structures, maps, or anchorsto facilitate their understanding of narra-tive or expository text, they will requirethe same types of supporting structureswhen learning what to listen for and whatto speak about. Simplistic as it may seem,students may not know what to includewhen summarizing (e.g., organizingdescriptions or sequencing events). Theparallels of the structures students learn inreading and writing apply directly to thegoals of listening and speaking, and thoseconnections require explicit, carefully

designed instruction. The benefits ofearlier teaching should be readily apparentbecause students already know theelements of stories, descriptions, andsequences of events from previous instruc-tion in reading and writing.

It is typically easier to retell than tocreate and easier to comprehend than tocompose. Therefore, instructional materialsand instruction should honor thoseinherent complexities and ensure thatstudents first have opportunities to listento and read narratives, descriptives, andsequences of events before being asked towrite and orally present narratives,descriptives, and sequences of events.Instructional design must address further(1) the length of the information to belistened to or spoken; (2) familiarity withthe topic; (3) familiarity with the vocabu-lary; and (4) syntactical complexity of theinformation.

Initial listening and speaking applica-tions should be shorter in length, should becentered on more familiar topics, andshould be less complex syntactically.


The following activities integratestandards across domains, strands, andacademic disciplines. Teachers may wishto:

1. Reinforce the connections betweendecoding, word recognition,spelling, and writing. Word fami-lies, multisyllabic words, andstructural units (e.g., prefixes) thatstudents learn to read should beincorporated into spelling andwriting instruction and practice.

2. Incorporate words or word partsfrom vocabulary instruction(e.g., prefixes, synonyms) in

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systematic opportunities that usethose words in sentences. Practicethroughout the day and over aperiod of time.

3. Make connections between struc-tures used for comprehension andcomposition. Demonstrate howtext structures can be used acrossdomains to enhance recall andcomposition.

4. Teach rules that generalize acrossreading materials and make explicitthe connections of their use in avariety of subject areas (e.g., use

Third Grade


context to help learn the meaningsof words you do not know).

5. Make connections by incorporatingand reinforcing specific skills andconventions (e.g., grammar, mainidea, sentence types) across allwriting assignments and exercises.

6. Select appropriate content stan-dards for science, mathematics, andhistory–social science to addresswithin language arts instructionaltime.


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Vocabularyand conceptdevelopment

1.6 Use sentence and wordcontext to find the meaningof unknown words.

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Prerequisite standards. First-Grade Reading Comprehension Standards 2.4, 2.5.

Standard 2.4: Use context to resolve ambiguities about word and sentence meanings.

Standard 2.5: Confirm predictions about what will happen next in a text by identifyingkey words.

When given a text (sentence or sentences) with unfamiliar vocabu-lary used in close proximity, students should first decode the wordand then use the context to determine the word meaning.

Learning words from context involves a range of variables thatenhance or impede the success of the strategy, including thestudent’s previous knowledge about the subject matter, the proxim-ity of other words in the passage that may serve as clues, and thedifficulty of the reading selection.

Successful learning from context depends largely on practice.Teachers can teach this strategy through:

1. Systematic selection and sequencing of examples (contexts)2. Progression of context difficulty from shorter passages (e.g., 40

to 60 words with two or three unfamiliar words) to longerones (e.g., 80 to 100 words with five or six unfamiliar words)

InstructionalObjective

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3. Explicit instruction and modeling in how to use context tolearn word meaning

Contexts for Initial Instruction:

1. Unfamiliar words are limited to a manageable number (oneevery two to three sentences).

2. Unfamiliar words are kept within the students’ readabilitylevel.

3. Contexts focus on a familiar topic.4. Contexts include a range of examples in which new vocabulary

is accessible through surrounding context and a few examplesin which a dictionary must be used.

5. Contexts focus on vocabulary of high utility.

1. Model the process of using context to learn new word mean-ings. Think out loud as you model: “I don’t know the meaningof this word. I’ll read the words around it to see if they helpme.” Show the conventions used to define new words(e.g., appositives).

2. Model multiple positive and negative examples (i.e., vocabularyfor which the context does or does not provide meaning).Show students how to use a dictionary in the latter case.

3. Invite students to suggest which other words or passagesprovide clues to the meaning of the unfamiliar word.

4. Ask students to suggest synonyms for the unknown word andsubstitute the synonyms to see whether the meaning of thesentence changes or remains the same.

5. Guide students through the process of using the context tolearn new word meanings. Provide corrective feedback.

1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. At the entrylevel assess student knowledge of the strategy to determinewhether students need instruction in the strategy.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective.Determine whether students can use context to understandunfamiliar word meanings. Use a range of examples, includingshorter and longer passages as well as simple and complexcontexts in which defining information is in close or farproximity to the unfamiliar word.

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. Use post-teststhroughout the year to measure whether students are able touse context to understand unfamiliar word meanings andwhether they are retaining the meaning of the unfamiliar wordsover time.


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a. Students with reading difficulties or disabilities must bevery firm in prerequisite skills to benefit from context.The prerequisite skills include:

• Decoding and word-recognition skills that enablestudents to read the text with 90 to 95 percent accuracy(If students cannot read the grade-level text, identifymaterials that are appropriate and teach the samestrategy.)

• Knowledge of words in context that define or explain theunfamiliar word

b. Students with reading difficulties or disabilities may needmore controlled examples with shorter length, fewerunknown words, and so forth.


a. Entry-level assessment should be used to determine thenecessity of teaching students to determine the meaning ofunfamiliar words from context. Advanced learners are oftencharacterized by their extensive vocabulary, making neces-sary the use of materials beyond their grade level to assesstheir skills.

b. The level and type of instruction needed should be estab-lished. Students may progress rapidly to learning wordmeanings if context is separated from the target vocabularyonce the basic strategy is known.

c. Students with a high level of proficiency in this skill maybenefit from exposure to more sophisticated alternateactivities for vocabulary development instead of thisinstruction.


a. For English learners to benefit from context, they mustknow the grammatical features, idioms, and vocabularywords used to define or explain the unfamiliar word. Theyshould also understand the concepts presented in the text.English learners may need additional prereading activitiesthat explain cultural references and develop their grammati-cal competence and knowledge of English vocabulary.Entry-level assessment should also be used to determine theappropriateness of texts for English learners. Wheneverpossible, authentic texts not simplified for English learnersshould be used. However, simplified texts may be needed ifstudents have difficulty in learning and if initial entry-level

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assessment shows that students are unable to use context todetermine word meanings

b. Entry-level assessment should also be used to determine theappropriateness of this objective. English learners do notrely on the strategy of learning the meanings of words fromcontext without also learning the necessity of attending tothe specific ways in which words are used in writing.Teachers should not assume that English learners willacquire the grammatical rules governing the use of words atthe same time they are acquiring the meaning of the words.To teach students the rules, teachers need to providestudents with explicit instruction, model the words inspeech and writing, encourage students to use words insentences and in longer text, and provide students withcorrective feedback on their use of words.

c. Curricular materials should provide English learners withadditional opportunities to read texts that contain similarvocabulary words and grammatical structures so thatstudents are repeatedly exposed to new words and struc-tures. Some texts should be relevant to the interests andneeds of English learners from diverse cultures.

1. Texts should contain explicit instruction strategies for identify-ing words from near-proximity contexts and far-proximitycontexts. Sufficient examples of each type should be providedto ensure student mastery of the strategy.

2. Texts should be carefully selected and designed according tocritical features, including proximity of the defining context,number of unfamiliar word meanings, richness of the context,readability of the text, text length, and syntactical complexity.

3. Measures for conducting assessment at the entry level andthroughout the period of instruction must be included in thecurricular materials.


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Reading




1.1 Know and use complex word familieswhen reading (e.g., -ight) to decodeunfamiliar words.

1.2 Decode regular multisyllabic words.1.3 Read aloud narrative and expository

text fluently and accurately and withappropriate pacing, intonation, andexpression.


1.4 Use knowledge of antonyms, syn-onyms, homophones, and homographsto determine the meanings of words.

1.5 Demonstrate knowledge of levels ofspecificity among grade-appropriatewords and explain the importance ofthese relations (e.g., dog/mammal/animal/living things).

1.6 Use sentence and word context to findthe meaning of unknown words.

1.7 Use a dictionary to learn the meaningand other features of unknown words.

1.8 Use knowledge of prefixes (e.g., un-,re-, pre-, bi-, mis-, dis-) and suffixes(e.g., -er, -est, -ful) to determine themeaning of words.


Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They draw upon avariety of comprehension strategies as needed(e.g., generating and responding to essentialquestions, making predictions, comparinginformation from several sources). Theselections in Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eightillustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students. In addition totheir regular school reading, by grade four,students read one-half million words annually,including a good representation of grade-level-appropriate narrative and expository text(e.g., classic and contemporary literature,magazines, newspapers, online information).In grade three, students make substantialprogress toward this goal.


2.1 Use titles, tables of contents, chapterheadings, glossaries, and indexes tolocate information in text.


2.2 Ask questions and support answers byconnecting prior knowledge with literal

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information found in, and inferredfrom, the text.

2.3 Demonstrate comprehension byidentifying answers in the text.

2.4 Recall major points in the text andmake and modify predictions aboutforthcoming information.

2.5 Distinguish the main idea and support-ing details in expository text.

2.6 Extract appropriate and significantinformation from the text, includingproblems and solutions.

2.7 Follow simple multiple-step writteninstructions (e.g., how to assemble aproduct or play a board game).


Students read and respond to a wide variety ofsignificant works of children’s literature. Theydistinguish between the structural features ofthe text and literary terms or elements(e.g., theme, plot, setting, characters). Theselections in Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eightillustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students.

Structural Features of Literature

3.1 Distinguish common forms of literature(e.g., poetry, drama, fiction, nonfic-tion).


3.2 Comprehend basic plots of classic fairytales, myths, folktales, legends, andfables from around the world.

3.3 Determine what characters are like bywhat they say or do and by how theauthor or illustrator portrays them.

3.4 Determine the underlying theme orauthor’s message in fiction andnonfiction text.

3.5 Recognize the similarities of soundsin words and rhythmic patterns(e.g., alliteration, onomatopoeia) ina selection.

3.6 Identify the speaker or narrator in aselection.

Writing




1.1 Create a single paragraph:

a. Develop a topic sentence.b. Include simple supporting facts and

details.

Penmanship

1.2 Write legibly in cursive or joined italic,allowing margins and correct spacingbetween letters in a word and words ina sentence.

Research

1.3 Understand the structure and organiza-tion of various reference materials(e.g., dictionary, thesaurus, atlas,encyclopedia).


1.4 Revise drafts to improve the coherenceand logical progression of ideas byusing an established rubric.



Using the writing strategies of grade threeoutlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:

2.1 Write narratives:

a. Provide a context within which anaction takes place.

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b. Include well-chosen details todevelop the plot.

c. Provide insight into why the selectedincident is memorable.

2.2 Write descriptions that use concretesensory details to present and supportunified impressions of people, places,things, or experiences.

2.3 Write personal and formal letters,thank-you notes, and invitations:

a. Show awareness of the knowledgeand interests of the audience andestablish a purpose and context.

b. Include the date, proper salutation,body, closing, and signature.


The standards for written and oral Englishlanguage conventions have been placedbetween those for writing and for listeningand speaking because these conventions areessential to both sets of skills.



Sentence Structure

1.1 Understand and be able to use com-plete and correct declarative, interroga-tive, imperative, and exclamatorysentences in writing and speaking.

Grammar

1.2 Identify subjects and verbs that are inagreement and identify and usepronouns, adjectives, compound words,and articles correctly in writing andspeaking.

1.3 Identify and use past, present, andfuture verb tenses properly in writingand speaking.

1.4 Identify and use subjects and verbscorrectly in speaking and writing simplesentences.

Punctuation

1.5 Punctuate dates, city and state, andtitles of books correctly.

1.6 Use commas in dates, locations, andaddresses and for items in a series.

Capitalization

1.7 Capitalize geographical names,holidays, historical periods, and specialevents correctly.

Spelling

1.8 Spell correctly one-syllable words thathave blends, contractions, compounds,orthographic patterns (e.g., qu,consonant doubling, changing theending of a word from -y to -ies whenforming the plural), and commonhomophones (e.g., hair-hare).

1.9 Arrange words in alphabetic order.




Comprehension

1.1 Retell, paraphrase, and explain what hasbeen said by a speaker.

1.2 Connect and relate prior experiences,insights, and ideas to those of a speaker.

1.3 Respond to questions with appropriateelaboration.

1.4 Identify the musical elements of literarylanguage (e.g., rhymes, repeatedsounds, instances of onomatopoeia).


1.5 Organize ideas chronologically oraround major points of information.

1.6 Provide a beginning, a middle, and anend, including concrete details thatdevelop a central idea.


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1.7 Use clear and specific vocabulary tocommunicate ideas and establish thetone.

1.8 Clarify and enhance oral presentationsthrough the use of appropriate props(e.g., objects, pictures, charts).

1.9 Read prose and poetry aloud withfluency, rhythm, and pace, usingappropriate intonation and vocalpatterns to emphasize importantpassages of the text being read.

Analysis and Evaluation of Oral and MediaCommunications

1.10 Compare ideas and points of viewexpressed in broadcast and print media.

1.11 Distinguish between the speaker’sopinions and verifiable facts.


Students deliver brief recitations and oralpresentations about familiar experiences orinterests that are organized around a coherentthesis statement. Student speaking demon-

strates a command of standard AmericanEnglish and the organizational and deliverystrategies outlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0.

Using the speaking strategies of grade threeoutlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0, students:

2.1 Make brief narrative presentations:

a. Provide a context for an incidentthat is the subject of the presenta-tion.

b. Provide insight into why the selectedincident is memorable.

c. Include well-chosen details todevelop character, setting, and plot.

2.2 Plan and present dramatic interpreta-tions of experiences, stories, poems, orplays with clear diction, pitch, tempo,and tone.

2.3 Make descriptive presentations that useconcrete sensory details to set forth andsupport unified impressions of people,places, things, or experiences.




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Chapter 4Content Standardsand InstructionalPractices—Grades FourThrough Eight

The standards for grades fourthrough eight are expansive,revealing the important and

weighty transitions in knowledge andskills expected of all students after theprimary grades. The first significanttransition for students occurs when theymove from the stage popularly referred toas learning to read in kindergartenthrough grade three to that of reading tolearn in grade four (National Center toImprove the Tools of Educators 1997).Emphasis on subject-matter readingbegins to exert its full force on all studentsat this stage as they begin to study his-tory–social science and science. The stagesof learning to read and reading to learnhelp establish a further stage that extendsthrough grade eight. That stage is perhapsbest characterized as reading and learning

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Grades FourThroughEight

The stages of learning to read andreading to learn help establish a furtherstage that extends through grade eight.That stage is perhaps best characterizedas reading and learning for life, duringwhich students begin to grapple with thefull and complex range of lifelonglanguage and literacy skills.

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Grades FourThrough Eight

for life, during which students begin tograpple with the full and complex range oflifelong language and literacy skills.

For example, students are expected bythe end of the eighth grade to demonstratecommand of the following standards:(1) evaluating the unity, coherence, logic,internal consistency, and structural pat-terns of text; (2) achieving an effectivebalance between researched informationand original ideas; (3) evaluating thecredibility of a speaker; (4) presentingdetailed evidence, examples, and reasoningto support arguments, differentiatingbetween facts and opinion; and (5) identi-fying the sequence of activities needed todesign a system, operate a tool, or explainthe bylaws of an organization. Clearly, theexpectations reach far beyond the stages oflearning to read and reading to learn toknowing what is important and why.Students will not be able to grasp thoseimportant advanced skills and experiencesif they are still struggling to decipher thealphabetic writing system. Therefore, theimportant transitions to engagement withmore complex informational text in printand electronic form should not detractfrom the continuing importance of ensur-ing that all students are competent andfluent readers in grades four through eight.

A priority in the reading domain foreach of the grades in the four through eightcluster is ensuring that students are able toread aloud narrative and expository textfluently and accurately. To do so, studentsmust continue to recognize increasinglycomplex words accurately and automati-cally in grade-level-appropriate narrativeand expository text ranging from classicalliterature to on-line information. Inaddition, they must continue to developtheir vocabulary knowledge and skills inmore sophisticated ways, such as analyzingidioms, analogies, metaphors, and similesto infer literal and figurative meanings of

phrases and understanding historicalinfluences on the meanings of Englishwords. Students must also learn to writeclear, coherent, and focused essays andconduct multiple-step informationsearches as part of the research process,using the learning resources and technol-ogy in the library media center and theclassroom. In grades five through eight,students extend their writing applicationsas they compose narrative, expository,persuasive, and descriptive texts of at least500 to 700 words each. They are expectedto use correct conventions in writing asthey express their newly found knowledgeand understanding and to exhibit increas-ing sophistication in sentence structure,grammar, punctuation, capitalization,and spelling.

The strands for grades four througheight are the same as those for kindergar-ten through grade three except for achange of emphasis. The introduction ofnew emphases, however, does not dimin-ish the importance of some well-estab-lished strands, such as word analysis,fluency, and systematic vocabularydevelopment, which continues to be acentral strand in grades four through six.This focus recognizes the fundamentalimportance to reading comprehension ofskillful and fluent decoding. If students ingrades four through eight are unable tocomprehend the complexities of narrativeand expository text, a highly probable sourceof the problem is inability to decode wordsaccurately and fluently. Therefore, word-recognition activities and fluency practicefor students who continue to struggle withthe alphabetic writing system continue tobe critical in this grade span.

A primary focus in grades four througheight is having students learn words andconcepts. Students study the origins,derivations, and use of words over timeand in different types of text. Although

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extensive independent reading is theprimary means of increasing vocabularyknowledge, many children need directinstruction in word-learning strategies todevelop their vocabularies and enhancetheir ability to learn new words whilereading. Because vocabulary knowledge isnot acquired genetically or withoutextensive and sustained engagement withprint, the classroom environment, instruc-tion, and extensive opportunities to readare essential.

Vocabulary knowledge, which typicallydoubles during grades four through eight,is a direct result of how much a studentreads. The more a student reads, the morethe vocabulary knowledge increases. Forexample, students who read one-halfmillion to one million words of runningtext generally learn approximately 3,000new words per year. Voracious readers—those who read five million or more wordsof running text per year—in the middleschool years will obviously learn morethan 3,000 new words. The goal by theeighth grade is that students indepen-dently read one million words of runningtext annually (see page 176 in this chap-ter). Therefore, the process and benefits ofindependent reading must be instilled andreinforced from the fourth grade forwardif students are to attain that goal. Ours isan age in which teachers can encourageindependent reading through a variety ofstrategies. Access to outstanding age-appropriate multicultural literature as wellas a variety of print and electronic infor-mational materials in school and in publiclibraries is important for all students,particularly for those who do not havereading material at home.

Other standards extended and empha-sized in grades four through eight include:

• Use of the research process and avariety of learning resources andtechnologies in the school library,

classrooms, the community, and thehome as tools and strategies forpreparing various types of docu-ments, reports, and presentations

• Writing applications in a full rangeof text structures, including narra-tives, biographies, autobiographies,short stories, responses to literature,research reports, persuasive com-positions, technical documents,and documents related to careerdevelopment

• Speaking applications that requirestudents to deliver well-organizedformal presentations employingtraditional rhetorical strategies

• Literary forms and devices that helpto define and clarify an author’sideas, purpose, tone, point of view,and intentions

Students who have not become fluentreaders by the end of the third grade canand must still be taught to becomesuccessful readers. However, the evidenceand message are clear: without systematicand explicit instruction in the alphabeticcode, little chance exists of their evercatching up (Felton and Pepper 1995).Reasons for students failing to learn toread in the upper elementary school,middle school, and high school gradesinclude the following (Greene 1998):

• Instructional materials in grades fourand above contain too many unfa-miliar words, making the textunmanageable for struggling readers.

• Text in grades four and abovecontains complex word types andphonic elements that exceed learners’current skills.

• Word-recognition efforts draincognitive resources, leaving little forcomprehension.

• The sentence and text structuresare complex (e.g., parenthetical

Students whohave not becomefluent readers bythe end of thethird grade canand must still betaught to becomesuccessful readers.

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elements, passive voice), makingcomprehension more difficult.

• Teachers of middle school and highschool students have often not beentaught how to teach students to read.

The problems experienced by studentsin grades four and above who continue tostruggle with the alphabetic code aredifficult if not impossible to overcome withthe traditional curriculum. What is knownabout students who do not learn to readeasily is that they need explicit, carefullydesigned instruction in the alphabetic code.What differs from the traditional curricu-lum is that these students no longer havethree or four years to learn to read, makingthe curricular requirements all the moreimportant. Some strategic interventionsthat must be made to alter the learningpatterns of students who have not yetlearned to read are to:

1. Adopt a program of documentedeffectiveness that teaches students thefundamentals of systematic decodingand sequentially extends their abilitiesto read and write more complicatedword types and text structures. Theearly curriculum should includeresearch-based components: phone-mic awareness, alphabetic under-standing (e.g., letter-sound corre-spondences); phonological recoding(decoding and encoding); readingaccuracy and fluency; vocabulary; andcomprehension (Greene 1998). Thecurriculum should progress to morecomplex word-recognition skills thatparallel those described in theEnglish–Language Arts ContentStandards.

2. Administer measures of assessmentand assign to students the materialsand programs that will enable themto read successfully (with 90 to95 percent accuracy).

3. Design and schedule special instruc-tion to maximize resources. One-on-one instruction by a qualifiedteacher, although desirable, is oftennot affordable. Identify small groupsof students who are at similar levelsof ability and schedule instructionfor those groups.

4. Schedule a sufficient amount of timefor reading instruction and protectthat time. Struggling readers ingrades four through eight shouldreceive at least two hours of languagearts instruction each day.

5. Monitor student progress and adjustthe instruction and time allocationsaccordingly.

The proficiency of all students in thefundamental areas of reading, includingword recognition, fluency, academiclanguage, and comprehension strategies,must be determined. Once students havemastered the code, they may need addi-tional assistance in a number of areas.Some who have reading difficulties atthese grade levels may have rudimentaryskills in word recognition but needpractice in developing fluency. Othersmay be reasonably proficient in wordrecognition and fluency but need supportto develop the vocabulary and backgroundinformation they need to understandmore advanced expository and narrativetext. Still others may need explicit instruc-tion in comprehension strategies to helpthem in their understanding and analysisof text. Many students need encourage-ment and structures to read independentlyoutside class so that they can strengthenall aspects of their reading development.

Students with diagnosed needs in wordrecognition and fluency will require themost intensive interventions in grades fourthrough eight. However, teachers in self-contained classrooms and content areas

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can assist in a number of ways thosereaders who may not require the mostintensive interventions but still need toimprove their reading ability substantially.They can assist those readers by(1) scheduling opportunities for practicein developing fluency, providing age-appropriate materials that match the

students’ instructional levels; (2) providingvocabulary and information needed tounderstand literary readings and textbookchapters; (3) teaching strategies directlyfor comprehending different forms of text;and (4) organizing opportunities forindependent reading both in class and athome.

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Fourth Grade

The fourth-grade content standardscollectively represent an impor-tant transformation for students.

When students advance from the thirdgrade to the fourth grade, they make acritical transition from learning to read toreading to learn in subject-matter content.This changeover requires students to befluent and automatic readers by the end ofthe third grade so that they are preparedto read and comprehend complex narra-tive and expository texts in such contentareas as history–social science and science.An instructional priority for grades fourthrough six is a continuing focus onensuring that all students are able to readfluently and accurately. In addition,students are beginning a technologicaladventure of acquiring a new set of skills,such as basic keyboarding and familiaritywith computer terminology.

The strands to be emphasized at thefourth-grade level are listed in the adjacentcolumn under the appropriate domain.

The following sections profile focusareas within each of the strands andidentify content and instructional connec-tions that span domains, strands, andstandards.

Reading



Writing








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Fourth Grade



Word Recognition

The continuing focus on decodingwords fluently and accurately is bothappropriate and necessary for the fourthgrade. Students unable to decode wordsautomatically will not be able to compre-hend grade-appropriate narrative orexpository text. Those who are not readingat grade level should receive continuedsystematic and explicit instruction indecoding, with particular attention beingpaid to the study of multisyllabic wordsand unfamiliar technical terminology aswell as to systematic practice in readingfluency. Every effort should be made toensure that students who are not readingat grade level will:

• Receive intensive decoding instruc-tion.

• Be placed in small homogeneousgroups for language arts instruction.

• Be given ample opportunities topractice reading in text designed toreinforce instruction and written ateach student’s level.

• Receive an additional period ofreading instruction.

• Be offered a research-based readingcurriculum.

• Be systematically monitored inreading progress throughout theschool year.

• Be held to a high level of readingperformance.


Vocabulary and concept developmenthas broad applications across the domainsof reading, writing, and listening andspeaking. Although the standards empha-

size the use of external context cues atearlier grade levels, emphasis shiftsstrategically in the fourth grade (andcontinues through the tenth grade) to theuse of internal, morphological, etymologi-cal, and historical word cues. Knowledgeof affixes and roots—their meanings andorigins—should be limited to the mostcommon (and useful) morphologicalcomponents; that is, those immediatelyapplicable to the students’ current level ofvocabulary acquisition.

In addition, the standards at this leveltarget synonyms, antonyms, idioms, andwords with multiple meanings (the vastmajority of nontechnical words in En-glish). Students should be required to usea dictionary and a thesaurus to determinerelated words and concepts. Instruction innew conceptual knowledge should includeclear examples in addition to verbaldefinitions of words.

Extensive independent reading is theprimary means for increasing vocabularyknowledge (Nagy 1998). Students whoread more learn more about words andtheir meanings. Although direct, explicitteaching of word meanings is effective andimportant, it cannot produce the neededgrowth in students’ vocabulary knowledgethat should occur in the fourth grade.Students should be given ample opportu-nities to read in school and outside school.The teacher should (Baker, Simmons, andKame’enui 1998):

• Specify for students a clear purposefor reading.

• Establish objectives for each readingactivity.

• Assess students’ independent readingto determine what material they canread.

• Target specific vocabulary words tobe learned and clarify why they areimportant.

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• Hold students accountable for thecontent of what they read and theunfamiliar but important vocabularywords they read.

• Ensure multiple exposure to unfamil-iar vocabulary words.

• Teach students vocabulary-learningstrategies for use during independentreading.



The standards focus primarily on thestructural features of informational (exposi-tory) text. The features of informationaldiscourse emphasized at this level arefundamental: patterns such as compare andcontrast; central focus or theme; and use offacts, details, and examples. Many of thefundamentals are incorporated across othertext structures and genres at later gradelevels. Similarly, narratives that form thefocus of literary reading at this level are theobject of writing standards as well. Thefundamentals of narratives are also empha-sized: elements of plot, character traits andmotivations, setting, and the interactionsbetween the fundamentals.

Because some of the text forms will benew to students in the fourth grade, thestructural features of text should beintroduced systematically (i.e., from easytext structures to more complex) andjudiciously (i.e., a text structure is taughtfor a substantial amount of time initially tofoster understanding rather than for a dayhere or there). Once taught, text structuresshould be reviewed cumulatively.

We finally seem to be getting the message thatkids learn what they are taught and get topractice. . . . The point is simple: When we

identify a variable, including a text structurevariable, that looks like it might make adifference in comprehension, we ought toadopt a frontal assault strategy whenconsidering its instructional power—teachabout it systematically and make certainstudents have a chance to practice it.(Pearson and Camperell 1985, 339)

Text Appropriate to Grade Level

The features of reading comprehensionin grade-level-appropriate text introducedin the fourth grade are extensions ofcomprehension instruction at earliergrade levels and include, for example:(1) identifying main idea and significantimportant details; (2) reading for differentpurposes; (3) making predictions;(4) distinguishing between fact andopinion and cause and effect; (5) compar-ing and contrasting information on thesame topic; and (6) reading multiple-stepdirections in technical manuals. In thelater grades students are required to applythose skills in more complex tasks andcontexts (e.g., using information from avariety of consumer, workplace, or publicdocuments).


Students in the fourth grade willcontinue to learn about fundamentalelements of literature that will allow themto appreciate the rich quality and com-plexity of materials they read. The ele-ments include describing the structuraldifferences between fables, myths, fanta-sies, legends, and fairy tales as well asdefining and identifying simile, metaphor,hyperbole, and personification in literaryworks. To ensure that students are notoverwhelmed or confused by the introduc-tion of the complex range of literary

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Fourth Grade


elements specified in the standards,teachers should concentrate on:

• Identifying and introducing the leastcomplex element of literature beforethe more complex elements

• Providing ample opportunities forstudents to understand, study, andapply the individual elements beforetesting them on a combination ofelements

• Ensuring that the literature is notoverly complex for the fourth-gradelevel (e.g., unfamiliar text structure,high density of unfamiliar vocabu-lary, complex syntactical structure)

• Using literature (e.g., fable, myth,legend) that is of manageable lengthto allow students to comprehendand understand the target element

• Providing explicit and guidedinstruction during the initial phasesof learning and ensure that studentsare provided with the appropriateinstructional supports (e.g., a thinksheet or note sheet for the particulartype of text) during initial opportu-nities for independent reading.

The elements of story grammar(e.g., plot, setting, characters, motivation)continue to be a priority.

Writing Writing Strategies

Although students continue to use allstages of writing (i.e., prewriting, drafting,revising, editing, postwriting) at this level,the standards specifically address revisingand editing. (See the discussion on writingas a process at the beginning of Chapter3.) They particularly emphasize theimportance of revising and editing forcoherence and progression by adding,deleting, consolidating, and rearrangingtext (see the fourth-grade curricular andinstructional profile in a later section).

Such a standard assumes that students areable to create multiple-paragraph compo-sitions and use traditional structures(e.g., chronological order, cause and effect,similarity and difference) for conveyinginformation. It also assumes that studentscan select a focus, organizational structure,and point of view based on purpose,audience, and format. Fundamental tostudents progressing through the stages ofwriting as a process is their being able towrite clear, coherent sentences andconstruct paragraphs that develop acentral idea, focus on a particular audi-ence, and reveal a clear purpose. Studentsplan their writing by creating outlines andusing other organizational techniques. Theconventions of written discourse, such aspenmanship (i.e., writing fluidly andlegibly in cursive or joined italic), con-tinue to be emphasized.

A new substrand is research andtechnology. Research introduces studentsto a variety of print and electronic refer-ence materials and other sources ofinformation, such as almanacs, newspa-pers, and periodicals. Students are alsoexpected to demonstrate basic keyboard-ing skills and familiarity with the basics ofcomputer usage (e.g., cursor, software,memory, disk drive, hard drive).

Writing Writing Applications

Students are expected to demonstrate acommand of standard English by writingnarratives, responses to literature, informa-tion reports, and summaries. In doing so,they are required to illustrate a range ofskills, such as using concrete sensorydetails, supporting judgments, drawingfrom multiple sources of information, andframing a central question about an issueor situation.

Teachers should clarify the linkagesbetween the students’ reading and com-

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prehending different types of text struc-tures and composing the same types oftexts. During the initial stages of instruc-tion for the fourth grade in which studentsare learning to write narratives, informa-tion reports, summaries, or responses toliterature, teachers should concentrate on:

• Presenting to students clear, simple,uncluttered models of narratives,information reports, summaries, andresponses to literature

• Introducing one form of writing at atime

• Using prompts, such as a note sheet(i.e., an outline that students use totake notes) when appropriate thatidentifies the essential elements of thetext structure and allows students torecord the essential elements of aparticular writing form (e.g., narra-tive) before they generate a writtenexample on their own

• Introducing simpler forms of writing(e.g., narratives) before introducingmore complex forms (e.g., responsesto literature)

• Presenting a range of examples of aparticular form of writing beforeintroducing a new form

• Devoting extensive time and present-ing multiple opportunities forstudents to develop proficiency witheach form of writing


The correct use of mechanics and theconventions of oral and written discoursecontinues to be emphasized at this leveland include:

• Sentence structure—using simpleand compound sentences andcombining short sentences withappositives, participial phrases, andprepositional phrases

• Grammar—identifying and usingregular and irregular verbs, adverbs,prepositions, and coordinatingconjunctions in writing and speaking

• Punctuation and capitalization—using parentheses, commas in directquotations, apostrophes in thepossessive case, underlining, quota-tion marks, and italics; capitalizingtitles of magazines, newspapers,works of art, musical compositions,and the first word in quotations

• Spelling—spelling roots, inflections,prefixes, suffixes, and syllable con-structions

Note: The fifth-grade instructionalguidelines for written and oral conventionsshould also apply to the fourth grade. Andthe guidelines for spelling instructionpresented in Chapter 3 for the first gradewill be useful in the fourth grade and abovefor students who still have considerabledifficulty in spelling correctly.

Listening and SpeakingListening and SpeakingStrategies

In the fourth grade students shouldcontinue to listen critically and respondappropriately to oral communications. Thecontent standards require students to askthoughtful questions, summarize majorideas, use supporting evidence to substanti-ate conclusions, identify how languageusages reflect regional and cultural differ-ences, and give precise directions andinstructions.

During their delivery of oral communi-cations, students are expected to presenteffective introductions and conclusions; usetraditional structures for conveying infor-mation; emphasize points that make clearto listeners or viewers the important ideasand concepts; and employ details, anec-dotes, examples, volume, pitch, phrasing,

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pace, modulation, and gestures to explain,clarify, or enhance meaning. Finally,students are expected to evaluate the roleof the news media in focusing attention onevents and in forming opinions on issues.

Listening and SpeakingSpeaking Applications

Fourth graders are expected to usespeaking strategies to make narrative andinformational presentations. In doing so,students should demonstrate their abilityto relate ideas, frame a key question,provide a context for listeners to imaginean event or experience, provide insightinto why a selection is memorable, andincorporate more than one source ofinformation. They are also expected todeliver oral summaries of articles andbooks and to recite brief poems, solilo-quies, or dramatic dialogues, using cleardiction, tempo, volume, and phrasing.

Teachers should emphasize the linkagesbetween the students’ experiences inreading and composing different types oftext structures and making oral presenta-tions from those texts. For example,compositions that students have writtencan be used to create outlines they willwork from in their oral presentations. Alsoneeded will be an ample number of modelpresentations in which specific elements(e.g., volume, pace, gestures) are demon-strated. The models should focus on a fewelements at a time rather than introduce allelements at once.


The teacher can help students integratemastery of standards across domains,

strands, and academic disciplines byhaving students:

1. Read narrative and expository textaloud with grade-appropriatefluency and accuracy and withappropriate pacing, intonation, andexpression.

2. Use knowledge of root words todetermine the meaning of unknownwords within a passage and provideopportunities for students to usethe words in written compositions.

3. Use appropriate strategies whenreading for different purposes(e.g., full comprehension, locationof information, personal enjoy-ment) and in a range of contexts.

4. Make connections between themain events of the plot, theircauses, and the influence of eachevent on future actions.

5. Answer questions about theirknowledge of the situation andsetting and of a character’s traitsand motivations to determine thecauses of the character’s actions.

6. Make connections between thefocus of a composition, its organiza-tional structure, and its point ofview according to purpose, audi-ence, length, and format.

7. Create multiple-paragraph compo-sitions.

8. Complete writing and oral assign-ments in the language arts thatprovide opportunities to attaincontent standards simultaneously inhistory–social science, science, andmathematics.


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1. Introduce a dimension for revision (e.g., adding). No pre-scribed sequence exists for introducing the dimensions.However, the earlier dimensions should be easier to introduceand are commonly represented in students’ writing.

2. Introduce a second dimension for revision (e.g., deleting) oncestudents are successful with the first. Add other revisioncomponents as students develop competence.

3. Integrate new and previously taught revision componentsthrough instruction and examples that require students todiscriminate and apply all taught components.

Writing Standard 1.10


1.0 Writingstrategies

Evaluationand revision

1.10 Edit and revise selecteddrafts to improvecoherence and progres-sion by adding, deleting,consolidating, andrearranging text

Writing


Fourth Grade

Note: Keep in mind the two related objectives in this standard—revising and editing. Students will needexplicit instruction in both.

Prerequisite standards. Third-Grade Writing Strategies Standard 1.4: Revise drafts toimprove the coherence and logical progression of ideas by using an established rubric.

Corequisite standards. Fourth-Grade Writing Strategies Standards 1.1, 1.2, 1.3.

Standard 1.1: Select a focus, an organizational structure, and a point of view.

Standard 1.2: Create multiple-paragraph compositions.

Standard 1.3: Use traditional structures for conveying information.



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Decisions must be made about three critical design features in thedeletion objective:

1. What sequence of instruction will allow students to revise? Forexample, when in the sequence will students identify informa-tion that is missing in the composition?

2. What amount of information should students revise?3. What strategy will students use to rewrite or edit text on the

basis of the revision phase?

Textual Unit Size and Sequence

The sequence of writing models is critical. Carefully selected modelsallow students first to learn the strategies for revising and then toapply those strategies to their own writing. Initial text modelsshould control the difficulty of the task by beginning with focusedrevising tasks. Later texts should progress to increasingly complexcompositions. Each phase of revising requires multiple models. Apossible design sequence for adding follows.

Adding Information to a Text

The first models should contain obvious places for addition to andexpansion of the text, including statements that require supportingdetails and development. Adding information may range fromproviding a specific illustration to support a claim or adding a wordor a short phrase to clarify a concept.

Example:

Josh’s dog Rex was overweight and lazy. He weighed too much and sataround all day. He didn’t get much exercise. He only got excited when itwas time to eat. Josh was at school during the day. Dinner was Rex’sfavorite time. Dinner was the time he liked the best. At dinner time Rexmoved quickly, jumping and hopping and dashing and running arounduntil Josh put the food in his dish. Josh did his homework in the evening.

Providing Strategies for Students

This strategy involves reading the model with the students whileadding information to the text. The teacher reads the text first.Subsequent readings are done by student volunteers. Then theteacher provides the students with questioning strategies aimed atidentifying segments of the text that need development, addition,and expansion. After the students have had enough experience withthe text to make appropriate comments, the teacher asks the stu-dents to identify the first segment of the text that requires additionalinformation (supporting details).

Example: The writer’s topic sentence or claim is the following:“Josh’s dog was overweight and lazy.” The teacher asks, “How can

InstructionalDesign

Objective:Identifying TextThat NeedsRevising

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we provide the reader with proof that Josh’s dog was overweight andlazy?” Students add appropriate details that develop the writer’sclaim. The teacher records the students’ suggestions for additions.They should include appropriate words, phrases, and supportingdetails.

When the first paragraph is complete, the teacher asks the studentsto identify the next idea that requires additional information. Theteacher asks, “Does Josh ever get excited? If so, how can the writerprove it?” The teacher records appropriate additions to this sectionof the text. Then the teacher says, “We have two pictures of Rex.What proof do we have that he is overweight and lazy?” Thestudents identify the supporting details. “What proof do we havethat he is sometimes active and excited?” The students identify thesupporting details, and the teacher records the additions.

The teacher asks, “On the basis of the information that we havegathered, what can we conclude about Josh’s dog, Rex?” The teacherrecords the conclusion.

Deletion (Extending the Lesson)

Once the students have identified the areas that require additionsand have composed and placed the additions, they eliminateinformation no longer germane to the text. The teacher asks thestudents, “What information remains in this story that does not fitwith the writer’s topic?”

The students are then asked to:

1. Eliminate complete sentences or phrases that do not tell moreabout the topic.

2. Delete individual words that do not tell more about the topic.3. Rewrite sentences by combining sentences or sentence parts

that tell the same thing about the topic and deleting unneces-sary words.

4. Proceed from paragraph to paragraph.5. Edit the revised text to ensure that the written-language

conventions (e.g., grammar, capitalization, punctuation,spelling) are correct.

The teacher records the deletions.

Internalizing and Applying Writing Strategies

The teacher asks the students to rewrite the completed composition.When the rewriting is complete, the teacher asks the students toidentify the strategies used to revise the original model. They shouldinclude the following:

• Identifying topic sentences• Providing additional information for each topic identified


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• Drafting an appropriate conclusion• Deleting information not pertinent to the topic

Next Steps

The teacher types up the strategies identified by the students, andthe students keep the list of strategies in a writing folder. Thestrategies should also be posted in the classroom in poster form.Students should have multiple opportunities for teacher-directedrevision. Progress should proceed from explicit teacher-directedinstruction to guided practice to independent practice.

When students can edit models provided by the teacher, they areready to practice revising their own work by systematically applyingthe strategies for revision to their own prose. They are asked to:

1. Identify topic sentences that need further development.2. Add clearer words, phrases, and supporting details.3. Create appropriate paragraphs determined by the topics

identified for addition.4. Delete information that does not fit the composition, using

steps for deletion.5. Edit while using appropriate language conventions.

1. Define revising and tell why it is important to know when toadd and delete information in a text.

2. Establish rules for adding and deleting.3. Present the steps in adding and deleting information to revise

text effectively.4. Model multiple paragraphs containing information that needs

to be revised. The text should include vocabulary familiar tothe students, and the information to be revised should repre-sent various parts of speech.

5. Encourage students to think out loud as they read the para-graph and (a) locate the sentences that need expansion;(b) locate the sentences or phrases that do not tell more aboutthe topic; and (c) use the proofreader’s deletion mark toeliminate segments that need to be deleted.

6. Repeat the lesson, using appropriate materials.7. Begin the editing phase once revising and rewriting are

complete. Students should edit text to ensure that the writtenlanguage conventions are correct.

8. Do not underestimate the amount of time and practice neededto develop proficiency in revising and editing.

Objective:Revisingthe Student-GeneratedText



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1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Conduct anentry-level assessment of the students’ overall proficiency on thestandard. Revise and edit selected drafts to improve coherence andprogression by adding, deleting, consolidating, rearranging text,and correcting. On the basis of that assessment, identify thedimensions of revision and editing that need to be taught andthe level of instruction necessary. Use the entry-level assessmentas your guide for instructional planning. With the assessmentyou can identify students who are proficient in revising andediting and those who need systematic instruction.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objectivea. The assessment phase is designed to determine students’

progress and mastery of skills that have been taught as well asthe retention of those skills. The assessment measuresprogress toward components (i.e., specific objectives) of thestandard rather than the entire standard.

b. A series of tasks should be constructed to assess students’mastery in revising at several levels (paragraph, multipleparagraph, self-composition). Assessment tasks shouldparallel the objectives and requirements of instruction. Thesequence of tasks should progress toward the goal of theinstructional unit, beginning with simpler units and require-ments and progressing to more complex applications. Thesemeasures are administered on the completion of a particularunit of instruction. For example, the paragraph assessmentshould be made on the completion of revising and editing atthe paragraph level.

c. On completion of instruction in revising through adding ordeleting, a measure is administered to assess progress towardthe objective. The integration of addition and deletion isassessed on completion of the specific instruction unit.

d. This assessment sequence continues through the remainingcomponents of instruction necessary to achieve the standard.

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. On completion of allinstructional units, assess student performance according to theprocedures used to assess entry-level performance. Give stu-dents a multiple-paragraph composition to revise and edit. Youmay also want to have students write their compositions on astandard topic to assess their ability to revise and edit their ownwriting. During the year systematically assess the students’retention of editing and revising skills and proficiency inmeeting other writing standards.

Post-testAssessment



Assessment

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a. Passages should be appropriate to the instructional readinglevels of students. If not, students may work with peers oran aide for assistance with word recognition. In addition,teachers may need to use supplementary examples from theinstructional resources designed for universal access. Theexamples control more carefully the amount and type ofinformation to be added or deleted. At first, exercises mightfocus only on missing or redundant information; later,more subtle forms would be introduced, such as colorlessdescriptions or irrelevant information.

b. Expository text may be used that provides informationrelated to grade-level content standards in the other disci-plines (history–social science, science, and mathematics).

2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Use the entry-levelassessment to determine whether students are proficientaccording to the standard or need instruction. If foundproficient in the grade-level assessment, consider assessingperformance according to the parallel standards for succes-sively higher grades until the appropriate instructional level isdetermined. Instruction at that level should be provided toensure that students are challenged. The students’ rates oflearning should be subject to ongoing monitoring to ensurethat they are progressing at rates commensurate with theirabilities. If students are not proficient according to the stan-dard, the teacher may wish to:

a. Adjust the pace of instruction because the students may notrequire the same number of examples or amount of practiceas their peers do.

b. Introduce more than one revising or editing dimension at atime.

c. Use supplementary examples from the instructional materi-als designed for universal access that increase the complexityof the passages students edit for independent work.


a. English learners can learn to add and delete text wellwithout developing knowledge of the rhetorical devices thatenable them to write cohesive, coherent text. To helpEnglish learners achieve Writing Standard 1.10, providethem with specific, explicit instruction concerning transi-tion phrases (e.g., first, second, third, next, in conclusion) andpronoun reference (e.g., he, she, it, they). Cohesive devices(such as transition phrases and pronouns), which are oftenused differently in the students’ first languages, are useful in


AdvancedLearners

UniversalAccess

English Learners

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establishing cohesive, coherent texts. Note: Many Asianstudents use full noun phrases to establish cohesion insteadof the pronouns used by native English speakers.

b. English learners benefit greatly from sentence-combiningexercises. They need extensive guidance and practice in usingsuch grammatical structures as relative clauses (e.g., I like theman who lives on the corner); conditional statements (e.g., If Iwere you, I would not do that); and subordinate clauses(e.g., She received good grades because she worked hard).

c. Because English learners are still developing proficiency inEnglish, care should be taken in organizing peer revision andpeer editing. Individual students should receive feedbackfrom the teacher on their writing and any grammatical orother errors they have made. Errors in grammar or othermistakes common to many students in the class should bethe subject of additional classroom instruction and practice.

d. In an English-language mainstream classroom, it is impor-tant to group English learners with students proficient inEnglish. When to do so is impossible, the teacher will needto provide additional models of input for students as well asopportunities to use the models.

e. Consider using expository text that provides informationrelated to grade-level content standards in the other disci-plines (history–social science, science, and mathematics).

