Reading, writing and inquiry: Classroom Applications

Reading, writing and inquiry: Classroom Applications

James A. ShymanskyUniversity of Missouri-St.

LouisLarry D. Yore

University of Victoria

James A. ShymanskyUniversity of Missouri-St.

LouisLarry D. Yore

University of Victoria

22

Fictional Literature as Springboards to InquiryFictional Literature as

Springboards to Inquiry

Misconceptions abound!Is this possible?

Let’s try it and see!

Misconceptions abound!Is this possible?

Let’s try it and see!

33

Parent Potential!Parent Potential!

Reading, writing and inquiring at homeFocus and questions and investigation

rather than on answersBecoming critical consumers of

information

Reading, writing and inquiring at homeFocus and questions and investigation

rather than on answersBecoming critical consumers of

information

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Explicit Reading InstructionExplicit Reading Instruction

Requires reading different kinds of texts differently.

Among other things, informational text is often read selectively.

This contrasts sharply with the way in which fictional narrative or even some non-fiction text is typically read.

Requires reading different kinds of texts differently.

Among other things, informational text is often read selectively.

This contrasts sharply with the way in which fictional narrative or even some non-fiction text is typically read.

55

Explicit Science Reading Instruction (Pearson & Dole, 1987)

Explicit Science Reading Instruction (Pearson & Dole, 1987)

Model Establish need and value of strategy Model strategy Provide guided practice Reinforce procedures of strategy Transfer ownership and application

Visual Literacy--Graphic Adjuncts Tables, charts, diagrams, mechanical drawings Photographs, models, illustrations Graphs

Model Establish need and value of strategy Model strategy Provide guided practice Reinforce procedures of strategy Transfer ownership and application

Visual Literacy--Graphic Adjuncts Tables, charts, diagrams, mechanical drawings Photographs, models, illustrations Graphs

66

Science Co-op Inquiry Model with Embedded Language Arts TasksScience Co-op Inquiry Model with Embedded Language Arts Tasks

Purpose of each phase and possible language arts tasks to achieve the purposeEngageExploreConsolidateAssess

Purpose of each phase and possible language arts tasks to achieve the purposeEngageExploreConsolidateAssess

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EngageEngage

Access and Assess Prior KnowledgeChallenge Prior Knowledge, Motivate

Students, and Establish Purpose“Write Now” — a free-write activity to a

prescribed issue/idea“Children’s Literature” as a springboard into

inquiry“K-W-L chart or Concept Map”“Discuss results of Take Home Activities”

Access and Assess Prior KnowledgeChallenge Prior Knowledge, Motivate

Students, and Establish Purpose“Write Now” — a free-write activity to a

prescribed issue/idea“Children’s Literature” as a springboard into

inquiry“K-W-L chart or Concept Map”“Discuss results of Take Home Activities”

88

ExploreExploreEnsure Safety, Distribute Materials,

and Manage StudentsGuide InvestigationFacilitate ProgressQuestion to Promote Thinking and

Rationale“Write Procedural Guide” for peers“Record and Display Data”“Science Writing Heuristic Parts 1-2”

Ensure Safety, Distribute Materials, and Manage Students

Guide InvestigationFacilitate ProgressQuestion to Promote Thinking and

Rationale“Write Procedural Guide” for peers“Record and Display Data”“Science Writing Heuristic Parts 1-2”

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Consolidate (Small Group)Consolidate (Small Group)

Encourage Peer InteractionsQuestion to Promote Consideration of

the Argument: Alternative Ideas, Evidence, Data Analysis, and Critical Thinking“Talk and Debate Data Interpretations”“Share Drawings”“Graph and Explain Data”

Encourage Peer InteractionsQuestion to Promote Consideration of

the Argument: Alternative Ideas, Evidence, Data Analysis, and Critical Thinking“Talk and Debate Data Interpretations”“Share Drawings”“Graph and Explain Data”

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Consolidate (Large Group)Consolidate (Large Group)

Questioning, Share Ideas, and Seek Consensus

Highlight Supportive Evidence, Consider Authorities, and Apply New Ideas“Add new ideas to Word Wall”“Consult Information Sources with aid of

