reading comprehension problem set #3€¦ · reading comprehension problem set #3. 3 3 3 3 3...
TRANSCRIPT
ReadingComprehensionProblemSet#3
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#21:June1996Questions9-14
ManyNativeAmericansviewthearchaeologicalexcavationandmuseumdisplayofancestralskeletal
remainsanditemsburiedwiththemasaspiritualdesecration.Anumberoflegalremediesthateither
(5) prohibitorregulatesuchactivitiesmaybeavailabletoNativeAmericancommunities,iftheycanestablishstandinginsuchcases.Indisintermentcases,courtshavetraditionallyaffirmedthestandingofthreeclasses
ofplaintiffs:thedeceased’sheirs,theownerofthe(10) propertyonwhichthegraveislocated,andparties,
includingorganizationsordistantrelativesofthedeceased,thathaveaclearinterestinthepreservationofaparticulargrave.Ifanarchaeologicallydiscoveredgraveisofrecenthistoricaloriginandassociatedwith
(15) anidentifiableNativeAmericancommunity,NativeAmericansarelikelytoestablishstandinginasuitto
preventdisintermentoftheremains,butincaseswhere thegraveisancientandlocatedinanareawherethe
communityofNativeAmericansassociatedwiththe(20) gravehasnotrecentlylived,theyarelesslikelytobe successfulinthisregard.Indeed,inmostcases
involvingancientgraves,torecognizethatNativeAmericanshavestandingwouldrepresentasignificantexpansionofcommonlaw.Incaseswherestandingcan
(25) beachieved,however,commonlawmayprovideabasisforsomeNativeAmericanclaimsagainstarchaeologistsandmuseums.
Propertylaw,forexample,canbeusefulinestablishingNativeAmericanclaimstoartifactsthat
(30) areretrievedintheexcavationofancientgravesandcanbeconsideredthecommunalpropertyofNativeAmericantribesorcommunities.InCharrier v. Bell,aUnitedStatesappellatecourtruledthatthecommonlawdoctrineofabandonment,whichallowsthefinder
(35) ofabandonedpropertytoclaimownership,doesnot applytoobjectsburiedwiththedeceased.Thecourt
ruledthatthepracticeofburyingitemswiththebody ofthedeceased“isnotintendedasameansof
relinquishingownershiptoastranger,”andthatto(40) interpretitassuch“wouldrenderagravesubjectto
despoliationeitherimmediatelyafterintermentor... afterremovalofthedescendantsofthedeceasedfrom theneighborhoodofthecemetery.”Thisruling
suggeststhatartifactsexcavatedfromNativeAmerican(45) ancestralgravesshouldbereturnedtorepresentatives
oftribalgroupswhocanestablishstandinginsuchcases.
Moregenerally,UnitedStatescourtshaveupheldthedistinctionbetweenindividualandcommunal
(50) property,holdingthatanindividualNativeAmericandoesnothavetitletocommunalpropertyownedandheldforcommonusebyhisorhertribe.Asaresult,museumscannotassumethattheyhavevalidtitletoculturalpropertymerelybecausetheypurchasedin
(55) goodfaithanitemthatwasoriginallysoldingoodfaithbyanindividualmemberofaNativeAmericancommunity.
9. Theprimarypurposeofthepassageistoprovideananswertowhichoneofthefollowingquestions?
(A) HowshouldthelegalprotectionofNativeAmericanburialgroundsbeenhanced?
(B) WhatcharacteristicsofNativeAmericanburialgroundsenhancetheirchancesforprotectionbythelaw?
(C) InwhatwaysdoesthelawprotecttherightsofNativeAmericansinregardtothecontentsofancestralgraves?
(D) WhyarethecourtsconcernedwithprotectingNativeAmericanburialgroundsfromdesecration?
(E) BywhatmeanscanNativeAmericansestablishtheirrightstolandonwhichtheirancestorsareburied?
10. ItcanbeinferredthatacourtwouldbemostlikelytodenystandinginadisintermentcasetowhichoneofthefollowingNativeAmericanplaintiffs?