Instructional materials should carefully sequence the introduction ofthe dimensions of revising and editing. Focus first on the number ofobjectives introduced, then on the number and range of examples.Are the examples adequate? Or will you need to invest time creatingyour own examples? Are assessment passages and examples included?Assessment tasks should be available for each phase of assessment:entry-level assessment for instructional planning, monitoring ofprogress toward the instructional objective, and post-test assessmenttoward the standard.



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Profile

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Fourth Grade

Reading



Word Recognition

1.1 Read narrative and expository textaloud with grade-appropriate fluencyand accuracy and with appropriatepacing, intonation, and expression.


1.2 Apply knowledge of word origins,derivations, synonyms, antonyms, andidioms to determine the meaning ofwords and phrases.

1.3 Use knowledge of root words todetermine the meaning of unknownwords within a passage.

1.4 Know common roots and affixesderived from Greek and Latin and usethis knowledge to analyze the meaningof complex words (e.g., international).

1.5 Use a thesaurus to determine relatedwords and concepts.

1.6 Distinguish and interpret words withmultiple meanings.


Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They draw upon avariety of comprehension strategies as needed(e.g., generating and responding to essentialquestions, making predictions, comparinginformation from several sources). Theselections in Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eightillustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students. In addition totheir regular school reading, students read one-half million words annually, including a goodrepresentation of grade-level-appropriatenarrative and expository text (e.g., classic andcontemporary literature, magazines, newspa-pers, online information).


2.1 Identify structural patterns found ininformational text (e.g., compare andcontrast, cause and effect, sequential orchronological order, proposition andsupport) to strengthen comprehension.


2.2 Use appropriate strategies when readingfor different purposes (e.g., fullcomprehension, location of informa-tion, personal enjoyment).

2.3 Make and confirm predictions abouttext by using prior knowledge and ideaspresented in the text itself, including

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illustrations, titles, topic sentences,important words, and foreshadowingclues.

2.4 Evaluate new information and hypoth-eses by testing them against knowninformation and ideas.

2.5 Compare and contrast information onthe same topic after reading severalpassages or articles.

2.6 Distinguish between cause and effectand between fact and opinion inexpository text.

2.7 Follow multiple-step instructions in abasic technical manual (e.g., how to usecomputer commands or video games).




3.1 Describe the structural differences ofvarious imaginative forms of literature,including fantasies, fables, myths,legends, and fairy tales.


3.2 Identify the main events of the plot,their causes, and the influence of eachevent on future actions.

3.3 Use knowledge of the situation andsetting and of a character’s traits andmotivations to determine the causes forthat character’s actions.

3.4 Compare and contrast tales fromdifferent cultures by tracing the exploitsof one character type and developtheories to account for similar tales indiverse cultures (e.g., trickster tales).

3.5 Define figurative language (e.g., simile,metaphor, hyperbole, personification)and identify its use in literary works.

Writing


Students write clear, coherent sentences andparagraphs that develop a central idea. Theirwriting shows they consider the audience andpurpose. Students progress through the stagesof the writing process (e.g., prewriting,drafting, revising, editing successive versions).


1.1 Select a focus, an organizationalstructure, and a point of view basedupon purpose, audience, length, andformat requirements.

1.2 Create multiple-paragraph composi-tions:

a. Provide an introductory paragraph.b. Establish and support a central idea

with a topic sentence at or near thebeginning of the first paragraph.

c. Include supporting paragraphs withsimple facts, details, and explana-tions.

d. Conclude with a paragraph thatsummarizes the points.

e. Use correct indention.

1.3 Use traditional structures for conveyinginformation (e.g., chronological order,cause and effect, similarity and differ-ence, and posing and answering aquestion).

Penmanship

1.4 Write fluidly and legibly in cursive orjoined italic.

Research and Technology

1.5 Quote or paraphrase informationsources, citing them appropriately.

1.6 Locate information in reference textsby using organizational features(e.g., prefaces, appendixes).

1.7 Use various reference materials(e.g., dictionary, thesaurus, cardcatalog, encyclopedia, online informa-tion) as an aid to writing.

1.8 Understand the organization ofalmanacs, newspapers, and periodicalsand how to use those print materials.

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1.9 Demonstrate basic keyboarding skillsand familiarity with computer termi-nology (e.g., cursor, software, memory,disk drive, hard drive).


1.10 Edit and revise selected drafts toimprove coherence and progression byadding, deleting, consolidating, andrearranging text.



Using the writing strategies of grade fouroutlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:


a. Relate ideas, observations, orrecollections of an event or experi-ence.

b. Provide a context to enable thereader to imagine the world of theevent or experience.

c. Use concrete sensory details.d. Provide insight into why the selected

event or experience is memorable.

2.2 Write responses to literature:

a. Demonstrate an understanding ofthe literary work.

b. Support judgments throughreferences to both the text and priorknowledge.

2.3 Write information reports:

a. Frame a central question about anissue or situation.

b. Include facts and details for focus.c. Draw from more than one source of

information (e.g., speakers, books,newspapers, other media sources).

2.4 Write summaries that contain the mainideas of the reading selection and themost significant details.





Sentence Structure

1.1 Use simple and compound sentences inwriting and speaking.

1.2 Combine short, related sentences withappositives, participial phrases,adjectives, adverbs, and prepositionalphrases.

Grammar

1.3 Identify and use regular and irregularverbs, adverbs, prepositions, andcoordinating conjunctions in writingand speaking.

Punctuation

1.4 Use parentheses, commas in directquotations, and apostrophes in thepossessive case of nouns and incontractions.

1.5 Use underlining, quotation marks, oritalics to identify titles of documents.

Capitalization

1.6 Capitalize names of magazines,newspapers, works of art, musicalcompositions, organizations, andthe first word in quotations whenappropriate.

Spelling

1.7 Spell correctly roots, inflections,suffixes and prefixes, and syllableconstructions.

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Comprehension

1.1 Ask thoughtful questions and respondto relevant questions with appropriateelaboration in oral settings.

1.2 Summarize major ideas and supportingevidence presented in spoken messagesand formal presentations.

1.3 Identify how language usages(e.g., sayings, expressions) reflectregions and cultures.

1.4 Give precise directions and instruc-tions.


1.5 Present effective introductions andconclusions that guide and inform thelistener’s understanding of importantideas and evidence.

1.6 Use traditional structures for conveyinginformation (e.g., cause and effect,similarity and difference, and posingand answering a question).

1.7 Emphasize points in ways that help thelistener or viewer to follow importantideas and concepts.

1.8 Use details, examples, anecdotes, orexperiences to explain or clarifyinformation.

1.9 Use volume, pitch, phrasing, pace,modulation, and gestures appropriatelyto enhance meaning.

Analysis and Evaluation of Oral MediaCommunication

1.10 Evaluate the role of the media infocusing attention on events and informing opinions on issues.



Using the speaking strategies of grade fouroutlined in Listening and Speaking Standard1.0, students:

2.1 Make narrative presentations:

a. Relate ideas, observations, orrecollections about an event orexperience.

b. Provide a context that enables thelistener to imagine the circumstancesof the event or experience.

c. Provide insight into why the selectedevent or experience is memorable.

2.2 Make informational presentations:

a. Frame a key question.b. Include facts and details that help

listeners to focus.c. Incorporate more than one source of

information (e.g., speakers, books,newspapers, television or radioreports).

2.3 Deliver oral summaries of articles andbooks that contain the main ideas ofthe event or article and the mostsignificant details.

2.4 Recite brief poems (i.e., two or threestanzas), soliloquies, or dramaticdialogues, using clear diction, tempo,volume, and phrasing.




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Fourth Grade


Standards

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The fifth-grade standards andinstruction build on and extendthe foundational and transitional

skills begun in the fourth grade. Theinstructional priority for both the fourthgrade and the fifth grade is a continuedfocus on ensuring that all students are ableto read fluently and accurately and aretherefore prepared to read and compre-hend complex narrative and expositorytexts in the content areas. In addition,students in the fifth grade are introducedto new, advanced forms of evaluation,such as expository critique and literarycriticism in the reading domain.

The strands to be emphasized at thefifth-grade level are listed in the adjacentcolumn under the appropriate domains.

The following sections profile focusareas within each of the strands andidentify content and instructional connec-tions that span domains, strands, andstandards.


Fifth Grade

Reading


2.0 Reading Comprehension(Focus on Informational Materials)


Writing








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Word Recognition

The fifth-grade standards continue tofocus on decoding words fluently andaccurately. Students are required to readaloud narrative and expository textfluently and accurately and use appropri-ate pacing, intonation, and expression. Asin the fourth grade, students who are notreading at grade level should receivecontinued systematic, explicit instructionin decoding or comprehension strategiesor both. (See the fourth-grade sectionearlier in this chapter for a discussion ofsystematic, explicit instruction in reading.)


The vocabulary and concept develop-ment standards at this level requirestudents to understand and explain words,including using figurative and metaphori-cal words in context and abstract rootsand affixes derived from Greek and Latinto analyze the meaning of complex words.The standards continue to emphasize theuse of internal, morphological, etymologi-cal, and historical word cues. In addition,students are expected to understand andexplain frequently used synonyms,antonyms, and homographs.

Students should continue to engage inextensive independent reading as theprimary means of increasing vocabularyknowledge (Nagy 1998). Students shouldbe given ample opportunities to read. Inaddition, vocabulary instruction mustcontinue to be systematic (see the vocabu-lary guidelines for the fourth grade).

Reading ReadingComprehension(Focus on InformationalMaterials)

The fifth-grade standards focus primarilyon the structural features of informationalmaterials, comprehension and analysis ofgrade-level-appropriate text, and expositorycritique. Students are expected to under-stand how text structures (e.g., formats,graphics, sequences, diagrams, illustrations,charts, maps) make information accessibleand usable and analyze text organizedin sequential or chronological order.In addition, students should use basiccomprehension strategies, such as (1) dis-cerning main ideas and concepts in texts;(2) identifying and assessing evidence thatsupports ideas; (3) drawing inferences,conclusions, or generalizations about text;and (4) identifying textual evidence andprior knowledge to support those infer-ences, conclusions, and generalizations.The expository critique, introduced at thislevel, requires students to distinguish facts,supported inferences, and opinions in text.

Instruction in reading comprehension inthe fifth grade should:

• Use texts in which complex linguisticand syntactical features are appropri-ate for the fifth-grade level. Similarly,the number of unfamiliar vocabularywords should be carefully controlledto be manageable for students.

• Ensure that students have the prereq-uisite knowledge and skills to compre-hend the text.

• Begin with teacher-directed instruc-tion, including modeling and guid-ance, and gradually shift responsibilityto the student.

• Include repeated opportunities forstudents to answer comprehensionquestions during the reading of thetext.

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Fifth Grade


• Require students to read some of thetext aloud, at least initially.

• Provide sufficient practice for stu-dents to reach a high level of perfor-mance for one level of text complexitybefore introducing the next level.


As they did in the fourth grade, studentsin the fifth grade will continue to learnabout the fundamental elements of litera-ture, including identifying and analyzingthe characteristics of poetry, drama, fiction,and nonfiction and explaining the appro-priateness of the literary forms chosen. Inaddition, the elements of narrative texts areemphasized. Students are required to(1) identify the main problem or conflictof the plot and explain how it is resolved;(2) contrast the actions, motives, andappearances of characters; (3) understandand recognize themes in sample works; and(4) describe the function and effect ofcommon literary devices (e.g., imagery,metaphor, symbolism).

An effective instructional strategy forteaching the elements of narrative text is toemploy the structure of story grammar,which has been described in previousgrade-level overviews. The strategy involves(1) introducing and sequencing the ele-ments of narrative text from easy tocomplex; (2) using a note sheet that allowsstudents to record information about eachstory element (e.g., character information,conflict or problem, theme) as they read astory or text; and (3) using a think-aloudstrategy in conjunction with the note sheetwhereby the teacher summarizes and pointsout how to anticipate elements of storygrammar in the text. This strategy can alsobe extended and used with contrastinginformation on character according towhich students locate, record, and contrastthe motives of two characters. However,

this extension requires students to beproficient in identifying character ele-ments before they are contrasted.

Students are also required to evaluatethe meaning of archetypal patterns andsymbols and the author’s use of varioustechniques (e.g., appeal of characters in apicture or book, logic and credibility ofplots and settings) to influence thereaders’ perspectives.



As students in the fifth grade continueto progress through the stages of writingas a process, they are required to createmultiple-paragraph narrative and exposi-tory compositions. To do so, they mustestablish and develop a topic or plot,describe the setting or details that link oneparagraph to another, and present anending or concluding paragraph thatsummarizes important ideas and details.

Important instructional considerationsfor the writing process include:

• Ensuring that students understandthe text structure before they beginto employ that structure in theirwriting

• Using that text structure as a tool fororganizing a written composition

• Demonstrating that writing iscomposed of several different stages:prewriting, drafting, revising,editing, and postwriting

• Providing examples or models ofwriting that make clear the impor-tant features (e.g., main problem,conflict, character motives, theme,imagery) of narrative and expositorycompositions

• Using strategies that make conspicu-ous for students exactly how toidentify, comprehend, and recordthe critical features of compositionson a note sheet (For example, the

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teacher reads aloud a piece of writingand explicitly identifies it.)

• Demonstrating a range of examplesof one particular feature at a time(e.g., conflict) in one type of text(e.g., narrative), then introducingnew features (e.g., main problem orconflict, plot)


Students must learn to (1) use organiza-tional features of printed or electronic textto locate relevant information;(2) create simple documents, using elec-tronic media and employing organizationalfeatures (e.g., passwords, entry and pull-down menus, word searchers, spell checks);and (3) use a thesaurus to identify alterna-tive word choices and meanings.

Instruction in the research and technol-ogy standard of locating relevant informa-tion should:

• Involve a topic that is familiar andinteresting to students.

• Begin with a clear and unambiguousset of examples of informationrelevant to the topic.

• Include examples of informationobviously irrelevant to the topic.

• Consist of teacher-directed or guidedinstruction that reveals to studentsthe requirements for locating relevantinformation.

• Progress from examples involvingclearly relevant information to thosethat require more critical discrimina-tion of relevant and irrelevantinformation.


Students are expected to continue torevise and edit manuscripts to improve themeaning and focus of writing by adding,deleting, consolidating, clarifying,rearranging words and sentences, andmaking final corrections. (See the instruc-tional profile of this standard for the fourthgrade.)

Writing Writing Applications(Genres and TheirCharacteristics)

Students are expected to write narra-tive, expository, persuasive, and descrip-tive texts of at least 500 to 700 words foreach text and continue to demonstrate acommand of standard English. They arealso required to write narratives; responsesto literature; research reports aboutimportant ideas, issues, or events; andpersuasive letters or compositions.

General instructional guidelines forteaching the different types of text struc-tures include:

1. Providing students with ampleopportunities to compose each textstructure and receive written,systematic, and instructive feed-back on their writing

2. Using procedural facilitators suchas think sheets or note sheets tohelp structure and organize infor-mation

3. Modeling each stage of the writingprocess (prewriting, drafting,revising, editing, postwriting) andproviding ample opportunities forstudents to become proficient ateach stage.

4. Providing explicit, clear criteria(e.g., use of an editor’s checklist)for students to follow in editingwritten compositions


Students are expected to have a com-mand of the English-language conven-tions, including sentence structure,grammar, punctuation, capitalization, andspelling. The conventions can be concep-tualized as discrete skills and taught instrands. Instruction by strand employs an

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Fifth Grade


incremental and progressive approach toteaching specific skills and strategies withinand across a larger domain. For example, awriting lesson might include separate andindividual strands of instruction in punc-tuation, grammar, and sentence structure.Each strand is specific to the particularwritten convention (e.g., conventions forgrammar and punctuation) and is relatedto the larger domain of writing applica-tions (e.g., persuasive letter or composi-tion).

The parts of speech can be confusing tostudents if instruction is not clear. Teach-ing demonstrations should include anadequate number of examples, bothpositive and negative, of a part of speechthat the student is able to identify. Forexample, students must learn that thewords eat, ate, has eaten, and will eat are allverbs. Verbs in the present and past tensescan be presented first and followed at alater time by two-word verbs, such as haseaten, will eat, and is eating.

When teaching students to identify theparts of speech, the teacher should se-quence the instruction so that the studentscan learn that many words can serve asdifferent parts of speech according to howthe word is used in a sentence. For ex-ample, the word running may function as anoun (e.g., Running is fun); as an adjective(e.g., The running water in the streammoved us along quickly); or as part of averb (e.g., We were running).

Cumulative review is particularlyimportant in teaching the parts of speech.Once students learn a new part of speech,they should be given exercises in whichsentences include examples of the new partof speech along with previously introducedand taught parts of speech. Review andpractice should be frequent enough toprovide for understanding and retention.

When showing students how to use aparticular word or phrase or other struc-

ture, the teacher should include a range ofpositive examples and carefully selectedand sequenced negative examples. Thenegative examples serve to rule out likelymisinterpretations.

When introducing a new type ofsentence structure, the teacher shouldprovide adequate practice in writingsentences before requiring students to usethe new sentence type in writing passages.Those assignments should be structured toprompt usage of the new sentence type. Inaddition, the teacher should provideadequate cumulative review to facilitateunderstanding and retention as well asexercises requiring the students to reviseexisting passages by combining sentencesand thereby create a new type of sentencestructure. Students should be taught notonly how to create new sentence types butwhen to use them. For example, somestudents will need careful instruction todetermine when words, phrases, or clausesshould be joined by and, or, or but.

When a new mark of punctuation isintroduced, exercises should be includedthat provide adequate practice first in howto use the new mark and then in when touse it. For example, when students learnhow to write sentences that begin with aclause that tells when (e.g., After the sunwent down, the mosquitoes becameunbearable), some students are likely tobegin using commas even when the clausecomes at the end of the sentence. Studentsneed adequate practice to determine whennot to use the new punctuation.


Like fourth-grade students, fifth-gradestudents are expected to continue to listencritically and respond appropriately to oralcommunications. However, they are also

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expected to be more engaged as listenersand speakers by asking questions that seekinformation already discussed; interpret-ing a speaker’s verbal and nonverbalmessages, purposes, and perspectives; andmaking inferences or drawing conclusionsbased on an oral report. The standards forthe organization and delivery of oralcommunication are the same as those forthe fourth grade (i.e., select a focus,organizational structure, and point of viewfor an oral presentation).

Students are also expected to identify,analyze, and critique persuasive techniques(e.g., promises, dares, flattery, glitteringgeneralizations) and identify logicalfallacies used in oral presentations andmedia messages. Finally, they are to takean active role in analyzing the media assources of information, entertainment,persuasion, interpretation of events, andtransmission of culture.

Listening and SpeakingSpeaking Applications(Genres and TheirCharacteristics)

Fifth graders are expected to usespeaking strategies to deliver narrative andinformative presentations and oral re-sponses to literature. Specific skills to beintegrated include establishing a situationor plot, showing the listener what hap-pens; framing questions to direct aninvestigation; establishing a controllingidea or topic; developing a topic withsimple facts, details, examples, andexplanations; summarizing significantevents and details; articulating an under-standing of several ideas or images; andusing examples or textual evidence fromthe work to support conclusions.

A systematic schedule for introducing,teaching, and linking speaking strategies

with similar standards in reading andwriting should be developed. Students willrequire clear examples of each type ofpresentation and adequate practice andfeedback for each of the requirements ofthe presentations (e.g., establishing asituation or plot; showing the listener whathappens, framing questions to direct aninvestigation, and establishing a controllingidea or topic).


The teacher can help students integratemastery of standards across domains,strands, and academic disciplines by havingstudents:

1. Read aloud narrative and expositorytext fluently and accurately andwith appropriate pacing, intonation,and expression.

2. Use knowledge of word origins todetermine the meaning of unknownwords.

3. Demonstrate how print andelectronic text features (e.g., format,graphics, sequence, diagrams,illustrations, charts, maps) makeinformation accessible and usable.

4. Create multiple-paragraph narrativecompositions, using electronicmedia and employing organiza-tional features.

5. Add, delete, consolidate, clarify, andrearrange words and sentences.

6. Use topics and examples for speak-ing, writing, and editing assign-ments that relate to grade fivehistory–social science and sciencecontent standards.


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Corequisite standards. Fifth-Grade Literary Response and Analysis Standard 3.3:Contrast the actions, motives, and appearances of characters in a work of fiction anddiscuss the importance of the contrasts to the plot or theme.

Fifth-Grade Writing Strategies Standard 1.1: Create multiple-paragraph narrativecompositions.



3.0 Literacyresponse andanalysis

Narrative analysisof grade-level-appropriate text

3.2 Identify the mainproblem or conflictin the plot and explainhow it is resolved.

Reading


Fifth Grade

Identify the main problem or conflict of the plot, explain how it isresolved, and employ that analysis in written and oral presentations.

The identification of conflict and resolution in the plots of novelsand short stories is fundamental for more sophisticated aspects ofliterary analysis. In addition, those elements of plot are central toquality narrative compositions and oral presentations.

Following the suggested sequence for systematic instruction, theteacher might:

1. Begin the sequence with Literary Response and AnalysisStandard 3.2, analyzing and evaluating conflict and resolutionin narratives.

2. Teach students explicitly, through direct instruction or guideddiscussion, the basic critical attributes of a good plot: aprotagonist with a problem (conflict), an antagonist who



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interferes with the protagonist’s attempts to solve the problem,some unsuccessful efforts (because of the antagonist’s interfer-ence) to solve the problem, and a final successful solution(conflict resolution).

3. Note that at this level the antagonist should be concrete(e.g., a “bad person”). Students will learn the elements betterinitially if they do not have to analyze abstract conflicts, suchas mental conflict within the protagonist.

4. Focus as much on unsuccessful attempts to resolve the conflictas on the final resolution. Students should note the ways inwhich the protagonist learns from the lack of success.

5. Emphasize the importance of a satisfying resolution for readers.One way to do so is through examples of unsatisfying resolu-tions.

6. Have the students apply the basic elements in their ownwriting once they have mastered them (Writing StrategiesStandards 1.1a–c, 2.1a–b).

7. Provide students with an overt strategy for planning theirnarrative compositions (prewriting). For instance, you mighthave the students first identify the protagonist and antagonistand the conflict between them, then skip to planning asatisfying resolution, and finally go back to outline unsuccess-ful attempts to resolve the conflict. This strategy should beimplemented flexibly to capture the reiterative process ofplanning narratives.

8. Require students to develop plots that are promising as theydraft a piece of writing. Because drafting is a difficult task atthis level, a good plan will help ensure a successful draft.

9. Incorporate other standards into the instruction (e.g., WritingStrategies Standard 1.6).

10. Once students have successfully written and revised a narrativewith strong plot elements, have them modify their stories fororal presentation (Speaking Applications Standard 2.1).

11. Compare and contrast the written and oral presentations ofthe same story. Emphasize, for example, how plot elements arethe same for both but that oral presentations allow for rhetori-cal devices that cannot be used in written documents. Studentscan show their audience some elements of a story that have tobe told in written documents.

Some standards presented in the earlier grades address the basicelements of story grammar. Therefore, students should be assessedinitially to determine the extent to which they might have alreadymastered the key elements of plot (see “Assessment” following).


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Fifth Grade


Assuming that most students will need more instruction or more in-depth instruction in the elements of plot, teachers should:

1. Have students examine several short stories to learn thecommonality of plot elements across stories. One or morestories should be weak, especially as to conflict resolution.

2. Walk through a few stories with students, beginning with verystrong hints about the plot elements in each but graduallyreducing the hints to ensure that students can recognize theelements on their own.

3. Consider establishing cooperative work groups, especiallyduring the planning phase of writing a narrative. Serving as anaudience for one another, the students should tell their storyto their peers in their group, working off their plot outline. Inthat way they are likely to learn whether the plot resolutionthey have in mind is satisfying before they commit themselvestoo much to their stories. Cooperative work is most appropri-ate either before students begin to write or between thedrafting and revising stages of the writing process.

4. Present students with a strategy for developing a good plotoutline and assist students liberally during the plot-planningphase of writing.

1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. The mostimportant pretest information for this standard is the extent towhich students are already familiar with the fundamentals ofnarrative plots. Students might be asked to work from a goodshort story to identify the fundamentals present in that story.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective.Assessing students’ achieving the objectives of narrative plotswill be facilitated greatly if instruction follows well-differenti-ated steps as outlined previously. Teachers can use the workproduced at each step to evaluate whether to spend a littlemore time on that step or to move forward confidently.

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. Usual state- ordistrict-required formal assessments contribute to part of thepicture of student achievement toward standards. In addition,the types of assignments teachers routinely use in determininga major part of student grades serve an important role towardgiving a complete picture of achievement. For example, a finalwritten composition in published form should be part of thesummative evaluation for students. However, a summativeevaluation should assess individual accountability. Writingassignments that students complete on their own meet thatrequirement better than assignments in which students workcooperatively.

Assessment

Post-testAssessment




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a. Some reading selections used to illustrate plot elements canbe taken from below-grade-level discourse. At this stage themost important goal is for students to learn the fundamen-tal elements of plot (rather than demonstrate grade-levelreading ability).

b. Some lower-performing students might lack the ability tocreate a good conflict and resolution on their own. Tofacilitate the inclusion of such students in the regularcurriculum, teachers can provide those students with moreprompting.

c. Students who do have difficulty in making oral presenta-tions should (1) be allowed to read their presentations; and(2) be given ample opportunities to practice the delivery oftheir presentations (with constructive feedback) beforebeing required to make a final presentation to the entiregroup.

2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Because these studentsare more likely to have a good command of plot elements,they may be encouraged, after the teacher has determined theextent of their competence, to work with examples in whichconflict and resolution are more subtle. Note that high-achieving students may be given opportunities to interact witheach other in homogeneous cooperative groups. Advancedlearners may also occasionally serve from time to time asmentors in mixed-ability groups. These students may readstories above their grade level that have more sophisticatedplots (e.g., stories based upon a psychological conflict withina single character.) Note that creating a good plot can bechallenging for any student at any level. (One form of profes-sional writer’s block is the inability to come up with a satisfy-ing plot resolution.)

Although advanced learners should be challenged, the teachershould base expectations for achievement on observed perfor-mance and information gained from periodic teacher-studentconferences regarding the difficulty of the material, the pacing,and the level of student motivation.

3. Students Who Are English Learners. In classes with Englishlearners, teachers should consider reading aloud from one ortwo of the models used to teach fundamental plot elements.The students may experience no difficulty in learning plotelements conceptually but may be limited in their ability tocomprehend the written material and express their conceptual

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knowledge in writing. To assist English learners in their work,teachers should:

a. Simplify the task for English learners by focusing moreattention initially on the plot elements in a narrativecomposition and less on other aspects of writing.

b. Note that although all students have difficulty in focusingon all aspects of written discourse at once, English learnersespecially may need additional time to complete tasks andadditional practice.

c. Teach students how to switch between past and presenttenses to develop narrative plots. (“This is a story about agirl who fell in love with a toad.”)

d. Provide corrective feedback to students on their composi-tions to help them with standard English conventions. Thefeedback needs to be shaped to the specific needs of Englishlearners and should always be presented gently and posi-tively.

e. Encourage English learners to practice their English-speaking skills. They should be allowed to practice theiroral presentations before presenting them in class andshould be allowed to use visual aids as prompts if necessary.

Instructional materials should supply teachers with instructionalstrategies, procedural facilitators, and the types of model textdescribed above. Relatively poor models—which are effectiveinstructional tools—are not the types of discourse teachers canlocate easily on their own. (However, teachers should consider usingsome anonymous examples of student writing from previous years.)Publishers should give special care to providing effective tools forteachers to help students with special needs.



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Fifth Grade

Reading


Students use their knowledge of word originsand word relationships, as well as historicaland literary context clues, to determine themeaning of specialized vocabulary and tounderstand the precise meaning of grade-level-appropriate words.

Word Recognition

1.1 Read aloud narrative and expositorytext fluently and accurately and withappropriate pacing, intonation, andexpression.


1.2 Use word origins to determine themeaning of unknown words.

1.3 Understand and explain frequently usedsynonyms, antonyms, and homographs.

1.4 Know abstract, derived roots and affixesfrom Greek and Latin and use thisknowledge to analyze the meaning ofcomplex words (e.g., controversial).

1.5 Understand and explain the figurativeand metaphorical use of words incontext.

2.0 Reading Comprehension(Focus on InformationalMaterials)

Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They describe andconnect the essential ideas, arguments, andperspectives of the text by using their knowl-edge of text structure, organization, andpurpose. The selections in RecommendedReadings in Literature, Kindergarten ThroughGrade Eight illustrate the quality and complex-ity of the materials to be read by students. Inaddition, by grade eight, students read onemillion words annually on their own, includ-ing a good representation of grade-level-appropriate narrative and expository text(e.g., classic and contemporary literature,magazines, newspapers, online information).In grade five, students make progress towardthis goal.


2.1 Understand how text features(e.g., format, graphics, sequence,diagrams, illustrations, charts, maps)make information accessible and usable.

2.2 Analyze text that is organized insequential or chronological order.


2.3 Discern main ideas and conceptspresented in texts, identifying andassessing evidence that supports thoseideas.

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2.4 Draw inferences, conclusions, orgeneralizations about text and supportthem with textual evidence and priorknowledge.

Expository Critique

2.5 Distinguish facts, supported inferences,and opinions in text.


Students read and respond to historically orculturally significant works of literature. Theybegin to find ways to clarify the ideas andmake connections between literary works.The selections in Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eightillustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students.


3.1 Identify and analyze the characteristicsof poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfic-tion and explain the appropriateness ofthe literary forms chosen by an authorfor a specific purpose.


3.2 Identify the main problem or conflictof the plot and explain how it isresolved.

3.3 Contrast the actions, motives(e.g., loyalty, selfishness, conscientious-ness), and appearances of characters in awork of fiction and discuss the impor-tance of the contrasts to the plot ortheme.

3.4 Understand that theme refers to themeaning or moral of a selection andrecognize themes (whether implied orstated directly) in sample works.

3.5 Describe the function and effect ofcommon literary devices (e.g., imagery,metaphor, symbolism).

Literary Criticism

3.6 Evaluate the meaning of archetypalpatterns and symbols that are found inmyth and tradition by using literaturefrom different eras and cultures.

3.7 Evaluate the author’s use of varioustechniques (e.g., appeal of characters ina picture book, logic and credibility ofplots and settings, use of figurativelanguage) to influence readers’ perspec-tives.

Writing


Students write clear, coherent, and focusedessays. The writing exhibits the students’awareness of the audience and purpose. Essayscontain formal introductions, supportingevidence, and conclusions. Students progressthrough the stages of the writing process asneeded.


1.1 Create multiple-paragraph narrativecompositions:

a. Establish and develop a situation orplot.

b. Describe the setting.c. Present an ending.

1.2 Create multiple-paragraph expositorycompositions:

a. Establish a topic, important ideas, orevents in sequence or chronologicalorder.

b. Provide details and transitionalexpressions that link one paragraphto another in a clear line of thought.

c. Offer a concluding paragraph thatsummarizes important ideas anddetails.


1.3 Use organizational features of printedtext (e.g., citations, end notes, biblio-graphic references) to locate relevantinformation.

1.4 Create simple documents by usingelectronic media and employingorganizational features (e.g., passwords,entry and pull-down menus, wordsearches, the thesaurus, spell checks).

1.5 Use a thesaurus to identify alternativeword choices and meanings.

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1.6 Edit and revise manuscripts to improvethe meaning and focus of writing byadding, deleting, consolidating,clarifying, and rearranging words andsentences.


Students write narrative, expository, persua-sive, and descriptive texts of at least 500 to700 words in each genre. Student writingdemonstrates a command of standard Ameri-can English and the research, organizational,and drafting strategies outlined in WritingStandard 1.0.

Using the writing strategies of grade fiveoutlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:


a. Establish a plot, point of view,setting, and conflict.

b. Show, rather than tell, the events ofthe story.


a. Demonstrate an understanding of aliterary work.

a. Support judgments throughreferences to the text and to priorknowledge.

c. Develop interpretations that exhibitcareful reading and understanding.

2.3 Write research reports about importantideas, issues, or events by using thefollowing guidelines:

a. Frame questions that direct theinvestigation.

b. Establish a controlling idea or topic.c. Develop the topic with simple facts,

details, examples, and explanations.

2.4 Write persuasive letters or composi-tions:

a. State a clear position in support of aproposal.

b. Support a position with relevantevidence.

c. Follow a simple organizationalpattern.

d. Address reader concerns.





Sentence Structure

1.1 Identify and correctly use prepositionalphrases, appositives, and independentand dependent clauses; use transitionsand conjunctions to connect ideas.

Grammar

1.2 Identify and correctly use verbs that areoften misused (e.g., lie/lay, sit/set, rise/raise), modifiers, and pronouns.

Punctuation

1.3 Use a colon to separate hours andminutes and to introduce a list; usequotation marks around the exactwords of a speaker and titles of poems,songs, short stories, and so forth.

Capitalization

1.4. Use correct capitalization.

Spelling

1.5 Spell roots, suffixes, prefixes, contrac-tions, and syllable constructionscorrectly.

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Students deliver focused, coherent presenta-tions that convey ideas clearly and relate to thebackground and interests of the audience.They evaluate the content of oral communica-tion.

Comprehension

1.1 Ask questions that seek information notalready discussed.

1.2 Interpret a speaker’s verbal andnonverbal messages, purposes,and perspectives.

1.3 Make inferences or draw conclusionsbased on an oral report.


1.4 Select a focus, organizational structure,and point of view for an oral presenta-tion.

1.5 Clarify and support spoken ideas withevidence and examples.

1.6 Engage the audience with appropriateverbal cues, facial expressions, andgestures.


1.7 Identify, analyze, and critique persua-sive techniques (e.g., promises, dares,flattery, glittering generalities); identifylogical fallacies used in oral presenta-tions and media messages.

1.8 Analyze media as sources for informa-tion, entertainment, persuasion,interpretation of events, and transmis-sion of culture.


Students deliver well-organized formalpresentations employing traditional rhetoricalstrategies (e.g., narration, exposition, persua-sion, description). Student speaking demon-strates a command of standard AmericanEnglish and the organizational and deliverystrategies outlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0.

Using the speaking strategies of grade fiveoutlined in Listening and Speaking Standard1.0, students:

2.1 Deliver narrative presentations:

a. Establish a situation, plot, point ofview, and setting with descriptivewords and phrases.

b. Show, rather than tell, the listenerwhat happens.

2.2 Deliver informative presentations aboutan important idea, issue, or event bythe following means:

a. Frame questions to direct theinvestigation.

b. Establish a controlling idea or topic.c. Develop the topic with simple facts,

details, examples, and explanations.

2.3 Deliver oral responses to literature:

a. Summarize significant events anddetails.

b. Articulate an understanding ofseveral ideas or images communi-cated by the literary work.

c. Use examples or textual evidencefrom the work to support conclu-sions.

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Sixth Grade

Reading




Writing








In the sixth grade students focus onactive engagement with the text.They are required to analyze, identify,

define, explain, and critique rather thanmerely understand, describe, use, know,and distinguish as they were required todo in the fifth grade. However, thestandards still require students to readaloud narrative and expository textfluently and accurately and with appropri-ate pacing, intonation, and expression.

As in the fifth grade, an instructionalpriority in the sixth grade is an increasedfocus on advanced forms of evaluation inexpository critique and literary criticismand advanced presentations on problemsand solutions.

The strands to be emphasized at thesixth-grade level are listed in the adjacentcolumn under the appropriate domains.

The following sections profile focusareas within each of the strands andidentify content and instructionalconnections across domains, strands,and standards.

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Word Recognition

The sixth-grade standards continue tofocus on decoding words fluently andaccurately. Students are required to readaloud narrative and expository textfluently and accurately, with appropriatepacing, intonation, and expression. As inthe fourth and fifth grades, students notreading at grade level should receivecontinued systematic and explicit instruc-tion in decoding or comprehensionstrategies or both. (See the fourth-gradesection on reading for a discussion ofsystematic, explicit instruction in reading.)


The vocabulary and concept develop-ment standards for the sixth grade shiftfrom a focus on word origins and rootsand affixes derived from Greek and Latinto a focus on interpreting figurativelanguage and recognizing meanings offrequently used foreign words withmultiple meanings. In addition, studentsare required to understand and explainshades of meaning in related words(e.g., softly and quietly).

As in the fourth and fifth grades,students should continue to engage inextensive independent reading as theprimary means for increasing vocabularyknowledge. They must continue to begiven ample opportunities and encourage-ment to read. Vocabulary instruction muststill be systematic (see the vocabularyguidelines for the fourth grade). Instruc-tion in word derivation should be acommon component of instruction acrossthe academic year, emphasizing andcoordinating vocabulary analysis withwords students will encounter in the

instructional materials they read. In aneffort to increase the likelihood thatstudents will retain vocabulary, words thathave been studied previously should beinterspersed in instructional materialsand lessons.

Reading Reading Comprehension(Focus on InformationalMaterials)

The sixth-grade standards requirestudents to (1) identify the structuralfeatures of the popular media (e.g., news-papers, magazines, on-line information)and use those features to obtain informa-tion; and (2) analyze instructional materi-als that use a compare-and-contrastorganizational pattern. In addition,comprehension strategies include(1) connecting and clarifying main ideasand identifying their relationships to othersources and related topics; (2) clarifyingthe understanding of instructional materi-als by creating outlines, logical notes,summaries, or reports; and (3) followingmultiple-step instructions for preparingapplications (e.g., for a public library card,bank savings account, sports club orleague membership). Expository critiquecontinues at this level and requiresstudents, for example, to determine theadequacy and appropriateness of evidencefor an author’s conclusions and to noteinstances of unsupported inferences,fallacious reasoning, unreasonable persua-sion, and propaganda in instructionalmaterials.

The advanced form of expositorycritique at this level relies heavily onstudents’ prerequisite skills in identifyingadequate and appropriate evidence anddistinguishing conclusions substantiatedwith ample and appropriate evidence fromthose not substantiated. The teachershould initially model multiple examples

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for which the students evaluate theevidence to support conclusions. Theexamples should contain evidence clearlyappropriate or inappropriate and progressto evidence more subtle and complex.After the teacher’s modeling has beencompleted, the students can work in pairsor cooperative groups to evaluate thevalidity of conclusions. Independentpractice should be the culminatingassignment.

The reading-comprehension strategydescribed previously (see the fifth-gradeReading Comprehension Strand 2.0) maybe extended effectively to the sixth gradewith more complex narrative and informa-tional texts.


Literary response and analysis in thesixth grade should extend the strategiesdescribed in the fifth grade (see storygrammar strategies) to more complexnarrative and informational text thatallows students to:

• Analyze the effect of qualities ofcharacter (e.g., courage or cowardice,ambition or laziness) on plot andresolution of conflict.

• Analyze the influence of setting onthe problem and its resolution.

• Determine how tone or meaning isconveyed in poetry through wordchoice, figurative language, sentencestructure, line length, punctuation,rhythm, repetition, and rhyme.

• Identify the speaker and recognizethe difference between first-personand third-person narration(e.g., autobiography compared withbiography).

• Identify and analyze features ofthemes conveyed through characters,actions, and images.

• Explain the effects of commonliterary devices (e.g., symbolism,imagery, metaphor) in a variety offictional and nonfictional texts.

Students are also required to evaluate themeaning of archetypal patterns andsymbols and the author’s use of varioustechniques (e.g., appeal of characters in apicture or book, logic and credibility ofplots and settings) to influence the readers’perspectives.

Although the element of theme hasbeen an instructional focus for severalgrades, it remains a difficult concept thatrequires systematic instruction. Usingcharacters’ actions as evidence of a theme,for example, will require explicit instruc-tion and prompting initially (directingstudents to read for how the character’sactions influence the story). Students willneed to learn to document characteractions by reading and analyzing severalexamples under teacher-guided condi-tions. Once students become familiar withthe requirements of this analysis, they canconduct analyses independently. Theyshould also work with poetry, determininghow tone or meaning is conveyed throughword choice, figurative language, sentencestructure, line length, punctuation,rhythm, repetition, and rhyme.

The general instructional guidelinesspecified for the literary response andanalysis strand in the fourth grade are alsoappropriate here (see the overview for thefourth grade).



When students advance to the sixthgrade, they also advance their writing to(1) selecting forms of writing that bestsuits the intended purpose; (2) creatingmultiple-paragraph expository composi-

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tions; and (3) using a variety of effectiveand coherent organizational patterns,including comparison and contrast;organization by categories; and arrange-ment by spatial order, order of impor-tance, or climactic order.

Because the requirements of this strandare complex, sixth-grade students shouldbe eased into this complexity of writingforms, purposes, and organizationalpatterns. To ensure that all students aresuccessful as they advance in more com-plex writing, teachers should:

• Select clear examples or models ofthe different forms of writing(e.g., autobiographical and persua-sive writing) so that students are ableto distinguish the features of eachform. The examples selected torepresent each form must not beoverly complex or subtle or clutteredin purpose or structure.

• Make explicit the specific purposeand intended audience for each ofthe different forms of writing.Provide ample opportunities forstudents to discern the specificpurpose and intended audience foreach form before requiring them togenerate examples of each form ofwriting on their own.

• Use an adequate number of ex-amples of each different form ofwriting. The examples should reveala modest range of the distinguishingfeatures of each form (It is notessential initially to show studentsthe full range of distinguishingfeatures of each.)

• Employ a teaching strategy(e.g., explicit modeling, think-aloudstrategy, facilitative questioningstrategy) that makes conspicuous forstudents the distinguishing featuresof each writing form.

• Construct a review schedule thatprovides students with ampleopportunities to revisit and reinforcethe distinguishing features of eachform.


Research or information problemsolving is an application of all of thelanguage arts skills learned to date,especially reading comprehension(Eisenberg and Berkowitz 1990). Researchis a recursive process in which the learneruses steps to access, evaluate, discard,select, and use information from multiplesources. Many models for the researchprocess exist. Users must eventuallyconstruct their own mental model of theprocess as they use it (Loertscher 1998).Students prepare formal documents(e.g., term papers or research reports) inresponse to assignments and may also useresearch in formal debates or multimediapresentations. The skills students learn asthey master standards in this strand relatedirectly to career preparation in a varietyof fields.

Students must learn to use organiza-tional features of electronic text(e.g., Internet searches, databases,keyword searches, E-mail addresses) tolocate relevant information. They mustlearn to compose documents with appro-priate formatting (e.g., margins, tabs,spacing, columns, page orientation), usingtheir word-processing skills.

Teaching students the organizationalfeatures of electronic text for locatinginformation and creating documents ispotentially a troublesome task for at leasttwo reasons. First, the software featuresand requirements of electronic text varygreatly—from a library database to Websites on the Internet to a word-processingdocument. Second, many features of anelectronic text involve functions

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(e.g., keyword searches using a findcommand) or other features (e.g., e-mailaddresses) not technically part of anelectronic text. The electronic text envi-ronment must be simplified significantly ifstudents are to learn about the organiza-tional features of electronic text.

Teachers should work with librarymedia teachers to ease students into thiscomplex computer-based, electronic textenvironment by:

• Teaching students about differentelectronic sources available to themin their classroom, school library,and community libraries or com-puter centers and labs (e.g., CD-ROM encyclopedias and dictionar-ies, library databases, other onlinedatabases, newsgroups, web pages)

• Teaching students the names,purposes, methods, and limitationsof different electronic sources(e.g., automated library catalog,web sites, e-mail)

• Teaching students the methodsnecessary for using electronicsources, such as navigating withinone source and searching one sourceor a database for a specific topicbefore searching in multiple sourcesand for multiple topics

• Providing students ample opportuni-ties to explore and learn in one typeof electronic text, such as theautomated library catalog or elec-tronic magazine indexing beforeintroducing another type of elec-tronic text

• Selecting and establishing access forall students to one type of electronictext (e.g., automated library catalog)

• Creating a clearly defined task withspecific objectives and outcomes toensure that students will gainappropriate experience from working

in the electronic text (e.g., auto-mated library catalog).

• Ensuring that students have theprerequisite knowledge, skills, andexperience with the computerenvironment to benefit fromworking tasks specific to the researchand technology standards

Learning to use a word-processingprogram to compose documents requiresthat students understand the basics ofoperating the computer system they willbe using at school and, it is hoped, athome as well. The instructional guidelinesfor teaching sixth-grade students tocompose documents with appropriateformatting by using word-processing skillsand principles of design (e.g., margins,tabs, spacing, columns, page orientation)include, for example, teaching students to:

• Open existing files, save files, andcreate new files in the word-process-ing program they will use mostfrequently.

• Understand the basics of navigation,text manipulation, and editingwithin the word processor, includinguse of (1) the control to change thelocation of the cursor, highlight text,or access menus, commands, andicons; (2) navigation keys, such asthe page up, page down, and arrowkeys; (3) common commands on thekeyboard (e.g., typing control andthe letter S to save a document); and(4) copy, cut, and paste commandfunctions for text manipulation andediting. Show students how tomanipulate, create, and edit docu-ments before teaching them toformat documents. Easier formattingtechniques include line and para-graph spacing; bold, italics, andunderlining; and different fonts andfont sizes. Formatting techniques of

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midlevel difficulty include margins,page numbers, tabs, and page breaks.Advanced formatting techniquesinclude insertion of tables, embed-ded objects, borders and shading,and automatic bulleted lists.

• Use the spelling and grammar checksjudiciously and wisely. For example,students should learn not to dependsolely on the word-processingfunctions. Examples of errors thatwould pass a spelling and grammarcheck but would be caught by aproofreader should be used todemonstrate the limits of thosefunctions.


Students are expected to continue torevise their writing to improve the organi-zation and consistency of ideas within andbetween paragraphs. This instructionshould take place throughout the year asstudents progress from easy text to morecomplex forms of composition. In addi-tion, a specific part of a period each dayshould be devoted to revising and editingwritten compositions.