Explicit Instruction”“Structured Controversy Debate”“Compare Written Arguments”

Questioning, Share Ideas, and Seek Consensus

Highlight Supportive Evidence, Consider Authorities, and Apply New Ideas“Add new ideas to Word Wall”“Consult Information Sources with aid of

Explicit Instruction”“Structured Controversy Debate”“Compare Written Arguments”

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Consolidate (Individual)Consolidate (Individual)Promote Private ReflectionExtend Experiences

“Science Writing Heuristic Part 3: Claims and evidence”

“Critical Evaluation of Information Sources: Trade books, Internet, etc.”

“Project Report with aid of Explicit Instruction”“Develop Concept Map or integrate New Ideas

into Prior Concept Map”

Promote Private ReflectionExtend Experiences

“Science Writing Heuristic Part 3: Claims and evidence”

“Critical Evaluation of Information Sources: Trade books, Internet, etc.”

“Project Report with aid of Explicit Instruction”“Develop Concept Map or integrate New Ideas

into Prior Concept Map”

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AssessAssessCollect Formative Data while

Anticipating Summative DemandsAnalyze and ReflectAdjust Teaching and Learning

“Products of Science Writing Heuristic”“Structured Journals”“Multiple Representations”“Complete the K-W-L chart”“Etc.”

Collect Formative Data while Anticipating Summative Demands

Analyze and ReflectAdjust Teaching and Learning

“Products of Science Writing Heuristic”“Structured Journals”“Multiple Representations”“Complete the K-W-L chart”“Etc.”

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Oral DiscourseOral Discourse

Talking, debating and arguing science ideas (Koenig, 2001; Lemke, 1990, Wellington & Osborne, 2001)

Patterns of Verbal Interactions (Flanders, 1964; Shymansky, 1978) Traditional Science Lesson

• One-way: lecture• One-way: teacher to one student (t-s)

Inquiry Science Lesson• Two-way and multi-directional: t-ss, ss-t, s-s

Chained Questions: Response and Rationale Debating Science, Technology, Society, and

Environment Issues Argumentation: The Process of Argument

Talking, debating and arguing science ideas (Koenig, 2001; Lemke, 1990, Wellington & Osborne, 2001)

Patterns of Verbal Interactions (Flanders, 1964; Shymansky, 1978) Traditional Science Lesson

• One-way: lecture• One-way: teacher to one student (t-s)

Inquiry Science Lesson• Two-way and multi-directional: t-ss, ss-t, s-s

Chained Questions: Response and Rationale Debating Science, Technology, Society, and

Environment Issues Argumentation: The Process of Argument

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Classroom Questioning: Matching Strategic Purpose (1)

Classroom Questioning: Matching Strategic Purpose (1)

Engage Phase: Question sequence accesses prior knowledge, motivates, challenges existing ideas, and establishes problem focus for investigation (Bloom’s taxonomy, Gilbert, 1992) Lower-level: Recall, translation, elaboration Questions that relate to students’ interest and lives Higher-level: Application, synthesis, evaluation

These questions focus on how, where, and epistemic justification

One or more questions will not be ‘answerable’ at this time One or more questions need to be researchable One or more questions will serve as the focus for the

inquiry An investigation will be planned to investigate one or more

of these questions

Engage Phase: Question sequence accesses prior knowledge, motivates, challenges existing ideas, and establishes problem focus for investigation (Bloom’s taxonomy, Gilbert, 1992) Lower-level: Recall, translation, elaboration Questions that relate to students’ interest and lives Higher-level: Application, synthesis, evaluation

These questions focus on how, where, and epistemic justification

One or more questions will not be ‘answerable’ at this time One or more questions need to be researchable One or more questions will serve as the focus for the

inquiry An investigation will be planned to investigate one or more

of these questions

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Classroom Questioning: Matching Strategic Purpose (2)

Classroom Questioning: Matching Strategic Purpose (2)