(A) onewhoseeks,asoneofseveralbeneficiariesofhisfather’sestate,toprotectthefather’sburialsite
(B) onewhoseekstopreventtenantsonherlandfromtakingartifactsfromagravelocatedontheproperty
(C) onewhorepresentsatribewhosemembershopetopreventthedisintermentofremainsfromadistantlocationfromwhichthetriberecentlymoved
(D) onewhoseekstohaveartifactsthathavebeenremovedfromagravedeterminedtobethatofhersecondcousinreturnedtothegrave
(E) onewhoseeksthereturnofartifactstakenfromtheancientburialgroundsofdisparatetribesandnowdisplayedinamuseum
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 311. Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingis
trueofcasesinvolvingancientgraves?
(A) Onceaplaintiff’sstandinghasbeenestablished,suchcasesareusuallymoredifficulttoresolvethanarecasesinvolvingmorerecentgraves.
(B) Thedistinctionbetweenindividualandcommunalpropertyisusuallyanissueinsuchcases.
(C) Evenwhenaplaintiff’sstandinghasbeenestablished,propertylawcannotbeusedasabasisfortheclaimsofNativeAmericansinmostsuchcases.
(D) Inmostsuchcases,commonlawdoesnotcurrentlyprovideaclearbasisforestablishingthatNativeAmericanshavestanding.
(E) CommonlawisrarelyusedasabasisfortheclaimsofNativeAmericanswhohaveestablishedstandinginsuchcases.
12. ThepassagesuggeststhatinmakingtherulinginCharrier v. Bellthecourtismostlikelytohaveconsideredtheanswertowhichoneofthefollowingquestions?
(A) Arethedescendantsofthedeceasedstillalive?(B) Whatwasthereasonforburyingtheobjectsin
question?(C) Howlongafterintermenthadburiedobjectsbeen
claimedbyastranger?(D) Didthedescendantsofthedeceasedremainin
theneighborhoodofthecemetery?(E) Couldthepropertyonwhichburiedobjectswere
foundbelegallyconsideredtobeabandonedproperty?
13. Theauthorusesthesecondparagraphto
(A) illustratethecontentionthatcommonlawmaysupporttheclaimsofNativeAmericanstothecontentsofancestralgraves
(B) exemplifythedifficultiesthatNativeAmericansarelikelytoencounterinclaimingancestralremains
(C) introduceadiscussionofthedistinctionbetweenindividualandcommunalproperty
(D) confirmthecontentionthatcasesinvolvingancientgravespresentunresolvedlegalproblems
(E) suggestthatpropertylawisapplicableinmostdisintermentcases
14. Whichoneofthefollowingbestexpressesthemainideaofthepassage?
(A) Priortoanappellatecourt’srulinginCharrier v. Bell,NativeAmericanshadnolegalgroundsfordemandingthereturnofartifactsexcavatedfromancientgraves.
(B) PropertylawoffersthemostpromisingremediestoNativeAmericansseekingtorecovercommunallyownedartifactsthatweresoldtomuseumswithouttribalauthorization.
(C) Theolderthegrave,themoredifficultitisforNativeAmericanstoestablishstandingincasesconcerningthedispositionofarchaeologicallyexcavatedancestralremains.
(D) IncasesinwhichNativeAmericanscanestablishstanding,commonlawcanbeusefulinprotectingancestralremainsandtheartifactsburiedwiththem.
(E) NativeAmericansareunlikelytomakesignificantprogressintherecoveryofculturalpropertyuntilcommonlawissignificantlyexpandedtoprovidethemwithstandingincasesinvolvingtheexcavationofancientgraves.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#22:October1996Questions7-14
Bythemid-fourteenthcentury,professionalassociationsofcanonlawyers(legaladvocatesinChristianecclesiasticalcourts,whichdealtwithcasesinvolvingmarriage,inheritance,andotherissues)had
(5) appearedinmostofWesternEurope,andabodyofprofessionalstandardshadbeendefinedforthem.One
mightexpectthattheprofessionalassociationswouldplayaprominentroleinenforcingthesestandardsofconduct,asotherguildsoftendid,andasmodem
(10) professionalassociationsdo,butthatseemsnottohave happened.Advocates’professionalorganizations
showedlittlefervorfordiscipliningtheirerringmembers.Someevenattemptedtohobbleeffortsat
enforcement.TheFlorentineguildoflawyers,for(15) example,forbadeitsmemberstoplayanyrolein disciplinaryproceedingsagainstotherguildmembers.