As in the fifth grade, students in thesixth grade are expected to write narrative,expository, persuasive, and descriptivetexts (e.g., responses to literature andresearch reports about important ideas,issues, or events) of at least 500 to 700words in each genre and continue todemonstrate a command of standardEnglish.

A new requirement in the sixth-gradestandards is writing expository composi-tions (e.g., description, explanation,comparison and contrast, problem and

solution). Students must (1) state theirthesis or purpose; (2) explain the situation;(3) follow an organizational patternappropriate to the type of composition;and (4) offer persuasive evidence tovalidate arguments and conclusions asneeded.

Instructional guidelines for writingexpository compositions include:

1. Introducing and teaching one typeof expository composition at a time

2. Selecting clear and appropriateexamples of each type of expositorycomposition, including examples ofstudents’ writing to use as models

3. Using a think sheet or note sheet toprovide an outline for learning theessential structure of each type ofexpository composition

4. Reading and summarizing theimportant information in one typeof expository text (e.g., a socialstudies text involving a problemand solution) by using a thinksheet or note sheet before writingthe specific type of expositorycomposition

5. Establishing a process to providestudents with sufficient commentsand feedback for their expositorycompositions, such as a partnersystem for editing that uses anediting checklist on selectedassignments and teacher commentson others


Students are expected to have a com-mand of English-language conventions,including sentence structure (e.g., simple,compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences); grammar (e.g., iden-tifying and using indefinite pronouns and

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present perfect, past perfect, and futureperfect tenses); punctuation (e.g., usingcolons, semicolons, and commas correctlyin contexts); capitalization; and spelling.


As in the fourth and fifth grades,students in the sixth grade listen criticallyand respond appropriately to oral commu-nications. However, sixth graders are alsoexpected to deliver focused, coherentpresentations. They continue to be en-gaged as listeners and speakers and(1) relate the speaker’s verbal communica-tion to the nonverbal message; (2) identifythe tone, mood, and emotion conveyed inthe oral communication; and (3) restateand execute multiple-step oral instructionsand directions.

The standards for the organization anddelivery of oral communication are bothsimilar to those for the fourth and fifthgrades (e.g., select a focus, an organiza-tional structure, and a point of view foran oral presentation) and different(e.g., emphasize salient points to assist thelistener; support opinions with detailedevidence; use effective rate, volume, pitch,and tone; and align nonverbal elements tosustain audience interest and attention).Students are also expected to analyze theuse of rhetorical devices (e.g., cadence,repetitive patterns, onomatopoeia) forintent and effect. Finally, they are toidentify persuasive and propagandatechniques used in television programs andidentify false and misleading information.

To identify techniques of persuasionand propaganda, students must learn theirbasic structure through observation ofmodels and instruction by the teacher.The basic elements of persuasive argument(thesis, support for argument or thesis,

counter arguments to rebut alternativepositions on a topic) are used in writtenand oral discourse. By addressing thestructural elements in writing and listeningto persuasive arguments, the teacher canmake instruction effective.


Sixth-grade students are expected todeliver well-organized formal presentationsemploying traditional rhetorical strategies.Specifically, they are required to delivernarrative, informative, and persuasivepresentations as well as oral responses toliterature and presentations on problemsand solutions.

Students are expected to demonstrate arange of speaking skills and strategies thatinclude establishing a context, plot, andpoint of view; posing relevant questionssufficiently limited in scope to be compe-tently and thoroughly answered; develop-ing an interpretation exhibiting carefulreading, understanding, and insight;engaging the listener and fostering accep-tance of the proposition or proposal; andtheorizing on the causes and effects of aproblem and establishing connectionsbetween the defined problem and at leastone solution.



1. Read aloud narrative and expositorytext fluently and accurately, withappropriate pacing, intonation, andexpression.

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2. Use opportunities for narrativereading to identify and interpretfigurative language and words withmultiple meanings.

3. Make connections between mainideas and their relationships toother sources and related topics.They should be able to demon-strate that the connections andrelationships are found in differentforms of fiction or expository text,such as students’ sixth-gradehistory–social science or scienceinstructional materials.

Sixth Grade


4. Select a form of writing (e.g., per-sonal letter, letter to the editor,review, poem, narrative, report on ahistorical figure or scientific phenom-enon) and demonstrate how it bestsuits the intended purpose.

5. Use organizational features of elec-tronic text (e.g., bulletin boards,databases, keyword searches, e-mailaddresses) to locate informationrelated to history or science standards.


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Corequisite standards. Sixth-Grade Writing Strategies Standards 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 1.5, 1.6.

Standard 1.2: Create multiple-paragraph expository compositions.

Standard 1.3: Use a variety of effective and coherent organizational patterns.

Standard 1.4: Use organizational features of electronic text.

Standard 1.5: Compare documents with appropriate formatting by using word-processingskills and principles of design.

Standard 1.6: Revise writing to improve the organization and consistency of ideas withinand between paragraphs.




2.0 Writing applications(genres and theircharacteristics)

2.3 Write researchreports.

Writing


Sixth Grade

Write research reports that:

1. Pose relevant questions and are sufficiently narrow in scope.2. Offer support from several authoritative sources.3. Include a bibliography.

The sixth grade is the first level at which the standards requirestudents to read and create informational discourse supported byreferences. Students are required to do so—at increasing levels ofsophistication—in grades seven through twelve, making the instruc-tion they receive in the sixth grade the foundation for much of theirlanguage arts work throughout the rest of their school years.

The transition to expository writing based on outside sources isoften difficult for students. Although sixth-grade students may


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know how to use reference materials (e.g., encyclopedias, onlineresources), they may not know how to read and take notes fromthose materials in a way that facilitates writing research reports.(If students do not know how to use reference materials, theyshould be given direct instruction so that they can satisfy thisimportant prerequisite. The library media teacher should be awilling partner in this process.) The following guidelines can helpreduce that difficulty and make research writing successful for morestudents:

1. When reading reference materials, students should:

a. Write all bibliographic information for a source on indexcards. Make sure that all necessary information is noted.Then number the cards. The information does not have tobe put in a particular style at this point.

b. Make a separate index card for each important point in thesource. Place direct quotations in quotation marks. Writeon each card the bibliographic number of the source for thenotes.

c. Repeat this process for a number of sources.

2. Begin outlining as usual during this prewriting phase. Locatesource cards that support each entry in the outline. Createpiles of source cards according to the entries.

3. Elaborate on the outline by ordering source cards for eachentry and indicating their order on the outline. Cards can nowbe coded by using a system, such as point I, card 1; point II,card 3; and so on.

4. During this prewriting phase, the students should makedecisions about whether their topic is too broad or too narrow.They are likely to find that they do not need some of thesources for some points and need a few more sources for otherpoints.

5. The key to writing a good research report lies in doing exten-sive preparation as shown. Once the teacher is convinced thatthe students are well prepared, the students should begindrafting and working reiteratively through the phases of thewriting process.

6. Instruction on how to incorporate source material into textshould be overt. The students need to know that they maystate someone else’s point of view in their own words but mustcredit the source.

7. Once the students know which sources are to be used in theirreport, they should go back to their bibliographic cards andorder the entries according to a formal style. (See, for example,the guidelines published by the Modern Language Associationor the American Psychological Association. Or perhaps the

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school has adopted a style to be used.) Bibliographic formatsmay often appear to be senseless to students. The teachershould instruct the students to use a style book and shoulddemonstrate some of the major bibliographic formats and therationale behind bibliographies. Discuss, for example, thedifficulties the students would have in trying to find sources ifbibliographic entries were incomplete.

8. Instruction should incorporate other related language artsstandards into the instruction on research writing. (WritingStrategies Standards 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.6; Listening and SpeakingStandard 2.2; Reading Standards 2.4, 2.7. The contentstandards for history–social science, science, and mathematicsare rich sources of topics for research reports.)

Many of the concepts and procedures used in research writing arenew to sixth-grade students. Carefully delivered instruction over along period of time is the key to teaching the concepts and proce-dures effectively, ensuring that students will have a strong founda-tion for coming school years.

1. The guidelines listed previously suggest a great deal moreteacher-student interaction than do most traditional ap-proaches to instruction in writing research reports. Teachersand library media teachers should model strategies such asthose described and then closely monitor student progressthrough the application of each strategy, giving feedback andadditional assistance when required.

2. A good scaffolding device to help students acquire mastery ofresearch writing is initially to have groups work together inwriting a single research report. To do so reduces considerablythe need for students to develop a topic, find sources, recordinformation on cards, organize, and create formal bibliogra-phies. If this approach is used, however, students should alsowrite individual research reports after the successful comple-tion of a group report. (Students can still work cooperativelyon some aspects of individual reports, such as revising orediting.)

1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Studentsmust know how to find and use reference materials as aprerequisite to meaningful instruction in writing researchreports. Before beginning such instruction, the teacher shouldwork with the library media teacher to develop an assignmentfor assessing students’ proficiency in using source material.The students are asked to write a report that requires them tofind answers to factual questions (e.g., finding three or four


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different sources telling how the American explorer MeriwetherLewis died). Such sources might include an encyclopedia, a bookon Lewis and Clark, an Internet search, and a query to the Lewisand Clark Museum in St. Louis.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective.Adhering to the clear stages of instruction, such as those listedpreviously for developing index cards, provides an opportunityto assess incrementally students’ progress toward the researchreport standard. The teacher should adjust instruction accordingto the results of assessment. For instance, if the students havenot located and catalogued an adequate number of sourcesprior to prewriting, instruction should be postponed brieflywhile the teacher gives further assistance and guidance in usingsource material.

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. A final research reportpresented in manuscript form is the best and most direct assess-ment for this standard. The individually written report, ratherthan a group report, serves as the summative evaluation tool.

1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. The recom-mended accommodation for these students is access to theregular language arts curriculum through careful, systematicinstruction in key concepts and strategies, such as those de-scribed previously. In addition, these students may requireadditional teacher or peer support (or both) with difficultprocedures, such as developing a well-organized outline andorganizing index cards to fit the outline. In addition, topicsfor students may vary, allowing research on topics that are morefamiliar.

2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Instruction can be differen-tiated for these students by:

a. Assisting them in their development of higher-level researchquestions based on key words from taxonomies of thinkingskills

b. Directing them to more sophisticated and specialized sourcematerial (through the library media teacher)

c. Encouraging them to incorporate more advanced elementsinto their reports (such as those found in the standards forhigher grade levels)

Note: These students require knowledge of the fundamentals ofwriting research reports, as do other students, and sometimes needassistance in finding closure on a project because of propensity toexplore topics in great depth.

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3. Students Who Are English Learners. Although all writingassignments are likely to be challenging for English learners,research reports may be especially difficult, given the addi-tional requirements of reading source materials and catalogu-ing the results for planning purposes. Accordingly, the teachermay wish to:

a. Direct English learners to source materials written at a levelthey can manage.

b. Use clear, simple instructional language to teach the basicconcepts and procedures of research report writing. Duringany cooperative learning sessions, care should be taken todistribute English learners among the groups.

c. Provide English learners with feedback at every stage ofdeveloping their research reports. They need guidance inorganizing, finding reference materials, and revising andediting.

d. Expose English learners to several models of the types ofresearch reports they are expected to write.

e. Provide additional instruction in how to incorporatequotations and citations into their reports appropriately.

f. Assess English learners at every stage of the research report.Editing is an important stage that teachers often overlook,partly because of the grammar mistakes they make andpartly because it is the last stage in the research reportprocess. Teachers need to make sure that they save time toassess this stage along with the other important stages of theresearch report.

Instructional materials should include a liberal quantity of materialthat teachers can use to teach concepts and procedures for researchreport writing. For instance, instructional materials should includedetailed examples of developing index cards or another systematicapproach to creating bibliographies. They should also includedetailed guides to resources particularly useful for this standard(such as web sites or references written below grade level for Englishlearners and students who have reading difficulties).

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Sixth GradeChapter 4Content Standardsand InstructionalPractices—Grades FourThrough Eight

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Reading



Word Recognition

1.1 Read aloud narrative and expositorytext fluently and accurately and withappropriate pacing, intonation, andexpression.


1.2 Identify and interpret figurativelanguage and words with multiplemeanings.

1.3 Recognize the origins and meanings offrequently used foreign words inEnglish and use these words accuratelyin speaking and writing.

1.4 Monitor expository text for unknownwords or words with novel meanings byusing word, sentence, and paragraphclues to determine meaning.

1.5 Understand and explain “shades ofmeaning” in related words (e.g., softlyand quietly).


Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They describe andconnect the essential ideas, arguments, andperspectives of the text by using their knowl-edge of text structure, organization, andpurpose. The selections in RecommendedReadings in Literature, Kindergarten ThroughGrade Eight illustrate the quality and complex-ity of the materials to be read by students. Inaddition, by grade eight, students read onemillion words annually on their own, includ-ing a good representation of grade-level-appropriate narrative and expository text(e.g., classic and contemporary literature,magazines, newspapers, online information).In grade six, students continue to makeprogress toward this goal.


2.1 Identify the structural features ofpopular media (e.g., newspapers,magazines, online information) and usethe features to obtain information.

2.2 Analyze text that uses the compare-and-contrast organizational pattern.


2.3 Connect and clarify main ideas byidentifying their relationships to othersources and related topics.

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2.4 Clarify an understanding of texts bycreating outlines, logical notes,summaries, or reports.

2.5 Follow multiple-step instructions forpreparing applications (e.g., for a publiclibrary card, bank savings account,sports club, league membership).

Expository Critique

2.6 Determine the adequacy and appropri-ateness of the evidence for an author’sconclusions.

2.7 Make reasonable assertions about a textthrough accurate, supporting citations.

2.8 Note instances of unsupportedinferences, fallacious reasoning,persuasion, and propaganda in text.


Students read and respond to historically orculturally significant works of literature thatreflect and enhance their studies of history andsocial science. They clarify the ideas andconnect them to other literary works. Theselections in Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eightillustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students.


3.1 Identify the forms of fiction anddescribe the major characteristics ofeach form.


3.2 Analyze the effect of the qualities of thecharacter (e.g., courage or cowardice,ambition or laziness) on the plot andthe resolution of the conflict.

3.3 Analyze the influence of setting on theproblem and its resolution.

3.4 Define how tone or meaning isconveyed in poetry through wordchoice, figurative language, sentencestructure, line length, punctuation,rhythm, repetition, and rhyme.

3.5 Identify the speaker and recognize thedifference between first- and third-

person narration (e.g., autobiographycompared with biography).

3.6 Identify and analyze features of themesconveyed through characters, actions,and images.

3.7 Explain the effects of common literarydevices (e.g., symbolism, imagery,metaphor) in a variety of fictional andnonfictional texts.

Literary Criticism

3.8 Critique the credibility of characteriza-tion and the degree to which a plot iscontrived or realistic (e.g., compare useof fact and fantasy in historical fiction).

Writing


Students write clear, coherent, and focusedessays. The writing exhibits students’awareness of the audience and purpose. Essayscontain formal introductions, supportingevidence, and conclusions. Students progressthrough the stages of the writing process asneeded.


1.1 Choose the form of writing(e.g., personal letter, letter to the editor,review, poem, report, narrative) thatbest suits the intended purpose.

1.2 Create multiple-paragraph expositorycompositions:

a. Engage the interest of the reader andstate a clear purpose.

b. Develop the topic with supportingdetails and precise verbs, nouns, andadjectives to paint a visual image inthe mind of the reader.

c. Conclude with a detailed summarylinked to the purpose of thecomposition.

1.3 Use a variety of effective and coherentorganizational patterns, includingcomparison and contrast; organizationby categories; and arrangement byspatial order, order of importance, orclimactic order.

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1.4 Use organizational features of electronictext (e.g., bulletin boards, databases,keyword searches, e-mail addresses) tolocate information.

1.5 Compose documents with appropriateformatting by using word-processingskills and principles of design(e.g., margins, tabs, spacing, columns,page orientation).


1.6 Revise writing to improve the organiza-tion and consistency of ideas withinand between paragraphs.


Students write narrative, expository, persua-sive, and descriptive texts of at least 500 to700 words in each genre. Student writingdemonstrates a command of standard Ameri-can English and the research, organizational,and drafting strategies outlined in WritingStandard 1.0.

Using the writing strategies of grade six out-lined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:


a. Establish and develop a plot andsetting and present a point of viewthat is appropriate to the stories.

b. Include sensory details and concretelanguage to develop plot andcharacter.

c. Use a range of narrative devices(e.g., dialogue, suspense).

2.2 Write expository compositions(e.g., description, explanation, com-parison and contrast, problem andsolution):

a. State the thesis or purpose.b. Explain the situation.c. Follow an organizational pattern

appropriate to the type of composi-tion.

d. Offer persuasive evidence to validatearguments and conclusions asneeded.

2.3 Write research reports:

a. Pose relevant questions with a scopenarrow enough to be thoroughlycovered.

b. Support the main idea or ideas withfacts, details, examples, and explana-tions from multiple authoritativesources (e.g., speakers, periodicals,online information searches).

c. Include a bibliography.


a. Develop an interpretation exhibitingcareful reading, understanding, andinsight.

b. Organize the interpretation aroundseveral clear ideas, premises, orimages.

c. Develop and justify the interpreta-tion through sustained use ofexamples and textual evidence.

2.5 Write persuasive compositions:

a. State a clear position on a proposi-tion or proposal.

b. Support the position with organizedand relevant evidence.

c. Anticipate and address readerconcerns and counterarguments.





Sentence Structure

1.1 Use simple, compound, and com-pound-complex sentences; use effectivecoordination and subordination ofideas to express complete thoughts.

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Grammar

1.2 Identify and properly use indefinitepronouns and present perfect, pastperfect, and future perfect verb tenses;ensure that verbs agree with compoundsubjects.

Punctuation

1.3 Use colons after the salutation inbusiness letters, semicolons to connectindependent clauses, and commas whenlinking two clauses with a conjunctionin compound sentences.

Capitalization

1.4 Use correct capitalization.

Spelling

1.5 Spell frequently misspelled wordscorrectly (e.g., their, they’re, there).



Students deliver focused, coherent presenta-tions that convey ideas clearly and relate to thebackground and interests of the audience.They evaluate the content of oral commu-nication.

Comprehension

1.1 Relate the speaker’s verbal communica-tion (e.g., word choice, pitch, feeling,tone) to the nonverbal message(e.g., posture, gesture).

1.2 Identify the tone, mood, and emotionconveyed in the oral communication.

1.3 Restate and execute multiple-step oralinstructions and directions.


1.4 Select a focus, an organizationalstructure, and a point of view, match-ing the purpose, message, occasion, andvocal modulation to the audience.

1.5 Emphasize salient points to assist thelistener in following the main ideas andconcepts.

1.6 Support opinions with detailedevidence and with visual or mediadisplays that use appropriate technol-ogy.

1.7 Use effective rate, volume, pitch, andtone and align nonverbal elements tosustain audience interest and attention.

Analysis and Evaluation of Oraland Media Communications

1.8 Analyze the use of rhetorical devices(e.g., cadence, repetitive patterns, use ofonomatopoeia) for intent and effect.

1.9 Identify persuasive and propagandatechniques used in television andidentify false and misleading informa-tion.



Using the speaking strategies of grade sixoutlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0, students:


a. Establish a context, plot, and pointof view.

b. Include sensory details and concretelanguage to develop the plot andcharacter.

c. Use a range of narrative devices(e.g., dialogue, tension, or suspense).

2.2 Deliver informative presentations:

a. Pose relevant questions sufficientlylimited in scope to be completelyand thoroughly answered.

b. Develop the topic with facts, details,examples, and explanations frommultiple authoritative sources(e.g., speakers, periodicals, onlineinformation).

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a. Develop an interpretation exhibitingcareful reading, understanding, andinsight.

b. Organize the selected interpretationaround several clear ideas, premises,or images.

c. Develop and justify the selectedinterpretation through sustained useof examples and textual evidence.

2.4 Deliver persuasive presentations:

a. Provide a clear statement of theposition.

b. Include relevant evidence.

c. Offer a logical sequence of informa-tion.

d. Engage the listener and fosteracceptance of the proposition orproposal.

2.5 Deliver presentations on problems andsolutions:

a. Theorize on the causes and effects ofeach problem and establish connec-tions between the defined problemand at least one solution.

b. Offer persuasive evidence to validatethe definition of the problem andthe proposed solutions.


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Seventh Grade

The content standards for theseventh grade mark a distinctivetransition from the sixth grade

and the earlier grades in at least twoimportant ways. First, the transition fromlearning to read to reading to learn iscomplete. By the time students enter theseventh grade, they should have masteredreading aloud narrative and expository textfluently and accurately, with appropriatepacing, intonation, and expression. Forstudents who have not mastered theprevious standard, intensive and system-atic instruction in word recognition isimperative. To be able to provide suchremediation, teachers may need additionaltraining, for many seventh-grade teachershave not been trained to teach develop-mental reading skills.

The second reason seventh-gradestandards are distinctive is that they aredecidedly more sophisticated, subtle, andintricate than those for previous grades.For example, students are required toidentify and trace the development of anauthor’s argument, write reports that usethe formal research process, deliverpersuasive oral presentations that employwell-articulated evidence, and analyzecharacterization as suggested through acharacter’s thoughts, words, speechpatterns, and actions. In some cases thestandards are new and complex, such as

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the requirement to articulate the expressedpurposes and characteristics of differentforms of prose, including the short story,novel, novella, and essay.

The strands to be emphasized at theseventh-grade level are listed below underthe appropriate domains.

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The following sections profile focusareas within each of the strands andidentify content and instructionalconnections across domains, strands,and standards.


Vocabulary and ConceptDevelopment

At this level the development ofvocabulary used in literary works orseventh-grade content areas is emphasized.Students must also identify idioms,analogies, metaphors, and similes in proseand poetry and continue to clarify wordmeanings through definitions, examples,restatements, and contrasts.

Extensive opportunities to read areessential to vocabulary development. Astudent’s vocabulary typically doublesbetween the fourth grade and the eighthgrade as a direct result of how much astudent reads. The more students read, themore their vocabulary increases. Althoughextensive independent reading is theprimary means of increasing vocabulary,a need for teacher-directed vocabularyinstruction still exists. New and importantvocabulary should be taught and reviewedcumulatively and periodically during theschool year. Without cumulative reviewsand practice in context, vocabulary gainsare likely to be temporary. Teachersshould also provide students with oppor-tunities to work with word derivationsfrom Greek, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon rootsand affixes in reading assignments.


Although teachers have always taughtreading-comprehension skills in relationto informational texts, the standards focusmore attention on this aspect of thelanguage arts curriculum, especially onexpository rather than narrative reading.In the school setting informational textsare generally textbooks or reference worksbut can also include magazines, news-papers, online information, instructionalmanuals, consumer workplace and publicdocuments, signs, and selections listed inRecommended Readings in Literature,Kindergarten Through Grade Eight(California Department of Education1996a). Instructional strategies used tohelp students comprehend informationalmaterials are often different for literarytexts. In a departmentalized school,responsibility for improving the readingcomprehension of instructional materialsshould be shared with teachers of allsubjects, particularly teachers of history–social science and science.

Strategies for comprehending informa-tional materials in the seventh grade arefocused on (1) use and analysis of catego-ries of informational materials (e.g., con-sumer and workplace documents, text-books, newspapers, instructional manu-als); and (2) assessment of an author’sargument. Because both standards involvea cluster of challenging skills, systematicinstruction and ample practice are re-quired to become proficient. Instructionalguidelines for evaluating an author’sargument include:

• Selecting and using, during initialinstruction, examples of an author’sarguments that are not complex and

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sophisticated but simple andstraightforward

• Providing students with a proceduralfacilitator, such as a think sheet thatmaps for students the basic structureof an argument (e.g., the mainproblem, the author’s position,statements in support of the author’sposition, statements against theauthor’s position) and allows themto record and map the author’sargument

• Scheduling ample opportunitiesthroughout the year for students toread increasingly more complexarguments

• Providing systematic feedback tostudents on their analysis andevaluation of an author’s arguments

• Integrating the evaluation of anauthor’s arguments in reading-comprehension activities withwriting activities in which studentsdevelop their own arguments abouta particular topic of interest


The increased sophistication andintricacy of the standards are readilyapparent in the literary response andanalysis strand. For example, students arerequired to:

• Articulate the express purposes andcharacteristics of different forms ofprose (e.g., short story, novel,novella, essay).

• Identify events that advance the plotand determine how each eventexplains past or present actions orforeshadows future actions.

• Analyze characterization as delin-eated through a character’s thoughts,words, speech patterns, and actions;

the narrator’s description; and thethoughts, words, and actions ofother characters.

• Identify and analyze recurringthemes across works (e.g., the valueof bravery, loyalty, and friendship;the effects of loneliness).

• Contrast points of view (e.g., firstand third person, limited andomniscient, subjective and objective)in narrative text and explain howthey affect the overall theme of thework.

The level of sophistication required bythe standards calls for instruction that isboth deep and diligent and allows studentsample opportunity to scrutinize a particu-lar work. Selection of literary works isimportant. Teachers should select worksthat are appropriate to the age and readinglevel of the students and are varied inculture and themes. In addition, the worksmust also lend themselves to exploringwith the students how events advance theplot; how each event explains past orpresent actions or foreshadows futureactions; and how a character’s thoughts,words, speech patterns, and actions revealcharacterization. Once the literary featuresand devices that are part of a particularwork become clear, the teacher mayintroduce other more complex and variedliterary works in which such features anddevices are used.

Grade-level literary selections of variousgenres and lengths representing a varietyof authors and cultures can be found indistrict-adopted anthologies. Recom-mended Readings in Literature, Kinder-garten Through Grade Eight (CaliforniaDepartment of Education 1996a) providesextensive lists of such selections.

Extensive independent reading, whichin the seventh grade increasingly takesplace outside the classroom, is an impor-

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tant element of the language arts curricu-lum. The standards require that by theend of middle school, students will haveread one million words annually on theirown, including a good representation ofnarrative (classic and contemporaryliterature) and expository (magazines,newspapers, online) instructional materi-als. One million words translate to about15 to 20 minutes of reading per day.

Instructional formats and strategiesused for outside reading have much incommon with those used in teaching coreliterature works but differ significantly.Student choice is a more importantelement in outside reading and may resultin less-diverse selections because youngreaders typically choose to focus on asingle author, topic, or genre for a periodof time. Their reading should not belimited to works of fiction or nonfictionbut should include magazines, especiallythose in areas of special interest to thestudents, newspapers, and online sources.A variety of methods are available to assessreading done outside the classroom,including student-maintained reading logsand book reports in various formats.According to the standard, the instructionshould be focused on the reading itselfrather than on the final report on reading.

Independent reading significantlyimproves a student’s reading comprehen-sion and vocabulary and increases famil-iarity with models of good writing andconventions of writing and spelling. It alsoserves an important affective purpose; thatis, to develop a lifelong appreciation forreading for pleasure and information.Recent research indicates that the volumeof reading also affects general cognitivedevelopment.


Seventh-grade students are expected tocontinue to develop strategies for organiz-ing and giving focus to their writing.Increased emphasis is given to documenta-tion of support (e.g., support for allstatements and claims through the use ofanecdotes, descriptions, facts and statistics,specific examples) and the extension ofstrategies (e.g., note taking, outlining,summarizing).

Students are expected to write researchreports. They should be instructed in allphases of the research process, fromidentifying topics to preparing bibliogra-phies, and should be expected to locaterelevant information in electronic as wellas printed texts. Further, they should beable to produce documents with a word-processing program and organize informa-tion gathered in the research process.(The guidelines for writing in the sixthgrade are applicable in the seventh gradeas well.)


Writing in the seventh grade focusesless on narrative writing (writing to tell astory) and more on multiparagraphexpository compositions. Specifically,students are expected to write texts ofbetween 500 and 700 words (two or threetyped, double-spaced pages) in thesecategories: interpretations of literature,research reports, persuasive compositions,and summaries.

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Seventh-grade students are expected tohave a general command of English-language conventions when they speakand write. Curriculum emphases at thisgrade level include sentence structure(e.g., proper placement of modifiers anduse of the active voice); grammar(e.g., proper use of infinitives and parti-ciples, clear pronouns and antecedents);punctuation (e.g., correct use of hyphens,dashes, brackets, and semicolons); andspelling (e.g., applying the spelling ofbases and affixes to derivatives).

Although most of the standards are alsoincluded at earlier grade levels, manystudents in the seventh grade have not yetmastered the standards and will requirecontinued support and guidance in theform of remedial instruction that should:

• Involve teacher direction andguidance, with clear examples beingoffered in simplified contexts(e.g., use of pronouns with clearreferents in abbreviated passages)before students are required towork in more complex contexts(e.g., multiple paragraphs withmultiple pronouns and referents).

• Provide extensive opportunities toreceive instruction and feedbackfrom teachers or peers throughoutthe year and as a frequent small partof lessons or class periods.

• Emphasize the accurate use ofconventions in student writing andspeaking.

• Hold students to a high level ofperformance because the conven-tions are fundamental to proficientperformance on other standards(e.g., writing strategies, writingapplications).


Listening Strategies

Although listening and speaking arefrequently paired, they represent decidedlydifferent skills. An accomplished speakermay be a poor listener and vice versa. Inthe classroom, listening instruction isoften concerned as much with behaviormanagement (“Eyes up front, please”) aswith systematic skills in comprehendingand evaluating oral information. Thestandards define specific listening skills tobe taught in seventh grade. For example,students are expected to ask appropriatequestions designed to elicit neededinformation and discern the speaker’spoint of view. As for electronic journal-ism, students are expected to be able torecognize techniques used to affect theviewer.

Speaking Strategies

Language arts teachers have tradition-ally provided a variety of speaking oppor-tunities in informal settings (e.g., small-group discussions, cooperative learningactivities) and more formal settings(e.g., individual or group presentationsto the class). In many cases, however,instruction in speaking has been lessstructured and less detailed and hasoccupied less class time than instructionin reading and writing. The standardsprovide a detailed outline for an appropri-ate instructional program in speaking.Seventh-grade students are expected toemploy traditional rhetorical strategies todeliver well-organized formal narrative,research, and persuasive presentations aswell as oral summaries of articles andbooks. The standards identify for teachersthe speaking skills and strategies that

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accompany each type of oral presentation.For example, students are expected todescribe complex major and minor charac-ters in a narrative presentation. Studentsmaking a research presentation are ex-pected to use their own words to conveytheir message.

Because the same genres appear in thewriting applications at this grade level,writing and speaking activities might becombined. For example, students mightwrite a persuasive composition and deliveran oral persuasive presentation on the sametopic.


Like sixth-grade students, those in theseventh grade are expected to deliver well-organized formal presentations that employtraditional rhetorical strategies. Specifi-cally, students are required to delivernarrative, research, and persuasive presen-tations as well as oral summaries of articlesand books. They are expected to demon-strate a range of speaking skills andstrategies that includes, for example,describing complex major and minorcharacters and a definite setting; using arange of appropriate strategies, includingdialogue, suspense, and naming of specificnarrative actions; using their own words,except for material quoted from the source,in an oral summary; and including evi-dence generated through the formalresearch process for a research presentation.



1. Analyze the differences in structureand purpose between variouscategories of informational materials(e.g., textbooks, newspapers,instructional manuals, signs).

2. Examine informational materials foran organizational structure thatbalances all aspects of the composi-tion and uses effective transitionsbetween sentences to unify impor-tant ideas.

3. Identify informational materials inwhich statements and claims aresupported by anecdotes, descrip-tions, facts and statistics, andspecific examples.

4. Create materials in which credit forquoted and paraphrased informa-tion in a bibliography is given and aconsistent and sanctioned formatand methodology are used forcitations.

5. Revise writing to improve organiza-tion and word choice after checkingthe logic of ideas and precision ofvocabulary.


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Seventh Grade

Conventions Standard 1.3


1.0 Written and oralEnglish-languageconventions

1.3 Identify all partsof speech and typesand structure ofsentences.

Writtenand OralEnglish-LanguageConvention


Use sophisticated but appropriate sentence structures in oral andwritten discourse.

At this level a challenge for students is to use sentence structuresmore sophisticated than simple kernel-sentence types but notexcessively complex or convoluted. Instruction should, therefore,focus on options for combining kernel sentences in various ways andthe rhetorical impact and appropriateness of those various combina-tions.

To achieve a balance, instruction should address both sentencecombining and decombining. A focus on sentence combining alonecan easily, if inadvertently, create the impression that longer, morecomplex sentence structures are inherently or universally better thansimpler sentence structures.


InstructionalDesign

Prerequisite standard. Sixth-Grade Written and Oral English-Language ConventionsStandard 1.1: Use simple, compound, and compound-complex sentences.

Corequisite standard. Seventh-Grade Writing Strategies Standard 1.7: Revise writing toimprove organization and word choice.

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Ultimately, students should be expected to develop a sense ofappropriate sentence structures well enough to apply that sense torevisions of their own drafts. Initially, however, students shouldwork on combining (and decombining and recombining) contrivedsentences, which can be selected judiciously to illustrate specificpossibilities for improvement. (Sentences contrived for revision canbe taken from student writing examples or created by decombiningsentences from texts students will read.)

The advantages to teaching sentence structure initially in this wayare as follows:

• When all students are looking at and working with the sameset of examples, teachers can conduct efficient whole-classinstruction based on those examples.

• Teachers can correct work or otherwise evaluate student workmore easily and give feedback when all students work initiallywith the same set of examples.

• Teachers can ensure that they cover several important classesor categories of sentence combining when examples are chosenspecifically to illustrate those classes or categories.

• The examples used during initial instruction give teachers andstudents a solid basis of reference as individual student work isbeing revised.

Consider, for instance, the following example of student writing:

Cowboys in Uruguay and Argentina are called gauchos. The gauchos arefound in the country. They live and work in grass-covered prairies. Somegauchos herd cattle in the pampas. They do not make much money.Gauchos wear colorful outfits. They carry large knives and they drink abeverage called maté. It’s a type of tea.

Initially, teachers should demonstrate possible improvements in thewriting sample while discussing with students the relative advantagesor effects of each possibility. For example, students might comparethe differences in emphasis between Example 1 and Example 2:

Example 1. Gauchos, who are the cowboys of Uruguay and Argentina,live throughout the countryside.

Example 2. Across the countryside in the pampas of Uruguay andArgentina, you find cowboys called gauchos.

Which choice is better suited to a paragraph about gauchos? Why?What other options for sentence combining are possible? Whichoptions illustrate trying to put too much into a sentence? Howwould the sense of Example 1 change if the commas were removed?

In short, instruction should address the strategies that good writersuse—consciously or otherwise—by making such strategies overt andclear for students. Instruction should demonstrate the techniques bywhich secondary ideas are subordinated to primary, important ideasin strong, active sentences. Most critically, instruction should

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emphasize the relationships among ideas in kernel and complexsentences to ensure that students appreciate that conventions(e.g., the use of commas in dependent clauses) support the com-munication of ideas.

Teachers should direct initial instruction in strategies for developingcomplex sentence structures and for evaluating competing struc-tures. For such instruction to be meaningful, it must center onactive discourse between teachers and students. The challenge formany students at this level is not so much to combine sentences assuch but to do so judiciously in relation to specific purposes ofcommunication. Teacher demonstrations and evaluations of think-ing critically out loud are indispensable to effective instruction.

1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Brief in-classcompositions on well-defined topics should give teachers asatisfactory overview of the relative sophistication with whichstudents manipulate sentence structures.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective.All written and oral assignments provide opportunities forongoing assessment of this standard. Students should beprompted to focus on good sentence structures in all assign-ments that follow the initial instruction on this topic.

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. The best type ofsummative evaluation comes from specifically evaluatingsentence structures in conjunction with authentic assignmentsin writing and speaking that address the writing and speakingstandards.

1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. Students withreading difficulties or disabilities often use long strings ofprimitive kernel sentences in their writing. They may run anumber of these sentences together without punctuation,splice them with commas, or join them with repeated use ofconjunctions like and or but. In turn, many of the sentencesare likely to overuse passive and intransitive verbs. Whennecessary, teachers should be prepared to begin instruction insentence combining at the students’ level. In addition, thesestudents will probably take longer to make the transition frompredominantly simple sentences to the wider use of longer,more appropriate complex sentences.


Assessment

Post-testAssessment




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2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. The highest-performingstudents are the ones most likely to be able to learn aboutlanguage for its own sake and benefit from that learning. Forinstance, they can investigate in depth the relationshipsbetween grammatical dependency and nuances in meaningand be challenged, for example, to come up with contrastingsentence pairs, such as the following:

Teenagers, who don’t drive well, should pay higher insurance rates.

Teenagers who don’t drive well should pay higher insurance rates.

3. Students Who Are English LearnersStudents with restricted proficiency in English will requireintensive English-language instruction above and beyond thatfound in the regular language arts program. The type ofexplicit strategy instruction described previously for lower-performing students will help English learners as well. Theymight be exempted from some regular classroom work insentence combining to provide more instructional time forintense work on well-formed grammatical kernel sentences.

Instructional materials should provide for a very wide range ofstudent achievement levels in the seventh grade. Publishers willalways be safe in providing more resources for a given set of stan-dards—such as those for sentence combining and related conven-tions—than one might think sufficient for average students. (It is fareasier for teachers to elect to not use some resources than to createthem from scratch or to find them.) For instance, teachers shouldhave the option of drawing from a rich variety of sample writing—examples of good and poor writing—to use as the basis for instruc-tion in sentence combining.

AdvancedLearners

English Learners


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Reading

1.0. Word Analysis, Fluency,and Systematic VocabularyDevelopment



1.1 Identify idioms, analogies, metaphors,and similes in prose and poetry.

1.2 Use knowledge of Greek, Latin, andAnglo-Saxon roots and affixes tounderstand content-area vocabulary.

1.3 Clarify word meanings through the useof definition, example, restatement, orcontrast.


Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They describe andconnect the essential ideas, arguments, andperspectives of the text by using their knowl-edge of text structure, organization, andpurpose. The selections in RecommendedReadings in Literature, Kindergarten ThroughGrade Eight illustrate the quality and complex-ity of the materials to be read by students. Inaddition, by grade eight, students read onemillion words annually on their own, includ-ing a good representation of grade-level-


Seventh Grade

appropriate narrative and expository text(e.g., classic and contemporary literature,magazines, newspapers, online information).In grade seven, students make substantialprogress toward this goal.


2.1 Understand and analyze the differencesin structure and purpose betweenvarious categories of informationalmaterials (e.g., textbooks, newspapers,instructional manuals, signs).

2.2 Locate information by using a varietyof consumer, workplace, and publicdocuments.

2.3 Analyze text that uses the cause-and-effect organizational pattern.


2.4 Identify and trace the development ofan author’s argument, point of view, orperspective in text.

2.5 Understand and explain the use of asimple mechanical device by followingtechnical directions.

Expository Critique

2.6 Assess the adequacy, accuracy, andappropriateness of the author’s evidenceto support claims and assertions, notinginstances of bias and stereotyping.


Students read and respond to historically orculturally significant works of literature that




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reflect and enhance their studies of historyand social science. They clarify the ideas andconnect them to other literary works. Theselections in Recommended Readings in Litera-ture, Kindergarten Through Grade Eightillustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students.


3.1 Articulate the expressed purposes andcharacteristics of different forms ofprose (e.g., short story, novel, novella,essay).


3.2 Identify events that advance the plotand determine how each event explainspast or present action(s) or foreshadowsfuture action(s).

3.3 Analyze characterization as delineatedthrough a character’s thoughts, words,speech patterns, and actions; thenarrator’s description; and the thoughts,words, and actions of other characters.

3.4 Identify and analyze recurring themesacross works (e.g., the value of bravery,loyalty, and friendship; the effects ofloneliness).

3.5 Contrast points of view (e.g., first andthird person, limited and omniscient,subjective and objective) in narrativetext and explain how they affect theoverall theme of the work.

Literary Criticism

3.6 Analyze a range of responses to a literarywork and determine the extent to whichthe literary elements in the work shapedthose responses.

Writing

1.0. Writing Strategies

Students write clear, coherent, and focusedessays. The writing exhibits students’ awarenessof the audience and purpose. Essays containformal introductions, supporting evidence, andconclusions. Students progress through thestages of the writing process as needed.


1.1 Create an organizational structure thatbalances all aspects of the compositionand uses effective transitions betweensentences to unify important ideas.

1.2 Support all statements and claims withanecdotes, descriptions, facts andstatistics, and specific examples.

1.3 Use strategies of notetaking, outlining,and summarizing to impose structureon composition drafts.


1.4 Identify topics; ask and evaluatequestions; and develop ideas leading toinquiry, investigation, and research.

1.5 Give credit for both quoted andparaphrased information in a bibliogra-phy by using a consistent and sanc-tioned format and methodology forcitations.

1.6 Create documents by using word-processing skills and publishingprograms; develop simple databases andspreadsheets to manage informationand prepare reports.


1.7 Revise writing to improve organizationand word choice after checking thelogic of the ideas and the precision ofthe vocabulary.


Students write narrative, expository, persua-sive, and descriptive texts of at least 500 to700 words in each genre. The writing demon-strates a command of standard AmericanEnglish and the research, organizational, anddrafting strategies outlined in WritingStandard 1.0.

Using the writing strategies of grade sevenoutlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:

2.1 Write fictional or autobiographicalnarratives:

a. Develop a standard plot line (havinga beginning, conflict, rising action,


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climax, and denouement) and pointof view.

b. Develop complex major and minorcharacters and a definite setting.

c. Use a range of appropriate strategies(e.g., dialogue; suspense; naming ofspecific narrative action, includingmovement, gestures, and expres-sions).


a. Develop interpretations exhibitingcareful reading, understanding, andinsight.

b. Organize interpretations aroundseveral clear ideas, premises, orimages from the literary work.

c. Justify interpretations throughsustained use of examples andtextual evidence.


a. Pose relevant and tightly drawnquestions about the topic.

b. Convey clear and accurate perspec-tives on the subject.

c. Include evidence compiled throughthe formal research process (e.g., useof a card catalog, Reader’s Guide toPeriodical Literature, a computercatalog, magazines, newspapers,dictionaries).

d. Document reference sources bymeans of footnotes and a bibliogra-phy.


a. State a clear position or perspectivein support of a proposition orproposal.

b. Describe the points in support of theproposition, employing well-articulated evidence.

c. Anticipate and address readerconcerns and counterarguments.

2.5 Write summaries of reading materials:

a. Include the main ideas and mostsignificant details.

b. Use the student’s own words, exceptfor quotations.

c. Reflect underlying meaning, not justthe superficial details.




Students write and speak with a command ofstandard English conventions appropriate tothe grade level.

Sentence Structure

1.1 Place modifiers properly and use theactive voice.

Grammar

1.2 Identify and use infinitives andparticiples and make clear referencesbetween pronouns and antecedents.

1.3 Identify all parts of speech and typesand structure of sentences.

1.4 Demonstrate the mechanics of writing(e.g., quotation marks, commas at endof dependent clauses) and appropriateEnglish usage (e.g., pronoun reference).

Punctuation

1.5 Identify hyphens, dashes, brackets, andsemicolons and use them correctly.

Capitalization


Spelling

1.7 Spell derivatives correctly by applyingthe spellings of bases and affixes.




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Standards

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1.0. Listening and SpeakingStrategies

Deliver focused, coherent presentations thatconvey ideas clearly and relate to the back-ground and interests of the audience. Studentsevaluate the content of oralcommunication.

Comprehension

1.1 Ask probing questions to elicit informa-tion, including evidence to support thespeaker’s claims and conclusions.

1.2 Determine the speaker’s attitudetoward the subject.

1.3 Respond to persuasive messages withquestions, challenges, or affirmations.


1.4 Organize information to achieveparticular purposes and to appeal tothe background and interests of theaudience.

1.5 Arrange supporting details, reasons,descriptions, and examples effectivelyand persuasively in relation to theaudience.

1.6 Use speaking techniques, includingvoice modulation, inflection, tempo,enunciation, and eye contact, foreffective presentations.


1.7 Provide constructive feedback tospeakers concerning the coherence andlogic of a speech’s content and deliveryand its overall impact upon the listener.

1.8 Analyze the effect on the viewer ofimages, text, and sound in electronicjournalism; identify the techniques usedto achieve the effects in each instancestudied.


Students deliver well-organized formalpresentations employing traditional rhetoricalstrategies (e.g., narration, exposition, persua-

sion, description). Student speaking demon-strates a command of standard AmericanEnglish and the organizational and deliverystrategies outlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0.

Using the speaking strategies of grade sevenoutlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0, students:


a. Establish a context, standard plot line(having a beginning, conflict, risingaction, climax, and denouement),and point of view.

b. Describe complex major and minorcharacters and a definite setting.

c. Use a range of appropriate strategies,including dialogue, suspense, andnaming of specific narrative action(e.g., movement, gestures, expres-sions).

2.2 Deliver oral summaries of articles andbooks:

a. Include the main ideas of the eventor article and the most significantdetails.

b. Use the student’s own words, exceptfor material quoted from sources.

c. Convey a comprehensive understand-ing of sources, not just superficialdetails.

2.3 Deliver research presentations:

a. Pose relevant and concise questionsabout the topic.

b. Convey clear and accurate perspec-tives on the subject.

c. Include evidence generated throughthe formal research process (e.g., useof a card catalog, Reader’s Guide toPeriodical Literature, computerdatabases, magazines, newspapers,dictionaries).

d. Cite reference sources appropriately.


a. State a clear position or perspective insupport of an argument or proposal.

b. Describe the points in support of theargument and employ well-articulatedevidence.

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Eighth Grade

Reading




Writing








Eighth grade marks the beginningof yet another significant transi-tion for students—that of prepar-

ing for the high school years. The contentstandards for this grade signify thereadiness required of students preparingfor the secondary content in grades ninethrough twelve. Not surprisingly, theeighth-grade standards represent animportant culmination of curriculumactivities emphasized throughout gradesfour through eight.