Explore Phase: Use ‘productive questions’ that match the small groups’ actions, concerns, and inquiry (Martens, 1999) Attention-Focusing: Draw student attention to significant

details Measuring and Counting: Encourage students to be more

precise about their observations Comparison: Encourage students to analyze and classify Action: Encourage students to make predictions or

observations based on events Problem-Posing: Assist students to plan and implement

solutions to problems Reasoning Questions: Encourage students to think about

experiences and help them make sense of these experiences

Explore Phase: Use ‘productive questions’ that match the small groups’ actions, concerns, and inquiry (Martens, 1999) Attention-Focusing: Draw student attention to significant

details Measuring and Counting: Encourage students to be more

precise about their observations Comparison: Encourage students to analyze and classify Action: Encourage students to make predictions or

observations based on events Problem-Posing: Assist students to plan and implement

solutions to problems Reasoning Questions: Encourage students to think about

experiences and help them make sense of these experiences

1616

Classroom Questioning: Matching Strategic Purpose (3)

Classroom Questioning: Matching Strategic Purpose (3)

Consolidation Phase: Chained series of teacher’s/ students’ questions should promote knowledge construction, justification of claims with evidence, explanation based on theoretical foundations, etc. (Penick, Crow, & Bonnstetter, 1996)

Questioning and question sequence should consider: Wait-time (Rowe, 1996) Sharing experiences and data Organizing and interpreting data Alternative interpretations Chained interpretation, rationales, and justification for

interpretations between two or more students Application of new ideas to relevant issues Integration of new ideas into prior conceptual networks

(conceptual growth or conceptual change)

Consolidation Phase: Chained series of teacher’s/ students’ questions should promote knowledge construction, justification of claims with evidence, explanation based on theoretical foundations, etc. (Penick, Crow, & Bonnstetter, 1996)

Questioning and question sequence should consider: Wait-time (Rowe, 1996) Sharing experiences and data Organizing and interpreting data Alternative interpretations Chained interpretation, rationales, and justification for

interpretations between two or more students Application of new ideas to relevant issues Integration of new ideas into prior conceptual networks

(conceptual growth or conceptual change)

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References for Oral Discourse and Classroom Questioning (1)References for Oral Discourse and Classroom Questioning (1)

Flanders, N. A. (1964). Some relationships among teacher influence, pupil attitudes, and achievement. In B. J. Biddle & W. J. Ellons (Eds.), Contemporary research on teacher effectiveness (pp. 196-231). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Gilbert, S. W. (1992). Systematic questioning. Science Teacher, 59(December), 41-46.

Latham, A. (1997). Asking students the right questions. Educational Leadership, 54(6), 84-85.

Martens, M. L. (1999). Productive questions: Tools for supporting constructivist learning. Science and Children, 36(8), 24-27 & 53.

Maxim, G. (1997). When to answer the question ‘why?’. Science and Children, 35(3), 41-45.

Flanders, N. A. (1964). Some relationships among teacher influence, pupil attitudes, and achievement. In B. J. Biddle & W. J. Ellons (Eds.), Contemporary research on teacher effectiveness (pp. 196-231). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Gilbert, S. W. (1992). Systematic questioning. Science Teacher, 59(December), 41-46.

Latham, A. (1997). Asking students the right questions. Educational Leadership, 54(6), 84-85.

Martens, M. L. (1999). Productive questions: Tools for supporting constructivist learning. Science and Children, 36(8), 24-27 & 53.

Maxim, G. (1997). When to answer the question ‘why?’. Science and Children, 35(3), 41-45.

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References for Oral Discourse and Classroom Questioning (2)References for Oral Discourse and Classroom Questioning (2)

Otto, P. B. (1991). Finding an answer in questioning strategies. Science and Children, 28(7), 44-47.

Penick, J. E., Crow, L. W., & Bonnstetter, R. J. (1996). Questions are the answers. Science Teacher, 63(1), 26-29.

Rowe, M. B. (1996). Science, silence, and sanctions. Science and Children, 34(1), 35-38.

Schielack, J. F., Chancellor, D., & Childs, K. (2000). Designing questions to encourage children’s mathematical thinking. Teaching Children Mathematics, 6, 398-402.

Shymansky, J. A. (1978). Assessing teacher performance in the classroom: Pattern analysis applied to interaction data. Studies in Education Evaluation, 4, 99-106.