Inthefewrecordedepisodesofdisciplinaryenforcement,theinitiativefordisciplinaryactionapparentlycamefromadissatisfiedclient,notfrom
(20) fellowlawyers. Atfirstglance,thereseemtobetwopossible
explanationsfortherarityofdisciplinaryproceedings.Medievalcanonlawyersmayhavegenerallyobservedthestandardsofprofessionalconductscrupulously.
(25) Alternatively,itispossiblethatdeviationsfromtheestablishedstandardsofbehaviorwerenotuncommon,butthatcanonicaldisciplinarymechanismsweresoinefficientthatmostdelinquentsescapeddetectionandpunishment.
(30) Twoconsiderationsmakeitclearthatthesecondof theseexplanationsismoreplausible.First,theEnglish civillawcourts,whoseethicalstandardsweresimilar tothoseofecclesiasticalcourts,showmanymore
examplesofdisciplinaryactionsagainstlegal(35) practitionersthandotherecordsofchurchcourts.This
discrepancycouldwellindicatethatthedisciplinarymechanismsofthecivilcourtsfunctionedmoreefficientlythanthoseofthechurchcourts.Thealternativeinference,namely,thatecclesiastical
(40) advocateswerelesspronetoethicallapsesthantheircounterpartsinthecivilcourts,seemsinherentlyweak,especiallysincetherewassomeoverlapofpersonnelbetweenthecivilbarandtheecclesiasticalbar.
Second,churchauthoritiesthemselvescomplained(45) aboutthefailureofadvocatestomeasureuptoethical standardsanddeploredtheshortcomingsofthe
disciplinarysystem.ThustheCouncilofBaseldeclaredthatcanonlawyersfailedtoadheretotheethicalprescriptionslaiddowninnumerouspapal
(50) constitutionsanddirectedCardinalCesarinitoaddresstheproblem.InEngland,wheremedievalchurchrecordsareextraordinarilyrich,similarcomplaintsaboutthefailureofthedisciplinarysystemtoreformunethicalpracticeswereverycommon.
(55) Suchcriticismsseemtohavehadaparadoxicalresult,fortheyapparentlyreinforcedtheprofessionalsolidarityoflawyersattheexpenseoftheenforcementofethicalstandards.Thustheprofession’scriticsmay
actuallyhaveinducedadvocatestoorganize(60) professionalassociationsforself-defense.Thecritics’
attacksmayalsohavepersuadedlawyerstoassignahigherprioritytodefendingthemselvesagainstattacksbynonprofessionalsthantodiscipliningwaywardmemberswithintheirownranks.
7. Whichoneofthefollowingbeststatesthemainconclusionofthepassage?
(A) Professionalorganizationsofmedievalcanonlawyersprobablyonlyenforcedethicalstandardsamongtheirownmemberswhenprovokedtodosobyoutsidecriticisms.
(B) Professionalorganizationsofmedievalcivillawyersseemtohavemaintainedstricterethicalstandardsfortheirownmembersthandidprofessionalorganizationsofmedievalcanonlawyers.
(C) Professionalorganizationsofmedievalcanonlawyersapparentlyservedtodefendtheirmembersagainstcritics’attacksratherthantoenforceethicalstandards.
(D) Theethicalstandardsmaintainedbyprofessionalassociationsofmedievalcanonlawyerswerechieflylaiddowninpapalconstitutions.
(E) Ethicalstandardsformedievalcanonlawyerswerenotlaiddownuntilprofessionalorganizationsfortheselawyershadbeenformed.
8. Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutlawcourtsinmedievalEnglandistrue?
(A) SomeEnglishlawyerswhopracticedincivilcourtsalsopracticedinchurchcourts,butothersservedexclusivelyinonecourtortheother.
(B) EnglishcanonlawyersweremorelikelytoinitiatedisciplinaryproceedingsagainsttheircolleaguesthanwereEnglishcivillawyers.