The strands to be emphasized at theeighth-grade level are listed in the adja-cent column under the appropriatedomains.

The following sections profile focusareas within each of the strands andidentify content and instructional con-nections across domains, strands, andstandards.

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Eighth-grade students apply thevocabulary skills developed in earliergrades in more sophisticated contexts.The strategies for vocabulary instructiondiscussed in the seventh grade continue toapply in the eighth grade.


Although teachers have always taughtreading-comprehension skills in relationto informational texts, the contentstandards at this level focus more attentionon that segment of the language artscurriculum. The term informationalmaterials refers not just to nonfictionworks such as biographies but to a varietyof reading that is expository rather thannarrative. In the school setting informa-tional texts are generally textbooks orreference works but may include a host ofprint and nonprint materials. Instructionalstrategies used with information materialsare often different from those used tocomprehend literary texts. In a depart-mentalized school, responsibility forimproving reading comprehension ofinstructional materials should be shared byteachers of all subjects, particularlyteachers of history–social science andscience.

Seventh-grade students study thestructural features of consumer materials(warranties, contracts, product informa-tion, and instructional manuals). Theseventh-grade focus on the cause-and-effect pattern in expository text is replacedin the eighth grade by the pattern of aproposal and its support. In addition,

students should be able to explain the useof a complex mechanical device.

Students are expected to demonstratetheir ability to grapple with the treatment,scope, and organization of ideas by findingsimilarities and differences between texts.They are also expected to compare anoriginal text with a summary to determinewhether it accurately captures the mainideas, includes critical details, and conveysthe underlying meaning. Finally, studentsare expected to evaluate the unity, logic,internal consistency, and structuralpatterns of text.

This framework recommends a strategyof helping students master these relativelysophisticated aspects of reading informa-tional discourse; that is, contrasting goodexamples of various concepts with poorexamples.


This strand of the reading domain isdesigned to ensure that eighth-gradestudents are thoroughly familiar with thebasic elements of story grammar. Specifi-cally, students are required to (1) evaluatethe structural elements of the plot;(2) compare and contrast the motivationsand reactions of literary characters;(3) analyze the relevance of the setting;(4) identify and analyze recurring themes;and (5) identify elements of the writer’sstyle.

As to the structural features of litera-ture, eighth-grade students are expected tounderstand the different kinds of prose.They are also expected to understand thepurposes and characteristics of differentkinds of poetry (e.g., ballad, lyric, couplet,epic, sonnet).

Extensive independent reading, whichin the eighth grade increasingly takes placeoutside the classroom, is an important

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element of the language arts curriculum.The standards require that by the end ofmiddle school, students will have read onemillion words annually on their own,including a good representation ofnarrative (classic and contemporaryliterature) and expository (magazines,newspapers, online) instructional materi-als. One million words translate to about15 to 20 minutes of reading per day.

Instructional formats and strategiesused for outside reading have much incommon with those used in teaching coreliterature works but differ significantly.Student choice is a more importantelement in outside reading and may resultin fewer diverse selections because youngreaders typically choose to focus on asingle author, topic, or genre for a periodof time. Their reading should not belimited to works of fiction or nonfictionbut should include magazines, especiallythose in areas of special interest to thestudents, newspapers, and online sources.A variety of methods are available to assessreading done outside the classroom,including student-maintained reading logsand book reports in various formats.According to the standard, instructionshould be focused on the reading itselfrather than on the final report on thereading.

Independent reading significantlyimproves students’ reading comprehensionand vocabulary and increases their famil-iarity with models of good writing andconventions of writing and spelling. It alsoserves an important affective purpose; thatis, in helping to develop a lifelong appre-ciation for reading for pleasure andinformation. Recent research indicatesthat the volume of reading also affectsgeneral cognitive development(Cunningham and Stanovich 1998).


Writing strategies called for in theeighth grade differ in degree from thoseused in the seventh grade. Students’writing should continue to be character-ized by a controlling thesis well supportedby details or evidence from the text butshould now begin to display more sophis-tication and polish, including suchfeatures as transitions, parallelism, and aconsistent point of view.

When conducting research with the aidof technology, students are expected tobuild on the foundation of research andtechnological skills developed in the earliergrades. Eighth-grade students should beable to plan and conduct multiple-stepinformation searches, using Internet-basedresources. They should be taught how toachieve an effective balance betweenresearched information and original ideasin their written or oral presentations, adifficult issue for middle school students.Teachers need to assist students in evaluat-ing data and evidence and matching themwith thesis statements. Students needfrequent opportunities to grasp the idea ofpreponderance of evidence versus isolateddata. The importance of a thesis state-ment—a single, generalized statement thatdrives the entire work—cannot be over-emphasized. Students with weak languagearts skills may not recognize their need tohave something to say before they canwrite a composition. If so, they may behelped by being encouraged to think ofspeaking as writing out loud because theyoften find themselves able to articulateand organize thoughts more easily inspeech than in writing. Such oral state-ments can be bridges to the creation of awritten thesis statement.

All of these across-the-board standardsfor writing strategies can be taught initially

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in isolation. For instance, teachers caninitially focus on a skill such as paraphras-ing before requiring students to incorpo-rate that skill into their written composi-tions. Doing so reduces the cognitive andorganizational burden on students toincorporate all aspects of writing into anassigned composition. The standardswarn, however, against teaching writingconcepts in isolation without immediatelyincorporating them into writing assign-ments.


Eighth-grade students should continueto produce major texts of 500 to 700words (two to three pages, typed anddouble-spaced) in these categories:fictional or autobiographical narratives,responses to literature, research reports,and persuasive compositions.

The eighth-grade standards describe themore sophisticated elements now expectedin student writing. For example, inwriting narratives, students in the seventhgrade are expected to develop the standardelements of plot (e.g., beginning, conflict,rising action). But in the eighth gradestudents are expected to go beyond thestructural elements (e.g., to reveal thewriter’s attitude about the subject).However, the depth and duration of theinstruction provided should be adjusted tothe achievement level of the students in agiven classroom. Well-developed instruc-tional units have long been used inCalifornia for many categories of writing,although the titles may be slightly differ-ent (e.g., autobiographical incident, reportof information).

The seventh-grade requirement to writesummaries of reading materials no longerappears in the eighth grade, and two new

categories of writing are introduced:(1) documents related to career develop-ment, including simple business letters andjob applications; and (2) technical docu-ments that explain a complex operation orsituation (e.g., design a system, operate atool, or develop the bylaws of an organiza-tion).

Instruction in the business-relateddocuments should go beyond the mechan-ics and conventional forms for such writingto include important rhetorical consider-ations, such as clear attention to theaudience and purpose, clarity and succinct-ness, consideration of all appropriatevariables, and coherence and logicalsequencing.


Eighth-grade students are expected tohave mastered four of the five subsectionsin this standard: grammar, punctuation,capitalization, and spelling. Only in thefifth subsection, sentence structure, is newlearning introduced. In that area studentsare expected to vary sentence types andsentence openings, use parallel structuresappropriately, and indicate relationshipsbetween ideas by using such devices assubordination, coordination, and apposi-tion.

Students’ strengths and deficits in usingEnglish-language conventions are likely tovary considerably in the eighth grade. Animportant skill to be learned in improvingthat use is to train the eye and ear torecognize errors in conventions found inreading and writing. Extensive studentexperience in reading and writing helps tobuild those skills. Teachers should providemodels of both outstanding and poor useof written conventions and help studentsdevelop editing skills. Explicit instructionin the conventions is also needed. Indi-

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vidualized instructional software can beused to address efficiently the problem ofsignificant differences among students intheir ability to use conventions.

Skills students possess in mechanics andconventions are most often described inrelation to writing. But, as the title of thisstrand indicates, the skills also apply tospeaking. In addition to learning correctspeech, students should recognize that thestructures of spoken language are generallymore informal than the structures ofwriting and depend on audience andpurpose. They should be able to recognizeinstances in which formal standardEnglish is required.


Many of the skills and strategies used inspeaking are the same as those for writing(e.g., organizing information for audienceand purpose; including an introduction,transitions, a logically developed body,and an appropriate conclusion; usingcorrect language and grammar). Some ofthe rhetorical considerations, however, areunique to oral communications. Inspeaking, students should be able tomatch their voice modulation, tone, andpacing to the purpose of the presentation.Explicit instruction in speaking skills mustgo well beyond the traditional threeelementary rules of speaking: speakaudibly, speak clearly, and maintain eyecontact with your audience.

Students are expected to use audiencefeedback in both speaking and listening.After listening to verbal cues and observ-ing nonverbal cues, students are expectedto be able to modify their original plan oforganization to clarify meaning andcounter potential opposition. They shouldbe able to ask relevant questions concern-

ing a speaker’s content, delivery, andpurpose and evaluate the credibility of aspeaker. Students are also expected tocontinue to analyze and evaluate mediapresentations, noting various techniquesused by graphic artists, advertisers, andelectronic journalists to influence theviewer.


The speaking applications discussed inthe seventh grade reappear in the eighthgrade: narrative, research, and persuasivepresentations, which are areas of focus inwriting as well. Students should, therefore,deliver some of their written compositionsorally. Doing so is efficient in the use ofinstructional time and effective because itmakes overt the differences and similaritiesbetween written and oral presentations.

Oral responses to reading shift from anexpository focus in the seventh grade, whenstudents deliver oral summaries of articlesand books, to a literary focus in the eighthgrade, when students interpret their readingorally and analyze it. Eighth-grade studentsare also expected to recite, with expression,poems of four to six stanzas, sections ofspeeches, or dramatic soliloquies.



1. Use word meanings within theappropriate context and show anability to verify those meanings bydefinition, restatement, example,comparison, or contrast.

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2. Use vocabulary, concepts, andwriting related to the science,history–social science, and math-ematics standards in some activitiesand assignments.

3. Compare and contrast motivationsand reactions of literary charactersfrom different historical eras orcultures who confront similarsituations or conflicts.

4. Establish coherence within andamong paragraphs through effectivetransitions, parallel structures, andsimilar writing techniques.

5. Achieve an effective balance be-tween researched information andoriginal ideas.

Eighth Grade


6. Revise writing for word choice,appropriate organization, consis-tent point of view, and transitionsbetween paragraphs, passages, andideas.

7. Write narratives, employingnarrative and descriptive strategies.

8. Use correct punctuation, capitali-zation, and spelling.

9. Organize information to matchthe message, vocabulary, voicemodulation, expression, and toneto the audience and purpose.

10. Deliver narrative presentations.


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2.0 Writingapplications(genres and theircharacteristics)

2.4 Write persuasivecompositions.

Writing


Eighth Grade

Write a well-structured persuasive composition, using rhetoricaldevices, relevant evidence, and responses to readers’ counterclaims.

Initial instruction should begin with students reading examples ofpersuasive writing. The examples may be of professional writing orstudent writing and should vary in quality to enhance students’ability to evaluate critically and understand fully the elements ofpersuasive discourse. An example of poor writing can demonstratean obvious failure to anticipate and address a reader’s response to


InstructionalDesign

Prerequisite standards. Seventh-Grade Writing Strategies Standard 1.3: Use strategies ofnotetaking, outlining, and summarizing.

Seventh-Grade Writing Applications Standard 2.4(a): State a clear position in supportof a proposition.

Seventh-Grade Written and Oral English-Language Conventions Standard 1.4:Demonstrate the mechanics of writing and appropriate English usage.

Corequisite standards. Eighth-Grade Writing Strategies Standards 1.1, 1.3.

Standard 1.1: Create compositions that establish a controlling impression, have a coherentthesis, and end with a clear and well-supported conclusion.

Standard 1.3: Support conclusions with paraphrases, quotations, and opinions fromauthorities.

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the arguments put forth. A strong example that powerfully illus-trates this concept should also be used.

The number of examples should vary according to student masteryof the persuasive text structures. Although students should befamiliar with the elements of persuasive discourse by this time, thelevel of previous knowledge is likely to vary. Fewer examples shouldbe used with students who already have a good mastery of the textstructure and more examples with students who do not.

After their critical reading of persuasive texts, students should have agood command of the basic elements of text structure common tomost similar texts. They can then apply that understanding towriting their own persuasive compositions. The instruction inwriting persuasive compositions should follow the same steps in thewriting process used for all written compositions:

• Students should first plan their compositions and outline theirarguments, possible reader objections to their arguments, andtheir own responses to those objections.

• During the revision phase of writing, teachers should focus onthe elements of revision emphasized in the standards for thislevel as well as the standards for grammar and usage andmanuscript form.

If teachers anticipate that students will have significant difficulty inwriting a persuasive composition, they should consider having allstudents write on the same topic or have half of them take the proposition and half the con position on an issue. This approach offersmore opportunities for students to help one another with thewriting process and makes it easier for teachers to evaluate composi-tions, giving them more time to deliver additional instruction whenneeded.

Once students have successfully completed a persuasive composi-tion, teachers can turn their attention to having the students deliverthe same composition orally. Doing so saves instructional time thatwould otherwise be required to start from scratch to develop an oralpersuasive argument. Moreover, teachers can focus directly on therhetorical elements unique to oral presentations (e.g., gestures,intonation).

Note: Students will have an opportunity to develop an oral presenta-tion from scratch elsewhere because the standards call for deliveringan oral descriptive presentation but not for writing descriptivediscourse.

Initially, students may be allowed to read their oral presentationsand then work gradually toward delivering presentations from notes.

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Teachers introduce new concepts, using models and detailedstrategies for acquiring new skills and knowledge. They shouldexplicitly identify the elements of good discourse in argument andpersuasion before the students analyze good and poor models.

The greatest number of students will experience success with thestandards if teachers plan for scaffolded instruction, with varyinglevels of assistance being provided before students are expected toapply their knowledge and skill independently. A simple scaffoldingdevice, for example, is a think sheet that students use during theprewriting stage of writing. The think sheet shows the basic outlinefor argument or persuasion discourse, helping to ensure that stu-dents do not omit crucial elements during their planning andhelping them prepare better drafts.

Another scaffolding device particularly well suited to writinginstruction is peer-mediated instruction or cooperative learning.This approach not only gives students additional instructionalopportunities as they assist one another but helps establish thewriter-reader relationship in a manner more realistic than havingstudents write principally for the teacher.

Note: Caution is in order regarding peer-mediated instruction. Aswith all scaffolded instruction, peer-mediated instruction should begradually eliminated for each topic taught to ensure that eachstudent learns to use skill and knowledge completely and indepen-dently. Ultimately, students should be held individually accountablefor meeting standards.

1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. The nature ofthe material at this level makes it impractical to preteststudents formally for prerequisite knowledge or knowledge ofupcoming instruction. Each time new instruction begins,teachers should assess students’ entry knowledge informallyand briefly with questions or very short assignments (such as ashort in-class writing assignment, which can indicate a greatdeal about student knowledge of several standards).

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective.All assignments can serve to assess student progress. Teachersmust examine performance on such assignments and analyzethe results to discover areas that require more explicit instruc-tion, an alternative instructional strategy, or other supportiveinstructional methods.

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. State-required ordistrict-required formal assessments give part of the picture ofhow well students achieve the standards. In addition, the


Post-testAssessment



Assessment

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assignments that teachers use to grade students give a morecomplete picture of achievement. For example, examinationof a written composition in final form should be part of thesummative evaluation for students. That evaluation shouldassess individual accountability on assignments that studentscomplete on their own rather than those completed coopera-tively.

1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. Students arelikely to encounter two major obstacles to meeting the stan-dards for persuasive discourse as well as many other standardsat this level. First, difficulties in reading can forestall criticaland analytical reading of appropriate grade-level examples ofpersuasive writing. Alternative reading material below gradelevel may be substituted. Although these students may notachieve the desired goals as to reading level, they should beable to reach other standards as their reading level improves.In addition, the use of aides or peer-mediated instruction canprovide the students with additional assistance in their studyof difficult vocabulary and syntax in their reading assignments.

As much as possible, struggling readers should be encouragedto work on reading fluency itself as an ongoing activity outsidethe language arts classroom. They might be helped by beingtutored or by receiving assistance in study hall or in classesdesigned to address more serious reading problems.

Other obstacles for lower performers at this level are writingmechanics in general and handwriting and spelling in particu-lar. Research shows that students identified as having learningdisabilities are often preempted from success in writingbecause the cognitive requirements of writing mechanics aretoo demanding.

General education teachers may be limited in accommodatingmajor deficiencies they observe in their students’ use of writingmechanics. Such students can benefit from peer-mediated,scaffolded instruction and from any outside support that canbe arranged. Ultimately, the most successful accommodationfor students at this level may be word processing or typing.Additional strategies may include the use of oral presentations,dramas, models, or dictation.

2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Higher-performingstudents can follow the same curriculum as their normallyachieving peers but should do so in greater depth andcomplexity and with more independence. Their persuasivearguments can be longer, more sophisticated, or better re-

UniversalAccess


AdvancedLearners

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searched. Those who have mastered text structures can workon more complex writing involving a mixture of structures andcan study the rhetorical devices and organizational patternscommonly found in speeches that can be used to recast theiressays. Students can also be asked to argue both sides of anissue or be paired with another highly able student in a debate-style arrangement.


a. English learners benefit from specific instruction concerningargumentation.

b. English learners should be taught to avoid relying on suchcommon slang words as guy, kid, by the way, and stuff as wellas such general words as thing, nice, and kind in their writing.

c. English learners will experience difficulty in paraphrasingbecause they lack depth of vocabulary. They should be taughthow to incorporate quotations into their texts to support theirarguments and to reference appropriately and correctly.

d. Because students will present opposing views and explain whytheir view is better than that of others, they must be taughtsuch grammatical structures as comparisons. Transitionaldevices (such as first, second, to conclude, and in summary)might also be taught.

e. English learners should be encouraged to practice before givingan oral presentation and should be allowed to use a prop orvisual that will aid them during their presentation.

f. Teachers should provide corrective feedback consistently at therevising and editing stages to help English learners developtheir English skills.

g. Teachers must provide students with straightforward assess-ments of their proficiency in English at every stage of instruc-tion so that students understand what they can do to improve.

Instructional materials should be provided in abundance for teachersto use with students who possess a broad range of abilities. Insteadof presenting ideas for working with special-needs students in asentence or two, for example, the instructional materials shouldprovide many ready-to-go items for additional practice and instruc-tional opportunities for English learners and students with learningdifficulties. Similarly, several substantial resources or alternateassignments should be provided for high-performing students.Teachers cannot realistically be expected to invest long hours infinding or developing those resources.

English Learners


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Eighth GradeChapter 4Content Standardsand InstructionalPractices—Grades FourThrough Eight

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Reading




1.1 Analyze idioms, analogies, metaphors,and similes to infer the literal andfigurative meanings of phrases.

1.2 Understand the most important pointsin the history of English language anduse common word origins to determinethe historical influences on Englishword meanings.

1.3 Use word meanings within the appro-priate context and show ability to verifythose meanings by definition, restate-ment, example, comparison, orcontrast.

2.0 Reading Comprehension (Focuson Informational Materials)

Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They describe andconnect the essential ideas, arguments, andperspectives of the text by using their knowl-edge of text structure, organization, andpurpose. The selections in Recommended

Readings in Literature, Kindergarten ThroughGrade Eight illustrate the quality and complex-ity of the materials to be read by students. Inaddition, students read one million wordsannually on their own, including a goodrepresentation of narrative and expository text(e.g., classic and contemporary literature,magazines, newspapers, online information).


2.1 Compare and contrast the featuresand elements of consumer materialsto gain meaning from documents(e.g., warranties, contracts, productinformation, instruction manuals).

2.2 Analyze text that uses proposition andsupport patterns.


2.3 Find similarities and differencesbetween texts in the treatment, scope,or organization of ideas.

2.4 Compare the original text to a sum-mary to determine whether thesummary accurately captures the mainideas, includes critical details, andconveys the underlying meaning.

2.5 Understand and explain the use of acomplex mechanical device by follow-ing technical directions.

2.6 Use information from a variety ofconsumer, workplace, and publicdocuments to explain a situation ordecision and to solve a problem.

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Expository Critique

2.7 Evaluate the unity, coherence, logic,internal consistency, and structuralpatterns of text.


Students read and respond to historically orculturally significant works of literature thatreflect and enhance their studies of historyand social science. They clarify the ideas andconnect them to other literary works. Theselections in Recommended Readings inLiterature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eightillustrate the quality and complexity of thematerials to be read by students.


3.1 Determine and articulate the relation-ship between the purposes and charac-teristics of different forms of poetry(e.g., ballad, lyric, couplet, epic, elegy,ode, sonnet).


3.2 Evaluate the structural elements of theplot (e.g., subplots, parallel episodes,climax), the plot’s development, andthe way in which conflicts are (or arenot) addressed and resolved.

3.3 Compare and contrast motivations andreactions of literary characters fromdifferent historical eras confrontingsimilar situations or conflicts.

3.4 Analyze the relevance of the setting(e.g., place, time, customs) to themood, tone, and meaning of the text.

3.5 Identify and analyze recurring themes(e.g., good versus evil) across traditionaland contemporary works.

3.6 Identify significant literary devices(e.g., metaphor, symbolism, dialect,irony) that define a writer’s style anduse those elements to interpret thework.

Literary Criticism

3.7 Analyze a work of literature, showinghow it reflects the heritage, traditions,attitudes, and beliefs of its author.(Biographical approach)

Writing


Students write clear, coherent, and focusedessays. The writing exhibits students’awareness of audience and purpose. Essayscontain formal introductions, supportingevidence, and conclusions. Students progressthrough the stages of the writing process asneeded.


1.1 Create compositions that establish acontrolling impression, have a coherentthesis, and end with a clear and well-supported conclusion.

1.2 Establish coherence within and amongparagraphs through effective transi-tions, parallel structures, and similarwriting techniques.

1.3 Support theses or conclusions withanalogies, paraphrases, quotations,opinions from authorities, comparisons,and similar devices.


1.4 Plan and conduct multiple-stepinformation searches by using com-puter networks and modems.

1.5 Achieve an effective balance betweenresearched information and originalideas.


1.6 Revise writing for word choice;appropriate organization; consistentpoint of view; and transitions betweenparagraphs, passages, and ideas.


Students write narrative, expository, persua-sive, and descriptive essays of at least 500 to700 words in each genre. Student writingdemonstrates a command of standard Ameri-can English and the research, organizational,and drafting strategies outlined in WritingStandard 1.0.

Eighth Grade


Standards

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Using the writing strategies of grade eightoutlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:

2.1 Write biographies, autobiographies,short stories, or narratives:

a. Relate a clear, coherent incident,event, or situation by using well-chosen details.

b. Reveal the significance of, or thewriter’s attitude about, the subject.

c. Employ narrative and descriptivestrategies (e.g., relevant dialogue,specific action, physical description,background description, comparisonor contrast of characters).


a. Exhibit careful reading and insightin their interpretations.

b. Connect the student’s own re-sponses to the writer’s techniquesand to specific textual references.

c. Draw supported inferences aboutthe effects of a literary work on itsaudience.

d. Support judgments throughreferences to the text, other works,other authors, or to personalknowledge.


a. Define a thesis.b. Record important ideas, concepts,

and direct quotations from signifi-cant information sources andparaphrase and summarize allperspectives on the topic, asappropriate.

c. Use a variety of primary andsecondary sources and distinguishthe nature and value of each.

d. Organize and display informationon charts, maps, and graphs.


a. Include a well-defined thesis(i.e., one that makes a clear andknowledgeable judgment).

b. Present detailed evidence, examples,and reasoning to support arguments,differentiating between facts andopinion.

c. Provide details, reasons, andexamples, arranging them effectivelyby anticipating and answering readerconcerns and counterarguments.

2.5 Write documents related to careerdevelopment, including simple businessletters and job applications:

a. Present information purposefullyand succinctly and meet the needsof the intended audience.

b. Follow the conventional format forthe type of document (e.g., letter ofinquiry, memorandum).

2.6 Write technical documents:

a. Identify the sequence of activitiesneeded to design a system, operate atool, or explain the bylaws of anorganization.

b. Include all the factors and variablesthat need to be considered.

c. Use formatting techniques(e.g., headings, differing fonts)to aid comprehension.





Sentence Structure

1.1 Use correct and varied sentence typesand sentence openings to present alively and effective personal style.

1.2 Identify and use parallelism, includingsimilar grammatical forms, in allwritten discourse to present items ina series and items juxtaposed foremphasis.

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Eighth Grade


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1.3 Use subordination, coordination,apposition, and other devices toindicate clearly the relationshipbetween ideas.

Grammar

1.4 Edit written manuscripts to ensure thatcorrect grammar is used.

Punctuation and Capitalization

1.5 Use correct punctuation andcapitalization.

Spelling

1.6 Use correct spelling conventions.



Students deliver focused, coherent presenta-tions that convey ideas clearly and relate to thebackground and interests of the audience.They evaluate the content of oral communica-tion.

Comprehension

1.1 Analyze oral interpretations of litera-ture, including language choice anddelivery, and the effect of the interpre-tations on the listener.

1.2 Paraphrase a speaker’s purpose andpoint of view and ask relevant questionsconcerning the speaker’s content,delivery, and purpose.


1.3 Organize information to achieveparticular purposes by matching themessage, vocabulary, voice modulation,expression, and tone to the audienceand purpose.

1.4 Prepare a speech outline based upon achosen pattern of organization, whichgenerally includes an introduction;transitions, previews, and summaries;a logically developed body; and aneffective conclusion.

1.5 Use precise language, action verbs,sensory details, appropriate and colorful

modifiers, and the active rather thanthe passive voice in ways that enlivenoral presentations.

1.6 Use appropriate grammar, word choice,enunciation, and pace during formalpresentations.

1.7 Use audience feedback (e.g., verbal andnonverbal cues):

a. Reconsider and modify the organiza-tional structure or plan.

b. Rearrange words and sentences toclarify the meaning.


1.8 Evaluate the credibility of a speaker(e.g., hidden agendas, slanted or biasedmaterial).

1.9 Interpret and evaluate the variousways in which visual image makers(e.g., graphic artists, illustrators, newsphotographers) communicate informa-tion and affect impressions andopinions.



Using the speaking strategies of grade eightoutlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0, students:

2.1 Deliver narrative presentations(e.g., biographical, autobiographical):

a. Relate a clear, coherent incident,event, or situation by using well-chosen details.

b. Reveal the significance of, and thesubject’s attitude about, theincident, event, or situation.

c. Employ narrative and descriptivestrategies (e.g., relevant dialogue,

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Eighth Grade


Standards




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specific action, physical description,background description, comparisonor contrast of characters).


a. Interpret a reading and provideinsight.

b. Connect the students’ own re-sponses to the writer’s techniquesand to specific textual references.

c. Draw supported inferences aboutthe effects of a literary work on itsaudience.

d. Support judgments throughreferences to the text, other works,other authors, or personal knowl-edge.

2.3 Deliver research presentations:

a. Define a thesis.b. Record important ideas, concepts,

and direct quotations from signifi-cant information sources andparaphrase and summarize allrelevant perspectives on the topic,as appropriate.

c. Use a variety of primary andsecondary sources and distinguishthe nature and value of each.

d. Organize and record informationon charts, maps, and graphs.


a. Include a well-defined thesis(i.e., one that makes a clear andknowledgeable judgment).

b. Differentiate fact from opinion andsupport arguments with detailedevidence, examples, and reasoning.

c. Anticipate and answer listenerconcerns and counterargumentseffectively through the inclusion andarrangement of details, reasons,examples, and other elements.

d. Maintain a reasonable tone.

2.5 Recite poems (of four to six stanzas),sections of speeches, or dramaticsoliloquies, using voice modulation,tone, and gestures expressively toenhance the meaning.

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Eighth Grade


Many of the general topics in thestandards for grades ninethrough twelve are similar to

those for the earlier grades. For instance,the standards continue to emphasizereading informational and literary textcritically, writing compositions accordingto major text structures and genres, andmaking oral presentations. By the twelfthgrade students are expected each year toread independently two million wordsof running text (see page 209 in thischapter). That amount is twice that calledfor in earlier grades. The content of thereading should include a wide variety of

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Grades NineThroughTwelve

By the twelfth grade students areexpected each year to read independentlytwo million words of running text. . . .For many students that amount ofindependent reading will not occurwithout strategic and systematicguidance in their selection of textand reinforcement of independentreading habits.

5

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Chapter 5Content Standardsand InstructionalPractices—Grades NineThrough Twelve

classic and contemporary literature,magazines, newspapers, and online infor-mation. For many students that amount ofindependent reading will not occurwithout strategic and systematic guidancein their selection of text and reinforcementof independent reading habits. The goal oftwo million words of annual independentreading should be a logical extension of theeighth-grade goal of one million words.

Comprehension standards for informa-tional materials and literature require thatstudents demonstrate more sophisticatedstrategies as they analyze, evaluate, andelaborate on what is read, critique thecredibility of information, and compareworks and provide evidence to supportideas. A major difference between thestandards for grades nine through twelveand those for earlier grade levels is that allreading in the ninth through twelfth gradestakes place in conjunction with grade-appropriate materials, which becomeincreasingly long and complex as studentsadvance.

Writing and oral presentations alsobecome more sophisticated and complex ingrades nine through twelve. By the ninthgrade students have had plentiful opportu-nities to read and compose narrative,expository, persuasive, and descriptive text.(See the discussion on writing as a processat the beginning of Chapter 3.) Composi-tion standards in grades nine through

twelve require that writers combine theindividual text genres to produce texts of atleast 1,500 words each (see pages 195 and211 in this chapter). Concurrently, writersapply and refine their command of thewriting process and writing conventions.

Many standards for grades nine throughtwelve are either unique to those grades orreceive far greater emphasis than in earliergrades. Such standards include:

• Strong emphasis on research-baseddiscourse (writing and deliveringresearch-based compositions and oralpresentations and reading researchdiscourse critically)

• Incorporating technology into thelanguage arts as a tool for conductingresearch or creating finished manu-scripts and multimedia presentations

• Focus on analytically critiquing avariety of media

• Greater emphasis on the languagearts as applied to work and careers(e.g., conducting interviews, fillingout job applications, writing businessletters, performing technical writing)

As in previous grades new comprehen-sion and writing strategies to assist readersin their understanding and use of writtenlanguage will require instruction. Studentswill need explicit instruction as they learnand apply more sophisticated and complexstrategies.

Writing and oralpresentations alsobecome moresophisticated andcomplex in gradesnine throughtwelve.

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Grades NineThrough Twelve


Reading




Writing








In the ninth and tenth grades,students continue to apply theknowledge and skills acquired in the

earlier grades but in more refined andsophisticated ways. In some cases stan-dards address new goals, such as masteringappropriate interviewing techniques.Regardless, emphasis continues to becentered on analyzing literature in greaterdepth, analyzing career-related and otherinformational discourse, completing morecomplex writing assignments, and givingmore extensive oral presentations. Thestrands to be emphasized at the ninth-grade and tenth-grade levels are listed inthe adjacent column under the appro-priate domains.

The following sections profile focusareas within each of the strands.

Ninth Grade and Tenth Grade

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Applying etymological and morphologi-cal knowledge to word meanings continuesto be emphasized, particularly wordsderived from Greek, Roman, and Norsemythology. Students also distinguishbetween the denotative and connotativemeanings of words and learn about thepower of connotative meanings.

Instruction in word derivation shouldtake place throughout the year as a rela-tively small part of several lessons. Inaddition, all work in vocabulary studyshould be reviewed cumulatively andperiodically throughout the year. Newvocabulary—especially when it representsnew conceptual knowledge—is rarelyacquired without such review. Often,students at this level may study wordderivations independently, but their workshould be closely monitored by the teacher.

Because the standards for the ninth andtenth grades emphasize Greek, Roman, andNorse mythology as sources for wordderivations, some reading assignmentsshould involve those topics.


Comprehension and analysis of infor-mational materials have not been focusedon in language arts instruction at the highschool level. Instead, emphasis has tradi-tionally been placed on the study of literaryworks. Although anthologies of literaturenow provide many nonfiction selections(and suggested learning activities toaccompany the selections), teachers mayneed to expand classroom collections ofexpository readings of various lengths. Inaddition, effective strategies for studying

expository texts vary somewhat from thestrategies used for narrative texts (fictionand biography). For example, studentsneed to recognize the structural featuresand organization unique to nonnarrativetexts, such as the use of headings andsubheadings. Much of the expositoryreading done in high school is taken fromtextbooks and related academic readingsassigned in classes other than English class.Therefore, teachers in all disciplines shouldshare responsibility for student achieve-ment in this area.

Students are expected to developcritical-thinking skills appropriate in allacademic areas, such as:

• Synthesizing the content and ideasfrom several sources focused on asingle issue or written by a singleauthor

• Producing evidence of comprehen-sion by paraphrasing ideas andconnecting them to other sources andto related topics

• Extending ideas presented in primaryor secondary sources through originalanalysis, evaluation, and elaboration

In the ninth and tenth grades, thestructural features of workplace documents(e.g., business letters, memos, minutes, andprocedural manuals) receive primaryattention in contrast to the focus onconsumer materials in the eighth grade. Inaddition, students are required to demon-strate their ability to follow the types ofsophisticated technical directions found inadvanced software programs or Internetresources. Students are likely to experiencedifficulties with technology guides becausethe terminology is unclear or the materialis not well written or user-friendly. Instruc-tion should help students identify thereasons for technological material to bedifficult to follow. Moreover, the instruc-tion should tie into students’ own exposi-tory writing.

NInth Grade andTenth Grade


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Students in the ninth and tenth gradesare required to produce bibliographies ofreference materials, using a variety ofdocuments. Students preparing researchreports in high school most frequently usethe works-cited model (including onlyreference sources quoted or otherwisereferred to in the student work) ratherthan the more extensive bibliography(including all materials used for back-ground and research). Within the textstudents more frequently use a parentheti-cal model (author-date) rather thanendnotes or footnotes. For students tounderstand and appreciate the function ofreference citations, they should considerthe types of problems researchers wouldhave if one or more elements were missingfrom a citation or reference. Acceptableformats for presenting this informationinclude the guidelines published by theModern Language Association and by theAmerican Psychological Association.Whichever is selected, it should be usedmeticulously and consistently throughoutthe document.


The literary response and analysisstrand is an area of comfort and expertisefor English teachers at the high schoollevel. Indeed, the opportunity to shareliterary works with students is a commonmotivating force in a person’s decision tobecome a high school English teacher.

Typically, novels are the core texts forliterary analysis in high school and aresupplemented with short stories, essays,and poetry. Teachers should note thatcurrent anthologies of literature are muchmore than compilations of short storiesand poems and offer a wealth of instruc-tional strategies and activities, many ofwhich integrate several language artsstandards. To meet the demanding

requirements dictated by those standards,teachers must ensure that many studentassignments and activities serve more thana single purpose in the curriculum.

In reading literary pieces, students inthe ninth and tenth grades should analyzesuch elements as the following:

• Character, interactions amongcharacters, and interactions betweencharacters and plot

• Time and sequence (e.g., foreshad-owing and flashbacks)

• Comparison of universal themes inseveral works

• Literary elements, such as figurativelanguage, allegory, and symbolism

• Ambiguities, contradictions, andironies in the text

• Voice or persona (point of view)

Although the elements of literature atthis level are fundamental and have beentargeted in the earlier grades, many aresophisticated concepts that require explicitinstruction in strategies before mastery canbe achieved. For instance, figurativelanguage holds a cluster of challengingconcepts. The goal here for students is notsimply to define literary elements but tounderstand them in depth as an aid toreading and creating expressive discourseof their own. As a scaffolding technique,students should be prompted to look forvery specific elements in reading. (Ex-ample: “Look for the metaphor in whichsomething is compared to birds. Also,look at the imagery the narrator uses todescribe her garden.”)

By the end of high school, students areexpected to be familiar with the purposesand characteristics of the major genres ofliterature. These standards identify thegrade-level focus as follows: grade seven—prose; grade eight—poetry; grades nineand ten—drama; and grades eleven andtwelve—subgenres that span genres, suchas satire.



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One feature of this standard takes placelargely outside the classroom. Students inthe ninth and tenth grades are expected toread independently about one and one-half million words annually. (One millionwords are expected to be read annually bythe end of the eighth grade and twomillion words annually by the end of thetwelfth grade.) For the grade-level reader,two million words translate to about 11pages per day or one 335-page book eachmonth.

Although instructional formats andstrategies used for outside reading havemuch in common for formats and strate-gies used in teaching core literature works,there are significant differences. Thestudents’ choices are more important inoutside reading and may result in lessdiverse selections because young readerstypically choose to focus on a singleauthor, topic, or genre for a period of time.Reading should not be limited to works offiction or nonfiction but should includemagazines, especially those of specialinterest to the students; newspapers; andonline sources. A variety of methods areavailable to assess reading done outside theclassroom, including student-maintainedreading logs and book reports in variousformats. In relation to the standard, theinstructional focus should be placed onthe reading itself rather than on the finalreport on the reading.

Independent reading significantlyimproves a student’s reading comprehen-sion and vocabulary and increases familiar-ity with models of good writing andconventions of writing and spelling. It alsoserves an important affective purpose; thatis, to develop a lifelong appreciation forreading for pleasure and information.Recent research indicates that the volumeof reading also affects general cognitivedevelopment.


At this level writing extends the empha-sis in earlier grades on establishing acoherent controlling theme that conveys aclear and distinctive perspective on thesubject and maintains a consistent toneand focus throughout the piece of writing.Coherence can be a difficult concept formany students. On occasion studentsshould work cooperatively in revising forcoherence, using scaffolded think sheets asguides for helping one another obtainuseful feedback and revise text. They arelikely to need continuing assistance indeveloping themes that are clear andneither too broad nor too narrow for theirtargeted document’s purpose and length.

This standard also includes require-ments in research and technology. Stu-dents in the ninth and tenth grades shouldbe competent in:

• Using clear, nontrivial researchquestions and suitable researchmethodology from primary andsecondary sources

• Synthesizing information frommultiple sources to support the thesis

• Identifying complexities, discrepan-cies, and differing perspectives in theresearched information

• Embedding quotations and citationsskillfully and using bibliographicconventions appropriately

Students are also expected to useadvanced publishing software to createfinal documents. Ready access to technol-ogy hardware, software, and Internet-basedresources is a prerequisite to studentproficiency in this area. As with reading forinformation, responsibility for instructionin research and technology skills in highschool might be shared with teachers ofother disciplines that require such skills.



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This standard identifies the kinds ofwriting that students in the ninth andtenth grades are expected to produce.These writing assignments allow studentsto apply the general strategies of organiza-tion and focus, revision, and researchmethodology described in the standard.

The specific genres or text structurespracticed in the eighth grade continue inthe ninth and tenth grades, with increasingsophistication and length. When appropri-ate, student texts should be 1,500 words inlength (about five to six pages, typed anddouble-spaced).

The most important considerations forteaching students to write various textstructures are:

1. Interrelating different standardsthat all address the same textstructure

2. Providing models of each textstructure, including examples ofstudent writing

3. Identifying the critical elements ofeach text structure for students

4. Providing instructional opportuni-ties to learn about writing for avariety of purposes and helpingstudents achieve a sense of audience


Conventions emphasized at this levelinclude:

• Sentence and paragraph structure:main and subordinate clauses,phrases, parallel structure, consis-tency of verb tenses, placement ofmodifiers

• Punctuation: semicolons, colons,ellipses, hyphens

• Grammar and usage, diction, syntax

• Correct spelling• Manuscript conventions: title page,

pagination, spacing and margins• Appropriate citations for source and

support material

These standards are mostly the continua-tion of standards from earlier grade levels.Some students will need explicit remedialinstruction for some standards that werepreviously introduced but not mastered.The use of individualized instructionalsoftware is one way in which teachers canefficiently address individual studentdeficits.

Many students will need help with someaspect of the conventions standards.Although certain standards should requirevery little instruction (e.g., manuscriptconventions), some usage topics will mostlikely plague many students (e.g., whetherto use affect or effect; case of pronouns).

Listening and SpeakingListening andSpeaking Strategies

Generally, these standards fall into twocategories, delivering oral communicationsand analyzing oral and media communica-tions. (Note: Not all of the standards arelisted. See the English–Language ArtsContent Standards for the complete list.)

Delivering Oral Communications

• Αpply standard structural elementsof expressive discourse.

• Use various visual aids and electronicmedia.

• Use devices of oral rhetoric (intona-tion, gestures, eye contact).

• Produce concise notes for extempora-neous oral presentations.

Analyzing Oral and Media Presentations

• Compare how different media coverthe same event.



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• Compare significant historicalspeeches and the rhetorical devicesused.

• Analyze structural elements of oraland media presentations.

• Analyze rhetorical elements.• Analyze orally presented arguments.• Evaluate the aesthetic effects and

techniques of media presentations.

The basic structural elements of oralpresentations overlap significantly withwritten expression: logical patterns oforganization, techniques for developingintroductions and conclusions, develop-ment of a clear thesis, and so on. For thatreason instruction should be made efficientby addressing the structural elements inconjunction with oral and written expres-sion. Students can present orally thecompositions they have written, givingthem an opportunity to focus on the typesof rhetorical elements unique to speech.

So that students can be assisted inanalyzing oral and media presentations,they should first be taught the basicstructures of such presentations throughthe use of models and formal instruction.They are thereby equipped with the toolsthey need for their own analyses. Forexample, students might first read a scriptfor a situation comedy and then watchother comedies, evaluating the extent towhich basic elements recur and identifyingthe elements of tone, timing, and deliverythat contribute to creating humor.

Listening and SpeakingSpeakingApplications

Students are required to deliver presen-tations of the following types: narrative(autobiographical or fictional); expository(research); oral responses to literature;argument or persuasion; and descriptive.

Most of the genres in the standards fororal presentations are also targets ofstandards at other levels and within otherdomains. Such strongly related standards atthis level should be taught in conjunctionwith one another. Some oral presentationsshould be carefully prepared and rehearsed;others should be extemporaneous.

Students in the ninth and tenth gradesare also required to apply appropriateinterviewing techniques. This skill is usefulin information gathering, such as inter-viewing a Vietnam veteran about wartimeexperiences, and also relates directly tostudents’ future career and job opportuni-ties. Students should be provided withbackground scenarios for interviews andthen can work on interview techniques incooperative learning groups. Interviews aregood examples of activities that combinelistening and speaking skills.

Text structures and skills in listeningand reading are connected in the same wayin which speaking and writing are con-nected. Just as reading comprehension ismore than decoding and pronunciation,listening is more than simply hearingspoken words. Students in the ninth andtenth grades are expected to analyze andevaluate a speaker’s arguments and toneand the techniques used to create them.The use of comparison and contrast is aneffective instructional strategy to helpstudents note the key features in oralpresentations. For example, students mightcompare and contrast Lincoln’s“Gettysburg Address” and Martin LutherKing’s “I Have a Dream” or Shakespeare’sHenry V and Kenneth Branagh’s 1990 filmversion of that play. Students are alsorequired to evaluate the clarity, quality, andeffectiveness of live speakers (includingtheir peers) and of media presentations.




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Develop vocabulary systematically, applying etymology and mor-phology, with particular emphasis being given to the contributions ofGreek, Roman, and Norse mythology to English vocabulary.

Beginning in the fourth grade, standards have emphasized the use ofinternal etymological and morphological cues as well as externalcontext cues. Therefore, students should be very familiar withcontributions that morphological and etymological cues can make tovocabulary development.




Vocabularyand conceptdevelopment

1.3 Identify Greek, Roman,and Norse mythologyand use the knowledgeto understand the originand meaning of newwords.

Reading



InstructionalDesign

Prerequisite standards. Seventh-Grade Word Analysis, Fluency, and SystematicVocabulary Development Standards 1.2, 1.3.

Standard 1.2: Use knowledge of Greek, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon roots and affixesto understand content-area vocabulary.

Standard 1.3: Clarify word meanings through the use of definition, example, restatement,or contrast.

Corequisite standard. Ninth-Grade and Tenth-Grade Word Analysis, Fluency,and Systematic Vocabulary Development Standard 1.1: Identify and use the literaland figurative meanings of words and understand word derivations.



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In the ninth and tenth grades, that emphasis extends to analyzingwords according to etymology and morphology, specifically to thecontributions of Greek, Roman, and Norse mythology to theEnglish language. Such an analysis should include comparing literaletymological meanings with meanings currently in use. Words(e.g., roots) selected for initial instruction can lead to many otherwords, all of which contain that meaning (e.g., solar, solstice, so-larium). Other useful roots can then be introduced (e.g., fortune, aword derived from Fortuna, Roman goddess of luck and vengeance;or cloth, derived from one of the three sisters of fate in Greekmythology, Clotho, who spun the thread of life in her spindle).

Words derived from mythology are often based on proper names,such as Narcissus as the basis for narcissistic. Students can study thiscategory of word derivation beyond mythology as well. For instance,the word maverick is derived from the name of a Texas cattlerancher (Samuel A. Maverick), who did not brand his calves.

Many tools are available to students for working independently andsuccessfully on morphological and etymological word derivations.Textbooks should supply the fundamentals for the study of deriva-tions and effective activities for independent application. Severaltrade books found in the reference section of most bookstores alsoaddress the vocabulary and conceptual development standards well(e.g., books on word origins, morphemically based vocabularybooks, dictionaries). Many of the tools are also available through theInternet.

Throughout the year teachers, by themselves or with the aid oftextbooks, should briefly review the fundamentals of instruction inderivations and particularly useful affixes and roots.

1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Students canbe tested on their knowledge of high-frequency prefixes,suffixes, and some nonword bases. Tasks should include(a) asking students the meanings of some of the morphologicalelements; and (b) giving students some meanings and askingthem to identify parts that correspond. Students should alsobe evaluated on their ability to break a word into its compo-nent parts.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective.The most important characteristic of monitoring studentprogress in areas such as vocabulary (and oral and writtenlanguage conventions) is cumulative monitoring; that is,checking periodically to determine whether students have


Assessment






191




retained the knowledge and skill learned throughout the schoolyear. If they have not, teachers should provide additionalopportunities for study and review.