Wellington, J., & Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.

Otto, P. B. (1991). Finding an answer in questioning strategies. Science and Children, 28(7), 44-47.

Penick, J. E., Crow, L. W., & Bonnstetter, R. J. (1996). Questions are the answers. Science Teacher, 63(1), 26-29.

Rowe, M. B. (1996). Science, silence, and sanctions. Science and Children, 34(1), 35-38.

Schielack, J. F., Chancellor, D., & Childs, K. (2000). Designing questions to encourage children’s mathematical thinking. Teaching Children Mathematics, 6, 398-402.

Shymansky, J. A. (1978). Assessing teacher performance in the classroom: Pattern analysis applied to interaction data. Studies in Education Evaluation, 4, 99-106.

Wellington, J., & Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.

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Debates and Arguments(Yore, Bisanz, & Hand, 2003)

Debates and Arguments(Yore, Bisanz, & Hand, 2003)

STSE issues provide ill-structured problems, multiple solutions, and rich contemporary contexts

STSE issues involve trade-off among science, technology, and societal values

Apply authentic debating procedures Consider ‘Structured Controversy’: Debate, Evaluate,

Debate, and Draw Consensus (Johnson & Johnson, 1985) King’s College London Project (Osborne, Erduran, &

Simon, 2004)

STSE issues provide ill-structured problems, multiple solutions, and rich contemporary contexts

STSE issues involve trade-off among science, technology, and societal values

Apply authentic debating procedures Consider ‘Structured Controversy’: Debate, Evaluate,

Debate, and Draw Consensus (Johnson & Johnson, 1985) King’s College London Project (Osborne, Erduran, &

Simon, 2004)

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Incorporating Informational TextIncorporating Informational Text

Teachers’ views of role of text and inquiry Move inquiry from ‘deductive approach: verification

of general rule’ to ‘more inductive approach: basis for generating rule’

Move text from the ‘taking meaning’ to ‘making meaning and elaborating ideas’

Remember the interactive-constructive model of reading Readers bring ideas to text and text brings ideas to

readers Text is a blueprint for possible interpretations

Do first, read later!

Teachers’ views of role of text and inquiry Move inquiry from ‘deductive approach: verification

of general rule’ to ‘more inductive approach: basis for generating rule’

Move text from the ‘taking meaning’ to ‘making meaning and elaborating ideas’

Remember the interactive-constructive model of reading Readers bring ideas to text and text brings ideas to

readers Text is a blueprint for possible interpretations

Do first, read later!

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Practical Guidelines for Reading Science Text

Practical Guidelines for Reading Science Text

Some Do’s and Don’ts (Huber & Walker, 1996) Do demonstrate effective science reading strategies Don’t ask students to read aloud or to simply read

and answer the questions Do assist students to ask critical questions and to

develop rich backgrounds Don’t focus on word-perfect reading Don’t stop students from talking to peers about the

text Do Consider Pre-Reading, During-Reading, and Post-

Reading Activities

Some Do’s and Don’ts (Huber & Walker, 1996) Do demonstrate effective science reading strategies Don’t ask students to read aloud or to simply read

and answer the questions Do assist students to ask critical questions and to

develop rich backgrounds Don’t focus on word-perfect reading Don’t stop students from talking to peers about the

text Do Consider Pre-Reading, During-Reading, and Post-

Reading Activities

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Pre-Reading ActivitiesPre-Reading Activities

Access and Engage Prior KnowledgeBrainstorm related ideasComplete the ‘K’ of a K-W-L chart

Establish Purpose(s) for ReadingComplete the ‘W’ column of K-W-L ChartUse in-text questions before starting

Survey the Text MaterialsUse a general reading plan: SQ3RPay attention to heading, visuals, and other

clues to the main ideas

Access and Engage Prior KnowledgeBrainstorm related ideasComplete the ‘K’ of a K-W-L chart

Establish Purpose(s) for ReadingComplete the ‘W’ column of K-W-L ChartUse in-text questions before starting

Survey the Text MaterialsUse a general reading plan: SQ3RPay attention to heading, visuals, and other

clues to the main ideas

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During-Reading ActivitiesDuring-Reading Activities Monitor Comprehension