(C) EnglishcivillawyersmaintainedmorestringentethicalstandardsthandidcivillawyersintherestofEurope.
(D) EnglishecclesiasticalcourtshadoriginallybeenmodeleduponEnglishcivilcourts.
(E) EnglishecclesiasticalcourtskeptricherandmorethoroughrecordsthandidEnglishcivilcourts.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 39. TheauthorreferstotheFlorentineguildoflawyersin
thefirstparagraphmostprobablyinorderto
(A) introduceatheoryabouttobepromoted(B) illustratethetypeofactionreferredtointhe
previoussentence(C) underlinetheuniversalityofamethoddiscussed
throughouttheparagraph(D) pointoutaflawinanargumentpresentedearlier
intheparagraph(E) rebutananticipatedobjectiontoathesisjust
proposed
10. TheauthorreferstotheCouncilofBasel(line47)primarilyinorderto
(A) provideanexampleofthetypeofactionneededtoestablishprofessionalstandardsforcanonlawyers
(B) contrastthereactionsofEnglishchurchauthoritieswiththereactionsofotherbodiestoviolationsofprofessionalstandardsbycanonlawyers
(C) bolstertheargumentthatviolationsofprofessionalstandardsbycanonlawyersdidtakeplace
(D) explainhowrulesofconductforcanonlawyerswereestablished
(E) describethedevelopmentofadisciplinarysystemtoenforceprofessionalstandardsamongcanonlawyers
11. Accordingtotheinformationinthepassage,forwhichoneofthefollowingethicalviolationswoulddocumentationofdisciplinaryactionagainstacanonlawyerbemostlikelytoexist?
(A) betrayingaclient’ssecretstotheopposingparty(B) bribingthejudgetoruleinfavorofaclient(C) misrepresentingcredentialsinordertogain
admissiontothelawyers’guild(D) spreadingrumorsinordertodiscreditan
opposinglawyer(E) knowinglyhelpingaclienttomisrepresentthe
truth
12. Whichoneofthefollowingismostanalogoustothe“professionalsolidarity”referredtoinlines56-57?
(A) Membersofateachers’uniongoonstrikewhentheybelieveoneoftheircolleaguestobefalselyaccusedofusinganinappropriatetextbook.
(B) Inordertoprotectthereputationofthepressinthefaceofalargelyhostilepublic,ajournalistconcealsdistortionsinacolleague’snewsarticle.
(C) Severaldozenrecordingartistsagreetoparticipateinaconcerttobenefitanendangeredenvironmentalhabitat.
(D) Inordertoexpeditegovernmentalapprovalofadrug,agovernmentofficialispersuadedtolooktheotherwaywhenapharmaceuticalmanufacturerconcealsevidencethatthedrugmayhaveminorsideeffects.
(E) Apopularpoliticianagreestocampaignforanother,lesspopularpoliticianbelongingtothesamepoliticalparty.
13. Thepassagesuggeststhatwhichoneofthefollowingismostlikelytohavebeentrueofmedievalguilds?
(A) Fewguildsofanyimportanceexistedbeforethemid-fourteenthcentury.
(B) Manymedievalguildsexercisedinfluenceovertheactionsoftheirmembers.
(C) Mostmedievalguildsmaintainedmoreexactingethicalstandardsthandidtheassociationsofcanonlawyers.
(D) Medievalguildsfounditdifficulttoenforcedisciplineamongtheirmembers.
(E) Theethicalstandardsofmedievalguildsvariedfromonecitytoanother.
14. Theauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingregardingthehypothesisthatmedievalcanonlawyersobservedstandardsofprofessionalconductscrupulously?
(A) Itisuntruebecauseitiscontradictedbydocumentsobtainedfromtheecclesiasticalcourts.
(B) Itisunlikelybecauseitdescribesbehaviormarkedlydifferentfrombehaviorobservedinthesamesituationinmodemsociety.
(C) Itisunlikelybecauseitdescribesbehaviormarkedlydifferentfrombehaviorobservedinasimilarareaofmedievalsociety.
(D) Itisimpossibletoassessintelligentlybecauseofthedearthofcivilandecclesiasticaldocuments.