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. Students shoulddemonstrate their ability to extract the meanings of unfamiliarwords through internal morphological and etymological cues(as well as context cues). They should show their work byindicating which meanings of which word parts led them totheir inferences of word meanings.

1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. Some studentsmay require more instruction and practice than do others inextracting meanings. Support should be provided throughscaffolded activities, explicit instruction, and peer assistance.

2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. These students can beexpected not only to work on systematic vocabulary develop-ment independently but also to conduct sophisticated analysesof words. (Note: The morphology and derivation of manywords are not always clear. For example, linguistic experts areuncertain about the derivation and morphological makeup ofthe word embarrassed.) Advanced students can investigate suchwords and offer hypotheses regarding their derivation andmakeup, citing evidence and sources to support those hypoth-eses. These students can also investigate esoteric derivations,such as the relationship between the Latin meaning of port andwords such as inopportune and porterhouse steak. Applicationsinvolving sophisticated linguistic puzzles also offer challengesto highly motivated students.

3. Students Who Are English Learners. English learners oftenacquire the meaning of new words without being able to usethem because they have not learned the grammatical rulesgoverning usage and lack knowledge of the specific contexts inwhich the words are used. For instance, they may learn themeanings of such sophisticated words as torrid, pungent, andumbrage without having any idea how to use them in commu-nication. (Consider, for instance, the learner who wrote, “Sheburned her tongue on the torrid food.”) Teachers shouldprovide English learners with information concerning not onlythe origins of words but also the use of words. English learnersneed to be helped to use the words appropriately in sentences.English learners often have great difficulty in acquiring morebasic academic words (such as comprise, denote, signify, summa-rize, and mention) than words of Greek, Latin, and Old Norsederivation. However, they benefit from instruction in the

Post-testAssessment


AdvancedLearners

English Learners

UniversalAccess

Ninth Grade andTenth Grade


Profile


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academic words, which appear in great number in middleschool and high school textbooks. They also benefit fromincreased exposure to the words, opportunities to use them,and feedback as to usage.

Instructional materials should provide teachers with substantialmeans for teaching all the standards related to the more conven-tional language arts instruction: vocabulary, grammar and usage,spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. Students at this level willdiffer in their ability to use the conventions. Instructional materialsshould, therefore, be focused on independent activities that can beassigned as needed.

InstructionalMaterialsNInth Grade and

Tenth Grade



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Reading


Students apply their knowledge of wordorigins to determine the meaning of new wordsencountered in reading materials and use thosewords accurately.


1.1 Identify and use the literal and figura-tive meanings of words and understandword derivations.

1.2. Distinguish between the denotative andconnotative meanings of words andinterpret the connotative power ofwords.

1.3 Identify Greek, Roman, and Norsemythology and use the knowledge tounderstand the origin and meaning ofnew words (e.g., the word narcissisticdrawn from the myth of Narcissusand Echo).


Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They analyze theorganizational patterns, arguments, andpositions advanced. The selections in Recom-mended Literature, Grades Nine ThroughTwelve (1990) illustrate the quality andcomplexity of the materials to be read bystudents. In addition, by grade twelve, studentsread two million words annually on their own,

including a wide variety of classic and contem-porary literature, magazines, newspapers, andonline information. In grades nine and ten,students make substantial progress toward thisgoal.


2.1 Analyze the structure and format offunctional workplace documents,including the graphics and headers, andexplain how authors use the features toachieve their purposes.

2.2 Prepare a bibliography of referencematerials for a report using a varietyof consumer, workplace, and publicdocuments.


2.3 Generate relevant questions aboutreadings on issues that can be researched.

2.4 Synthesize the content from severalsources or works by a single authordealing with a single issue; paraphrasethe ideas and connect them to othersources and related topics to demonstratecomprehension.

2.5 Extend ideas presented in primary orsecondary sources through originalanalysis, evaluation, and elaboration.

2.6 Demonstrate use of sophisticatedlearning tools by following technicaldirections (e.g., those found with graphiccalculators and specialized softwareprograms and in access guides to WorldWide Web sites on the Internet).

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Expository Critique

2.7 Critique the logic of functionaldocuments by examining the sequenceof information and procedures inanticipation of possible reader misun-derstandings.

2.8 Evaluate the credibility of an author’sargument or defense of a claim bycritiquing the relationship betweengeneralizations and evidence, thecomprehensiveness of evidence, and theway in which the author’s intent affectsthe structure and tone of the text(e.g., in professional journals, editorials,political speeches, primary sourcematerial).


Students read and respond to historically orculturally significant works of literature thatreflect and enhance their studies of history andsocial science. They conduct in-depth analysesof recurrent patterns and themes. Theselections in Recommended Literature, GradesNine Through Twelve illustrate the quality andcomplexity of the materials to be read bystudents.


3.1 Articulate the relationship between theexpressed purposes and the characteris-tics of different forms of dramaticliterature (e.g., comedy, tragedy, drama,dramatic monologue).

3.2 Compare and contrast the presentationof a similar theme or topic across genresto explain how the selection of genreshapes the theme or topic.


3.3 Analyze interactions between main andsubordinate characters in a literary text(e.g., internal and external conflicts,motivations, relationships, influences)and explain the way those interactionsaffect the plot.

3.4 Determine characters’ traits by what thecharacters say about themselves innarration, dialogue, dramatic mono-logue, and soliloquy.

3.5 Compare works that express a universaltheme and provide evidence to supportthe ideas expressed in each work.

3.6 Analyze and trace an author’s develop-ment of time and sequence, includingthe use of complex literary devices(e.g., foreshadowing, flashbacks).

3.7 Recognize and understand the signifi-cance of various literary devices,including figurative language, imagery,allegory, and symbolism, and explaintheir appeal.

3.8 Interpret and evaluate the impact ofambiguities, subtleties, contradictions,ironies, and incongruities in a text.

3.9 Explain how voice, persona, and thechoice of a narrator affect characteriza-tion and the tone, plot, and credibilityof a text.

3.10 Identify and describe the function ofdialogue, scene designs, soliloquies,asides, and character foils in dramaticliterature.

Literary Criticism

3.11 Evaluate the aesthetic qualities of style,including the impact of diction andfigurative language on tone, mood, andtheme, using the terminology of literarycriticism. (Aesthetic approach)

3.12 Analyze the way in which a work ofliterature is related to the themes andissues of its historical period. (Historicalapproach)

Writing


Students write coherent and focused essays thatconvey a well-defined perspective and tightlyreasoned argument. The writing demonstratesstudents’ awareness of the audience andpurpose. Students progress through the stagesof the writing process as needed.


1.1 Establish a controlling impression orcoherent thesis that conveys a clear anddistinctive perspective on the subject andmaintain a consistent tone and focusthroughout the piece of writing.


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1.2 Use precise language, action verbs,sensory details, appropriate modifiers,and the active rather than the passivevoice.


1.3 Use clear research questions and suitableresearch methods (e.g., library, electronicmedia, personal interview) to elicit andpresent evidence from primary andsecondary sources.

1.4 Develop the main ideas within the bodyof the composition through supportingevidence (e.g., scenarios, commonly heldbeliefs, hypotheses, definitions).

1.5 Synthesize information from multiplesources and identify complexities anddiscrepancies in the information and thedifferent perspectives found in eachmedium (e.g., almanacs, microfiche,news sources, in-depth field studies,speeches, journals, technical documents).

1.6 Integrate quotations and citations into awritten text while maintaining the flowof ideas.

1.7 Use appropriate conventions fordocumentation in the text, notes, andbibliographies by adhering to those instyle manuals (e.g., Modern LanguageAssociation Handbook, The ChicagoManual of Style).

1.8 Design and publish documents by usingadvanced publishing software andgraphic programs.


1.9 Revise writing to improve the logic andcoherence of the organization andcontrolling perspective, the precision ofword choice, and the tone by taking intoconsideration the audience, purpose, andformality of the context.


Students combine the rhetorical strategies ofnarration, exposition, persuasion, and descrip-tion to produce texts of at least 1,500 wordseach. Student writing demonstrates a commandof standard American English and the research,

organizational, and drafting strategies outlinedin Writing Standard 1.0.

Using the writing strategies of grades nine andten outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:

2.1 Write biographical or autobiographicalnarratives or short stories:

a. Relate a sequence of events andcommunicate the significance of theevents to the audience.

b. Locate scenes and incidents in specificplaces.

c. Describe with concrete sensory detailsthe sights, sounds, and smells of ascene and the specific actions, move-ments, gestures, and feelings of thecharacters; use interior monologue todepict the characters’ feelings.

d. Pace the presentation of actions toaccommodate changes in time andmood.

e. Make effective use of descriptions ofappearance, images, shifting perspec-tives, and sensory details.


a. Demonstrate a comprehensive grasp ofthe significant ideas of literary works.

b. Support important ideas and view-points through accurate and detailedreferences to the text or to otherworks.

c. Demonstrate awareness of the author’suse of stylistic devices and an apprecia-tion of the effects created.

d. Identify and assess the impact ofperceived ambiguities, nuances, andcomplexities within the text.

2.3 Write expository compositions, includinganalytical essays and research reports:

a. Marshal evidence in support of a thesisand related claims, including informa-tion on all relevant perspectives.

b. Convey information and ideas fromprimary and secondary sourcesaccurately and coherently.

c. Make distinctions between the relativevalue and significance of specific data,facts, and ideas.




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Standards

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d. Include visual aids by employingappropriate technology to organizeand record information on charts,maps, and graphs.

e. Anticipate and address readers’potential misunderstandings, biases,and expectations.

f. Use technical terms and notationsaccurately.


a. Structure ideas and arguments in asustained and logical fashion.

b. Use specific rhetorical devices tosupport assertions (e.g., appeal tologic through reasoning; appeal toemotion or ethical belief; relate apersonal anecdote, case study, oranalogy).

c. Clarify and defend positions withprecise and relevant evidence,including facts, expert opinions,quotations, and expressions ofcommonly accepted beliefs andlogical reasoning.

d. Address readers’ concerns, counter-claims, biases, and expectations.

2.5 Write business letters:

a. Provide clear and purposefulinformation and address theintended audience appropriately.

b. Use appropriate vocabulary, tone,and style to take into account thenature of the relationship with, andthe knowledge and interests of, therecipients.

c. Highlight central ideas or images.d. Follow a conventional style with

page formats, fonts, and spacing thatcontribute to the documents’readability and impact.

2.6 Write technical documents (e.g., amanual on rules of behavior for conflictresolution, procedures for conducting ameeting, minutes of a meeting):

a. Report information and conveyideas logically and correctly.

b. Offer detailed and accurate specifi-cations.

c. Include scenarios, definitions, andexamples to aid comprehension(e.g., troubleshooting guide).

d. Anticipate readers’ problems,mistakes, and misunderstandings.




Students write and speak with a command ofstandard English conventions.

Grammar and Mechanics of Writing

1.1 Identify and correctly use clauses(e.g., main and subordinate), phrases(e.g., gerund, infinitive, and parti-cipial), and mechanics of punctuation(e.g., semicolons, colons, ellipses,hyphens).

1.2 Understand sentence construction(e.g., parallel structure, subordination,proper placement of modifiers) andproper English usage (e.g., consistencyof verb tenses).

1.3 Demonstrate an understanding ofproper English usage and control ofgrammar, paragraph and sentencestructure, diction, and syntax.

Manuscript Form

1.4 Produce legible work that showsaccurate spelling and correct use of theconventions of punctuation andcapitalization.

1.5 Reflect appropriate manuscriptrequirements, including title pagepresentation, pagination, spacing andmargins, and integration of source andsupport material (e.g., in-text citation,use of direct quotations, paraphrasing)with appropriate citations.


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Students formulate adroit judgments aboutoral communication. They deliver focused andcoherent presentations of their own thatconvey clear and distinct perspectives and solidreasoning. They use gestures, tone, andvocabulary tailored to the audience andpurpose.

Comprehension

1.1 Formulate judgments about the ideasunder discussion and support thosejudgments with convincing evidence.

1.2 Compare and contrast the ways inwhich media genres (e.g., televisednews, news magazines, documentaries,online information) cover the sameevent.


1.3 Choose logical patterns of organization(e.g., chronological, topical, cause andeffect) to inform and to persuade, bysoliciting agreement or action, or tounite audiences behind a commonbelief or cause.

1.4 Choose appropriate techniques fordeveloping the introduction andconclusion (e.g., by using literaryquotations, anecdotes, references toauthoritative sources).

1.5 Recognize and use elements of classicalspeech forms (e.g., introduction, firstand second transitions, body, conclu-sion) in formulating rational argumentsand applying the art of persuasion anddebate.

1.6 Present and advance a clear thesisstatement and choose appropriate typesof proof (e.g., statistics, testimony,specific instances) that meet standardtests for evidence, including credibility,validity, and relevance.

1.7 Use props, visual aids, graphs, andelectronic media to enhance the appealand accuracy of presentations.

1.8 Produce concise notes for extemporane-ous delivery.

1.9 Analyze the occasion and the interestsof the audience and choose effectiveverbal and nonverbal techniques(e.g., voice, gestures, eye contact) forpresentations.


1.10 Analyze historically significant speeches(e.g., Abraham Lincoln’s “GettysburgAddress,” Martin Luther King, Jr.’s“I Have a Dream”) to find the rhetori-cal devices and features that make themmemorable.

1.11 Assess how language and delivery affectthe mood and tone of the oral commu-nication and make an impact on theaudience.

1.12 Evaluate the clarity, quality, effective-ness, and general coherence of aspeaker’s important points, arguments,evidence, organization of ideas,delivery, diction, and syntax.

1.13 Analyze the types of arguments used bythe speaker, including argument bycausation, analogy, authority, emotion,and logic.

1.14 Identify the aesthetic effects of amedia presentation and evaluate thetechniques used to create them(e.g., compare Shakespeare’s Henry Vwith Kenneth Branagh’s 1990 filmversion).


Students deliver polished formal and extempo-raneous presentations that combine thetraditional rhetorical strategies of narration,exposition, persuasion, and description.Student speaking demonstrates a command ofstandard American English and the organiza-tional and delivery strategies outlined inListening and Speaking Standard 1.0.




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Using the speaking strategies of grades nineand ten outlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0, students:

2.1. Deliver narrative presentations:

a. Narrate a sequence of events andcommunicate their significance tothe audience.

b. Locate scenes and incidents inspecific places.

c. Describe with concrete sensorydetails the sights, sounds, and smellsof a scene and the specific actions,movements, gestures, and feelings ofcharacters.

d. Pace the presentation of actions toaccommodate time or moodchanges.

2.2 Deliver expository presentations:

a. Marshal evidence in support of athesis and related claims, includinginformation on all relevant perspec-tives.

b. Convey information and ideas fromprimary and secondary sourcesaccurately and coherently.

c. Make distinctions between therelative value and significance ofspecific data, facts, and ideas.

d. Include visual aids by employingappropriate technology to organizeand display information on charts,maps, and graphs.

e. Anticipate and address the listener’spotential misunderstandings, biases,and expectations.

f. Use technical terms and notationsaccurately.

2.3 Apply appropriate interviewingtechniques:

a. Prepare and ask relevant questions.b. Make notes of responses.c. Use language that conveys maturity,

sensitivity, and respect.d. Respond correctly and effectively to

questions.e. Demonstrate knowledge of the

subject or organization.f. Compile and report responses.

g. Evaluate the effectiveness of theinterview.


a. Advance a judgment demonstrating acomprehensive grasp of the signifi-cant ideas of works or passages(i.e., make and support warrantedassertions about the text).

b. Support important ideas andviewpoints through accurate anddetailed references to the text or toother works.

c. Demonstrate awareness of theauthor’s use of stylistic devices and anappreciation of the effects created.

d. Identify and assess the impact ofperceived ambiguities, nuances, andcomplexities within the text.

2.5 Deliver persuasive arguments (includingevaluation and analysis of problems andsolutions and causes and effects):

a. Structure ideas and arguments in acoherent, logical fashion.

b. Use rhetorical devices to supportassertions (e.g., by appeal to logicthrough reasoning; by appeal toemotion or ethical belief; by use ofpersonal anecdote, case study, oranalogy).

c. Clarify and defend positions withprecise and relevant evidence,including facts, expert opinions,quotations, expressions of commonlyaccepted beliefs, and logical reason-ing.

d. Anticipate and address the listener’sconcerns and counterarguments.

2.6 Deliver descriptive presentations:

a. Establish clearly the speaker’s point ofview on the subject of the presenta-tion.

b. Establish clearly the speaker’srelationship with that subject(e.g., dispassionate observation,personal involvement).

c. Use effective, factual descriptions ofappearance, concrete images, shiftingperspectives and vantage points, andsensory details.


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The standards for the eleventh andtwelfth grades are the pinnacle ofall the standards for the language

arts. Most of the standards at this level aresophisticated extensions of the knowledgeand skills previously targeted in the earliergrades. They highlight several interrela-tionships among the different domains oflanguage arts: reading, writing, writtenand oral English-language conventions,and speaking and listening. The strands tobe emphasized at the eleventh-grade andtwelfth-grade levels are listed in theadjacent column under the appropriatedomains.

The following sections profile focusareas within each of the strands.

Reading




Writing

1.0 Writing Strategies2.0 Writing Applications (Genres

and Their Characteristics)






Eleventh Grade and Twelfth Grade

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Etymology and morphology are thebasis for systematically building vocabu-lary at this level. The standards emphasizeusing those strategies to attack terms frompolitical science, history–social science,science, and mathematics. Once more,however, issues of teacher responsibilityarise in a departmentalized school. Englishteachers may wonder how much time inEnglish class should be devoted to acquir-ing the vocabulary of other disciplines.Shared responsibility is obviously an idealsolution. Regardless, English teachersshould discuss the etymological andmorphological principles that helpstudents access meaning.

Vocabulary development shouldperiodically occupy a small portion ofclassroom time in the eleventh and twelfthgrades. Most students should be able tostudy word derivations independently.Teachers should continue to directstudents’ attention to external context cuesfor meaning.


Informational reading in the twelfthgrade is focused on public documents(e.g., policy statements, speeches, debates,platforms). In addition to the documents,public statements contained in formalspeeches and informal interviews offerabundant opportunities for students topractice the analytic and evaluative skillsdescribed in this standard. Point-of-viewessays in news magazines and editorials innewspapers are rich sources of additionalinstructional materials. The strongestemphasis at the content level is directed to

evaluating and verifying facts and argu-ments. At the structural level studentsanalyze the ways in which clarity ofmeaning interacts with elements such asword choice, organization, and syntax.

The focus of the standards in thisstrand relates closely to the standards inwriting (e.g., writing reports on historicalinvestigations); speaking (e.g., deliveringmultimedia presentations); and listening(e.g., identifying logical fallacies in oralarguments). Therefore, instruction shouldcapitalize on those relationships byaddressing similar elements from differentdomains at one time. To do so contributesnot only to efficiency but also to learningabout important rhetorical considerationsin more depth. For instance, students willunderstand the elements of persuasion inthe greatest depth if they not only readpersuasive discourse critically but alsoemploy those elements in their ownwriting and oral presentations.


By the end of high school, students areexpected to be familiar with the purposesand characteristics of the major genres ofliterature. Reading Standard 3.0, LiteraryResponse and Analysis, identifies thegrade-level emphasis as follows: gradeseven—prose; grade eight—poetry; gradesnine and ten—drama; and grades elevenand twelve—subgenres that span genres,such as satire and parody.

In these culminating years this standardis focused on analyzing the historicalgenres and literary traditions of Americanliterature and world literature. Thetraditional emphasis on British literaturein the twelfth grade has been expanded toinclude works from other countries. Someof the novels or selections students readshould be drawn from historically or

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201




culturally significant works of literaturethat reflect and enhance their studies ofhistory–social science at this level.

Whether reading American or worldliterature, students in the eleventh andtwelfth grades are expected to:

• Contrast the major literary forms andcharacteristics of the major literaryperiods.

• Relate literary works and authors tomajor themes and issues of their eras.

• Analyze the philosophical, political,religious, ethical, and social influencesthat have shaped characters, plots,and themes.

Students at this level are expected toachieve more advanced and sophisticatedstandards. For the more challenging literaryconcepts, they need clear explanations andelaborations from teachers, together withextensive support throughout the processof acquiring thorough knowledge of suchconcepts.

Traditionally, literary evaluation hasemphasized quality literature. Althoughthat emphasis should remain, instructionalbenefits can occasionally be gained fromexposure to less worthy examples ofliterature. For instance, to appreciate fullythe concept of satire as a subgenre, studentsshould read an example of satire in whichthe author has not consistently separatedthe literal and satirical levels of the dis-course.

The standards for both reading compre-hension (focus on informational materials)and literary response and analysis requirethat “by grade twelve students read twomillion words annually on their own,including a wide variety of classic andcontemporary literature, magazines,newspapers, and online information” (seepages 193 and 209 in this chapter). Twomillion words translate to about 11 pagesa day or about one 335-page book each

month. (Independent reading is discussedin greater detail in the literary responseand analysis strand for the ninth and tenthgrades.)



Students should demonstrate fullknowledge of the basic elements ofdiscourse (e.g., audience) as well as moreadvanced literary devices, such as irony.They should be able to write well-struc-tured arguments with good support andemploy rhetorical devices and visual aidsto enhance meaning. Their use of lan-guage should be fresh and natural.


Students should use a variety ofresearch strategies (e.g., experiments,interviews) and organize research informa-tion in systematic ways (e.g., through thedevelopment of an annotated bibliogra-phy). They should also integrate data-bases, graphics, and spreadsheets intoword-processing documents. Students arelikely to need relatively brief but intenseand explicit instruction in merging orimporting various types of application filesinto word-processing documents. Al-though these activities fall into thelanguage arts area of writing, classroominstruction and student activities may takeplace in a variety of subject-matter classes.


Although students at this level shouldbe familiar with all phases of the writingprocess, the standards focus on revisingtext to highlight voice, improve sentencevariety and style, and enhance subtlety ofmeaning and tone. The standards withinthis strand should be addressed as studentswork on their compositions for the

Eleventh Gradeand Twelfth

Grade


202


writing applications strand and theirpresentations for the speaking applicationsstrand.


Text structures in this category foundat earlier grade levels are fictional, auto-biographical, and biographical narrativesand responses to literature. In the eleventhand twelfth grades, the standards requirestudents to work with the structures at amore sophisticated level. When appropri-ate, student texts should be about 1,500words in length (five to six pages, typedand double-spaced).

Three new types of composition areintroduced in the eleventh and twelfthgrades. The first type is reflective composi-tion. Although it resembles an autobiogra-phy, it focuses on exploring the signifi-cance of personal experience or concerns.A critical component is maintaining theappropriate balance between describing anincident and relating it to more abstractideas. Like autobiographical writing,reflective writing has long been a focus ofwriting instruction in California’s highschools. Instructional support materialsshould be readily available to assist thestudents.

Reports on historical investigation, thesecond type of composition, are new tothis standard. Students are required to useprimary and secondary sources to comparedifferent points of view regarding a singlehistorical event and explain the reasons forthe similarities and differences. Thisactivity is obviously appropriate inhistory–social science classes as well as inEnglish classes.

The third new type of compositionacknowledges the issues of students’approaching graduation from high school(i.e., filling out job applications andwriting résumés). Although conventional

style and format are still taught, equalemphasis is given to broader issues ofcontent, such as tone, clarity, and appro-priateness for the audience and purpose.

Students will need less initial instruc-tion for familiar writing genres than theywill for those structures introduced at thislevel. Accordingly, the teacher may wishto:

• Interrelate different standards thataddress the same text structure whenpossible. For instance, the standardsinclude both writing and presentingorally a report on a historicalinvestigation.

• Provide models of each text struc-ture, including examples of studentwriting. Some of the models usedmay be of lesser quality so that theimpact of poor structures on theaudience can be demonstrated.

• Identify explicitly for students thecritical elements of each text struc-ture. Students are unlikely to havesufficient prior knowledge of thecritical elements of a good multi-media presentation, for example.They need to become thoroughlyfamiliar with such elements beforethey attempt to integrate them intochallenging and time-consumingpresentations. For instance, it iscrucial to resist the temptation toput more emphasis on the “bells andwhistles” of a multimedia presenta-tion than on the effective communi-cation of a theme.

• Have students do some cooperativework throughout the varying phasesof the writing process to provideadditional instructional opportuni-ties and help students achieve a senseof audience.

This standard also requires students todeliver multimedia presentations, a task



203




that clearly integrates reading, writing,and speaking and listening. Students areexpected to synthesize information from awide range of materials, including mediasources, and create a culminating presen-tation that integrates text, images, andsound. Important elements in the processare the selection of an appropriate me-dium for each component of the presenta-tion and the skillful use of the selectedmedia. To combine the requirements ofseveral standards, students may wish toadapt a composition they have alreadywritten for use in the multimedia presen-tation.

Access to an adequate number ofcomputers and appropriate software isobviously a prerequisite to students’meeting this standard. In some schoolsEnglish teachers may need to work withother colleagues and departments tocoordinate the use of equipment andtraining to accomplish this task.


In the eleventh and twelfth grades,more emphasis is given to using standardoral and written language conventionsthan to teaching them. Students areexpected to control their use of grammar,paragraph and sentence structure, anddiction. In addition, their written workshould be legible and edited to followstandard conventions for spelling, capitali-zation, and punctuation. Writing shouldalso reflect appropriate manuscriptrequirements.

For many students explicit instructionwill probably be necessary for some of thecontent in this section. Individual instruc-tion or peer-mediated instruction isappropriate for many students needingremedial work on conventions, such asimprovement in legible writing and

capitalization. Use of individualizedinstructional software remains a valuableremediation strategy.


Comprehension

At this level emphasis is given toanalyzing media presentations of varioustypes (e.g., advertisements, speeches, film,news) to help students recognize thestrategies being used to inform, persuade,or entertain.


Most of the standards at this levelconcentrate on structural elements andrhetorical techniques. Some elements andtechniques apply to several areas oflanguage arts, such as rhetorical questions,parallelism, concrete images, figurativelanguage, and irony. Others, such asgesture, movement, vocalization, andrehearsal strategies, are unique to oralpresentations. Students should usestandard English for clarity but recognizewhen informal language is effective andwhen technical language is needed. At thisculminating level students are required touse classic and contemporary forms oflogical argument, including inductive anddeductive reasoning and reasoning fromanalogies.


Students critique oral presentations,particularly media presentations, toevaluate rhetorical techniques as theyrelate to the purpose of the presentation,either stated or implied. In addition, theyare required to analyze the argumentspresented, a skill that requires some direct


Grade


204


instruction. They should recognize com-mon logical fallacies, such as false causality,red herrings, and bandwagoning. Fallaciesare best taught in contrast to standardlogical principles of premises and conclu-sions.

Listening and SpeakingSpeaking Applications

Students are required to deliver polishedformal and extemporaneous reflectivepresentations, oral reports on historicalinvestigations, oral responses to literature,multimedia presentations, and recitationsof poems, selections from speeches, ordramatic soliloquies. Except for recitationsof poetry, these same types of presentationsare targeted in the standards for theeleventh and twelfth grades within thewriting applications strand. Even at thislevel students may find it challenging todeliver oral presentations to a large group.The challenge can be made less frighteningand more successful when teachers:

• Allow students to deliver presenta-tions initially to a small group ofother students in a cooperative workgroup.

• Postpone extemporaneous presenta-tions until after the students have

delivered oral presentations fromfully written documents. A tactic forteaching students to present extem-poraneous—or nearly extemporane-ous—presentations is first to makebrief outlines of major points on avariety of topics.

• Allow students to present orally adiscourse they had originallydeveloped as a written composition.This approach also makes instruc-tion more efficient and encourages acomparison between the samediscourse as a written document andas a speech. Students will makesome relatively minor changes intheir written compositions to makethem more effective in speech. Forexample, they will probably want tobreak some complex sentences intosimpler structures as a general tacticfor giving speeches and as an aid tovarying intonation.

• Help students develop strongintroductions that will capture theinterest of their audience.




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Analyze the clarity and consistency of political assumptions in aselection of literary works or essays on a particular topic.

A crucial element in achieving this objective is the assumption thatstudents possess reasonably thorough knowledge about a givenpolitical topic. Although that knowledge can be obtained in con-



3.0 Literaryresponseand analysis

Literarycriticism

3.8 Analyze the clarity andconsistency of politicalassumptions in a selection ofliterary works or essays on atopic (political approach).

Reading

Prerequisite standard. Ninth-Grade and Tenth-Grade Literary Response and AnalysisStandard 3.12: Analyze the way in which a work of literature is related to the themesand issues of its historical period (historical approach).

Corequisite standards. Eleventh-Grade and Twelfth-Grade Literary Responseand Analysis Standards 3.1, 3.3.

Standard 3.1: Analyze characteristics of subgenres that are used in poetry, prose,and so forth.

Standard 3.3: Analyze the ways in which irony, tone, and mood achieve specific rhetoricaland aesthetic purposes.

Eleventh-Grade and Twelfth-Grade Writing Applications Standard 2.2: Writeresponses to literature.

Eleventh-Grade and Twelfth-Grade Speaking Applications Standard 2.3: Deliver oralresponses to literature.


InstructionalDesign


206


junction with literary criticism activities, it is more efficient forlearning that it take place through the coordination of the standardsfor the eleventh and twelfth grades and those for the ninth andtenth grades. For example, one of the approaches to literary criti-cism in the ninth-grade and tenth-grade standards is historical.Accordingly, students might visit a topic at that level (e.g., establish-ment of labor unions) with a historical emphasis, then revisit thetopic in the eleventh and twelfth grades, using more sophisticatedsources to learn the background necessary to conduct meaningfulliterary criticism through a political approach.

If readings are selected carefully, further economy in meetingambitious standards can be achieved. For example, students mightread some of Blake’s Songs of Innocence for background on child-labor abuses in England that contributed to the formation of laborunions there. Work with such literature can contribute to achievingother standards related to literary response and analysis as well.

Students will learn that the contents of Songs of Innocence are notinnocent and contribute to the students’ understanding of one wayin which irony achieves a rhetorical effect. Simultaneously, studentsanalyze characteristics of a variety of poems and other readingselections as part of their overall analysis of characteristics of thesubgenres found within basic genres. Instruction should includeportions of several other literary standards as well. The sequencingand selection of reading material can simultaneously influence theeffectiveness and efficiency of instruction.

One group of writing standards requires students to write responsesto literature. When they have read several selections and havedemonstrated their understanding of the political approach toliterary criticism—either in an informal way or through classdiscussion or more formal assessments—the next logical step forstudents to take is to write a formal literary critique emphasizingresponses to literature singled out in the writing standards.

Objective, thorough literary criticism is not easy to achieve. Instruc-tion should begin with a clear notion of what literary criticism isand how the approach currently under study (i.e., political) differsfrom approaches taught in earlier grades (e.g., historical). A goodway to frame the instruction is to have students first read examplesof political literary criticism before going to source selections andeventually writing a formal critique.

Teachers should provide substantial guidance throughout thissequence, particularly in the form of explicit instruction in theelements of literary criticism unique to the political approach.





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1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Formalpretesting at this level is neither practical nor necessary.However, important prior knowledge assumed as prerequisitefor instruction should be tested informally. For example, ifinstruction in a political approach to literary criticism assumesbackground knowledge of history, students should be testedon that knowledge. The assessments can also serve as a mecha-nism for allowing students to review what they learned earlier.

2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective.Throughout the year the activities students participate inprovide multiple opportunities for ongoing evaluation ofprogress toward achieving standards. The crucial aspect oftesting at this level is not the nature of the tests as much ashow teachers use the results to make changes in the curriculumand instruction. For instance, if several students are havinggreat difficulty with literary criticism, teachers should providemore scaffolded learning opportunities than they might dootherwise (e.g., procedural facilitators, such as think sheets).

3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. No single source ofassessment can give a complete picture of student achievementof the standards. The types of tests required by the schooldistrict or the state contribute partially to the picture. Finalindependently produced compositions and oral presentationsprovide substantial significant data on achievement as well.For this standard in particular, a final written critique of aliterary work is the best criterion-referenced assessment tool.

1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. Doing sophis-ticated critical analyses of literature and writing about themare extremely challenging for students with disabilities or otherlearning difficulties. They will be helped enormously ifteachers provide the substantial and explicit guidance previ-ously recommended. Teachers should read more challengingliterary selections to the whole class. Lower-performingstudents may require significant support from peers whileanalyzing some literary selections. For very low performingstudents, the standards for writing sophistication may beadapted.

2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Advanced students maybe exempted from the substantial and explicit instructiondescribed previously if they demonstrate a satisfactory grasp ofthe concepts being taught. Independent study might be usefulprovided guidance by the teacher is available as needed.

Assessment

Post-testAssessment




UniversalAccess

AdvancedLearners


Grade


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(Advanced learners still need instruction and should not beexpected to teach themselves.) Extending those students’learning to include the political analysis of writings aboutpresent-day concerns might prove to be stimulating, especiallyif students are thereby allowed to express their thoughts ingenuine forums.


a. Teachers need to provide English learners with models ofthe types of literary analyses the learners are expected toproduce. Also recommended are exercises that will help thelearners acquire the grammatical structures and vocabularyneeded to perform the analyses and consistent feedback onthe quality and accuracy of the learners’ written work.

b. Because English learners may not have access to the samecultural knowledge as English speakers do in order toanalyze political assumptions, teachers may need to providethe learners with additional information.

c. English learners may not have acquired the grammaticalstructures and vocabulary needed to complete literaryanalyses. For instance, they may not have learned how touse the present tense to discuss specific types of literarytexts. (Note how the present tense is used in this sentence:Hamlet dies and his son seeks revenge.) English learnersrequire additional information on verb tense as well asinstruction in introducing and incorporating short and longquotations into text to support literary analyses and inanalyzing texts rather than merely summarizing them.

d. As the learners acquire advanced academic vocabulary, theyshould be guided in the appropriate use of the words intheir writing.

Instructional materials should provide the following:

1. A sufficient number of examples of the genres targeted at thislevel that span reading, writing, and speaking

2. Procedural facilitators (i.e., devices designed to help facilitateacquisition of new knowledge and skills)

3. Reading selections coordinated to address more than a singlestandard

4. Examples of explicit strategies for achieving important stan-dards

5. Substantial, significant resources for helping teachers accom-modate a wide range of student achievement

English Learners





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Reading

1.0. Word Analysis, Fluency,and Systematic VocabularyDevelopment

Students apply their knowledge of wordorigins to determine the meaning of newwords encountered in reading materials anduse those words accurately.


1.1 Trace the etymology of significantterms used in political science andhistory.

1.2 Apply knowledge of Greek, Latin, andAnglo-Saxon roots and affixes to drawinferences concerning the meaning ofscientific and mathematical terminol-ogy.

1.3 Discern the meaning of analogiesencountered, analyzing specificcomparisons as well as relationshipsand inferences.


Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate material. They analyze theorganizational patterns, arguments, andpositions advanced. The selections in Recom-mended Readings in Literature, Grades NineThrough Twelve illustrate the quality andcomplexity of the materials to be read by

students. In addition, by grade twelve,students read two million words annually ontheir own, including a wide variety of classicand contemporary literature, magazines,newspapers, and online information.


2.1 Analyze both the features and therhetorical devices of different types ofpublic documents (e.g., policy state-ments, speeches, debates, platforms)and the way in which authors use thosefeatures and devices.


2.2 Analyze the way in which clarity ofmeaning is affected by the patterns oforganization, hierarchical structures,repetition of the main ideas, syntax,and word choice in the text.

2.3 Verify and clarify facts presented inother types of expository texts by usinga variety of consumer, workplace, andpublic documents.

2.4. Make warranted and reasonableassertions about the author’s argumentsby using elements of the text to defendand clarify interpretations.

2.5 Analyze an author’s implicit andexplicit philosophical assumptions andbeliefs about a subject.

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Expository Critique

2.6 Critique the power, validity, andtruthfulness of arguments set forth inpublic documents; their appeal to bothfriendly and hostile audiences; and theextent to which the arguments antici-pate and address reader concerns andcounterclaims (e.g., appeal to reason, toauthority, to pathos and emotion).


Students read and respond to historically orculturally significant works of literature thatreflect and enhance their studies of history andsocial science. They conduct in-depth analysesof recurrent themes. The selections in Recom-mended Readings in Literature, Grades NineThrough Twelve illustrate the quality andcomplexity of the materials to be read bystudents.


3.1 Analyze characteristics of subgenres(e.g., satire, parody, allegory, pastoral)that are used in poetry, prose, plays,novels, short stories, essays, and otherbasic genres.


3.2 Analyze the way in which the theme ormeaning of a selection represents a viewor comment on life, using textualevidence to support the claim.

3.3. Analyze the ways in which irony, tone,mood, the author’s style, and the“sound” of language achieve specificrhetorical or aesthetic purposes or both.

3.4. Analyze ways in which poets useimagery, personification, figures ofspeech, and sounds to evoke readers’emotions.

3.5. Analyze recognized works of Americanliterature representing a variety ofgenres and traditions:

a. Trace the development of Americanliterature from the colonial periodforward.

b. Contrast the major periods, themes,styles, and trends and describe howworks by members of differentcultures relate to one another ineach period.

c. Evaluate the philosophical, political,religious, ethical, and social influ-ences of the historical period thatshaped the characters, plots, andsettings.

3.6 Analyze the way in which authorsthrough the centuries have usedarchetypes drawn from myth andtradition in literature, film, politicalspeeches, and religious writings(e.g., how the archetypes of banishmentfrom an ideal world may be used tointerpret Shakespeare’s tragedyMacbeth).

3.7 Analyze recognized works of worldliterature from a variety of authors:

a. Contrast the major literary forms,techniques, and characteristics of themajor literary periods (e.g., HomericGreece, medieval, romantic,neoclassic, modern).

b. Relate literary works and authors tothe major themes and issues of theireras.

c. Evaluate the philosophical, political,religious, ethical, and social influ-ences of the historical period thatshaped the characters, plots, and,settings.

Literary Criticism

3.8 Analyze the clarity and consistency ofpolitical assumptions in a selection ofliterary works or essays on a topic(e.g., suffrage, women’s role in orga-nized labor). (Political approach)

3.9 Analyze the philosophical argumentspresented in literary works to determinewhether the authors’ positions havecontributed to the quality of each workand the credibility of the characters.(Philosophical approach)

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Writing


Students write coherent and focused texts thatconvey a well-defined perspective and tightlyreasoned argument. The writing demonstratesstudents’ awareness of the audience andpurpose and progression through the stages ofthe writing process.


1.1 Demonstrate an understanding of theelements of discourse (e.g., purpose,speaker, audience, form) when com-pleting narrative, expository, persuasive,or descriptive writing assignments.

1.2 Use point of view, characterization,style (e.g., use of irony), and relatedelements for specific rhetorical andaesthetic purposes.

1.3 Structure ideas and arguments in asustained, persuasive, and sophisticatedway and support them with precise andrelevant examples.

1.4 Enhance meaning by employingrhetorical devices, including theextended use of parallelism, repetition,and analogy; the incorporation of visualaids (e.g., graphs, tables, pictures); andthe issuance of a call for action.

1.5 Use language in natural, fresh, andvivid ways to establish a specific tone.


1.6 Develop presentations by using clearresearch questions and creative andcritical research strategies (e.g., fieldstudies, oral histories, interviews,experiments, electronic sources).

1.7 Use systematic strategies to organizeand record information (e.g., anecdotalscripting, annotated bibliographies).

1.8 Integrate databases, graphics, andspreadsheets into word-processeddocuments.


1.9 Revise text to highlight the individualvoice, improve sentence variety and

style, and enhance subtlety of meaningand tone in ways that are consistentwith the purpose, audience, and genre.


Students combine the rhetorical strategies ofnarration, exposition, persuasion, and descrip-tion to produce texts of at least 1,500 wordseach. Student writing demonstrates a com-mand of standard American English and theresearch, organizational, and drafting strategiesoutlined in Writing Standard 1.0.

Using the writing strategies of grades elevenand twelve outlined in Writing Standard 1.0,students:

2.1 Write fictional, autobiographical, orbiographical narratives:

a. Narrate a sequence of events andcommunicate their significance tothe audience.

b. Locate scenes and incidents inspecific places.

c. Describe with concrete sensorydetails the sights, sounds, and smellsof a scene and the specific actions,movements, gestures, and feelings ofthe characters; use interior mono-logue to depict the characters’feelings.

d. Pace the presentation of actions toaccommodate temporal, spatial, anddramatic mood changes.

e. Make effective use of descriptions ofappearance, images, shiftingperspectives, and sensory details.


a. Demonstrate a comprehensiveunderstanding of the significantideas in works or passages.

b. Analyze the use of imagery, lan-guage, universal themes, and uniqueaspects of the text.

c. Support important ideas andviewpoints through accurate anddetailed references to the text and toother works.

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Standards

212


d. Demonstrate an understanding ofthe author’s use of stylistic devicesand an appreciation of the effectscreated.

e. Identify and assess the impact ofperceived ambiguities, nuances, andcomplexities within the text.

2.3 Write reflective compositions:

a. Explore the significance of personalexperiences, events, conditions, orconcerns by using rhetoricalstrategies (e.g., narration, descrip-tion, exposition, persuasion).

b. Draw comparisons between specificincidents and broader themes thatillustrate the writer’s importantbeliefs or generalizations about life.

c. Maintain a balance in describingindividual incidents and relate thoseincidents to more general andabstract ideas.

2.4 Write historical investigation reports:

a. Use exposition, narration, descrip-tion, argumentation, exposition, orsome combination of rhetoricalstrategies to support the mainproposition.

b. Analyze several historical records ofa single event, examining criticalrelationships between elements ofthe research topic.

c. Explain the perceived reason orreasons for the similarities anddifferences in historical records withinformation derived from primaryand secondary sources to support orenhance the presentation.

d. Include information from allrelevant perspectives and take intoconsideration the validity andreliability of sources.

e. Include a formal bibliography.

2.5 Write job applications and resumés:

a. Provide clear and purposefulinformation and address theintended audience appropriately.

b. Use varied levels, patterns, and typesof language to achieve intendedeffects and aid comprehension.

c. Modify the tone to fit the purposeand audience.

d. Follow the conventional style forthat type of document (e.g., resumé,memorandum) and use pageformats, fonts, and spacing thatcontribute to the readability andimpact of the document.

2.6 Deliver multimedia presentations:

a. Combine text, images, and soundand draw information from manysources (e.g., television broadcasts,videos, films, newspapers, maga-zines, CD- ROMs, the Internet,electronic media-generated images).

b. Select an appropriate medium foreach element of the presentation.

c. Use the selected media skillfully,editing appropriately and monitor-ing for quality.

d. Test the audience’s response andrevise the presentation accordingly.



1.0 Written and Oral English-Language Conventions

Students write and speak with a command ofstandard English conventions.

1.1 Demonstrate control of grammar,diction, and paragraph and sentencestructure and an understanding ofEnglish usage.

1.2 Produce legible work that showsaccurate spelling and correct punctua-tion and capitalization.

1.3 Reflect appropriate manuscriptrequirements in writing.



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Students formulate adroit judgments aboutoral communication. They deliver focused andcoherent presentations that convey clear anddistinct perspectives and demonstrate solidreasoning. They use gestures, tone, andvocabulary tailored to the audience andpurpose.

Comprehension

1.1 Recognize strategies used by the mediato inform, persuade, entertain, andtransmit culture (e.g., advertisements;perpetuation of stereotypes; use ofvisual representations, special effects,language).

1.2 Analyze the impact of the media on thedemocratic process (e.g., exertinginfluence on elections, creating imagesof leaders, shaping attitudes) at thelocal, state, and national levels.

1.3 Interpret and evaluate the various waysin which events are presented andinformation is communicated by visualimage makers (e.g., graphic artists,documentary filmmakers, illustrators,news photographers).


1.4 Use rhetorical questions, parallelstructure, concrete images, figurativelanguage, characterization, irony, anddialogue to achieve clarity, force, andaesthetic effect.

1.5 Distinguish between and use variousforms of classical and contemporarylogical arguments, including:

a. Inductive and deductive reasoningb. Syllogisms and analogies

1.6 Use logical, ethical, and emotionalappeals that enhance a specific tone andpurpose.

1.7 Use appropriate rehearsal strategies topay attention to performance details,achieve command of the text, andcreate skillful artistic staging.

1.8 Use effective and interesting language,including:

a. Informal expressions for effectb. Standard American English for

clarityc. Technical language for specificity

1.9 Use research and analysis to justifystrategies for gesture, movement, andvocalization, including dialect, pronun-ciation, and enunciation.

1.10 Evaluate when to use different kinds ofeffects (e.g., visual, music, sound,graphics) to create effective produc-tions.


1.11 Critique a speaker’s diction and syntaxin relation to the purpose of an oralcommunication and the impact thewords may have on the audience.

1.12 Identify logical fallacies used in oraladdresses (e.g., attack ad hominem, falsecausality, red herring, overgeneraliza-tion, bandwagon effect).

1.13 Analyze the four basic types of persua-sive speech (i.e., propositions of fact,value, problem, or policy) and under-stand the similarities and differences intheir patterns of organization and theuse of persuasive language, reasoning,and proof.

1.14 Analyze the techniques used in mediamessages for a particular audience andevaluate their effectiveness (e.g., OrsonWelles’ radio broadcast “War of theWorlds”).


Students deliver polished formal and extempo-raneous presentations that combine traditionalrhetorical strategies of narration, exposition,persuasion, and description. Student speakingdemonstrates a command of standard Ameri-can English and the organizational anddelivery strategies outlined in Listening andSpeaking Standard 1.0.