Encourage readers to keep track of their understanding

Repair Comprehension Failures Re-read sections Look forward Conduct mental experiments, draw diagrams,

etc. Consult other text or readers

Elaborate Text Augment text with ideas from inquiries or other

sources

Monitor Comprehension Encourage readers to keep track of their

understanding Repair Comprehension Failures

Re-read sections Look forward Conduct mental experiments, draw diagrams,

etc. Consult other text or readers

Elaborate Text Augment text with ideas from inquiries or other

sources

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Post-Reading ActivitiesPost-Reading Activities

Act on the TextAnswer your purpose(s) for readingComplete the ‘L’ column of K-W-L chartShare and discuss with other readersRe-represent the text: Construct a poster,

concept map, or text about your readingDetect the clues used to make sense of the

textSummarize main ideas, evidence for the

ideas, and applications of the ideas

Act on the TextAnswer your purpose(s) for readingComplete the ‘L’ column of K-W-L chartShare and discuss with other readersRe-represent the text: Construct a poster,

concept map, or text about your readingDetect the clues used to make sense of the

textSummarize main ideas, evidence for the

ideas, and applications of the ideas

2525

Practical Guidelines for Writing in Science (Anthony, Johnson, & Yore, 1996)

Practical Guidelines for Writing in Science (Anthony, Johnson, & Yore, 1996)

The Transportation Problem: Resources are already in desired genre, which encourages copying.

The Uphill Problem: Students are writing to an informed audience — the teacher; they need an authentic audience.

The Question Problem: Students are frequently without questions or have low-level questions as focus — develop radiant questions for writing tasks.

Using Writing Tasks: Tasks should reflect the nature of science, scientific inquiry, knowledge construction, and argumentation — Sequential Writing Tasks and Science Writing Heuristic

The Transportation Problem: Resources are already in desired genre, which encourages copying.

The Uphill Problem: Students are writing to an informed audience — the teacher; they need an authentic audience.

The Question Problem: Students are frequently without questions or have low-level questions as focus — develop radiant questions for writing tasks.

Using Writing Tasks: Tasks should reflect the nature of science, scientific inquiry, knowledge construction, and argumentation — Sequential Writing Tasks and Science Writing Heuristic

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Sequential Writing Tasks(Tucknott & Yore, 1999)

Sequential Writing Tasks(Tucknott & Yore, 1999)

Transforming Ideas and Deepening Cognitive Processing

Multiple RepresentationModel Authentic Science Inquiry

Identify researchable questionDesign inquiry and collection dataData table: OrganizationData display: GraphingDescribing and explaining: Causality

Transforming Ideas and Deepening Cognitive Processing

Multiple RepresentationModel Authentic Science Inquiry

Identify researchable questionDesign inquiry and collection dataData table: OrganizationData display: GraphingDescribing and explaining: Causality

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Science Inquiry: Getting StartedScience Inquiry: Getting Started

Setting PurposeFinding problemsStating researchable questions Identifying central features: Potential effects,

causes, variables, controls, etc.

Designing InquiryCollecting Potential Evidence:

Making Observations and Measurements

Setting PurposeFinding problemsStating researchable questions Identifying central features: Potential effects,

causes, variables, controls, etc.

Designing InquiryCollecting Potential Evidence:

Making Observations and Measurements

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Interpreting Data: TablesInterpreting Data: Tables

Do Not Always Provide Prepared Data Tables

Organize Data to Reflect Problem or Hypothesis

Design Data Table for Variables and Procedures Independent variableDependent variableMultiple trialsNumerical calculations — representative data

Do Not Always Provide Prepared Data Tables

Organize Data to Reflect Problem or Hypothesis

Design Data Table for Variables and Procedures Independent variableDependent variableMultiple trialsNumerical calculations — representative data

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Using Data Displays: GraphingUsing Data Displays: Graphing