(E) Itisdirectlysupportedbydocumentsobtainedfromcivilandecclesiasticalcourts.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#23:October1996Questions15-21
Manybirdsthatformflockscompetethroughaggressiveinteractionforpriorityofaccesstoresourcessuchasfoodandshelter.Theresultofrepeatedinteractionsbetweenflockmembersisthat
(5) eachbirdgainsaparticularsocialstatusrelatedtoitsfightingability,withpriorityofaccesstoresourcesincreasingwithhigherstatus.Asthenumberandintensityofinteractionsbetweenbirdsincrease,however,soincreasethecoststoeachbirdintermsof
(10) energyexpenditure,time,andriskofinjury.Thus,birdspossessingattributesthatreducethenumberofcostlyinteractionsinwhichtheymustbeinvolved,withoutleadingtoareductioninstatus,areatanadvantage.Anexternalsignal,suchasaplumagetype,
(15) announcingfightingabilityandtherebyobviatingtheactualneedtofight,couldbeonesuchattribute.
ThezoologistRohwerassertedthatplumagevariationsin“Harrissparrows”supportthestatussignalinghypothesis(SSH).Hereportedthatalmost
(20) withoutexceptionbirdswithdarkerthroatswinconflictswithindividualshavinglighterplumage.Heclaimedthatevenamongbirdsofthesameageandsex
theamountofdarkplumagepredictsrelativedominancestatus.
(25) However,Rohwer’sdatadonotsupporthisassertions:inoneofhisstudiesdarkerbirdswononly57outof75conflicts;withinanother,focusingonconflictsbetweenbirdsofthesameagegrouporsex,darkerbirdswon63andlost62.Thereareindications
(30) thatplumageprobablydoessignalbroadage-relateddifferencesinstatusamongHarrissparrows:adults,usuallydarkthroated,havehigherstatusthanjuveniles,
whoareusuallylightthroated;moreover,juvenilesdyedtoresembleadultsaredominantoverundyed
(35) juveniles.However,theHarrissparrows’age-relatedplumagedifferencesdonotsignalthestatusofindividualbirdswithinanageclass,andthuscannot
properlybeincludedundertheterm“statussignaling.” Thebestevidenceforstatussignalingisfromthe(40) greatertitmouse.Experimentsshowastrong
correlationbetweenthewidthoftheblackbreastplumagestripeandstatusasmeasuredbysuccessinaggressiveinteractions.Ananalysisoffactorslikelyto
beassociatedwithbreast-stripewidth(sex,age,wing(45) length,bodyweight)hasdemonstratedsocialstatusto betheonlyvariablethatcorrelateswithstripewidth
whentheothervariablesareheldconstant. Aningeniousexperimentprovidedfurtherevidence
forstatussignalinginthegreatertitmouse.Oneof(50) threestuffedtitmousedummieswasmountedona feedingtray.Whenalivebirdapproached,thedummy wasfumedbyradiocontroltofacethebirdandpresent itsbreaststripein“display.”Whenpresentedwitha dummyhavinganarrowerbreaststripethantheirown,(55) birdsapproachedcloselyandbehavedaggressively.
However,whenpresentedwithadummyhavingabroaderbreaststripethantheirown,livebirdsactedsubmissiveanddidnotapproach.
15. Accordingtothepassage,thestatussignalinghypothesisholdsthattheabilitytodisplayarecognizableexternalsignalwouldhavetheeffectonanindividualbirdof
(A) enablingittoattractamateofhighstatus(B) allowingittoavoidcostlyaggressiveinteractions(C) decreasingitsaccesstolimitedresources(D) makingitlessattractivetopredatoryspecies(E) increasingitsfightingability
16. TheauthorreferstothefactthatadultHarrissparrowsareusuallydarkthroated(lines31-32),inordertodowhichoneofthefollowing?
(A) supporttheconclusionthatplumagevariationamongHarrissparrowsprobablydoesnotsignalindividualstatus
(B) arguethatplumagevariationamongHarrissparrowshelpstoconfirmthestatussignalinghypothesis
(C) indicatethatinlightofplumagevariationpatternsamongHarrissparrows,thestatussignalinghypothesisshouldprobablybemodified
(D) demonstratethatHarrissparrowsarethemostappropriatesubjectsforthestudyofstatussignalingamongbirds
(E) suggestthatthesignalingofage-relateddifferencesinstatusiswidespreadamongbirdsthatformflocks
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 317. Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmost
seriouslyunderminethevalidityoftheresultsoftheexperimentdiscussedinthelastparagraph?