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Standards

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214


Using the speaking strategies of grades elevenand twelve outlined in Listening and SpeakingStandard 1.0, students:

2.1 Deliver reflective presentations:

a. Explore the significance of personalexperiences, events, conditions, orconcerns, using appropriate rhetori-cal strategies (e.g., narration,description, exposition, persuasion).

b. Draw comparisons between thespecific incident and broader themesthat illustrate the speaker’s beliefs orgeneralizations about life.

c. Maintain a balance betweendescribing the incident and relatingit to more general, abstract ideas.

2.2 Deliver oral reports on historicalinvestigations:

a. Use exposition, narration, descrip-tion, persuasion, or some combina-tion of those to support the thesis.

b. Analyze several historical records ofa single event, examining criticalrelationships between elements ofthe research topic.

c. Explain the perceived reason orreasons for the similarities anddifferences by using informationderived from primary and secondarysources to support or enhance thepresentation.

d. Include information on all relevantperspectives and consider thevalidity and reliability of sources.


a. Demonstrate a comprehensiveunderstanding of the significantideas of literary works (e.g., makeassertions about the text that arereasonable and supportable).

b. Analyze the imagery, language,universal themes, and unique aspectsof the text through the use ofrhetorical strategies (e.g., narration,description, persuasion, exposition, acombination of those strategies).

c. Support important ideas andviewpoints through accurate anddetailed references to the text or toother works.

d. Demonstrate an awareness of theauthor’s use of stylistic devices andan appreciation of the effectscreated.

e. Identify and assess the impact ofperceived ambiguities, nuances, andcomplexities within the text.

2.4 Deliver multimedia presentations:

a. Combine text, images, and sound byincorporating information from awide range of media, includingfilms, newspapers, magazines,CD-ROMs, online information,television, videos, and electronicmedia-generated images.

b. Select an appropriate medium foreach element of the presentation.

c. Use the selected media skillfully,editing appropriately and monitor-ing for quality.

d. Test the audience’s response andrevise the presentation accordingly.

2.5 Recite poems, selections from speeches,or dramatic soliloquies with attentionto performance details to achieveclarity, force, and aesthetic effect and todemonstrate an understanding of themeaning (e.g., Hamlet’s soliloquy “ToBe or Not to Be”).

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Ideally, assessment and instructionare linked inextricably within anycurriculum. The key to using assess-

ment effectively and efficiently in aprogram of instruction is to recognizeabove all that different types of assessmenttools must be used for different purposes.The assessments most crucial to achievingthe language arts content standards are thefollowing:

• Entry-level assessment: Do studentspossess crucial prerequisite skills andknowledge expected at their gradelevel? Do they already know some ofthe material to be taught?

• Monitoring of progress: Are studentsprogressing adequately towardachieving the standards? Do theyneed reteaching? Is emphasis on

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Assessmentof Proficiencyin theLanguageArts

6

Taken together [the three purposesof assessment] provide a road mapto achieving the standards: the startingplace, the routes to take, the pointsat which to change routes, and thedestination.

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Chapter 6Assessmentof Proficiencyin theLanguage Arts

specific instructional componentsneeded in the next series of lessonsor units?

• Summative assessment: Have studentsachieved the goals defined by a givenstandard or group of standards?

Although many other purposes exist forassessment, the three just listed are criticalto this framework because they informinstruction. Taken together, they provide aroad map to achieving the standards: thestarting place, the routes to take, the pointsat which to change routes, and the destina-tion. Assessment to inform instruction doesnot, however, address other purposes ofassessment, such as supplying diagnosticinformation to qualify students for specialprograms outside the classroom setting.The discussion in this chapter also summa-rizes the Statewide Pupil AssessmentSystem, including the statewide standards-based summative assessment initiated in1998—the Standardized Testing andReporting Program (STAR).

Teachers may have well-foundedapprehensions about assessment; some mayeven be convinced that successfully achiev-ing the standards requires a large amountof testing. But if language arts programsand textbooks fully integrate assessmentand instruction, most assessment activi-ties—especially the monitoring ofprogress—will contribute to learning andwill not usurp precious instructional time.

Characteristicsof Assessment AcrossGrade Levels

No single measure or method of assess-ment can provide the scope of informationneeded to achieve all three purposes listedpreviously. Except for contributing toinforming instruction, the three types ofassessment do not apply equally across allgrade levels. The content and specific skills

and strategies, more discrete in the earlygrades, become progressively more complexand intertwined in the advanced grades.Therefore, the differences require differenttasks. In the sections that follow, thedifferences in emphasis that assessmentshould accommodate are described for thethree grade-level clusters: kindergartenthrough grade three, grades four througheight, and grades nine through twelve. Inaddition, examples of what and when toassess are indicated for kindergartenthrough grade three and grades fourthrough eight. These examples are basedon the English–language arts contentstandards.

Assessment inKindergarten ThroughGrade ThreeEntry-Level Assessment

These assessments are used to determinethe proficiency of individual students orgroups of students according to a specificstandard or prerequisite skill or knowledge.This determination informs the teacherwhat needs to be included in upcominglessons or in preteaching or reteachinglessons. In some instances these morediscrete assessments will help the teacherlocate the level of the instructional programthe students should enter. Entry-levelassessment should not prevent a studentfrom participating in grade-level instruc-tion. Instead, teachers should use theinformation gained from entry-levelassessment to offer supplemental instruc-tion in specific areas while including allstudents in grade-level instruction.

Monitoring of Progress

These assessments focus on the generalskills and knowledge students are to acquireaccording to the standards. Through testsdeveloped by publishers, teachers, or

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Chapter 6Assessment

of Proficiencyin the

Language Arts

districts and arranged as periodic assess-ments for all students, the domains andstrands of the standards are assessed at theend of each major set of lessons. The tests,which are curriculum embedded, shouldbe administered and scored frequently bythe teacher. The results should be analyzedfor each student and classroom on thebasis of established levels that identify1) who is at mastery; and (2) what percentof students are at mastery. And the resultsshould influence how teachers modify oremphasize parts of the curriculum.

Summative Assessment

These assessments include quarterly,midyear, and end-of-the-year tests devel-oped by the publisher and the schooldistrict. They are used to determinewhether the student has mastered thecontent and to document long-termgrowth. The state-required assessment,STAR, also functions as a summativeassessment for grades two and three.Long-term outcomes should be the focusof summative assessment. For instance,blending words enables the long-termoutcome of decoding words accuratelyand in turn enables fluency and meaning-ful reading comprehension. Similarly,kindergarten students should be assessedon phonemic awareness.

Examples of What and When to Assess,Kindergarten Through Grade Three

Because of the large number of skillsand strategies students are to acquire ineach grade, a critical decision has to bemade to determine what knowledge toassess and when. In the early grades keyindicators or predictors can be used toidentify students making adequateprogress toward literacy standards andthose likely to have continued difficulty inlearning to read. Those key indicators arederived largely from research on studentswho learn to read easily in comparisonwith those who do not. Knowledge of

letter names, phonemic segmentation, thereading of nonsense words, and fluency inoral reading are examples of the predictorsor key indicators (Good, Simmons, andSmith 1998). Several commercial mea-sures are available to provide reliableinformation about students’ ability torecognize letters and to segment wordsinto phonemes. When used in timedconditions, the measures can also bereliably used to assess students’ rate ofprogress over time. The purpose of themeasures is to identify students who needadditional instruction and assess theeffectiveness of instruction over time.

An important caveat is that some of themeasures are indicators or predictors ofreading difficulty but do not translatedirectly into instructional objectives. Forexample, although the ability to nameletters is highly correlated with laterreading achievement (Adams 1990), thatability should not be the exclusive focus ofinstruction (National Research Council1998). It is important to distinguishbetween (1) identification of children atrisk of reading difficulty; and (2) instruc-tion. For example, although the ability toread nonsense words is a strong predictorfor students who will learn to read easily,teaching the reading of nonsense words aspart of the first-grade curriculum is notrecommended. Knowledge of letter-soundcorrespondences and ability to blend thosesounds into words are assessed by measur-ing the student’s ability to read nonsensewords and are stringent indicators ofstudents’ acquisition and application ofletter sounds and ability to blend sounds.

The table on the following page offerssuggestions for some of the importantmeasures available to teachers to informthem of their effectiveness in the deliveryof the instructional program and theprogress of their students toward masteryof the standards.

In the early gradeskey indicators orpredictors can be

used to identifystudents making

adequate progresstoward literacy

standards andthose likely to

have continueddifficulty in

learning to read.

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K

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Measure

Phonemeawareness

Phonemedeletion

Phonemesegmentation

Beginningphonics

Phonics

Oral reading(fluency)

Readingcompre-hension*

Vocabulary

Spelling

Conventions

Writing

Description

Detect rhyme.Count syllables.Match initial sounds.Count phonemes.

Initial soundsFinal soundsFirst sound of a consonant blendEmbedded sound of a consonant

blend

Segment sounds.Count phonemes.

Alphabet namesConsonant sounds

Reading of nonsense wordsOther decodingSpelling

Words correct per minute ongrade-level text

Main ideaAuthor’s point of viewAnalysisInference

AntonymsSynonymsMultiple meaningsContext meanings

Unit wordsRegular/irregular wordsWord patternsSingle and multisyllabic wordsSentence structure

PunctuationCapitalizationGrammarPenmanship

Narratives (fictional and autobio-graphical)

Organization/focusSingle paragraphTopic sentenceFacts/detailsExpository descriptionsFriendly letter

One

Fall/ winter

Fall/ winter

Fall/ winter

Only ifneeded

Fall/ winter/spring

Every 4–6weeks untilmastery

Spring

Earlier asneeded

Fall/ winter/spring

Every 8–10weeks

Every 8–10weeks

Every 8–10weeks

Every 8–10weeks

Twice peryear

Two

Only ifneeded

Only ifneeded

Only ifneeded

Only ifneeded

Fall/ winter/spring

Every 4–6weeks untilmastery

3–6 timesper year

Fall/ winter/spring

Every 6–8weeks

Every 6–8weeks

Every 6–8weeks

Every 6–8weeks

Twice peryear

Three

Only ifneeded

Only ifneeded

Only ifneeded

Only ifneeded

Only ifneeded

3–6 timesper year

Fall/ winter/spring

Every 6–8weeks

Every 6–8weeks

Every 6–8weeks

Every 6–8weeks

Twice peryear

Grade

*End-of-unit tests developed by publishers or teachers

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Chapter 6Assessment


Language Arts

Assessment in GradesFour Through EightEntry-Level Assessment

In these grades the quantity and varietyof prerequisite knowledge reach a point atwhich it is impractical to pretest for morethan the most essential prior knowledgeand skills. Gradually, the emphasischanges to evaluating the extent to whichstudents already have knowledge ofplanned content and the need studentsmay have for instructional support.


Regularly scheduled testing of progressis still appropriate, especially in fourththrough sixth grades. But many forms ofinformal progress testing are also appro-priate, useful, and relatively easy to use.Written products, both draft and final,and oral presentations students do as apart of their class assignments should bescored and used to determine progresstoward mastery of standards.


These assessments include quarterly,midyear, and end-of-the-year tests devel-oped by the publisher and the schooldistrict. They are used to determinewhether the student has mastered thecontent and to document long-term

growth. The state-required assessment,STAR, also functions as a summativeassessment. Long-term outcomes shouldbe the focus of summative assessment.Consequently, in the areas of writingapplications, listening, and speaking notcovered by the STAR, the school districtor school may need to establish summativeassessment for each genre of writing andspeaking at each grade level that can bescored by teachers using district rubrics.

Examples of What and When to Assess,Grades Four Through Eight

Assessment of skills development ismuch less specific in grades four througheight. However, many of the assessmentareas from earlier grades apply at this level.Fluency in oral reading is a reliableindicator for students in grades fourthrough six and for middle school stu-dents whose oral reading fluency issignificantly below grade level. Assess-ments should be conducted to assist indetermining the next steps for instructionand in planning interventions as necessary.

The table on the following page offerssuggestions for some of the importantmeasures available to teachers to informthem of their effectiveness in the deliveryof the instructional program and theprogress of their students toward masteryof the standards.

220


Measure

Oral reading(fluency)

Readingcomprehension*

Vocabulary

Spelling

Conventions

Writing

Eight

Asneeded

At theend ofunit ofstudy

Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks

At leasttwiceper year

Seven

Asneeded


Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks


Six

1–2 timesper year


Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks


Five

2–3 timesper year


Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks


Four

3–4 timesper year


Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks

Every4–6weeks


Description

Words correctper minute ongrade-level text

Main ideaAuthor’s point

of viewInferenceAnalysisCritique/criticism

Multiple meaningsWord originsContext meaningsMetaphors,

similes,analogies

DerivationsMultisyllabic

words

Sentence structurePunctuationCapitalizationGrammarPenmanship

Narratives andresponses toliterature

Expositorycompositionsand researchreports

Persuasivecompositions

Documents

Grade

*End-of-unit tests developed by publishers or teachers

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Chapter 6Assessment


Language Arts

Assessment in GradesNine Through Twelve

Entry-Level Assessment

Teachers need to attend closely tostudent performance in the early weeks ofthe school year to determine studentstrengths and weaknesses relative to givenstandards. Entering ninth graders and newstudents should be assessed with a varietyof measures, including standardized tests,which may be used to determine entry-level skills. Some students may requiremore extensive assessment of strengths andweaknesses, including the use of special-ized testing.


Tests for monitoring progress, asdescribed for grades four through eight,are most appropriate throughout thesegrades. Instructional materials shouldemphasize which tasks double as instruc-tional and progress assessment tasks, alongwith guidelines to assist teachers as theymake data-based decisions. Because of theadded complexities of the completereading and language arts curriculum andthe number of students assigned to eachteacher at these grade levels, teachersshould develop systems to organize recordsof student test scores and analyze regularlythe progress each student is makingtoward achieving mastery of the grade-level standards.


Each summative assessment at this levelshould assess several standards at once. Thesemester course tests that teachers give inEnglish classes should be aligned to reflecthow well students are meeting the expecta-tions of end-of-year mastery of grade-levelstandards. As with the previous gradelevels, the state STAR program will offerannual assessments. Teachers in gradesnine through twelve should routinely assessstudents’ proficiency in all the writingapplications appropriate for each gradelevel—a process similar to that used ingrades four through eight.

Assessments of specific skills are lessfrequent in the high school years except forassessments of students who read and writesignificantly below grade level (i.e., twograde levels or more below a student’scurrent grade level) and for whom a planof intervention has been established.Schoolwide writing assessments, com-monly conducted in these grades once ayear, are a source of information onstudent achievement not typically availableelsewhere. Most important, teachers ingrades nine through twelve determinemastery of content standards by assessingthe students’ increasingly sophisticatedlanguage arts skills and knowledge throughan examination of their reading andwriting skills and strategies in the contextof literature and informational text.

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Similarities ofAssessments AcrossGrade Levels

All three types of assessments used toinform instruction share some criticalcharacteristics across grade levels:

Entry-Level Assessment

The exact purpose of each item ofassessment should be clear: Do the stu-dents have the prerequisite skills needed?Do they already know the plannedcontent? To what extent? The results ofentry-level assessments help guide theteacher in setting the course of initialinstruction and determining modificationsfor specific students or groups of students.


The most critical guideline for themonitoring of progress is that it shouldoccur at frequent intervals and that theassessment data should be used quickly toadjust instruction. Each subtest shouldhave established or agreed-on cutoff scoresto indicate what score equates to mastery(e.g., a score of eight out of 10 itemsindicates mastery). Collecting and actingon information frequently during instruc-tion is a sign of a highly effective program.In an effort to ensure the progress of everystudent, the data should be examined byindividual students and classroom groups.Because the monitoring of progress is acollaborative, professional activity, the datashould be shared among teachers at thesame grade level and should be analyzed toidentify student needs and determine whatstrategies are working most effectively.

Everything students do during instruc-tion provides an opportunity for monitor-ing their progress. For the classroomteacher and site administrator to be able touse the assessment information across

classrooms by grade level, this type ofassessment requires (1) the use of stan-dardized procedures to administer thetest; (2) the standardization of test form;(3) the use of standardized scoringprocedures with agreed-on answer keysand interpretation guides (e.g., establishedcutoff scores for indicating mastery level);and (4) a procedure for the use of theinformation to determine instructionalneeds and appropriate interventions foreach student.

It is virtually impossible to overstatethe importance of using performance dataas the basis for making well-informedadjustments to instruction. Teachers needa solid basis for answering such questionsas the following:

• Should I move ahead? Or shouldI spend a little more time on thecurrent phase of instruction?

• Are students able to practice andapply what they have learnedadequately through independentactivities? Or do I need to provideadditional, specific instruction?

• Can I accelerate the plannedinstruction for some or all students,given that there is sufficient evi-dence of student mastery? If so,what is the best way to proceed?


The most critical aspect of allsummative assessment is that it measuresgeneralization and transference of skillsand knowledge required for mastery ofgrade-level standards. For example, if onesummative evaluation in the early gradesinvolves a test of decoding a list of words,some or all of those words should be newto students (words not previously usedextensively in decoding tasks). If asummative assessment in later gradesinvolves reading a passage and answeringcomprehension questions, students should

It is virtuallyimpossible tooverstate theimportance ofusing performancedata as the basisfor makingwell-informedadjustments toinstruction.

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Chapter 6Assessment


Language Arts

not have read the measurement passagespreviously. If students are to write acritical review of a literary work in highschool, they should analyze and evaluate anew reading selection.

Many teachers are concerned aboutteaching to the test. Summative assess-ments did not guide the development ofthe standards; rather, the standardsprovide the basis for developing orselecting summative assessments. Further,summative assessments aligned with thestandards and the curriculum are not merereflections of retained knowledge but canbe the most valid and reliable indicators ofdepth of understanding as demonstratedthrough generalization and transference.

Statewide PupilAssessment System

A major component of California’sstatewide testing system is the Standard-ized Testing and Reporting (STAR)Program. For reading and the languagearts, STAR, along with the Assessment ofApplied Academic Skills currently underdevelopment, is the statewide system forsummative assessment.

Standardized Testing andReporting Program

STAR consists of three parts: (1) astandardized norm-referenced test; (2) anaugmentation test aligned with theEnglish–language arts content standards;and (3) a standardized, norm-referencedprimary language assessment. Characteris-tics of the STAR Program are that it:

• Requires the assessment of allstudents in English with a testapproved by the State Board ofEducation

• Assesses achievement in reading,spelling, written expression, and

mathematics in grades two througheight and reading, writing, math-ematics, history–social science, andscience in grades nine througheleven

• Requires testing of academicachievement in the primary languagefor limited-English-proficientstudents enrolled for fewer than 12months (optional thereafter)

• Generates the results of testing forindividual students and reports tothe public the results for schools,school districts, counties, and thestate

• Disaggregates the results by gradelevel as to English proficiency,gender, and economic disadvantagefor reporting to the public

• Provides both norm-referenced andstandards-based results

The State Board of Education hasadopted performance levels to be used inreporting the results of the augmentedtest: advanced, proficient, and basic, withan additional level designated as belowbasic. The levels correspond with thoseused by the National Assessment ofEducational Progress. The augmented testaddresses all the categories of the contentstandards except direct writing, listening,and speaking.

Additional Components

Several additional components of theStatewide Pupil Assessment Systemenacted into law were being developedwhen this framework was being preparedfor publication. The components includethe following:

• Development of performancestandards that define levels ofstudent performance at each gradelevel in each of the areas in whichthe content standards have been

The most criticalaspect of allsummative

assessment isthat it measures

generalizationand transference

of skills andknowledge

required formastery ofgrade-levelstandards.

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adopted. “Performance standardsgauge the degree to which thestudent has met the content stan-dards and the degree to which aschool or school district has met thecontent standards” (Education CodeSection 60603[h]).

• Assessment of applied academicskills, based on the content andperformance standards, that “re-quires students to demonstrate theirknowledge of, and ability to apply,academic knowledge and skills inorder to solve problems and commu-nicate” in grades four, five, eight,and ten. “It may include . . . writingan essay, conducting an experiment,or constructing a diagram or model”(Education Code Section 60603[b]).

• Adoption of a test to measure thedevelopment of reading, speaking,and writing skills in English forstudents whose primary language isnot English.

The Golden State Examination Pro-gram completes the assessment picture inCalifornia. It provides a measure ofstudent achievement in several academicsubjects normally taken at the middle

school and high school levels. Participationin this program is voluntary, and studentswho do well on the tests receive a specialhonors designation. Work is under way toalign the Golden State Examination withthe content standards in the four coreareas.

Summary of theChapter

Each of the three distinct types ofassessment described previously—entry-level assessment, monitoring of progress,and summative assessment—contributessubstantially to informing effective instruc-tion. In particular the monitoring ofprogress can play a key role in developingand delivering curricula and instructionthat effectively lead to the achievement ofthe goals embedded in the standards. Thisframework places substantial emphasis onintegrating an assessment system withcurriculum and instruction. Therefore,assessment and instruction must be interre-lated in ways that minimize the loss ofinstructional time and maximize thepotential for assessment measures them-selves to contribute to meaningful learning.

The diversity of California’sstudents presents unique oppor-tunities and significant challenges

for instruction. Students come to schoolwith a wide variety of skills, abilities, andinterests as well as varying proficiency inEnglish and other languages. The widerthe variation of the student population ineach classroom, the more complex be-comes the teacher’s role in organizinghigh-quality curriculum and instruction inthe language arts and ensuring that eachstudent has access according to thestudent’s current level of achievement.The ultimate goal of language arts pro-grams in California is to ensure access tohigh-quality curriculum and instructionfor all students in order to meet or exceedthe state’s English–language arts contentstandards. To reach that goal, teachersneed assistance in assessing and using theresults of that assessment for planning

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UniversalAccess to theLanguage ArtsCurriculum

The ultimate goal of language artsprograms in California is to ensure accessto high-quality curriculum and instruc-tion for all students in order to meet orexceed the state’s English–language artscontent standards.

7

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Chapter 7Universal Accessto the LanguageArts Curriculum

programs, differentiating curriculum andinstruction, using grouping strategieseffectively, and implementing otherstrategies for meeting the needs of stu-dents with reading difficulties, specialeducation students, advanced learners,English learners, and students withcombinations of special needs.

Procedures that may be useful inplanning for universal access are to:

• Assess each student’s understandingat the start of instruction andcontinue to do so frequently asinstruction advances, using theresults of assessment for programplacement and planning.

• Diagnose the nature and severity ofthe student’s difficulty and modifycurriculum and instruction accord-ingly when students have troublewith the language arts.

• Engage in careful organization ofresources and instruction andplanning to adapt to individualneeds. A variety of good teachingstrategies that can be used accordingto the situation should be prepared.

• Differentiate when necessary as todepth, complexity, novelty, orpacing and focus on the languagearts standards and the key conceptswithin the standards that studentsmust master to move on to the nextgrade level.

• Employ flexible grouping strategiesaccording to the students’ needs andachievement and the instructionaltasks presented.

• Enlist help from others, such asreading specialists, special educationspecialists, parents, aides, otherteachers, community members,administrators, counselors, anddiagnosticians when necessary andexplore technology or other instruc-

tional devices or instructionalmaterials, such as Braille text, as away to respond to students’ indi-vidual needs.

Alignment of Assessmentand Instruction

One of the first tasks required of aschool district is to determine its students’achievement levels in the language arts sothat each student or group of students canbe offered a structured language artsprogram leading to the attainment of all ofthe content standards. What the studentalready knows in the language arts shouldform the basis for further learning andstudy.

Assessment is the key to ensuring thatall students are provided with languagearts instruction designed to help thestudents progress at an appropriate pacefrom what they already know to higherlevels of learning. Knowing which stan-dards have been mastered, teachers canbetter plan the instructional program. Fora variety of reasons, gaps often appear inwhat has been learned by students withspecial needs. The gaps can be discoveredthrough assessment, and instruction canbe designed to remediate specific weak-nesses without slowing down the students’entire language arts program.

Successful DiagnosticTeaching

Students who have trouble in readingand writing are at risk of failing to meetthe standards, becoming discouraged, andeventually dropping out of school. Theteacher should try to determine the causeof the learning difficulties. Contributingfactors might include a lack of foundation

What the studentalready knows inthe language artsshould form thebasis for furtherlearning andstudy.

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skills; limited-English proficiency; uncor-rected errors; confusing, inadequate, orinappropriate instructional resources orinstruction; or an undiagnosed specificlearning disability. A teacher can use theresults of assessment and classroomobservations to determine what interven-tions should be tried in the classroom andwhether to refer the students to a studentsuccess team (student study team) or seekassistance from specialists. Most learningdifficulties can be corrected with gooddiagnostic teaching that combines repeti-tion of instruction, focus on key skills andunderstanding, and practice. For somestudents modification of the curriculum orinstruction (or both) may be required toaccommodate differences in communica-tion modes, physical skills, or learningabilities.

To plan appropriate interventionstrategies for helping students who areexperiencing learning difficulties, teachersshould consider the degree of severityaccording to the three following majorgroups (Kame’enui and Simmons 1998):

Benchmark Group

Students in the benchmark group aregenerally making good progress towardthe standards but may be experiencingtemporary or minor difficulties. Althoughthe needs of these students are not critical,they must be addressed quickly to preventthe students from falling behind. Often,the teacher can reteach a concept in adifferent way to an individual or a groupof students or schedule a study group toprovide additional learning time. Occa-sionally, parents can be enlisted to rein-force learning at home. Ideally, instruc-tional resources will be organized in waysthat make it easy for parents to do so.Some students may need periodic indi-vidual assistance, the help of a reading

specialist, or other types of support toensure that they succeed in the regularclassroom. Once the concept or procedurehas been grasped correctly by the student,additional practice is usually helpful.

Strategic Group

Students in the strategic group may beone to two standard deviations below themean according to the results of standard-ized testing. However, their learningdifficulties, which must be examined withsystematic and, occasionally, intensive andconcentrated care, can often be addressedby the regular classroom teacher withminimal assistance within the classroomenvironment. A student success teammight be called on to discuss appropriatesupport for the student. In addition toreteaching a concept, the teacher may wishto provide specific assignments over aperiod of time for students to completewith a peer or tutor or by themselves athome. Regular study groups workingbefore or after school, in the evenings, oron weekends can provide an effectiveextension of the learning time. Somestudents may need to schedule extendedblocks of time for the study of languagearts to master difficult content. Othersmay require specific accommodations andmodifications to the classroom environ-ment, curriculum, or instruction asidentified in the students’ 504 plan.Special education students may needspecial modifications of curriculum orinstruction, as specified in their individu-alized education program, to enable themto participate successfully in a mainstreamclassroom.

Intensive Group

Students in the intensive group areseriously at risk as indicated by theirextremely and chronically low perfor-

Most learningdifficulties can be

corrected withgood diagnostic

teaching thatcombines

repetition ofinstruction, focuson key skills and

understanding,and practice.

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mance on one or more measures. Thegreater the number of measures and thelower the performance, the greater is theirrisk. These students perform well belowthe mean and should be referred to astudent success team for a thoroughdiscussion of options. A referral to specialeducation may be advisable. If eligible forspecial education services, these studentswill be given an individualized educationprogram, which will describe the mostappropriate services for the student.Often, specialized assistance will beavailable through the special educationreferral, perhaps including intensiveintervention by a qualified specialist,tutoring, services of a classroom assistant,specialized materials or equipment,changes in assessment procedures, ormodification of the curriculum orinstruction.

Planning for SpecialNeeds Students

Experienced teachers develop a reper-toire of successful instructional strategiesto be used in special situations or withspecific groups of students. Many of thestrategies can be explicitly taught or can beembedded in the instructional materials tohelp teachers plan differentiated instruc-tion. To establish successful instructionalstrategies for all students, the teachershould:

1. Establish a safe and supportiveenvironment in which the studentsare encouraged to talk and askquestions freely when they do notunderstand.

2. Use a wide variety of ways toexplain a concept or assignment.When appropriate, the concept orassignment may be depicted ingraphic or pictorial form, with

manipulatives, or with real objectsto accompany oral and writteninstructions.

3. Provide assistance in the specificand general vocabulary to be usedfor each lesson prior to the lesson,using reinforcement or additionalpractice afterward. Instructionalresources and instruction should bemonitored for ambiguities orlanguage that would be confusing,such as idioms.

4. Set up tutoring situations that offeradditional assistance. Tutoring by aqualified teacher is optimal. Peer orcross-age tutoring should be sodesigned not to detract from theinstructional time of either thetutor or tutee and should besupervised.

5. Extend the learning time byestablishing a longer school day,weekend classes, and intersessionor summer classes.

6. Enlist the help of parents at homewhen possible.

7. Establish special sessions to preparestudents for unfamiliar testingsituations.

8. Ask each student frequently tocommunicate his or her under-standing of the concept or assign-ment. Students should be asked toverbalize or write down what theyknow, thereby providing immedi-ate insight into their thinking andlevel of understanding. In addition,students should be encouraged toconfer about each other’s under-standing of the concept beingtaught and the class work orhomework assignments, particu-larly if the students are not fullyproficient in English.

9. Check frequently for understand-ing in a variety of ways. When a

Experiencedteachers developa repertoire ofsuccessfulinstructionalstrategies to beused in specialsituations or withspecific groups ofstudents.

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student does not understand,analyze why.

10. Allow students to demonstrate theirunderstanding and abilities in avariety of ways while reinforcingmodes of communication that willbe used on standardized tests.

DifferentiationThrough Pacingand Complexity

Advanced students and those withlearning difficulties in the language artsoften require systematically planneddifferentiation to ensure that curriculumand instruction are appropriately challeng-ing. The strategies for modification ofcurriculum and instruction for specialeducation or at-risk students are similar tothose used for advanced learners and can beconsidered variations along four dimen-sions: pacing, depth, complexity, andnovelty. Two dimensions will be discussedhere, pacing and complexity. For addi-tional discussion see Differentiating theCore Curriculum and Instruction to ProvideAdvanced Learning Opportunities (Califor-nia Department of Education 1994).

Use of Pacing

Pacing is perhaps the most commonlyused strategy for differentiation. That is,the teacher slows down or speeds upinstruction. This strategy can be simple,effective, and inexpensive for many stu-dents with special needs (Benbow andStanley 1996; Geary 1994). The instruc-tional pace of the advanced learner can beaccelerated if the assessment indicatesmastery of significant portions of thestandards. Students can be helped to moveon to the content standards for the nextgrade level.

For students experiencing difficulty inthe language arts, the same content mightbe extended over twice as long a period oftime for additional reinforcement in themore difficult concepts. Alternatively,some students with attention deficitsrespond better to shorter, more frequentepisodes of instruction. A key element inslowing down instruction is to ensure thatthe content remains rigorous, that thestudents move ahead as quickly as theycan, and that the instruction leads tomastery of the content standards within areasonable amount of time.

Use of Complexity

Modifying instruction as to complexityrequires more training and skill on the partof the teacher and the provision of instruc-tional materials that lend themselves tosuch variations. For advanced students itmeans enriched instruction that encouragesstudents to address topics, time periods, orconnections across disciplines not normallyexpected at that grade level.

For students experiencing difficulty inthe language arts, the teacher should focuson the key concepts within the standardsand eliminate confusing activities orvariables. The lessons should be even moreorganized and sequential and be focusedon the most important concepts. Instruc-tion is not thereby watered down. Instead,it is distilled to ensure that instructionaltime is used to help students understandthe fundamental concepts or skills neededto master later standards.

Differentiation for special needs stu-dents is sometimes criticized by those whosay that struggling students never progressto the more interesting or complex assign-ments. This argument is often used tomove struggling students along or involvethem in complex assignments, even thoughthey have not mastered the basics they

[Instruction] isdistilled to ensurethat instructional

time is used tohelp students

understand thefundamental

concepts or skillsneeded to master

later standards.

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need to understand the assignments. Thisframework advocates a focus on thestandards and frequent assessment toensure that students are not just passedalong without the skills they will need tobe successful in subsequent grades.Struggling students are expected to learnthe key concepts well so that they candevelop a foundation on which furtherunderstanding can be built.

Grouping as an Aidto Instruction

Research shows that what students aretaught has a far greater effect on theirachievement than how they are grouped(Mosteller, Light, and Sachs 1996). Thefirst focus of educators should always beon the quality of instruction; grouping is asecondary concern. This frameworkrecommends that educators use commonsense about grouping. Grouping is a tooland an aid to instruction, not an end initself. As a tool it should be used flexiblyto ensure that all students achieve thestandards. Instructional objectives shouldalways be based on the standards andshould dictate grouping strategies. It isperfectly appropriate, even advisable, togroup those students who do not under-stand a concept or skill and to find time toreteach the concept or skill in a differentway and provide additional practice. Atthe same time those students might beparticipating with a more heterogeneousmix of students in other classroomactivities.

In another setting teachers may dis-cover that they have a group of students ina grade who have mastered the standardsfor that grade and are ready to go on tothe standards for the next grade. It isappropriate and advisable to group thosestudents for as long as the grouping meets

their needs and to provide the neededaccelerated instruction. To promotemaximum learning, the teacher shouldensure that assessment is frequent, thathigh-quality instruction is always pro-vided, and that the students are frequentlymoved into appropriate instructionalgroups according to their needs.

Special Modificationsfor Special EducationStudents

Educators who wish to help childrenwith difficulties in a particulardomain need to know about the courseof typical development in that domain,about the specific cognitive abilitiesthat are crucial at various points indevelopment, about the cognitiveabilities in which a particular child isweak, and about how to best developthese abilities. (Spear-Swerling andSternberg 1998, 400)

Students eligible for special educationservices often have specific needs describedin an individualized education program.Special resources may be available to thestudents to help them meet the standards,including personnel (e.g., reading special-ists, speech and hearing therapists, psy-chologists, and classroom aides). Assistivedevices, such as wheelchairs, walkers, taperecorders, sound-amplification devices,and regular or Braille word processors, canaccommodate a student’s physical chal-lenges so that the curriculum is accessible.

Specific learning disabilities thatmanifest themselves as deficits in languagearts achievement can be difficult todiagnose and at times difficult to remedy.The approach recommended in thisframework, with its focus on “first bestteaching,” including frequent assessment,

Grouping is a tooland an aid toinstruction, notan end in itself.

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systematic and explicit instruction in thebuilding blocks of word recognition andreading comprehension, and modifica-tions of curriculum as needed, shouldresult in many more students reading. Itshould significantly reduce the number ofstudents identified as having learningproblems or learning disabilities. Nosingle approach is as effective in teachingstudents to read, particularly in teachingthose who have difficulty in reading, assystematic, explicit instruction emphasiz-ing phonemic awareness, decoding, andphonics.

Nevertheless, some students withlearning disabilities affecting the process-ing of oral or written language, usuallyphonology, will be atypical in readingacquisition. For those students a thoroughdiagnosis of what they can and cannot dois helpful. The assessment should beconducted by a learning specialist whounderstands thoroughly the typical processstudents go through when learning toread. The specialist should also under-stand the specific areas of cognitivefunctioning in which learning-disabledstudents may have difficulty and ways inwhich instruction can be adapted. Thespecialist can then work with the regularclassroom teacher to implement specificstrategies, which might include changes inthe sequence of instruction, the methodsof instruction, the pacing of instruction,or the materials used. The strategies mightalso include variations in assessmenttechniques (e.g., allowing more time for astudent who processes or produces writtenlanguage more slowly). Regardless of themodifications made, however, the focusshould always be placed on helpingstudents meet the language arts contentstandards to the best of their ability andfrequently assessing their progress inattaining the standards.

DifferentiatedInstruction forAdvanced Learners

Advanced learners are students whodemonstrate or are capable of demonstrat-ing performance in the language arts at alevel significantly above the performanceof their peers. They may include (1) stu-dents formally identified by a schooldistrict as gifted and talented pursuant toEducation Code Section 52200; and(2) other students who have not beenformally identified as gifted and talentedbut demonstrate outstanding capacity oractual performance in the language arts.This situation is especially true in Califor-nia, where each district sets its own criteriafor identifying gifted and talented stu-dents, where the percentage of students soidentified varies, and where each districtmay choose whether to identify on thebasis of ability in language arts. Theresearch studies cited in this frameworkuse the term gifted students, which isdefined in most areas outside California ina more standardized way in accordancewith nationally normed tests of achieve-ment or intelligence. In that context theterm usually refers to the small number ofstudents who score at the highest percen-tiles on the test.

Standards-based education offersopportunities for students who have themotivation, interest, or ability in thelanguage arts to excel. Several researchstudies have demonstrated the importanceof setting high standards for all students,including gifted students. The contentstandards in the language arts haveprovided students with goals worthreaching for and identify the point atwhich skills and knowledge should bemastered. The natural corollary is that

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when standards are mastered, studentsshould either move on to standards athigher grade levels or focus on unlearnedmaterial not covered by the standards.

A research study (Shore et al. 1991)examined whether any evidence exists tosupport 101 common practices in giftededucation and found that very fewpractices were supported by solid evi-dence. However, the study also found thata combination of acceleration (in whichstudents move on to material above gradelevel) and enrichment (in which studentsstudy topics in more depth or complexityor study related topics not covered in thenormal curriculum) is supported by theresearch and results in improved achieve-ment for gifted students.

How to group advanced learners hasbeen controversial. In a longitudinal study(Delcourt et al. 1994) of grouping ar-rangements for over 1,000 elementary-agestudents, it was found that gifted studentsreceiving an enriched and acceleratedcurriculum delivered in special schools,special day classes, and pullout programsmade statistically significant improvementin achievement in the language arts,mathematics, science, and history–socialscience in comparison with gifted studentswho did not receive such programming.

The only type of programming arrange-ment that did not result in statisticallysignificant improvement in achievementwas enrichment offered in the regularheterogeneously grouped classroom. Thereason for the lack of success was that evenwith the best of intentions, teachers didnot have enough time to deliver theadvanced or enriched curriculum for thegifted students that had been planned.Because most gifted students in Californiaare served in the regular heterogeneouslygrouped classroom, teachers must ensurethat enrichment or acceleration occurswhen advanced students are instructed in

a heterogeneous group, as argued forpersuasively in the study (Delcourt et al.1994). A previous study (CaliforniaDepartment of Education 1994) providesan outline on how to differentiate instruc-tion for advanced students regardless ofhow they are grouped. In referencing thatstudy, we do not mean to suggest that allgifted students be homogeneouslygrouped. Decisions on how to groupstudents should be made locally. However,the Delcourt study underscores theimportance of providing support forteachers so that they can effectively meetthe individual needs of all students in theirclassrooms.

InstructionalPrograms forEnglish Learners

California’s diverse student populationcomes from many different ethnic groups,speaks a variety of languages and dialects,varies in English proficiency, and comes toschool with a variety of experiences,academic and nonacademic. A 1997report issued by the California Depart-ment of Education revealed that 1.4million students enrolled in Californiapublic schools used a primary languageother than English and were identified aslimited-English proficient (LEP). Morethan 100 languages (other than English)were found to be represented. The topfour languages and percentages of LEPstudents were Spanish (81 percent),Vietnamese (3 percent), Hmong(2 percent), and Cantonese (2 percent).

English learners have as their goaldeveloping proficiency in English and inthe concepts and skills contained in theEnglish–Language Arts Content Standards.Because of recent changes in Californialaw, instruction for most English learners

When standardsare mastered,students shouldeither move onto standards athigher gradelevels or focuson unlearnedmaterial notcovered by thestandards.

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must be presented “overwhelmingly inEnglish.” To learn English and achievemastery of the English–language artscontent standards, students must partici-pate in instructional programs thatcombine skill and concept development inboth English literacy and the Englishlanguage. For those students whoseparents have chosen a program thatteaches literacy in the primary language,students must work to achieve the samestandards contained in the English–Language Arts Content Standards. Appro-priate modifications should be made forthe language of instruction.

In a structured English immersionprogram, instruction in reading andwriting for English learners should not bedelayed until the students have masteredoral English. Effective early instruction inEnglish literacy, as described in Chapter 3,must be incorporated into a program ofEnglish-language development from thevery beginning. Students must be pro-vided significant support to be successfulin the language arts. Such support in-cludes the preteaching of essential ele-ments of lesson vocabulary and languagestructure and additional assistance afterthe lesson during the school day and afterschool. Instruction in oral and writtenacademic language for English learners is acritical element that must be specificallydesigned, planned, scheduled, and taught.It includes direct instruction and experi-ences for students in English phonology,morphology, syntax, and semantics andsupports students as they move towardEnglish proficiency.

Instructional programs for Englishlearners should be planned according tothe students’ assessed levels of literacy inEnglish and their primary language as wellas their proficiency in English. English-language proficiency progresses from thestudents’ initial contact with formal

instruction in English to the point atwhich their use of English compares withthat of their native English-speaking peers.Because of differing academic back-grounds and ages, some students can beexpected to progress more quickly andothers to require more support in theEnglish–language arts program. Instruc-tional materials contain assessment toolsto diagnose students’ proficiency inlistening, speaking, reading, and writing inEnglish and to assist teachers in planninginitial instruction, monitoring progress,and conducting summative evaluations.

Three groups of English learners mustbe considered in program planning:students in kindergarten through gradetwo; those in grades three through twelvewho are literate in their primary language;and those in grades three through twelvewho have limited prior academic experi-ence or literacy in their primary language.Typically, primary students who arelearning English can participate fully inclassroom language arts instruction ifprovided appropriate reading and writingsupports and instruction in oral language.Students in grades three through twelvewho have strong literacy skills in theirprimary language can be expected totransfer many of those skills to Englishand to progress rapidly in learning En-glish. And students in grades threethrough twelve with limited prior school-ing will require intensive support inbeginning literacy instruction as well as inlearning English.

Instruction and Support in Readingand Writing

Students in kindergarten through gradetwo. Students who begin to learn readingand writing in English in the primarygrades should participate fully in theclassroom program and receive additionalsupport to achieve the English–language

Instruction inreading and

writing for Englishlearners shouldnot be delayed

until the studentshave mastered

oral English.

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arts content standards. Whereas mostEnglish-speaking kindergartners enterschool with 6,000 to 15,000 words intheir English vocabulary, most Englishlearners do not. Instruction in English is acritical component of the program forEnglish learners and proceeds simulta-neously with direct, explicit, and system-atic instruction in reading and writing.Abundant opportunities to participate inoral language and speaking activities helpstudents hear and develop the Englishsound system and lexicon and support theconcurrent development of reading andwriting with comprehension. Beginninginstruction in reading, particularly inphonemic awareness, concepts aboutprint, and vocabulary developmentcommences immediately upon entry intoschool and supports the acquisition ofEnglish phonology and initial languagestructures. In kindergarten and the firstgrade, English learners progress to sound-symbol correspondence and formation ofletters as they build vocabulary and anunderstanding of the features of theEnglish language.

Full comprehension of text will belimited by the students’ level of Englishproficiency and should be supported byadditional exposure to and study ofvocabulary and language patterns pre-sented in the text. Students should receivepreteaching in essential vocabulary,background information, and languagepatterns. A review of key lesson elementsand assessment of the students’ level ofunderstanding should follow the lessons inreading and writing. As described at thebeginning of this chapter, additionalinstructional time, differentiated instruc-tion, flexible grouping, and smaller groupsshould provide students the support theyneed to succeed in the language arts.After-school programs, specialist teachers,and the judicious use of tutors and

paraprofessionals are other sources ofsupport. Additional instructional supportmust align with classroom instruction andassist students in learning the specificvocabulary, background knowledge, andlanguage structures needed to succeed.

Students in grades three through twelve.English learners entering school in gradesthree through twelve with strong literacyskills in their primary language areadvantaged in that they can concentrateon acquiring and learning English ratherthan on receiving initial instruction inreading and writing. However, the greatercognitive demands of the academicprogram in those grades require that thestudents move quickly to more advancedEnglish vocabulary and language struc-tures. English-language developmentshould be intensive and should emphasizethe language students will need to knowso that they profit from instruction in thelanguage arts and other content areas attheir grade level. Again, students will needadditional support to learn English and tounderstand the vocabulary and languageof instruction. School districts and schoolsneed to consider additional allocations ofinstructional time to maximize students’opportunities to acquire language andparticipate in the overall language artsprogram.

Students who enter school in gradesthree through twelve with little priorschooling and limited English must bequickly identified and assessed to deter-mine their level of reading and writingskills in their primary language and inEnglish. Learning to read and write whileconcurrently learning English is a chal-lenge for these students. School districtsand schools need to structure the instruc-tional program so that the students receivethe instruction they require in literacy andlanguage. The students require intensive,systematic instruction in oral and written

Additionalinstructionalsupport must alignwith classroominstruction andassist students inlearning thespecific vocabulary,backgroundknowledge, andlanguage structuresneeded tosucceed.

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language, including, for example, instruc-tion in the use of common nouns, verbs,adjectives, and adverbs. They also need tolearn common phrases, language patterns,and idiomatic expressions. Materials thataddress those skills, individualized instruc-tion, and additional assistance andinstructional time will be needed tosupport English learners who have limitedacademic experience. The materials mustdescribe age-appropriate activities to teachreading and English-language develop-ment.

English-Language Development

Stages of instruction. From the earlieststages of their academic careers and inconcert with instruction in reading andwriting, English learners participate in aninstructional program that supports theiracquisition of informal English andteaches them the patterns of formalacademic English. The instruction isdesigned to provide for students experi-ences with English that are understandableand meaningful and enable the students tocommunicate with peers and adults andthereby participate fully in the academicprogram. Students begin by learning basicsocial conventions, rudimentary classroomvocabulary, and ways to express personaland safety needs. They participate inlanguage study in a variety of contextsranging from informal classroom conver-sations to teacher-directed instruction inlanguage forms and structures. Effectiveteachers use a variety of activities tointroduce and reinforce language concepts(e.g., singing, presenting dramas, readingaloud, using visuals and props, andpracticing simple phrases and vocabulary).