Searching for PatternsSelect Appropriate GraphConstruct Graph with Proper

Origin, Labels, Scales, and Units

Searching for PatternsSelect Appropriate GraphConstruct Graph with Proper

Origin, Labels, Scales, and Units

3030

Using Text to Connect Cause and Effect: Causality

Using Text to Connect Cause and Effect: Causality

Using the Describe and Explain Genres Descriptions are Verbal Depictions of Patterns Explanations are More Than Descriptions

Theories of explanation Address how and why issues The sequence of conditions (causes) are linked to

one another and connected to the target event (effect) using a statistical inference, temporal approximation or theoretical connection using an unobserved idea, scientific model, or construct

Using the Describe and Explain Genres Descriptions are Verbal Depictions of Patterns Explanations are More Than Descriptions

Theories of explanation Address how and why issues The sequence of conditions (causes) are linked to

one another and connected to the target event (effect) using a statistical inference, temporal approximation or theoretical connection using an unobserved idea, scientific model, or construct

3131

Using PendulumsUsing Pendulums

Recall the Pendulum experimentDevelop a data table for length and

frequency or period of a pendulumDevelop a graph of these dataWrite a description and explanation of

the relationship between length and frequency or period of a pendulum

Recall the Pendulum experimentDevelop a data table for length and

frequency or period of a pendulumDevelop a graph of these dataWrite a description and explanation of

the relationship between length and frequency or period of a pendulum

3232

Science Writing Heuristic(Wallace, Hand, & Prain, 2004)

Science Writing Heuristic(Wallace, Hand, & Prain, 2004)

Student Template to support science argument and learningWhat is my question(s)?What will I do to test it?What did I observe or measure?What can I claim about the question(s)?Are my data evidence for this claim?How does my claim compare to others?How have my ideas changed?

Student Template to support science argument and learningWhat is my question(s)?What will I do to test it?What did I observe or measure?What can I claim about the question(s)?Are my data evidence for this claim?How does my claim compare to others?How have my ideas changed?

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Science Writing HeuristicScience Writing Heuristic

Teacher’s Template to scaffold students’ actionsPre-instructional activities: Access and

challenge students’ prior knowledgeNegotiations I: Writing personal meanings

for inquiryNegotiations II: Sharing and comparing dataNegotiations III: Comparing ideas to

textbook ideasNegotiations IV: Individual reflectionsPost-instructional consolidation and

assessment

Teacher’s Template to scaffold students’ actionsPre-instructional activities: Access and

challenge students’ prior knowledgeNegotiations I: Writing personal meanings

for inquiryNegotiations II: Sharing and comparing dataNegotiations III: Comparing ideas to

textbook ideasNegotiations IV: Individual reflectionsPost-instructional consolidation and

assessment

3434

Using PendulumsUsing Pendulums

Apply the SWH to inquiry of a pendulum’s mass and frequency or period. Is there a testable question?How will I test this question?What should I observe or measure?What are the data?Do these data reveal a pattern?Why did this pattern result?What caused this pattern/relationship?

Apply the SWH to inquiry of a pendulum’s mass and frequency or period. Is there a testable question?How will I test this question?What should I observe or measure?What are the data?Do these data reveal a pattern?Why did this pattern result?What caused this pattern/relationship?

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Analytical Scoring Rubric for Describe-Explain Genre

(See: www.bced.gov.bc.ca/perf_stands/ & www.tki.org.nz/r/assessment/exemplars/eng/)

Analytical Scoring Rubric for Describe-Explain Genre

(See: www.bced.gov.bc.ca/perf_stands/ & www.tki.org.nz/r/assessment/exemplars/eng/)

Content, Form and Function: Novice ExpertContent 1 2 3 4 5General details 1 2 3 4 5Cause-effect links 1 2 3 4 5Theoretical framework 1 2 3 4 5

Writing: Novice ExpertStyle 1 2 3 4 5Accuracy 1 2 3 4 5Technical Aspects 1 2 3 4 5

Specific Comments:

Content, Form and Function: Novice ExpertContent 1 2 3 4 5General details 1 2 3 4 5Cause-effect links 1 2 3 4 5Theoretical framework 1 2 3 4 5

Writing: Novice ExpertStyle 1 2 3 4 5Accuracy 1 2 3 4 5Technical Aspects 1 2 3 4 5