(A) Thelivebirdsallcamefromdifferenttitmouseflocks.
(B) Thephysicalcharacteristicsofthestuffeddummiesvariedinwaysotherthanjustbreaststripewidth.
(C) Nolivejuvenilebirdswereincludedintheexperiment.
(D) Thefoodplacedinthefeedingtraywasnotthekindoffoodnormallyeatenbytitmiceinthewild.
(E) Eventhelivebirdsthatactedaggressivelydidnotactuallyphysicallyattackthestuffeddummies.
18. Whichoneofthefollowingbestdescribestheorganizationofthepassage?
(A) Ahypothesisisintroducedandstudiesrelevanttothehypothesisarediscussedandevaluated.
(B) Anaturalphenomenonispresentedandseveralexplanationsforthephenomenonareexaminedindetail.
(C) Behaviorisdescribed,possibleunderlyingcausesforthebehaviorarereported,andthelikelihoodofeachcauseisassessed.
(D) Ascientificconundrumisexplainedandthehistoryoftheissueisrecounted.
(E) Ascientifictheoryisoutlinedandopinionsforandagainstitsvalidityaswellasexperimentssupportingeachsidearecompared.
19. Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingistrueofRohwer’srelationshiptothestatussignalinghypothesis(SSH)?
(A) AlthoughhisresearchwasdesignedtotesttheSSH,hisdataprovedtobemorerelevanttootherissues.
(B) HesetouttoconfirmtheSSH,butendeduprevisingit.
(C) HesetouttodisprovetheSSH,butendedupacceptingit.
(D) HealteredtheSSHbyexpandingittoencompassvarioustypesofsignals.
(E) HeadvocatedtheSSH,buthisresearchdatafailedtoconfirmit.
20. Thepassagesuggeststhatamongbirdsthatformflocks,abirdofhighstatusismostlikelytohavewhichoneofthefollowing?
(A) darkthroatplumage(B) greater-than-averagebodyweight(C) offspringofhighstatus(D) strongfightingability(E) frequentinjuries
21. WhichoneofthefollowingcanbeinferredaboutHarrissparrowsfromthepassage?
(A) AmongHarrissparrows,plumagedifferencessignalindividualstatusonlywithinagegroups.
(B) AmongHarrissparrows,adultshavepriorityofaccesstofoodoverjuveniles.
(C) AmongHarrissparrows,juvenileswithrelativelydarkplumagehavestatusequaltothatofadultswithrelativelylightplumage.
(D) juvenileHarrissparrowsengageinaggressiveinteractionmorefrequentlythandoadultHarrissparrows.