Teachers model and teach the languagepatterns and vocabulary needed to under-stand and participate in the study of thelanguage arts and other content areas.They should not assume that students will

use their newly acquired academic vocabu-lary in casual conversation. Instead, theyshould specifically plan student-to-studentdiscussions in which the students areexpected to practice their new vocabularyand understanding of language forms insubstantive academic discussions. Studentslearn English phonology, morphology(including spelling and syllabicationpatterns), syntax, and semantics throughteacher modeling, teacher-directedinstruction, and classroom interaction.They build on classroom exposure andinteraction with English sounds, wordelements, sentence structure, and vocabu-lary through directed study and practice ofthe linguistic elements. Analysis of theelements of instruction and materialsincreases in sophistication as studentsprogress through the grades and gainlinguistic and academic competence. Thispurposeful study of the features of theEnglish language, which involves instruc-tion in oral and written language, isconnected to the English–language artscontent standards through the languagearts and content-area instruction in whichstudents participate daily.

Instructional opportunities and materials.Most important, teachers plan opportuni-ties, supported by appropriate instruc-tional materials, for students to producelanguage they have acquired, use languagein academic interactions with peers andadults, and monitor and correct their oraland written language. Teachers create anenvironment in which students feelcomfortable in risking the use of new andunfamiliar language. Instructional materi-als describe for teachers the linguisticfeatures of the most commonly spokenlanguages as they differ from English(e.g., analysis of similar and dissimilarsounds). Teachers apply the understand-ing of similarities and differences amongthe languages in planning instruction and

English learnersparticipate in an

instructionalprogram that

supports theiracquisition of

informal Englishand teaches them

the patterns offormal academic

English.

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use questioning and other strategies tofoster substantive student discussion andparticipation. Emphasis is placed on thestudents’ producing language in a varietyof contexts and the teachers’ elicitingstudent participation and thought.

Students should receive specific,constructive feedback from their teachersregarding the accuracy of their oral andwritten work and their progress towardmastery of conventional English. Teachersshould analyze students’ errors to deter-mine development in oral and writtenEnglish and plan appropriate instructionto improve competence. Instructionalmaterials contain assessment tools thatassist teachers in the analysis and specifi-cally address instruction in those areas asrelated to grade-level English–languagearts standards.

Instruction for English learners inacademic language helps bring the stu-dents to a level of English proficiencycomparable with that of their nativeEnglish-speaking peers. English-languagedevelopment occurs daily; is specificallyidentified within the curriculum of theschool district and the school; and is

supported by high-quality instructionalmaterials, a sufficient amount of instruc-tional time, and professional developmentfor teachers. Language development andliteracy instruction are integrated with thebasic instructional materials and should bespecifically identified in the teacher’sedition as differentiated instruction forstudents not fully proficient in English.For students in grades three throughtwelve who are just learning English,instructional materials should be speciallydesigned to provide intensive and exten-sive English-language development.Included should be development in oraland written vocabulary, reading instruc-tion (as described in this framework), andsystematic instruction in the forms andfeatures of English. Publishers are encour-aged to develop materials for thosedistricts that choose to have studentsspend most of their school day receivingsuch instruction. The purpose of differen-tiated instruction in English is to moveEnglish learners as quickly as possiblethrough stages of language proficiency andto enable them to achieve mastery of theEnglish–language arts content standards.

Students shouldreceive specific,constructivefeedback fromtheir teachersregarding theaccuracy of theiroral and writtenwork and theirprogress towardmastery ofconventionalEnglish.

For students to meet grade-levelcontent standards, comprehensivecommunity systems of support

should be developed to advocate a sus-tained focus on the development oflanguage arts skills for every student. Asupport system for each school will help inthe design, implementation, and evalua-tion of effective language arts instructionalplans, classroom teaching strategies,instructional materials, and supportsystems for students with special needs.

Responsibilitiesof the SchoolCommunity

The school community includesparents and families, classroom teachersand specialist teachers, library mediateachers, tutors, paraprofessionals, pre-school educators, local educational

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Responsibilitiesand Supportfor Proficiencyin theLanguageArts

Together, the [school] communitymembers can help refocus theschool or district priorities for reading,writing, listening, and speaking.

8

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Chapter 8Responsibilitiesand Supportfor Proficiencyin the LanguageArts

agencies, school administrators, profes-sional developers, and business, civic, andservice organizations. Together, thecommunity members can help refocus theschool or district priorities for reading,writing, listening, and speaking.

The school community can participatein the development and implementationof a literacy plan for each school by:

• Insisting on a sustained schoolwideand communitywide discussion onstudents’ achievement in the lan-guage arts

• Establishing clear and measurablereading improvement goals (Example:“Every student who is reading belowgrade level will be provided with asystematic intervention program nolater than November 1 of each year.”Or: “At Maple Street School thepercentage of students reading at orabove grade level will increase from40 percent to 60 percent byJune 1.”)

• Implementing a systematic process forthe selection of instructional materialsbased on comprehensive informa-tion, such as reviewing current andconfirmed research or data providedby publishers or conducting pilottests

• Providing an effective program ofprofessional development based oncurrent research and the English–language arts content standards forpreservice, new, and continuingteachers

• Encouraging parent involvement in avariety of ways (e.g., through regularcommunication between parents andeducators, multiple opportunities forvolunteering, parent involvement inschool decision making, collabora-tion with community supportagencies)

• Ensuring the availability of well-stocked classroom libraries and a well-equipped media center to providestudents with access to a variety ofhigh-quality resources for languagearts development

• Creating partnerships with business,civic, and service organizations andestablishing service-learning projectsto seek involvement and support forpromoting literacy for all students.

Parents and Families

Parents are their children’s first teach-ers. The child’s home language and homeliteracy experiences form the basis of moreformal language development in school.The involvement of parents in theirchildren’s early years is an importantpredictor of the children’s success inschool (McCollum and Russo 1993;Chavkin 1993; National Committee forCitizens in Education 1994) and is moreimportant than economic status inpredicting academic learning (Walberg1984). The importance of parents’ readingto their children is well documented(Anderson, Wilson, and Fielding 1988),and parents’ conversations with childrencan be a rich source of language develop-ment.

In addition to support for early lan-guage development at home, parents canprovide a stable source of support for theirchildren’s schooling. Recent studiesindicate that most parents care deeplyabout their children’s education but maynot show their concerns in the same way(Valdés 1996; Gándara 1995). Forexample, some parents may show theirsupport by voicing to their childrenconsistent respect for the value of educa-tion. Other parents may support comple-tion of homework or volunteer in theclassroom. In addition, parents may servein an advisory capacity on a school-site

The involvementof parents in theirchildren’s earlyyears is animportantpredictor of thechildren’s successin school and ismore importantthan economicstatus in predictingacademic learning.

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Chapter 8Responsibilities

and Supportfor Proficiency

in the LanguageArts

council or manage activities in the librarymedia center, such as the shelving andchecking out of books. Classroom teachersor librarians can promote and expandparent involvement through familyliteracy events, visits by guest authors,summer reading programs, and book fairs.Regardless of the way in which parents orfamily members support education, theyshould always be made to feel welcomeand know that their contributions arewelcomed and appreciated.

Parents and families should be wellinformed about the language arts curricu-lum their children receive and the progresstheir children are making in learning toread, write, speak, and listen. The schooland school district should provide out-reach to inform parents and families aboutthe English–language arts content stan-dards, the district’s curriculum andassessment programs, and the degree towhich students in the school and districtare mastering the standards in the lan-guage arts. Materials and programs shouldbe organized so that parents and familiescan receive specific information andsupport for extending their children’slearning at home. Parents and familiesshould be made aware, as appropriate, ofresources available to support their ownliteracy, such as Even Start or adulteducation. Ultimately, parents andfamilies are the most essential partners inpromoting the value of reading andwriting and in providing the homesupport needed for children to master thestandards in the language arts.

Classroom Teachers

The impact of an outstanding class-room teacher on a child’s life can bedramatic. Good teachers are effectivebecause they work hard at perfecting theirteaching ability over a long period of time.Development of their craft comes from

years of formal college training, experiencein the classroom, periodic professionaldevelopment, and an undying commit-ment to learning.

The demands on teachers in Californiaare greater than ever before. More andmore teachers are being called on to bereading teachers regardless of whether theyhave had formal training in teachingstudents how to read. In standards-basededucation teachers will be expected to helptheir students master areas of the curricu-lum that were previously attempted onlyby gifted students. Granted, class size hasbeen reduced in most kindergartenthrough grade three classrooms in Califor-nia. But in those classrooms and inclassrooms for students in grades fourthrough twelve, the diversity of students’prior experiences provides a challenge asteachers try to adapt instruction to a rangeof experience and ability.

To help teachers build expertise andfind satisfaction in their work, ongoingprofessional development should targetspecific knowledge and skills. It shouldalso provide consistent support forimproved teaching through coaching, thepairing of teachers with a mentor orbuddy, and collegial discussions about thedesign and implementation of effectivelanguage arts programs. Teachers shouldhave a role in designing their own profes-sional development, which should beplanned and organized and should lead tolong-term goals and be supported overtime.

For new teachers the requirements forpreparation and the support for theirinduction into the teaching profession arechanging rapidly. For example, to earn amultiple-subjects teaching credential,teacher candidates must now pass theReading Instruction Competence Assessment(RICA), which tests the knowledge, skills,and abilities of new teachers as related to

More and moreteachers are being

called onto be reading

teachersregardless ofwhether they

have had formaltraining in

teaching studentshow to read.

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teaching reading. Areas assessed includephonemic awareness; concepts aboutprint; systematic, explicit phonics andother word-identification strategies;spelling instruction; vocabulary develop-ment; reading comprehension; studentindependent reading and its relationshipto improved reading performance; rela-tionships between reading, writing, andoral language; diagnosis of readingdevelopment; and the structure of theEnglish language. Preservice programsspecifically prepare teacher candidates forRICA as a part of their courses in readinginstruction.

Specialist Teachers

Even with the most effective literacyinstruction in place, some students, for avariety of reasons, struggle with reading orare unable to read at grade level. “Suchstudents will require supplementaryservices, ideally from a reading specialistwho provides individual or small-groupintensive instruction that is coordinatedwith high-quality instruction from theclassroom teacher” (National ResearchCouncil 1998, 12).

Reading specialists, resource specialists,and speech and language therapists are keyindividuals in the provision of supplemen-tary services for students not achieving inreading and language arts as well as in theimplementation of the overall languagearts program. As knowledgeable andexperienced teachers of reading andlanguage, specialists can assume a leader-ship role in the school by modelingeffective instruction, presenting profes-sional development activities, organizingearly intervention, assisting with assess-ment activities, consulting with classroomteachers, and facilitating schoolwideplanning and decision making for thelanguage arts. The role of specialists insupporting the work of classroom teachers

is especially important as teachers grapplewith the implementation of contentstandards and shifts in instructionalmaterials and practices.

Most importantly, specialists play a keyrole in intervention by working withteachers to identify students who needassistance, conducting specialized assess-ments, and providing the extra instructionand support students need to master thelanguage arts standards. Specialists “couldspecialize in knowledge about the cognitiveprocesses involved in typical acquisition ofacademic skills, in knowledge about theways in which children might go awry inacquiring important cognitive and aca-demic skills, and in adapting instructionfor children with a variety of cognitive andacademic difficulties” (Spear-Swerling andSternberg 1998, 401).

Library Media Teachers

The American Association of SchoolLibrarians and the Association for Educa-tional Communications and Technology(1998) point to the importance of librarymedia teachers as learning resource andtechnology specialists and instructionalpartners. When the library media teacher,who knows the learning resources, tech-nologies, skills, and information problem-solving process, acts as a partner with theclassroom teacher, who knows the studentsand the curricular content to be addressed,they expand students’ learning opportuni-ties and directly improve achievement(Lance, Welborn, and Hamilton-Pennell1993). By codesigning and implementingresource-based learning and other cross-disciplinary projects, library media teachersand classroom teachers help students applylanguage arts skills to genuine informationproblems.

Particularly at the elementary schoollevel but later too, library media teacherscontribute to students’ success in literary

The role ofspecialists insupporting thework of classroomteachers isespeciallyimportant asteachers grapplewith theimplementationof contentstandards andshifts in instruc-tional materialsand practices.

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in the LanguageArts

response and analysis. The library mediacredential equips library media teacherswith extensive background in literacygenres for children and young adults.They know the characteristics of differentgenres and authors; can easily connectbooks similar in setting, character, plot, ortheme; and can work with teachers tolocate useful examples of literary devices,such as simile, metaphor, and personifica-tion. In effectively conveying that aspectof reading comprehension to students,they are essential partners with classroomteachers.

Library media teachers, who areteachers primarily, have an additionalcredential that extends their expertise intoliterature, the research process, librarymanagement, and information technolo-gies. The dynamic library field is changingwith the advent of expanded informationaccess afforded by the digital age. Theycan contribute to expanding students’literacy, information acquisition, andability to become independent, self-directed learners. Library media teachersprovide motivation to read and guidancein personal reading and reach out to thecommunity and parents to encouragefamily literacy. They also teach studentshow to use the online catalog, how tolocate information, how to think aboutwhat they have found in relation to whatthey need, and how to communicate whatthey have learned in print and in multi-media formats.

Tutors

Tutoring is not a substitute for teach-ing. Tutoring methods should comple-ment professional teaching, not supplantit. Pinnel and Fountas (1997) concludethat effective tutoring embodies anorganized, well-articulated system thatincludes strong leadership, quality train-ing, appropriate instructional materials,

careful monitoring, alignment withclassroom instruction, and communica-tion among classroom teachers, tutors,and parents. Yet it is exactly in those areasthat programs are often planned ineffec-tively or not at all (Topping 1998).

Among the goals of tutoring and otherremedial programs are improved literacyskills (in both reading and writing),reading fluency and comprehension atgrade level or above, significant gains inreading achievement, increased motiva-tion, greater self-confidence in readingand writing, and ability to transfer literacyskills to other content areas. Some of themost effective tutoring activities are thosethat involve modeling and scaffolding andare adaptive to the individual student.

Because of the great number of tutoringapproaches (e.g., pullout programs, after-school or before-school coaching classes,peer or cross-age tutoring, paired reading,and summer classes) and the variety ofpotential providers (e.g., reading special-ists, credentialed teachers, trained parapro-fessional, college students, trained volun-teers, and cross-age peers), setting up aremedial program requires informedchoices. Selection of the type of supple-mentary approach to be used and the typeof tutor to be provided should be basedprimarily on the specific needs of students.For instance, students diagnosed withspecific learning disabilities must besupported by specialized professionalsadequately trained to work with suchstudents. As stated in Preventing ReadingDifficulties in Young Children (NationalResearch Council 1998, 12), “Althoughvolunteer tutors can provide valuablepractice and motivational support forchildren learning to read, they should notbe expected either to provide primaryreading instruction or to instruct childrenwith serious reading problems.”

Tutoring is not asubstitute for

teaching. Tutoringmethods should

complementprofessional

teaching, notsupplant it.

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According to Preventing Early SchoolFailure (1994), the tutoring programswith the best long-term success in effect-ing and maintaining achievement gains arethose that use teachers rather than aides astutors. Unfortunately, cost often restrictsthe use of that approach. Tutoringprograms that employ paraprofessionalsshould be carefully planned and super-vised. Available resources are also a factorin the selection of the type of supplemen-tary services used. “However, more is notnecessarily better; the cost effectiveness ofelaborate training programs requiringmany hours [to train tutors] must beconsidered” (Topping 1998, 48).

Ideally, success in reading can beenhanced for most students who needintervention through good learningexperiences in preschool and kindergarten,a quality reading program in the earlygrades, brief intervention strategies orprograms applied at critical points, andfamily support. A smaller proportion ofstudents may require more extensiveintervention strategies (Slavin, Karweit,and Wasik 1993).

Paraprofessionals

Opportunities for planning, ongoingcommunication, and collaboration withteachers are critical for all paraprofession-als, whether associated with the classroomor the library media center, to ensurecoordinated, systematic programs forstudents. Regularly scheduled offerings forstaff development specifically tailored tothe needs of the paraprofessionals are alsoimportant to improving their skills andknowledge.

Research indicates that paraprofession-als can have a positive impact on studentsuccess when trained to provide structuredone-on-one tutoring (Slavin, Karweit, andWasik 1993). A collaborative modelfeaturing open communication between

the classroom teacher, the specialistteacher, and the paraprofessional workswell in maximizing the effectiveness ofparaprofessionals. Critical to the successof this model is the ongoing training andcoaching of the paraprofessional.

Similarly, bilingual paraprofessionalspaired with monolingual teachers needtime to communicate regularly with theclassroom teacher under whose directionthey work. The paraprofessionals and theteachers should discuss student needs andprogress, alternative strategies, and the useof appropriate materials to help studentsaccess fully the core curriculum andacquire English.

Preschool Educators

Preschool educators and day-careproviders have a key responsibility and anopportunity to provide literacy experiencesthat will help children meet or exceedlanguage arts standards in the elementaryschool. Expectations for language artslearning in the preschool years are pre-sented in Teaching Reading (CaliforniaDepartment of Education 1996b).Language development is a fundamentalelement of success in literacy. Earlychildhood educators recognize thatspeaking and listening abilities are criticalfactors in young children’s cognitive andsocial and emotional development. Youngchildren begin to build a foundation forreading and writing through oral commu-nication with adults and other childrenabout everyday experiences. As youngchildren make connections betweenspoken and written language, they extendtheir understanding to include symbolicforms used to capture speech.

Adults can aid language development inchildren by creating a language-richenvironment that includes opportunitiesfor language use and interaction, focusedstimulation on particular language

Preschooleducators andday-care providershave a keyresponsibility andan opportunity toprovide literacyexperiences thatwill help childrenmeet or exceedlanguage artsstandards in theelementary school.

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in the LanguageArts

features, routines that connect events andlanguage, and social interaction betweenchildren (see Fostering the Development of aFirst and a Second Language in EarlyChildhood, California Department ofEducation 1998b). Such behaviors may beencouraged in the context of children’splay, small-group exploration time, orindividual (one-on-one) awareness orexploration activities.

The connection between languagedevelopment and literacy for youngchildren is featured in Preventing ReadingDifficulties in Young Children (NationalResearch Council 1998, 319–20):

Research with preschoolers has demon-strated that (a) adult-child shared bookreading that stimulates verbal interactioncan enhance language (especiallyvocabulary) development and knowl-edge about concepts of print; and(b) activities that direct young children’sattention to the sound structure withinspoken words . . . and to the relationsbetween print and speech can facilitatelearning to read. These findings arebuttressed by others showing thatknowledge of word meanings, andunderstanding that print conveysmeaning, phonological awareness, andsome understanding of how printedletters code the sounds of languagecontribute directly to successful reading.

Preschool programs and day-care-homeexperiences must, therefore, ensure thatchildren have abundant opportunities tolisten to stories, converse, play withlanguage through rhymes and literature,talk about a variety of words and theirmeanings, hear and repeat correct lan-guage structures, gain understanding ofthe rich and varied forms of print, learnletters of the alphabet, and practicereading and writing behaviors. PreventingReading Difficulties in Young Children(National Research Council 1998, 171)encourages parents and preschool educa-

tors to “spend time in one-on-one conver-sations with young children, read bookswith them, provide writing materials,support dramatic play that might incorpo-rate literacy activities, demonstrate theuses of literacy, and maintain a joyful,playful atmosphere around literacyactivities.” Those learning opportunitiesare important for all children, especiallythose limited in their exposure to literacyand vocabulary enrichment experiencesbefore entering school.

For preschool programs to promoteeffectively children’s language and literacydevelopment, preschool educators mustparticipate in ongoing professionaldevelopment, collaborate with elementaryschool colleagues, and engage in support-ive interactions with families.

Local Educational Agencies

A major premise of local control withinthe state’s educational system centers onthe quality of instruction offered to allstudents. Local educational agencies(LEAs) should establish a special priorityfor preventing reading difficulties affectingstudents from families living in poverty,students with disabilities, and Englishlearners—all of whom constitute thefastest-growing segment of America’sschool population. At the very least LEAsmust set high standards for instructionand programs in the language arts.Determining what is of “high” instruc-tional quality should, however, result fromresearch and demonstration and not froma consensus of opinion among contentexperts, curriculum organizations, orpersonnel in a state agency or localeducational agency.

Local priorities are established withinthe requirements of state law and regula-tions by a school district governing board,whose members represent the electorate.A school district’s accountability rests,

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therefore, with the school board and thepublic. Through policy development anelected school board provides direction forthe operation of a school system, includinginstruction. The school board is respon-sible for setting policy, and the administra-tion is responsible for recommendingpolicy to the school board and implement-ing adopted board policy. This processshould include a data-based managementsystem for analyzing, reporting, andrepresenting student performance data as acritical factor in determining a school’ssuccess in the language arts.

School Administrators

The school principal must know theessential elements of a research-basedlanguage arts program. In addition, he orshe must establish a culture within theschool in which effective research-basedprograms are valued and demanded byteachers, parents, administrators, andother stakeholders.

The principals for kindergarten throughgrade three must establish the languagearts, especially beginning reading, as a toppriority for the curriculum. For gradesfour through eight and nine throughtwelve, the principals must establish thelanguage arts as a priority for all studentsand implement a specially designed systemof instruction (e.g., extended language artsor remedial reading support) for support-ing students not proficient in the languagearts. Although the school principal isresponsible for staff support and resources,the deployment of these resources shouldbe guided by the school’s literacy plan andpriorities. Such a plan must have as anintegral part an accountability system ateach grade level. As the school instruc-tional leader, the principal should:

• Understand and provide staff withinformation about the English–language arts content standards and

research-based programs andinterventions in the language arts.Provide staff with the time neededto discuss the standards and currentresearch to establish and promote anunderstanding of instructionalprograms demonstrated to improvestudent achievement.

• Maximize and protect instructionaltime for the language arts and ensurethat adequate personnel and re-sources are available to supportprogram implementation.

• Provide time for monthly grade-levelmeetings that focus on assessingstudent work samples, progress-monitoring data, and articulation ofthe language arts standards through-out the school.

• Build reflective practice among allfaculty by (1) providing guidanceand informed feedback on classroominstruction; and (2) facilitating andencouraging structured dialogueamong faculty members aboutresults-oriented instruction andstrategies to help every student meetgrade-level standards.

• Provide leadership in defining andarticulating the language artsprogram. A process should beestablished for (1) examining resultsfor individual students; and(2) using data to identify programneeds and to ensure that all studentsreceive sufficient instruction andsupport to achieve mastery.

• Provide time for modeling effectiveinstruction, training, and coachingteachers whenever possible. Timeshould also be provided for teachersto visit other classrooms at theschool and at model implementationsites so that successful instructioncan be observed.

The principalshould understandand provide staffwith informationabout the English–language artscontent standardsand research-based programsand interventionsin the languagearts.

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in the LanguageArts

• Monitor the implementation processand anticipate future opportunities,needs, and problems throughfrequent classroom visits.

• Establish schoolwide systems toensure that students with specialneeds are (1) assessed early todetermine need for additional andspecialized instruction; (2) moni-tored to determine when and ifadditional support is needed; and(3) included in all state, schooldistrict, and schoolwide assessments.

• Establish a schoolwide system toensure that students who are ad-vanced learners and have exceededstandards are placed at appropriatelevels of instruction and are workingtoward standards they have not yetmastered.

• Align the instructional methods,materials, and schedules acrossprograms and personnel to maximizelearning.

Professional Developers, Universityand College Partners, and ProfessionalOrganizations

Teachers well prepared to teach readingand the language arts are vital to thesuccess of language arts instruction. Theadoption of content standards and recentchanges in assessment and instructionalmaterials require teachers to gain newknowledge and alter classroom practices.Experienced teachers need support inlearning and applying new curriculum andinstructional strategies, and new teachersand teacher candidates need even greatersupport in learning to teach reading andthe language arts as they acquire thefundamentals of teaching.

Professional developers from schooldistricts, county offices of education,colleges and universities, and professionalorganizations are key individuals in the

support of new and experienced teachers.Their responsibility is to understandcontent standards, frameworks, andassessment in California and to teach newand continuing teachers about the keyfeatures of the educational landscape inthe state. Professional organizationssupport teachers with publications thatsupport current and confirmed research inlanguage arts instruction and opportuni-ties for networking and training. Fundingfor professional development and thesupport of new teachers has increaseddramatically in recent years, providingschools and school districts with impor-tant opportunities to increase teacherknowledge and effectiveness in languagearts instruction. Knowledgeable andcollaborative leadership within schools,school districts, counties, and regions isnecessary to marshal the resources neces-sary to train, support, and coachCalifornia’s professional teaching staffadequately.

Business, Civic, and ServiceOrganizations

Schools may create partnerships with avariety of public and private organizationsand agencies to seek support and partici-pation in the education of California’schildren. Many private companies andorganizations have education departmentsthat seek opportunities to work withyoungsters. Schools are encouraged to(1) use those kinds of community re-sources to provide the additional adultsupport that students need to meet theirliteracy requirements; and (2) start todevelop ideas about the workforce, careers,and students’ relationships to theircommunities. Service-learning projectsbenefiting both partners can be establishedbetween schools and community organiza-tions. When students work alongsideothers from their own communities to

Teachers wellprepared to teach

reading and thelanguage arts are

vital to thesuccess of

language artsinstruction.

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identify and solve local problems, theybuild civic responsibility and practiceliteracy skills. Literacy is improved whenthe students apply their language arts skillsin their service-learning activities andperform research, read, write, and speakabout their service projects and experi-ences. Through service-learning projectsinvolving tutoring and mentoring, olderstudents also support the literacy ofyounger students.

Partnerships with business, civic, andprofessional organizations can also serve tokeep schools focused on their mission—learning and reaching the goals of theliteracy improvement plan. As schoolsaccomplish their literacy goals, they gaingreater credibility and support in thecommunity. In the face of increased social,technological, and cultural changes, awhole community can help educate achild or at least help ensure that everychild will reach proficiency in the lan-guage arts standards.


Balanced, comprehensive language artsprograms are based on high-qualitylearning materials—from basal series andliterature to factual expository works inbooks and in other formats. A powerfullanguage arts curriculum should engagestudents with literature written in Englishor translated from other languages. Thehigh-quality materials should reflect thefaces and resonate with the voices oflearners in California, representing theirdiverse linguistic, cultural, and socialbackgrounds. Access to materials in thestudents’ home languages promotesgrowth in concept development andacademic language as the students acquireEnglish as their second language.

Schools foster literacy when they ensurethat students have access to extensivecollections of high-quality, high-interestreading materials in the classroom, in theschool library media center, in communitylibraries, and in the home to allow fordaily teacher-directed and voluntaryreading. Schools also enhance literacywhen they provide students with access toother learning resources and technologies.

Classroom Resources

Children benefit from having age-appropriate and skill-reinforcing maga-zines, journals, and books in the class-room. At every grade level classroomcollections should reflect a wide variety ofreading interests, favorite authors, andtopics related to the instructional pro-gram. In the primary grades classroomresources must include large numbers ofhighly readable books and other items thatallow students to practice and reinforcetheir growing literacy. Classroom librariesare enhanced when students and teachersacquire outstanding, high-interest booksby notable authors and illustrators foryoung people. The books may be bor-rowed from the school library mediacenter or the public library. Frequentaccess to extensive school library collec-tions is an effective way to maintain freshclassroom collections, allow students toselect books of personal interest, and keepreading motivation high.

Classrooms are enhanced when sup-plied with adequate hardware, software,and Internet-based resources for studentsto use in language arts instruction.Connect, Compute, and Compete (Califor-nia Department of Education 1996c)recommends a student-to-computer ratioof four to one and telecommunicationsaccess for students in every classroom andlibrary. The recommendations are consis-

At every gradelevel classroomcollections shouldreflect a widevariety of readinginterests, favoriteauthors, andtopics related tothe instructionalprogram.

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tent with the federal technology goals:(1) modern computers and learningdevices will be accessible to every student;(2) classrooms will be connected to oneanother and to the outside world;(3) educational software will be an integralpart of the curriculum; and (4) teacherswill be ready to use and teach withtechnology.

Collections in the LibraryMedia Center

In addition to the classroom library,the school’s library media center is a focalpoint of reading. The center’s collectionconsists of learning resources and tech-nologies carefully selected to meet theteaching and learning needs of teachersand their students and supports curricu-lum and instruction at the point of need.The collection should contain at least 20books per student professionally selectedin accordance with a district selectionpolicy (American Association of SchoolLibrarians and the Association for Educa-tional Communications and Technology1998). The books should be classified andlabeled and should be accessible, prefer-ably on computer via an automatedcatalog. The collection should be up-to-date and contain a wide variety of high-quality expository works as well as a fullrange of narrative genres, from picturebooks to contemporary fiction. Also to beincluded are fantasy, historical fiction,science fiction, folklore, poetry, biogra-phy, career-related books and materials,and books representing many voices anddiverse points of view.

Access to a well-developed bookcollection and electronic resources,selected with the guidance of a creden-tialed school library media teacher andhoused in the school library media center,(1) allows teachers to help studentsbroaden and extend their study of core

works; and (2) allows students to benefitfrom a broad spectrum of reading choicesto meet their learning needs. Studentsshould be given access to outstandingexamples of multicultural literature acrossgenres to extend literary response andanalysis. The center should also providethe learning resources and technologiesstudents need to pursue problem solving,thereby applying and deepening essentialreading-comprehension skills. And thecenter should allow students to begin todevelop the skills that will allow them tobecome independent, self-directed learnersfor the rest of their lives. Library mediateachers, in collaboration with classroomteachers, teach the skills and strategies thatallow students intellectual access to theresources.

Physical access to the collections in thelibrary media center depends on:

• Having a sufficient number ofqualified staff to keep the libraryopen

• Having sufficient shelving space forthe recommended number of booksper student (20)

• Having the technology resources thatallow for expanded access to informa-tion, including adequate hardware,software, and Internet access

• Developing flexibility in the scheduleso that students can come tothe library every day if they need todo so

• Developing policies that allow thatbooks be taken home and multipletitles to be borrowed and that makethe library a lively, welcoming centerfor the school as a reading commu-nity

The schedule should allow for whole-group visits, small-group work, and timesfor individual browsing, exploring, andvoluntary, self-selected reading.

Library mediateachers, in

collaboration withclassroom

teachers, teachthe skills and

strategies thatallow students

intellectual accessto the resources.

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Chapter 9Developmentand Evaluationof InstructionalMaterials

The English–Language Arts ContentStandards provides the basicfoundation for the design of

instructional materials.* All of the contentstandards for each grade level should beaddressed in a coherent fashion, and theinstructional materials should thoughtfullyand logically address the development ofskills and knowledge that build through-out the grade levels so that the standards

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*Education Code Section 60010(h): “Instructionalmaterials means all materials that are designed for use bypupils and their teachers as a learning resource and helppupils to acquire facts, skills, or opinions or to developcognitive processes. Instructional materials may beprinted or nonprinted, and may include textbooks,technology-based materials, other educational materials,and tests.”

Developmentand Evaluationof InstructionalMaterials

All of the content standards for eachgrade level should be addressed in acoherent fashion, and the instructionalmaterials should thoughtfully andlogically address the development ofskills and knowledge that buildthroughout the grade levels.

9

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Chapter 9Development

and Evaluationof Instructional

Materials

can be mastered. The standards should belisted at the grade levels at which studentsare expected to have mastered the stan-dards. Many standards will need to beintroduced at earlier grade levels.

This framework recommends a mini-mum of two and one-half hours oflanguage arts instruction daily in kinder-garten through grade three. Because thistime commitment constitutes the majorportion of the instructional day, instruc-tional materials should, particularly inkindergarten through grade three, addressthe content standards approved by theState Board of Education for other areas,especially history–social science andscience, that can appropriately be taughtwithin the language arts context. Portionsof the history–social science and sciencecontent standards that do not lendthemselves to instruction in a languagearts context (e.g., investigation andexperimentation activities) should not,however, be a part of the instructionaltime for the language arts.

The content of this framework isdesigned to provide a road map fordesigners and developers of instructionalmaterials. The entire framework will beused to develop specific criteria for theadoption of instructional materials. Thosecriteria are approved by the State Board ofEducation at the beginning of the cyclefor the development of materials. Al-though much of what appears in thisframework reports on effective practices,the framework is not to be construed ascontaining definitive routes for every legof the journey. For example, research onthe importance of systematic and explicitphonics instruction as a beginning readingstrategy establishes a general direction tofollow in the lower grades. Although thedevelopers of instructional materials areexpected to examine the research oneffective practices, they are not expected

to assume that there is only one correctway to implement the specifications in thestandards. For example, the standards inkindergarten require students to learn letternames and sounds. The particular order inwhich that information is taught is not setin stone, and a definitive sequence forteaching letter names and sounds has notbeen established empirically.

Some reading programs recommendintroducing letter names first because theyare typically easier and more familiar tochildren. In other programs letter-soundrelationships are taught before letter names.Similarly, the treatment of uppercase andlowercase letters has varied. In someprograms both uppercase and lowercaseletters are introduced concurrently; inothers, the introduction of capital lettersthat are dissimilar to their respectivelowercase letters is delayed. Despite suchdifferences deciding what to teach firstshould be based on student success andefficient instruction.

Instructional materials must be con-structed with great care because they playa major role in determining the contentstudents learn. They need to be effective,reliable tools that empower the teacher tomeet the instructional needs of all students,enabling them to meet or exceed thestandards. The express intent of thisframework is to provide research-basedguidance when that guidance is availableand to rely on validated principles ofinstruction when research has not addressedspecific instructional procedures.

Importanceof SystematicInstruction

To that end instruction needs to besystematic. Systematic instruction is definedas the carefully planned design and delivery

Instructionalmaterials

should . . . addressthe content

standards . . .for other areas,

especially history–social science andscience, that canappropriately betaught within the

language artscontext.

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of instruction that examines the nature ofthe objective to be learned and selects andsequences the essential skills and strategiesnecessary to achieve the objective by:

• Allocating sufficient time to essentialskills

• Organizing information to minimizeconfusion that learners may experi-ence

• Introducing new information inmanageable and sequential units

• Identifying prerequisite skills andbuilding on the prior knowledge ofthe learner

• Reviewing previously taught skills• Integrating old knowledge strategi-

cally with new knowledge• Progressing from skills in more easily

managed contexts to more complexcontexts

• Including modification, as necessary,for special-needs students

Instructional materials should describespecific ways for the teacher to address thelearning needs of different students andthereby ensure access for all students tothe core grade-level materials and instruc-tion. Modifications for special-needsstudents should include instructionalmaterials specifically designed to assiststudents who are below grade level in theirdevelopment. The instructional materialsshould be designed to supplement class-room instruction. Students who havefallen behind should have access to andparticipate in grade-level instruction. Theyshould also receive additional assistance inthe form of review, reteaching, or tutoringsupplemented by homework assignmentsin which review packets or units are used.Publishers may wish to identify thoseportions of earlier grade-level materialsuseful for review or to develop newmaterial to reteach essential skills andconcepts introduced in the earlier grades.

Criteria for EvaluatingInstructionalMaterials

The major criteria that should be usedin evaluating instructional materials aredivided into five categories:

1. Language arts content—alignment withstandards specified for kindergartenthrough grade twelve and described indetail in Chapter 3 through Chapter 5.For kindergarten through grade three,instructional materials should alignwith the content standards in history–social science and science as much aspossible and may also support thecontent standards in mathematics.To the extent that the instructionalmaterials include content extraneous toinstruction in the Board-adoptedstandards in the four core areas, thatcontent may not be fundamentallycontrary to any of the standards andmay not detract from the ability ofteachers to teach readily and studentsto learn thoroughly the contentspecified in the standards.

2. Program organization—sequence andorganization of the language artsprogram. Sequential organization ofthe language arts program providesstructure concerning what studentsshould learn each year and allowsteachers to convey the language artsinstruction efficiently and effectively.The content should be organizedlogically and presented in a mannerconsistent with providing all studentsan opportunity to achieve the essentialknowledge and skills described in thestandards.

3. Assessment—strategies, procedures, andtools presented in instructionalmaterials for assessing what studentsknow, how well they know it, and

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Materials

what they are able to do. Assessmenttools should be provided by publishersas part of the instructional materials.They should assist teachers in usingthe results of assessment to plan andmodify instruction designed to helpall students meet or exceed thestandards.

4. Universal access—practices supportingstudents with special learning needswhereby materials are designed tomaximize the learning of all students,including special education students;students whose proficiency in Englishis significantly lower than that typicalfor age, classroom, or grade; andstudents whose achievement issignificantly below or above thattypical for age, classroom, or grade.

5. Instructional planning and support—instructional planning and supportinformation and materials needed fora successful course of study, typicallyincluding a separate edition specifi-cally designed for use by the teacher,that assist teachers in the implementa-tion of the language arts program.Teacher support materials should bebuilt into the instructional materialsand should help teachers teach to thestandards.

Instructional materials in the languagearts must support teaching aligned withthe standards. Materials that fail to meetthe language arts content criteria inCategory 1 will not be considered satisfac-tory for adoption. Only those materialsthat meet the Category 1 criteria will beevaluated under categories 2 through 5. Inaddition to the criteria in the five catego-ries described in this chapter, all instruc-tional materials must meet all applicablerequirements contained in codes andregulations, including the “Standards forEvaluation of Instructional Materials withRespect to Social Content” developed to

implement Education Code sections 60040,60041, 60042, and 60044.

Category 1—Language Arts Content

Textbooks, electronic learning re-sources, and other instructional materialsshould agree with the content in theEnglish–Language Arts Content Standardsand should reflect the information pre-sented throughout this framework.Content should be carefully selectedaccording to current confirmed research inlanguage arts instruction. Some standardsrequire much more teaching than othersdo. Although all standards are important,those that require extensive teaching andare clear prerequisites for later standardsare essential. Cursory treatment of instruc-tion in the priority standards is unaccept-able. Careful attention should be given tothe standards for early reading and theimportance of the alphabetic writingsystem.

Students who meet or exceed thelanguage arts standards will have developedthe essential skills and knowledge necessaryto be successful in all other content areas.For that reason publishers are encouragedto design materials that will allow for atotal of two and one-half hours of languagearts instruction daily in kindergartenthrough grade three. It is assumed thatmathematics will also be allocated instruc-tional time daily. Because this timeallocation does not leave sufficient instruc-tional time for the other content areas,publishers are strongly encouraged toaddress the content standards in scienceand history–social science within the timeperiod for the language arts. Publishersshould include outstanding children’sliterature as an integral part of languagearts instruction at every grade level. Theyshould also carefully select informationaltext in history–social science and science

Content should becarefully selected

according tocurrent confirmed

research inlanguage arts

instruction.

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for reading instruction and practice as wellas assignments in writing, listening, andspeaking consistent with the grade-levelstandards in those content areas.

Category 2—Program Organization

The scope and sequence of the instruc-tional materials should be aligned with thelanguage arts content standards and,ideally, should reinforce the contentstandards in science, history–social science,and mathematics. Within a grade levelstandards do not have to be introduced andtaught in exactly the sequence in whichthey appear in the English–Language ArtsContent Standards. Publishers should selectand develop a coherent structure forteaching to the standards that introducesthe standards in a logical sequence andgroups related standards into lessons, units,or chapters when those standards can beaddressed simultaneously.

Instructional materials should bearranged to make the rate of learning andits effectiveness optimal and to enhance thelikelihood of information being retainedand generalized. Sequential, logical organi-zation of language arts instruction thataddresses all standards but allocates moretime and emphasis to key standardsthroughout the grades will help studentsdevelop comprehensive skills and knowl-edge in the language arts.

The time and type of instructionallocated to the instructional standards andcomponent skills must be differentiatedaccording to the complexity and dimen-sions of the standards. Therefore, instruc-tional units of varying lengths will berequired to meet the individual standardsor groups of standards. Units should not befixed as to the number of units per week orthe number of pages per unit. Some topicswill require instruction over an extended

period of time (e.g., teaching letter-soundcorrespondences is a continual dailyactivity during much of kindergarten).

Several principles of organization arediscussed as follows:

Arrangement of a sequence of skills. Skillsand standards should be sequenced withinand across domains and academic disci-plines. In the sequence of instruction,students should learn the component skillsand then make the connections betweenskills and strategies. Important skills areintegrated into a meaningful contextwithin and across domains.

Instruction should be organized aroundmajor encompassing ideas. However, notall the concepts, skills, and strategies are ofequal importance. The standards call forcontinuing, progressive growth over abroad range of concepts, skills andstrategies. Major ideas are the conceptsand principles that apply across a widerange of examples and contexts. Organiz-ing instruction around the major ideasmaximizes student learning because smallideas can often be best understood inrelationship to larger umbrella concepts ormajor ideas. An example of a major idea inreading comprehension is story grammar,which describes the pattern of stories (Forexample: Who is the leading character?What is the problem? How does thecharacter try to solve the problem? How isthe problem finally resolved?). In addition,it helps children anticipate the plot of anarrative text.

Instruction should use a strand design.The construction of a language artscurriculum can be thought of as weavingtogether the strands of a strong rope.The power of instruction depends on(1) the strength of the individual strands;(2) the strategic integration of all strands;and (3) the effective binding or connect-ing of all strands. Instruction according to

Instructionalmaterials shouldbe arranged tomake the rate oflearning and itseffectivenessoptimal and toenhance thelikelihood ofinformation beingretained andgeneralized.

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Materials

a strand design should include the follow-ing:

• The dimensions of a complex taskare analyzed, and the strands areidentified (e.g., in writing: content,organization and focus, grammar,punctuation, clarity, editing).

• The specific objectives within astrand are identified and sequencedindividually.

• Cross-strand skills are integratedonce learners are proficient inindividual strand skills and strate-gies.

• Previously taught skills and strategiesare reviewed cumulatively.

• The strands may be continued overthe course of the year or may bediscontinued at designated points.The instructional analysis of thecontent will prescribe the length ofthe instructional sequence. Whetheradditional instruction is necessarywill be determined according to theproficiency of the learner.

The order in which information ispresented in instructional materials caninfluence student learning. The recom-mended sequence to be followed inintroducing content is to teach prerequi-site skills and then build on those skills todevelop more sophisticated skills andunderstandings.

Prerequisite skills are the informationand applications that students need tocomplete a task. For example, to soundout the word hum, the student must knowand be able to produce the sound repre-sented by each of the letters, know thatworks are read from left to right, and beable to blend the sounds for each letterand then translate the blended sounds intoa word said at normal rate. To completethe analogy “An architect is to a ruler as aplumber is to a _____,” the student must

first recognize the problem as an analogycalling for a missing word; know themeaning of architect, ruler, and plumber;and be familiar with the concept of tools.The student would also have to know thata wrench is a tool of a plumber.

Provisions for assessing students’knowledge of prerequisite skills andadequate guidance for the teacher inteaching critical prerequisite skills need tobe incorporated into the instructionalresources as additional manuals or by theidentification of specific sections inmanuals used in earlier grades. Instructionfor students who do not know the pre-requisite skills should be thorough. Onthe other hand students who know criticalinformation should not be subjected topointless exercises focusing on the sameinformation.

The suggested sequence to be followedin introducing content is to:

• Introduce prerequisite skills beforemore advanced applications thatrequire the use of those skills. Theprogram should be designed so thatthe students can master the prerequi-site skills before being required toapply those skills in the moreadvanced applications.

• Introduce the easier content beforethe more difficult content. Whenteaching students about severalapplications of a skill or concept, theteacher should not try to teach all ofthe applications at once. Instead, theteacher should begin with an easyapplication and progress to the moredifficult ones. For example, inteaching students to identify wordsas nouns, the teacher should notinitially include verbals—words thatare partly nouns and partly verbs infunction (e.g, Running is fun.).

Students whoknow criticalinformation

should not besubjected

to pointlessexercises

focusing onthe same

information.

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• Separate the introduction of contentand strategies likely to be confused.The more similar the characteristicsof two items, the more likely it isthat students will confuse them. Forexample, the letters b and d aresimilar in shape and sound, and thewords where and were are similar inletters, content, and sound. As a rulethe teacher should have the studentspractice with one item or applicationso that they master and are comfort-able with that item before a secondsimilar item is introduced.

• Introduce information that hasgreater utility before informationwith less utility. When letter-soundcorrespondences are introduced,those that appear more frequentlyshould be introduced before thosethat appear less frequently. Forexample, the letters s, r, m and dappear in more words than theletters v, q, x and z.

• Control the amount of new informa-tion so that it is comfortably andreasonably challenging for students.Students should learn new informa-tion at a rate that requires effort butis not overwhelming. When toomuch information is presented atone time, learning can be slowedbecause confusion may result,causing the students to adoptinappropriate guessing strategies.

Clear communication by the teacher. Thewords and examples a teacher uses duringinstruction need to be carefully planned sothat students apprehend and understandthe concept that the teacher is trying tocommunicate. Clarity is in part facilitatedby carefully guiding the vocabulary andlanguage structures teachers use. Thewords used to explain new informationmust be known to the students.

Similarly, language forms must beappropriate to the skill levels and ages ofthe students. For example, in teachingyoung students phonological skills, thewords first, middle, and last are commonlyused. Teachers must ensure that kinder-gartners understand those words. Further,the examples used in teaching a conceptshould be carefully designed to rule outlikely misinterpretations. For example, ifthe color red is being taught and theteacher shows a red towel, a red shirt, anda red hat, a naïve student might logicallythink that red refers to the material andnot to the color. And if, in the learning ofmore complex vocabulary, the studentencounters only this example (“Chad hadan innate understanding of how to talkwith strangers; he quickly made them feelat ease”), the student could quite possiblymisinterpret the word innate.

Assistance to students during transitions.The transition from initial teacher-directed, modeled, prompted teaching toindependent use of a new skill or extendedapplication by the student should not betaken for granted. Merely demonstrating acomplex strategy or application and thenrequiring students to apply that strategy isoften not realistic. The transition can beprovided by gradually changing the designof tasks and examples or by changing thelevel of assistance the teacher provides.Careful monitoring and assistance by theteacher should occur as students make thetransition from guided instruction toindependent work and mastery.