Specific Comments:

3636

Holistic Scoring Rubric for Writing Samples

(See: www.bced.gov.bc.ca/perf_stands/ & www.tki.org.nz/r/assessment/exemplars/eng/)

Holistic Scoring Rubric for Writing Samples

(See: www.bced.gov.bc.ca/perf_stands/ & www.tki.org.nz/r/assessment/exemplars/eng/)

Global Assessment

Approaching At Above

Expectations Expectations Expectations

Rating 1 2 3 4 5

General Comments:

Global Assessment

Approaching At Above

Expectations Expectations Expectations

Rating 1 2 3 4 5

General Comments:

3737

References for Oral Language, Informational Text, and Sequential Writing Tasks (1)

References for Oral Language, Informational Text, and Sequential Writing Tasks (1)

Anthony, R. J., Johnson, T. D., & Yore, L. D. (1996). Write-to-learn science strategies. Catalyst, 39(4), 10-16.

Hand, B., Yore, L. D., & Prain, V. (Eds.). (in press). Special Issue—Language and science literacy foundations and research. International Journal of Science Education.

Huber, R. A., & Walker, B. L. (1999, September). Science reading do’s and don’ts. Science Scope. 22-23.

Johnson, R. T., & Johnson, D. W. (1985). Using structured controversy in science classrooms. In R. W. Bybee (Ed.), Science technology society: 1985 yearbook of the National Science Teachers Association (pp. 228-234), Washington DC: National Science Teachers Association.

Osborne, J., Erduran, S., & Simon. S. (2004). Enhancing the quality of argumentation in school science, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 994-1020.

Saul, E. W. (Ed.) (2004). Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association/National Science Teachers Association.

Anthony, R. J., Johnson, T. D., & Yore, L. D. (1996). Write-to-learn science strategies. Catalyst, 39(4), 10-16.

Hand, B., Yore, L. D., & Prain, V. (Eds.). (in press). Special Issue—Language and science literacy foundations and research. International Journal of Science Education.

Huber, R. A., & Walker, B. L. (1999, September). Science reading do’s and don’ts. Science Scope. 22-23.

Johnson, R. T., & Johnson, D. W. (1985). Using structured controversy in science classrooms. In R. W. Bybee (Ed.), Science technology society: 1985 yearbook of the National Science Teachers Association (pp. 228-234), Washington DC: National Science Teachers Association.

Osborne, J., Erduran, S., & Simon. S. (2004). Enhancing the quality of argumentation in school science, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 994-1020.

Saul, E. W. (Ed.) (2004). Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association/National Science Teachers Association.

3838

References for Oral Language, Informational Text, and Sequential Writing Tasks (2)

References for Oral Language, Informational Text, and Sequential Writing Tasks (2)

Tucknott, J. M., & Yore, L. D. (1999). The effects of writing activities on grade 4 children’s understanding of simple machines, inventions, and inventors. Resources in Education (ERIC), ED 428 973.

Tynjala, P., Mason, L., & Lonka, K. (Eds.). (2001). Writing as a learning tool: Integrating theory and practice. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Unsworth, L. (2001). Teaching multiliteracies across the curriculum. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.

Wallace, C. S., Hand, B., & Prain, V. (2004) Writing and learning in the science classroom. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Wellington, J., & Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.

Yore, L. D., Bisanz, G. L., & Hand, B. M. (2003). Examining the literacy component of science literacy: 25 years of language arts and science research. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 689-725.

Tucknott, J. M., & Yore, L. D. (1999). The effects of writing activities on grade 4 children’s understanding of simple machines, inventions, and inventors. Resources in Education (ERIC), ED 428 973.

Tynjala, P., Mason, L., & Lonka, K. (Eds.). (2001). Writing as a learning tool: Integrating theory and practice. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Unsworth, L. (2001). Teaching multiliteracies across the curriculum. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.

Wallace, C. S., Hand, B., & Prain, V. (2004) Writing and learning in the science classroom. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Wellington, J., & Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.

Yore, L. D., Bisanz, G. L., & Hand, B. M. (2003). Examining the literacy component of science literacy: 25 years of language arts and science research. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 689-725.