(E) Harrissparrowsengageinaggressiveinteractionlessfrequentlythandogreatertitmice.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#24:June1997Questions9-16
Inrecentyears,agrowingbeliefthatthewaysocietydecideswhattotreatastrueiscontrolledthroughlargelyunrecognizeddiscursivepracticeshasledlegalreformerstoexaminethecomplex
(5) interconnectionsbetweennarrativeandlaw.Inmany legalsystems,legaljudgmentsarebasedoncompeting storiesaboutevents.Withouthavingwitnessedthese
events,judgesandjuriesmustvalidatesomestoriesas trueandrejectothersasfalse.Thisprocedureisrooted(10) inobjectivism,aphilosophicalapproachthathas
supportedmostWesternlegalandintellectualsystemsforcenturies.Objectivismholdsthatthereisasingleneutraldescriptionofeacheventthatisunskewedbyanyparticularpointofviewandthathasaprivileged
(15) positionoverallotheraccounts.Thelaw’squestfortruth,therefore,consistsoflocatingthisobjectivedescription,theonethattellswhatreallyhappened,as
opposedtowhatthoseinvolvedthoughthappened.The seriousflawinobjectivismisthatthereisnosuchthing(20) astheneutral,objectiveobserver.Aspsychologists
havedemonstrated,allobserversbringtoasituationa setofexpectations,values,andbeliefsthatdetermine
whattheobserversareabletoseeandhear.Twoindividualslisteningtothesamestorywillhear
(25) differentthings,becausetheyemphasizethoseaspects thataccordwiththeirlearnedexperiencesandignore
thoseaspectsthataredissonatewiththeirviewofthe world.Hencethereisneveranyescapeinlifeorinlaw fromselectiveperception,orfromsubjective(30) judgmentsbasedonpriorexperiences,values,and
beliefs. Thesocietalharmcausedbytheassumptionof
objectivistprinciplesintraditionallegaldiscourseisthat,historically,thestoriesjudgedtobeobjectively
(35) truearethosetoldbypeoplewhoaretrainedinlegaldiscourse,whilethestoriesofthosewhoarenotfluent
inthelanguageofthelawarerejectedasfalse. LegalscholarssuchasPatriciaWilliams,Derrick
Bell,andMariMatsudahavesoughtempowermentfor(40) thelattergroupofpeoplethroughtheconstructionof
alternativelegalnarratives.Objectivistlegaldiscoursesystematicallydisallowsthelanguageofemotionandexperiencebyfocusingoncognitioninitsnarrowestsense.Theselegalreformersproposereplacingsuch
(45) abstractdiscoursewithpowerfulpersonalstories.They arguethattheabsorbing,nonthreateningstructureand
toneofpersonalstoriesmayconvincelegalinsidersfor thefirsttimetolistentothosenotfluentinlegal
language.Thecompellingforceofpersonalnarrative(50) cancreateasenseofempathybetweenlegalinsiders
andpeopletraditionallyexcludedfromlegaldiscourse and,hence,frompower.Suchalternativenarrativescan shatterthecomplacencyofthelegalestablishmentand disturbitstranquility.Thus,theengagingpowerof(55) narrativemightplayacrucial,positiveroleinthe
processoflegalreconstructionbyovercomingdifferencesinbackgroundandtrainingandforminganewcollectivitybasedonemotionalempathy.
9. Whichoneofthefollowingbeststatesthemainideaofthepassage?
(A) Somelegalscholarshavesoughttoempowerpeoplehistoricallyexcludedfromtraditionallegaldiscoursebyinstructingthemintheformsofdiscoursefavoredbylegalinsiders.
(B) Somelegalscholarshavebeguntorealizethesocialharmcausedbytheadversarialatmospherethathaspervadedmanylegalsystemsforcenturies.
(C) Somelegalscholarshaveproposedalleviatingtheharmcausedbytheprominenceofobjectivistprincipleswithinlegaldiscoursebyreplacingthatdiscoursewithalternativeformsoflegalnarrative.
(D) Somelegalscholarshavecontendedthatthosewhofeelexcludedfromobjectivistlegalsystemswouldbeempoweredbytheconstructionofanewlegallanguagethatbetterreflectedobjectivistprinciples.
(E) Somelegalscholarshavearguedthatthebasicflawinherentinobjectivisttheorycanberemediedbyrecognizingthatitisnotpossibletoobtainasingleneutraldescriptionofaparticularevent.
10. Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingistrueabouttheintellectualsystemsmentionedinline11?
(A) Theyhavelongassumedthepossibilityofaneutraldepictionofevents.
(B) Theyhavegenerallyremainedunskewedbyparticularpointsofview.
(C) Theirdiscursivepracticeshaveyettobeanalyzedbylegalscholars.
(D) Theyaccordaprivilegedpositiontothelanguageofemotionandexperience.
(E) Theaccuracyoftheirbasictenetshasbeenconfirmedbypsychologists.
11. Whichoneofthefollowingbestdescribesthesenseof“cognition”referredtoinline43ofthepassage?
(A) logicalthinkinguninfluencedbypassion(B) theinterpretationofvisualcues(C) humanthoughtthatencompassesallemotionand
experience(D) thereasoningactuallyemployedbyjudgesto
arriveatlegaljudgments(E) suddeninsightsinspiredbythepowerofpersonal
stories
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 312. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatWilliams,Bell,
andMatsudabelievewhichoneofthefollowingtobeacentralcomponentoflegalreform?