Adequate practice and review. Practiceand review, when thoughtfully plannedand organized, are critical ingredients ofefficient instruction. They are not synony-mous with “drill and kill.” Studentsshould not practice what is not challeng-ing and what they have already mastered.A carefully planned review of instructional

The transitionfrom initialteacher-directed,modeled,prompted teachingto independentuse of a new skillor extendedapplication by thestudent shouldnot be taken forgranted.

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Materials

materials enables the teacher to focus onstudent performance rather than on thetime-consuming creation of activities forextra practice. Students will vary widely inthe amount of practice required. Putdifferently, not all students require thesame amount of practice and review tomaster and maintain what they arelearning.

Instructional materials should bedesigned so that teachers can readilyprovide the practice needed by students.Clear provisions should be made abouthow to accelerate or enrich instruction foradvanced learners who need less practiceand how to provide extra practice forlearners who have difficulty acquiring skillsand knowledge.

Factors to be considered when planningpractice and review are that the reviewmust be sufficient, distributed, cumulativeand varied:

• Sufficient review involves the amountof practice needed for the student toacquire and become facile with thenew information.

• Distributed review refers to providingthe practice over a period of time tofacilitate retention. When distributedreview is not scheduled, instructionbecomes less efficient because stu-dents forget information learnedearlier.

• Cumulative review is the means bywhich students learn when to applynew learning. The new content ismixed with similar content previouslytaught. Sufficient review and distrib-uted review provide the student withpractice in how to do something. Thecumulative review provides practicein when to apply the skills. Cumula-tive practice is very important becauseit is the vehicle by which likelyconfusions can be preempted. Forexample, if students have already

learned the letters b and d and p isintroduced, the practice exercisewould include all three letters so thatthe teacher can provide the studentwith the opportunity to practice andreceive feedback in identifying allthree similar letters.

Without cumulative review studentsare likely to misapply new strategies.For example, when students initiallylearn to punctuate sentences thatbegin with a dependent clause byplacing a comma after the dependentclause (e.g., After the game ended,the sun came out), they will oftenbegin placing commas in all sen-tences with dependent clauses, evenwhen not needed (e.g., The suncame out, after the game ended).Providing students with punctuationexercises that include sentences thatdo not need commas gives studentspractice on when to use the newskill.

• Varied review refers to providing arange of meaningful activities thatreinforce learning.

Make connections. Instructional re-sources must also make connections forstudents. For example, as students learnabout a declarative sentence, they shouldbe asked explicitly to practice writing thattype of sentence and integrate it withother writing activities. Similarly, ifstudents practice writing sentences withcorrect punctuation and capitalization butnever apply those skills in larger contextsor for authentic purposes, the instructionbecomes fragmented and the skills seem-ingly without purpose. The goal indesigning instruction must, therefore, beto ensure that component parts (skills,strategies, structures) are (1) identified;(2) carefully sequenced according to theircomplexity and utility and used in more

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advanced applications; (3) developed tomastery; and (4) progressively and pur-posefully connected and then incorporatedin authentic writing exercises.

Category 3—Assessment

As described throughout this frame-work, frequent assessment is the key toplanning instruction that is appropriate tostudents’ needs and to determiningwhether students are meeting or exceedingstandards. (Assessment is fully described inChapter 6.) Instructional materials shouldfurnish tasks and exercises to assess studentlearning. Measures should be available toinform instruction at entry level, monitorprogress during instruction, and evaluatemastery of information on completion ofinstruction.

Assessment should help teachers learnwhat students know and how well theyknow it. Frequent assessment should beincluded to help teachers determinewhether students are learning and retainingwhat has been taught. Because assessmentmeasures what students have been taught,the tasks in the assessment should parallelthose in the instructional materials.

Category 4—Universal Access

Instructional materials should presentcomprehensive guidance for teachers inproviding effective, efficient instruction forall their students. The materials must beconstructed to meet the needs of thosewho enter school with less-developedvocabulary and language background andthose with a more sophisticated languagebackground. Suggestions and proceduresfor meeting the instructional needs ofstudents with special learning needs mustnot be superficial and lack a central focusor be mere afterthoughts to the main focus

of instruction. Materials should not be soconstructed that extensive modificationsare necessary for the teacher to meet thelearning needs of a full range of students.

English learners need materials to helpthem (1) master the standards of languagearts—notably, to read, write, and speakat academically proficient levels; and(2) learn to understand, speak, and usetheir new language of English to accom-plish purposes ranging from the personalto the academic and professional. Accord-ingly, instructional materials will need toprovide specific support for Englishlearners in lessons in reading and writingand to contain specific instruction inEnglish-language development, includingphonology, morphology, syntax, andsemantics.

Students need materials to studyEnglish explicitly and other materials tosupport them as they learn to read andwrite. The materials are mutually reinforc-ing in that both have the same eventualgoal; however, each type is unique in itsspecific content and learning objectives.Ideally, materials for kindergarten throughgrade two or three should integrate thedevelopment of both literacy and theEnglish language. For students arriving inthis country or learning English in gradesthree or four and beyond, materials mayinclude separate strands of instruction forliteracy and language development.

For advanced students publishersshould include suggestions or materials forstudents who need an enriched or acceler-ated program. Materials may providesuggestions for the teacher to use to helpstudents study a particular author, theme,or concept in more depth. Strategies forstudents to conduct independent researchprojects or to do a more critical analysisthan that normally included at a particulargrade would be helpful. Reminders for

Suggestions andprocedures formeeting theinstructionalneeds of studentswith speciallearning needsmust not besuperficial . . .or be mereafterthoughts tothe main focusof instruction.

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Materials

teachers of standards at higher grade levelswould also be useful in helping teachersprovide a challenge for all students.

Category 5—Instructional Planningand Support

The application of instructional designprinciples in constructing instructionalmaterials is important in providingstudents with a successful and efficientlearning experience. A final organizationalissue is that of the format of the materialsrather than the arrangement of thecontent. The teacher resource materialsshould provide a clear road map for theteacher to follow in delivering instruction.There should be a planning guide to all ofthe materials contained in the program.They should describe for teachers what isto be taught, how it is to be taught, andwhen it is to be taught. Further, theyshould be organized so that the learningobjectives are clearly discernible and therelation of the parts of the lesson to theobjective clear and coherent. The materi-als should clearly explain to teachers howthe objectives and activities relate to skillswithin the standards or to the standardsthemselves. Language and terms from thestandards should be used wheneverappropriate. Lesson plans and suggestionsfor organizing materials for the lessonshould be clear, and critical componentsof the lesson should be prioritized anddesignated as such. Extraneous resourcesand activities should be kept to a mini-mum and should not detract from teach-ing to the standards or contradict thestandards.

Usually, a teacher’s edition is includedthat contains important support andplanning information for teachers. Thesematerials should be organized and de-scribed in a clear and coherent manner so

that the connections of all the componentparts of a program are apparent. Theyshould explain what each component ofthe program is and how to use it in aparticular lesson or set of lessons. A list ofall components of the program should beincluded as well as a list of materialsrequired for each lesson or unit. Thepublisher should identify which compo-nents of the program are necessary toteach at each grade level and which areoptional. If instructional materials comewith assessment or instructional tools orinformational technology resources,technical support and suggestions forappropriate use must be included. Theteacher’s manual or guide should explainwhen to use the tools. If included, elec-tronic learning resources should be anintegral part of the program.

High-quality literature and informa-tional reading selections should beincluded at every grade level. The teacherresource materials should provide back-ground information about the readingselection, including author, context,content, and illustrations, if any. Instruc-tions for the teacher on salient features ofthe reading material and suggestions onhow to use each reading selection in thelesson or lessons should also be included.A list of books for independent readingthat span at least two proficiency levelsand match the topic of the unit should beincluded so that classroom teachers andlibrary media teachers can acquire themfor their libraries. Specific guidance forteachers on how to use texts at differentlevels to increase reading fluency would behelpful.

Instructional practices recommended inthe instructional materials should be basedon current and confirmed researchwherever such research exists. If allstudents are to have access to reaching

High-qualityliterature andinformational

reading selectionsshould be

included at everygrade level.

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high levels of proficiency in the English–language arts content standards, the timeavailable for language arts instruction willhave to be used efficiently. Instruction ismore efficient when it is presented explic-itly than implicitly. The modeling ofstrategies to solve problems can makeinstructional time more effective forlearners. Research suggests that students ingeneral and students whose achievement isbelow grade level in particular benefit fromhaving good strategies made conspicuousfor them provided great care is taken toensure that the strategies are designed toresult in widely transferable knowledge oftheir application. Publishers shouldinclude examples of common studentmisconceptions or mistakes and how toaddress them. Options for instructionalstrategies should be described, includinginformation about instruction that can bebest delivered in a whole-group setting, aswell as suggestions for teaching activitiesthat lend themselves to small groups, pairsof students, or individual work.

Parental involvement in the languagearts program supports classroom learning.

Homework suggestions should extend orreinforce classroom instruction or provideadditional practice and should be variedenough so that the teacher can differenti-ate homework assignments according tostudents’ needs. Because parents should beinformed about standards, instruction,and their children’s progress towardmeeting the standards, materials shouldinclude suggestions on how to explainstudent assessment data and involveparents so that they may better supportthe achievement of their children inlanguage arts.

A format that clearly distinguishes therole of the teacher from that of the studentis also recommended. Materials should beformatted so that additional examples of askill or strategy for review or reteaching orextension or acceleration suggested foradvanced learners are easy to locate.The goal to be achieved is to makeexamples easily accessible to the teacherfor moment-to-moment adjustments inresponse to learner performance so that allstudents can be assisted to meet or exceedthe standards as efficiently as possible.

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Appendix A

Matrix for the English–Language Arts Content Standards, by GradeDomain, Strand, Substrand K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Word Analysis, Fluency, and SystematicVocabulary Development:

Concepts about print X X

Phonemic awareness X X

Decoding and word recognition X X X X

Word recognition X X X

Vocabulary and concept development X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Reading Comprehension:

Structural features of informational materials X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Comprehension and analysis of grade-level-appropriate text X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Expository critique X X X X X X X X

Literary Response and Analysis:

Structural features of literature X X X X X X X X X X

Narrative analysis of grade-level-appropriatetext X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Literary criticism X X X X X X X X

RE

AD

ING

260W

RIT

ING

WR

ITT

EN

AN

D O

RA

L E

NG

LIS

H-

LA

NG

UA

GE

CO

NV

EN

TIO

NS

Domain, Strand, Substrand K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Writing Strategies:

Organization and focus X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Penmanship X X X X X

Research X X

Research and technology X X X X X X X X X

Evaluation and revision X X X X X X X X X X X

Writing Applications(Genres and Their Characteristics) X X X X X X X X X X X X

Written and Oral English-LanguageConventions: X X

Sentence structure X X X X X X X X X

Grammar X X X X X X X X

Punctuation X X X X X X X

Capitalization X X X X X X X

Spelling X X X X X X X X X

Punctuation and capitalization X

Grammar and mechanics of writing X X

Manuscript form X X

Appendix A (Continued)

261

Listening and Speaking Strategies:

Comprehension X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Organization and delivery of oralcommunication X X X X X X X X X X X X

Analysis and evaluation of oral and mediacommunications X X X X X X X X X X

Speaking Applications(Genres and Their Characteristics) X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Appendix A (Continued)

Domain, Strand, Substrand K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12L

IST

EN

ING

AN

D

SP

EA

KIN

G

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Standards-basedinstructional topics

Kindergarten

Reading WritingWritten and oral English-language conventions Listening and speaking

Concepts about printand writing strategies:letter names and letterformation

Phonemic awareness,decoding, and spelling:consonant-vowel-consonant words

Narrative text: elementsof stories

1.6 Recognize and name alluppercase and lowercaseletters of the alphabet.

1.9 Blend vowel-consonantsounds orally to makewords or syllables.

1.14 Match all consonant andshort-vowel sounds toappropriate letters.

1.15 Read simple one-syllablewords.

2.4 Retell familiar stories.

3.3 Identify characters, settings,and important events.

1.4 Write uppercase andlowercase letters of thealphabet independently.

1.2 Write consonant-vowel-consonant words.

1.2 Spell words, usingprephonetic knowledge,sounds of the alphabet, andknowledge of letter names.

1.2 Speak in complete, coherentsentences.

2.3 Relate a creative story in alogical sequence.

Appendix B

Representative Content Standards and Instructional Connectionsfor the Language ArtsThe tables contained in this appendix illustrate representative content standards that span domains and present opportunities for critical instructionaland content connections reinforcing, extending, and generalizing learning. The standards represent knowledge and skills that should first be taughtindependently but can be combined or connected in lessons to gain instructional efficiency and enhance learning.

Note: Some of the content standards have been abbreviated.

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First Grade

Decoding, spelling, andwriting strategies:phonetically regularwords of three to fourletters

Narrative text structure

1.10 Generate the sounds fromall letters and letterpatterns and blend thosesounds into recognizablewords.

1. 11 Read common irregularsight words.

2.2 Respond to who, what,when, where, and howquestions.

2.7 Retell the central ideas ofexpository or narrativepassages.

3.1 Identify plot, setting, andcharacters in a story aswell as the beginning,middle, and ending.

2.1 Write brief narrativesdescribing an experience.

1.8 Spell three- and four-lettershort vowel words andgrade-level-appropriatesight words correctly.

2.2 Retell stories, using basicstory grammar and relatingthe sequence of story eventsby answering who, what,when, where, why, and howquestions.

Standards-basedinstructional topics Reading Writing

Written and oral English-language conventions Listening and speaking

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Second Grade

1.8 Retell stories, using charac-ters, plot, setting.

2.1 Recount experiences orpresent stories, movingthrough a logical sequenceof events and describingstory elements.

Decoding and spelling

Narrative textstructure

1.1 Recognize and use knowl-edge of spelling patterns(e.g., diphthongs, specialvowel spellings) whenreading.

3.1 Compare and contrastplots, settings, and charac-ters presented by differentauthors.

3.3 Compare and contrastdifferent versions of thesame stories that reflectdifferent cultures.

1.1 Group related ideas andmaintain a consistent focus.

2.1 Write a brief narrativebased on experience,moving through a logicalsequence of events anddescribing the setting,characters, objects, andevents in detail.

1.8 Spell basic short-vowel,long-vowel, r-controlled,and consonant-blendpatterns correctly.



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1.1 Write a single paragraph.

2.1 Write narratives.

2.2 Write descriptions.

2.3 Write personal and formalletters, thank-you notes, andinvitations.

2.1 Write narratives, providinga context, well-chosendetails, and insight into whyincidents are memorable.

Word recognition andspelling

Reading and speakingfluency

Writing conventionsand speakingapplications

Narratives

1.1 Use knowledge of complexword families (e.g., ight) todecode unfamiliar words.

1.2 Decode regular multisyllabicwords.

1.3 Read aloud narrativeand expository text fluentlyand accurately and withappropriate intonation,pacing, and expression.

1.8 Spell correctly one-syllablewords that have blends,contractions, compounds,orthographic patterns, andcommon homophones.

1.1 Use complete and correctdeclarative, interrogative,imperative, and exclamatorysentences in writing andspeaking.

1.9 Read prose and poetryaloud with fluency, rhythm,and pace, using appropriateintonation and vocalpatterns to emphasizeimportant passages.

2.1 Make brief narrativepresentations.

2.2 Present dramatic interpreta-tions.

2.3 Make descriptive presenta-tions.

2.1 Make brief narrativepresentations, providing acontext, well-chosen details,and insight into why anincident is memorable.

Third GradeStandards-basedinstructional topics Reading Writing


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Third Grade (Continued)Standards-basedinstructional topics Reading Writing


Expository text

Descriptive text

2.5 Distinguish the main ideaand supporting details inexpository text.

1.1 Write a single paragraph,developing a topic sentenceand include supporting factsand details.

1.4 Revise drafts to improvethe coherence and logicalprogression of ideas by usingan established rubric.

2.2 Write descriptions that useconcrete details to presentand support unified impres-sions of people, places,things, or experiences.

2.3 Make descriptive presenta-tions that use concretesensory details to set forthand support unified impres-sions of people, places,things, or experiences.

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Fourth Grade

Narrative textstructure

Informational textstructure

1.1 Read narrative and exposi-tory text aloud with grade-appropriate fluency andaccuracy and with appropri-ate pacing, intonation, andexpression.

3.2 Identify the main events ofthe plot, their causes, andthe influence of each eventon future actions.

2.1 Identify structural patternsfound in informational text(compare and contrast,cause and effect, order,proposition, and support).

2.1 Write narratives that relateideas, observations, orrecollections of an event orexperience; provide acontext; use sensory details;and provide insight.

1.2 Create multiple-paragraphcompositions that providean introductory paragraph,establish and support acentral idea with a topicsentence, include supportingparagraphs, and concludewith a summary paragraph.

1.1 Use simple and compoundsentences in writing andspeaking.

1.1 Use simple and compoundsentences in writing andspeaking.

1.2 Combine short, relatedsentences with appositives,participial phrases, and soforth.

2.1 Make narrative presentationsthat relate ideas, observa-tions, or recollections aboutevents and provide a contextand insight.

2.3 Deliver oral summaries ofarticles and books thatcontain the main ideas of theevent and the most signifi-cant details.

2.2 Make informational presenta-tions that frame a keyquestion, include facts anddetails, and incorporatemore than one source ofinformation.



268

Fifth Grade

Analysis of media asinformation source

1.1 Read aloud narrative andexpository text fluently andwith appropriate pacing,intonation and expression.

2.1 Understand how textfeatures (e.g., format,graphics, sequence,diagrams) make informationaccessible and usable.

1.2 Create multiple-paragraphcompositions that establisha topic in sequence orchronological order, providedetails and transitionalexpressions, and offer aconcluding summaryparagraph.

2.3 Write research reportsabout important ideas,issues, or events by framingquestions that direct theinvestigation, establishing acontrolling idea or topic,and developing the topicwith simple facts, details,examples, and explanations.

1.1 Correctly use prepositionalphrases, appositives, andindependent and dependentclauses; use transitions andconjunctions to connectideas.

1.5 Spell frequently misspelledwords correctly(e.g., their, they’re, there).

1.8 Analyze media as sources forinformation, entertainment,persuasion, interpretationof events, and transmissionof culture.

2.2 Deliver informative presen-tations about an importantidea, issue, or event byframing questions to directthe investigation.



269

Sixth Grade

1.1 Use simple, compound, andcompound-complexsentences; use effectivecoordination and subordina-tion of ideas to expresscomplete thoughts.

1.2 Identify and properly useindefinite pronouns andpresent perfect, pastperfect, and future perfectverb tenses; ensure thatverbs agree with compoundsubjects.


1.5 Spell frequently misspelledwords correctly (e.g., their,they’re, there).

Expositorycompositions

1.1 Read aloud narrative andexpository text fluently andaccurately and withappropriate pacing,intonation, and expression.

1.4 Monitor expository text forunknown words or wordswith novel meanings byusing word, sentence, andparagraph clues to deter-mine meaning.

2.6 Determine the adequacyand appropriateness ofevidence for an author’sconclusions.

1.2 Create multiple-paragraphexpository compositions.Engage the reader, state aclear purpose, develop thetopic, and conclude with adetailed summary.

1.3 Use a variety of effectiveand coherent organizationalpatterns.

1.6 Revise writing to improvethe organization andconsistency of ideas withinand between paragraphs.

2.2 Write expository composi-tions (e.g., description,explanation, comparison andcontrast, problem andsolution).

1.4 Select a focus, an organiza-tional structure, and a pointof view, matching thepurpose, message, occasion,and vocal modulation to theaudience.

2.2 Deliver informative presen-tations. Pose relevantquestions sufficiently limitedin scope to be completelyand thoroughly answeredand develop the topic withfacts, details, examples, andso forth.

2.5 Deliver presentations onproblems and solutions.Theorize on the cause andeffect of each problem andestablish connections. Offerpersuasive evidence.



270

Seventh Grade

1.2 Determine the speaker’sattitude toward the subject.

2.1 Deliver narrative presenta-tions. Establish a context,standard plot line, and pointof view.

Readingcomprehension

1.1 Identify idioms, analogies,metaphors, and similes inprose and poetry.

1.2 Use knowledge of Greek,Latin, and Anglo-Saxonroots and affixes tounderstand content-areavocabulary.

1.3 Clarify word meaningsthrough the use of defini-tion, example, restatement,or contrast.

2.1 Understand and analyze thedifferences in structure andpurpose between variouscategories of informationalmaterials.

1.3 Use notetaking, outlining,and summarizing to imposestructure on compositiondrafts.

1.4 Identify topics; ask andevaluate questions; anddevelop ideas leading toinquiry, investigation, andresearch.

1.6 Create documents by usingword-processing skills andpublishing programs.Develop simple databasesand spreadsheets to manageinformation and preparereports.

1.3 Identify all parts of speechand types and structure ofsentences.



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Eighth Grade

2.1 Deliver narrative presenta-tions. Employ narrative anddescriptive strategies(e.g., comparison or contrastof characters).

2.2 Deliver oral responses toliterature. Interpret a readingand provide insight.

2.2 Deliver oral responses toliterature. Support judg-ments through references tothe text, other works, otherauthors, or personalknowledge.

Comparison andcontrast—similaritiesand differences

2.1 Compare and contrast thefeatures and elements ofconsumer materials to gainmeaning from documents.

2.3 Find similarities anddifferences between texts inthe treatment, scope, ororganization of ideas.

3.3 Compare and contrastmotivations and reactionsof literary characters fromdifferent historical eras whoconfront similar situationsor conflicts.

1.6 Revise writing for wordchoice; appropriateorganization; consistentpoint of view; and transi-tions between paragraphs,passages, and ideas.

2.2 Write responses toliterature. Support judg-ments through referencesto the text, other works,other authors, or personalknowledge.

2.5 Write documents relatedto career development.Present informationpurposefully and succinctlyand meet the needs of theintended audience.

1.1 Use correct and variedsentence types and sentenceopenings to present a livelyand effective personal style.

1.4 Edit written manuscripts toensure that correctgrammar is used.

1.5 Use correct punctuationand capitalization.



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Ninth and Tenth Grades

2.2 Deliver expository presenta-tions.

Expository (research)discourse

2.2 Prepare a bibliography ofreference materials for areport, using a variety ofconsumer, workplace, andpublic documents.

2.3 Generate relevant questionsabout reading on issues thatcan be researched.

2.4 Synthesize the content fromseveral sources or works bya single author dealing witha single issue. Paraphrasethe ideas and connect themto other sources andrelated topics to demon-strate comprehension.

2.5 Extend ideas presented inprimary or secondarysources through originalanalysis, evaluation, andelaboration.

1.3 Use clear research ques-tions and suitable researchmethods to elicit andpresent evidence fromprimary and secondarysources.

1.4 Develop the main ideaswithin the body of thecomposition throughsupporting evidence.

1.5 Synthesize information frommultiple sources and identifycomplexities and discrepan-cies in the information andthe different perspectivesfound in each medium.

1.6 Integrate quotations andcitations into a written textwhile maintaining the flow ofideas.

1.7 Use appropriate conven-tions for documentation inthe text, notes, andbibliographies by adhering tothose in style manuals.

2.3 Write expository composi-tions, including analyticalessays and research reports.

1.0 Write and speak with acommand of standardEnglish conventions.

1.5 Reflect appropriatemanuscript requirements,including integration ofsource and support materialwith appropriate citations.



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Ninth and Tenth Grades (Continued)

Argument andpersuasion

Technology

2.7 Critique the logic offunctional documents byexamining the sequence ofinformation and proceduresin anticipation of possiblereader misunderstandings.

2.8 Evaluate the credibilityof an author’s argumentor defense of a claim bycritiquing the evidenceand the way in whichthe author’s intent affectsthe structure and toneof the text.

2.6 Demonstrate use ofsophisticated learning toolsby following technicaldirections.

2.4 Write persuasive composi-tions.

1.8 Design and publish docu-ments by using advancedpublishing software andgraphic programs.

1.1 Formulate judgments aboutthe ideas under discussionand support those judgmentswith convincing evidence.

1.3 Choose logical patterns oforganization to inform andpersuade by solicitingagreement or action or tounite audiences behind acommon belief or cause.

2.5 Deliver persuasive argu-ments (including evaluationand analysis of problems andsolutions and causes andeffects).



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2.3 Deliver oral responses toliterature.

1.4 Use rhetorical questions,parallel structure, concreteimages, figurative language,characterization, irony, anddialogue to achieve clarity,force, and aesthetic effect.

Responsesto literature

Fundamentalsof discourse

3.1 Analyze characteristics ofsubgenres that are used inpoetry, prose, plays, novels,short stories, essays, andother basic genres.

3.2 Analyze the way in whichthe theme or meaning of aselection represents a viewor comment on life, usingtextual evidence to supportthe claim.

3.3 Analyze the ways in whichirony, tone, mood, theauthor’s style, and the“sound” of language achievespecific rhetorical oraesthetic purposes or both.

Note: Standards 3.4–3.9 alsoconnect across domains.

2.1 Analyze both the featuresand the rhetorical devices ofdifferent types of publicdocuments and the way inwhich authors use thosefeatures and devices.

2.2 Write responses to literature.

1.1 Demonstrate an under-standing of the elements ofdiscourse when completingnarrative, expository,persuasive, or descriptivewriting assignments.

1.1 Demonstrate control ofgrammar, diction, paragraphand sentence structure, andan understanding of Englishusage.



Eleventh and Twelfth Grades

275

2.2 Analyze the way in whichclarity of meaning is affectedby the patterns of organiza-tion, hierarchical structures,repetition of the main ideas,syntax, and word choice inthe text.

2.3 Verify and clarify factspresented in other types ofexpository texts by using avariety of consumer,workplace, and publicdocuments.

2.4 Make warranted andreasonable assertions aboutthe author’s arguments byusing elements of the textto defend and clarifyinterpretations.

2.5 Analyze an author’s implicitand explicit philosophicalassumptions and beliefsabout a subject.

1.5 Distinguish between and usevarious forms of classical andcontemporary logicalarguments.

1.6 Use logical, ethical, andemotional appeals thatenhance a specific tone andpurpose.

1.7 Use appropriate rehearsalstrategies to pay attention toperformance details, achievecommand of the text, andcreate skillful artistic staging.

1.8 Use effective and interestinglanguage.

1.9 Use research and analysis tojustify strategies for gesture,movement, and vocalization,including dialect, pronuncia-tion, and enunciation.

1.10 Evaluate when to usedifferent kinds of effects tocreate effective productions.

Fundamentalsof discourse(Continued)

Eleventh and Twelfth Grades (Continued)Standards-basedinstructional topics Reading Writing


1.2 Use point of view, charac-terization, style, and relatedelements for specificrhetorical and aestheticpurposes.

1.3 Structure ideas andarguments in a sustained,persuasive, and sophisti-cated way and support themwith precise and relevantexamples.

1.4 Enhance meaning byemploying rhetoricaldevices, including theextended use of parallelism,repetition, and analogy, theincorporation of visual aids,and the issuance of a call foraction.

1.5 Use language in natural,fresh, and vivid ways toestablish a specific tone.

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Glossaryof SelectedTerms

alphabetic principle. The assumptionunderlying an alphabetic writing systemthat each speech sound or phoneme of alanguage has its own distinctive graphicrepresentation.

automaticity. The ability to recognize a word(or series of words) in text effortlessly andrapidly.

capitalization. The act of writing or printing aparticular word (e.g., a proper noun) andusing an uppercase (capital) letter of thealphabet for the first letter of the word.

concepts about print. Insights about the waysin which print works. Basic concepts aboutprint include identification of a book’sfront and back covers and title page;directionality (knowledge that readers andwriters move from left to right, top tobottom, front to back); spacing (distanceused to separate words); recognition ofletters and words; connection betweenspoken and written language; understand-ing of the function of capitalization andpunctuation; sequencing and locating skills.

decodable texts. Reading materials thatprovide an intermediate step betweenwords in isolation and authentic literature.Such texts are designed to give students anopportunity to learn to use their under-standing of phonics in the course of readingconnected text. Although decodable textsmay contain sight words that have beenpreviously taught, most words are whollydecodable on the basis of the letter-soundand spelling-sound correspondences taughtand practiced in phonics lessons.

decoding. A series of strategies used selectivelyby readers to recognize and read writtenwords. The reader locates cues (e.g., letter-sound correspondences) in a word thatreveal enough about it to help in pronounc-ing it and attaching meaning to it.

Glossary of Selected Terms

description. One of the four traditional formsof composition in speech and writing. Itspurpose is to provide a verbal picture of acharacter, event, setting, and so forth.

editing. The process of reviewing text in draftform to check for correctness of themechanics and conventions of writing(e.g., spelling, grammar, punctuation,capitalization, and format).

encoding. Transferring oral language intowritten language.

environmental print. Any print found in thephysical environment, such as street signs,billboards, labels, business signs.

etymology. The study of the history of words.

explicit instruction. The intentional design anddelivery of information by the teacher to thestudents. It begins with (1) the teacher’smodeling or demonstration of the skill orstrategy; (2) a structured and substantialopportunity for students to practice andapply newly taught skills and knowledgeunder the teacher’s direction and guidance;and (3) an opportunity for feedback.

exposition. One of the four traditional formsof composition in speech and writing. Itspurpose is to set forth or explain.

expository text. A traditional form of writtencomposition that has as its primary purposeexplanation of the communication ofdetails, facts, and discipline- or content-specific information.

fluency. The clear, easy, and quick written orspoken expression of ideas; freedom fromword-identification problems that mighthinder comprehension in silent reading orthe expression of ideas in oral reading;automaticity.

formative evaluation. The gathering of dataduring the time a program is being devel-oped to guide the development process.

277

Glossaryof Selected

Terms

genre. A term used to classify literary works,such as novel, mystery, historical fiction,biography, short story, poem.

grammar. The system of rules for the use oflanguage; the study of the collection ofspecific spoken and written conventionsthat exist in a language.

graphic organizer. A visual representation offacts and concepts from a text and theirrelationships within an organized frame.Graphic organizers are effective tools forthinking and learning. They help teachersand students represent abstract or implicitinformation in more concrete form, depictthe relationships among facts and concepts,aid in organizing and elaborating ideas,relate new information with prior knowl-edge, and effectively store and retrieveinformation.

independent practice. The phase of instruc-tion that occurs after skills and strategieshave been explicitly taught and practicedunder teacher direction or supervision.Independent practice involves the applica-tion of newly taught skills in familiarformats or tasks and reinforces skillacquisition.

informational text and materials. Text thathas as its primary purpose the communica-tion of technical information about aspecific topic, event, experience, orcircumstance. Informational text is typicallyfound in the content areas (e.g., science,history–social science) in grades fourthrough twelve.

interactive writing. A shared writing experi-ence used to assist emergent readers inlearning to read and write. With help fromthe teacher, students dictate sentencesabout a shared experience, such as a story,movie, or event. The teacher stretches eachword orally so that students can distinguishits sounds and letters as they use chartpaper to write the letter while repeating thesound. After each word has been com-pleted, the teacher and students reread it.The students take turns writing letters tocomplete the words and sentences. The

completed charts are posted on the wall sothat the students can reread them or rely onthem for standard spelling.

learning center or station. A location within aclassroom in which students are presentedwith instructional materials, specificdirections, clearly defined objectives, andopportunities for self-evaluation.

listening comprehension. The act or ability ofunderstanding what a speaker is saying andseizing the meaning.

literary analysis. The study or examination ofa literary work or author.

literary criticism. The result of literaryanalysis; a judgment or evaluation of awork or a body of literature.

Matthew effect. The “rich-get-richer, poor-get-poorer” effects embedded in theeducational process. The term is derivedfrom Matthew’s Gospel.

minilesson. Direct instruction on specifictopics or skills. This direct and explicitinstruction can also be conducted to benefitstudents who need more information orfurther clarification of skills or topicsalready taught. The lessons or series oflessons are connected to the broader goal ofgetting students to become independentreaders and writers. They are presentedbriefly and succinctly on the assumptionthat such information will be added to theset of ideas, strategies, and skills to bedrawn upon as needed.

morpheme. A linguistic unit of relativelystable meaning that cannot be divided intosmaller meaningful parts; the smallestmeaningful part of a word.

narration. One of the four traditional forms ofcomposition in speech and writing. Itspurpose is to tell a story or give an accountof something dealing with sequences ofevents and experiences.

narrative. A story or narrated account of actualor fictional events.

onset and rime. Intersyllabic units that aresmaller than words and syllables but larger

278


than phonemes. The onset is the portion ofthe syllable that precedes the vowel (e.g., inthe word black the onset is bl). The rime isthe portion of the syllable including anyvowels and consonants that follow (e.g., inthe word black the rime is ack). Althoughnot all syllables or words have an onset, alldo have a rime (e.g., the word or syllableout is a rime without an onset).

orthographic. Pertains to orthography, the artor study of correct spelling according toestablished usage.

peer editing. A form of collaborative learningin which students work with their peers inediting a piece of writing.

persuasion. One of the four traditional formsof composition in speech and writing. Itspurpose is to move a reader by argument orentreaty to a belief, position, or course ofaction.

phonemes. The smallest units of speech thatdistinguish one utterance or word fromanother in a given language (e.g., the /r/ inrug or the /b/ in bug.)

phonemic awareness. The insight that everyspoken word is made up of a sequence ofphonemes or speech sounds. This insight isessential for learning to read an alphabeticlanguage because these elementary soundsor phonemes are represented by letters.Without phonemic awareness phonicsmakes no sense; consequently, the spellingof words can be learned only by rote.

phonemic awareness instruction. Teachingawareness of words, syllables, and pho-nemes along a developmental continuumthat includes rhyming, recognition andproduction, isolation, blending, matchingof phonemes, segmentation, and substitu-tion. Early phonemic instruction shouldfocus on exploration of the auditory andarticulatory structure of spoken language,not on letter-sound correspondences.

phonics. A system of teaching reading andspelling that stresses basic symbol-soundrelationships and their application indecoding words.

predictable text. Reading material thatsupports the prediction of certain featuresof text. Text is predictable when it enablesstudents to predict quickly and easily whatthe author is going to say and how theauthor is going to say it on the basis of theirknowledge of the world and of language.Predictable books can also contain rhyth-mical, repetitive, or cumulative patterns;familiar stories or story lines; familiarsequences; or a good match betweenillustrations and text.

prewriting. The initial creative and planningstage of writing, prior to drafting, in whichthe writer formulates ideas, gathersinformation, and considers ways in whichto organize a piece of writing.

primary language. The first language a childlearns to speak.

print-rich environment. An environment inwhich students are provided many opportu-nities to interact with print and an abun-dance and variety of printed materials areavailable and accessible. Students havemany opportunities to read and be read to.In such an environment reading andwriting are modeled by the teacher andused for a wide variety of authenticeveryday purposes.

punctuation. The appropriate use of standardmarks, such as periods, commas, andsemicolons, in writing and printing toseparate words into sentences, clauses, andphrases to clarify meaning.

reading comprehension. The ability toapprehend meaning from print andunderstand text. At a literal level compre-hension is the understanding of what anauthor has written or the specific detailsprovided in a text. At a higher-order level,comprehension involves reflective andpurposeful understanding that is thought-intensive, analytic, and interpretive.

recreational reading. Voluntary or leisurereading for which students use self-selectedtexts that can be read comfortably andindependently.

279

Glossaryof Selected

Terms

retelling. The paraphrasing of a story in astudent’s own words to check for compre-hension. Sometimes, retelling can befollowed by questions to elicit furtherinformation.

revising. The process of changing a piece ofwriting to improve clarity for its intendedaudience and make certain that it accom-plishes its stated purpose.

scaffolding. The temporary support, guidance,or assistance provided to a student on anew or complex task. For example, studentswork in partnership with a more advancedpeer or adult who scaffolds the task byengaging in appropriate instructionalinteractions designed to model, assist, orprovide necessary information. Theinteractions should eventually lead toindependence.

schema. A reader’s organized knowledge of theworld that provides a basis for compre-hending, learning, and remembering ideasin stories and texts.

self-monitoring. Students learn to monitortheir own reading behaviors and useappropriate strategies to decode andcomprehend text effectively.

sentences:Declarative—a sentence that makes a

statement.Exclamatory—a sentence that makes a

vehement statement or conveys strongor sudden emotion.

Imperative—a sentence that expresses acommand or request.

Interrogative—a sentence that asks aquestion or makes an inquiry.

sentence structure. The formal pattern orgrouping of words that make up a sentence,are grammatically dependent on oneanother, and convey an idea or message.

sight vocabulary/sight words. Words that areread automatically on sight because they arefamiliar to the reader.

spelling. The forming of specific words withletters in the correct order according toestablished usages; orthography.

spelling, temporary/invented. An emergentwriter’s attempt to spell a word phoneti-cally when the spelling is unknown.Temporary spelling is a direct reflection ofthe writer’s knowledge and understandingof how words are spelled. By engagingstudents in thinking actively and reflec-tively about the sounds of words and theirspellings, temporary spelling lays a strongcognitive foundation for both formalspelling and phonics. It does not, however,eliminate the need for learning how to spellcorrectly. Support for temporary spellingshould be combined with formal instruc-tion in spelling to move students towardrapid growth in word recognition andcorrect spelling.

story frame/map. A graphic organizer of majorevents and ideas from a story to help guidestudents’ thinking and heighten theirawareness of the structure of stories. Theteacher can model this process by filling outa chart on an overhead while reading. Orstudents can complete a chart individuallyor in groups after a story is read, illustratingor noting characters, setting, compare/contrast, problem/solution, climax,conflict, and so forth.

story grammar. The important elements thattypically constitute a story. In general theelements include plot, setting, characters,conflict or problem, attempts or resolution,twist or complication, and theme.

structured/guided practice. A phase ofinstruction that occurs after the teacherexplicitly models, demonstrates, orintroduces a skill or strategy. In this phasestudents practice newly learned skills orstrategies under teacher supervision andreceive feedback on performance. Thiscritical interactive phase involves teachersand students.

summative evaluation. An overall assessmentor decision regarding a program.

syllabication. The division of words intosyllables, the minimal units of sequentialspeech sounds composed of a vowel soundor a vowel-consonant combination.

280


systematic instruction. The strategic designand delivery of instruction that examinesthe nature of the objective to be learnedand selects and sequences the essentialskills, examples, and strategies necessaryto achieve the objective by (1) allocatingsufficient time to essential skills;(2) scheduling information to minimizeconfusion on the part of the learner;(3) introducing information in manageableand sequential units; (4) identifyingprerequisite skills and building on priorknowledge of the learner; (5) reviewingpreviously taught skills; (6) strategicallyintegrating old knowledge with newknowledge; and (7) progressing from skillsin easier, manageable contexts to morecomplex contexts.

text difficulty (relative to student’s ability):• The independent reading level is the level

of reading material a child can easilyread independently with high compre-hension, few problems with wordidentification, and an accuracy rateof 95–100 percent.

• The instructional reading level is thelevel of reading material a child canread successfully with instruction andsupport and an accuracy rate of90–94 percent.

• The frustration reading level is the levelof reading material a child can read withan accuracy rate of 89 percent or less. Atthis level “reading skills break down,fluency disappears, errors in wordrecognition are numerous, comprehen-sion is faulty, recall is sketchy, and signsof emotional tension and discomfortbecome evident” (statement of theCommittee on the Prevention ofReading Difficulties of Young Children,quoted in Harris and Sipay 1975, 213).

vocabulary and concept development.Instruction in the meaning of new wordsand concepts. Vocabulary instruction ismost effective when specific information

about the definitions of words is accompa-nied by attention to their usages andmeanings across contexts. The developmentof an extensive reading vocabulary is anecessary phase of good comprehension.

web. A graphic organizer used to involvestudents in thinking about and planningwhat they will study, learn, read about, orwrite about within a larger topic. A teachermay begin with a brainstorming discussionof topics related to a particular theme andthen represent subtopics through the use ofa web drawn on the board. Webbing can beused to encourage students to considerwhat they know about each subtopic orwhat they want to know.

word attack (or word analysis). Refers to theprocess used to decode words. Students aretaught multiple strategies to identify aword. This sequence progresses fromdecoding of individual letter-soundcorrespondences, letter combinations,phonics analysis and rules, and syllabicationrules to analyzing structural elements(including prefixes, suffixes, and roots).Advanced word-analysis skills includestrategies for identifying multisyllabicwords.

word play. A child’s manipulation of soundsand words for language exploration andpractice or for pleasure (using alliteration,creating rhymes, singing songs, clappingsyllables, and so forth).

word recognition. The identification andsubsequent translation of the printed wordinto its corresponding sound, leading toaccessing the word’s meaning.

writing as a process (or process writing).The process used to create, develop,and complete a piece of writing. Depend-ing on the purpose and audience for aparticular piece of writing, students aretaught to use the stages of prewriting,drafting, revising, editing, and publishing.

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Adams, M. J. 1990. Beginning to Read:Thinking and Learning About Print.Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology Press.

American Association of School Librarians andthe Association for Educational Communi-cations and Technology. 1998. InformationPower: Building Partnerships for Learning.Chicago: American Library Association.

Anderson, R. C.; P. T. Wilson; and L. G.Fielding. 1988. “Growth in Reading andHow Children Spend Their Time Outsideof School,” Reading Research Quarterly,Vol. 23, No. 3, 285–303.

Baker, S. K.; D. C. Simmons; andE. J. Kame’enui. 1998. “VocabularyAcquisition: Research Bases,” in WhatReading Research Tells Us About Childrenwith Diverse Learning Needs. Edited byD. C. Simmons and E. J. Kame’enui.Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates.

Bay Area Reading Task Force. 1997.A Reading-Writing-Language Source Bookfor the Primary Grades. San Francisco:University School Support for EducationalReform.

Beck, I., et al. 1997. Questioning the Author:An Approach for Enhancing StudentEngagement with Text. Newark, Del.:International Reading Association.

Benbow, C. P., and J. C. Stanley. 1996.“Inequity in Equity: How ‘Equity’ CanLead to Inequity for High-PotentialStudents,” Psychology, Public Policy andLaw, Vol. 2, 249–92.

Note: The publication data in this section weresupplied by the Curriculum Frameworks and InstructionalResources Office, California Department of Education.Questions about the availability of the references or theaccuracy of the data should be addressed to that office,telephone (916) 657-3023.

Works Cited

Bloom, B. S., ed. 1985. Developing Talent inYoung People. New York: Ballantine Books.

California Department of Education. 1990.Recommended Literature, Grades NineThrough Twelve. Sacramento: CaliforniaDepartment of Education.

California Department of Education. 1994.Differentiating the Core Curriculum andInstruction to Provide Advanced LearningOpportunities. Sacramento: CaliforniaDepartment of Education.

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Publications Available from the Department of Education

This publication is one of over 600 that are available from the California Department of Education. Some ofthe more recent publications or those most widely used are the following:

Item no. Title (Date of publication) Price

1372 Arts Work: A Call for Arts Education for All California Students (1997) ............................................................................ $11.251438 California School Accounting Manual, 1998 Edition ............................................................................................................ 28.501398 California Year-Round Education Directory, 1997-98 (1998) .............................................................................................. 10.000488 Caught in the Middle: Educational Reform for Young Adolescents in California Public Schools (1987) ................................. 9.251373 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Health Education (1998) ...................................................................................... 10.001409 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Language Arts Student Work Addendum (1998) ................................................. 12.751298 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Mathematics (1997) ............................................................................................. 15.751435 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Physical Education (1998) ...................................................................................... 8.501429 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Visual and Performing Arts (1998) ....................................................................... 12.501290 Challenge Toolkit: Family-School Compact (1997) ................................................................................................................ 9.95*

1439 Check It Out! Assessing School Library Media Programs (1998) ............................................................................................. 9.251281 Connect, Compute, and Compete: The Report of the California Education Technology Task Force (1996) .......................... 5.751093 Differentiating the Core Curriculum and Instruction to Provide Advanced Learning Opportunities (1994) ........................... 7.001389 English–Language Arts Content Standards for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1998) ........ 9.251244 Every Child a Reader: The Report of the California Reading Task Force (1995) ..................................................................... 5.251064 Health Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1994) ........................................... 10.001284 History–Social Science Framework for California Public Schools, 1997 Updated Edition (1997) ......................................... 12.501245 Improving Mathematics Achievement for All California Students: The Report of the California Mathematics

Task Force (1995) ............................................................................................................................................................. 5.251024 It’s Elementary! Elementary Grades Task Force Report (1992) ............................................................................................... 9.001442 Joining Hands: Preparing Teachers to Make Meaningful Home-School Connections (1998) ............................................... 13.251457 Mathematics Content Standards for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1999) ........................ 8.501065 Physical Education Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1994) .......................... 7.751221 Practical Ideas for Teaching Writing as a Process at the Elementary School and Middle School Levels (1996) ...................... 18.001222 Practical Ideas for Teaching Writing as a Process at the High School and College Levels (1997) ........................................... 18.000831 Recommended Literature, Grades Nine Through Twelve (1990) ............................................................................................ 8.001171 Recommended Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight (Revised annotated edition) (1996) .................. 10.000870 Science Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1990) ............................................ 9.501276 Teaching Reading: A Balanced, Comprehensive Approach to Teaching Reading in Prekindergarten Through

Grade Three (1996) ........................................................................................................................................................... 5.751261 Visual and Performing Arts Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1996) ........... 15.001392 Work-Based Learning Guide (1998) ..................................................................................................................................... 12.501390 Work Permit Handbook (1998) ........................................................................................................................................... 13.001381 Workforce Career Development Model (1998) ....................................................................................................................... 9.50

* Other titles in the Challenge Toolkit series are Outline for Assessment and Accountability Plans (Item 1300), Safe and Healthy Schools (Item 1299), SchoolFacilities (Item 1294), Site-Based Decision Making (Item 1295), Service Learning (Item 1291), Student Activities (Item 1292), and Student Learning Plans(Item no. 1296). Call 1-800-995-4099 for prices and shipping charges.

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