(A) incorporatingintothelawthelatestdevelopmentsinthefieldsofpsychologyandphilosophy
(B) eradicatingfromlegaljudgmentsdiscoursewithaparticularpointofview
(C) grantingallparticipantsinlegalproceedingsequalaccesstotrainingintheformsandmanipulationoflegaldiscourse
(D) makingthelawmoreresponsivetothediscursivepracticesofawidervarietyofpeople
(E) instillinganappreciationoflegalhistoryandmethodologyinalltheparticipantsinalegalproceeding
13. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribestheauthor’sattitudetowardproposalstointroducepersonalstoriesintolegaldiscourse?
(A) stronglyopposed(B) somewhatskeptical(C) ambivalent(D) stronglysupportive(E) unreservedlyoptimistic
14. ThepassagesuggeststhatWilliams,Bell,andMatsudawouldmostlikelyagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatementsregardingpersonalstories?
(A) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytoadheretotheprinciplesofobjectivismthanareotherformsofdiscourse.
(B) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytodeemphasizedifferencesinbackgroundandtrainingthanaretraditionalformsoflegaldiscourse.
(C) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytorestoretranquilitytothelegalestablishmentthanaremoreadversarialformsofdiscourse.
(D) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytoleadtotheaccuratereconstructionoffactsthanaretraditionalformsoflegalnarrative.
(E) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytobeinfluencedbyaperson’sexpectations,values,andbeliefsthanareotherformsofdiscourse.
15. Whichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutlegaldiscourseinlegalsystemsbasedonobjectivismcanbeinferredfromthepassage?
(A) InmostWesternsocieties,thelegalestablishmentcontrolsaccesstotraininginlegaldiscourse.
(B) ExpertiseinlegaldiscourseaffordspowerinmostWesternsocieties.
(C) Legaldiscoursehasbecomeprogressivelymoreabstractforsomecenturies.
(D) Legaldiscoursehastraditionallydeniedtheexistenceofneutral,objectiveobservers.
(E) Traditionallegaldiscourseseekstoreconciledissonantworldviews.
16. Thosewhorejectobjectivismwouldregard“thelaw’squestfortruth”(lines15-16)asmostsimilartowhichoneofthefollowing?
(A) ahuntforanimaginaryanimal(B) thesearchforavaluablemineralamong
worthlessstones(C) thepainstakingassemblyofajigsawpuzzle(D) comparinganapplewithanorange(E) thescientificanalysisofachemicalcompound
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#25:December1997Questions1-6
Tomanydevelopersoftechnologiesthataffect publichealthortheenvironment,“risk
communication”meanspersuadingthepublicthatthepotentialrisksofsuchtechnologiesaresmalland
(5) shouldbeignored.Thosewhocommunicaterisksin thiswayseemtobelievethatlaypeopledonot
understandtheactualnatureoftechnologicalrisk,and theycancitestudiesassertingthat,althoughpeople
apparentlyignoremundanehazardsthatpose(10) significantdanger,theygetupsetaboutexotichazards
thatposelittlechanceofdeathorinjury.Becausesome riskcommunicatorstakethispersuasivestance,many
laypeoplesee“riskcommunication”asaeuphemismforbrainwashingdonebyexperts.
(15) Since,however,thegoalofriskcommunicationshouldbetoenablepeopletomakeinformeddecisions
abouttechnologicalrisks,aclearunderstandingabout howthepublicperceivesriskisneeded.Laypeople’s definitionsof“risk”aremorelikelytoreflect(20) subjectiveethicalconcernsthanareexperts’
definitions.Laypeople,forexample,tendtoperceivea smallrisktochildrenasmoresignificantthanalarger risktoconsentingadultswhobenefitfromtherisk- creatingtechnology.However,ifaskedtorankhazards(25) bythenumberofannualfatalities,withoutreferenceto ethicaljudgments,laypeopleprovidequitereasonable estimates,demonstratingthattheyhavesubstantial
knowledgeaboutmanyrisks.Althoughsomestudiesclaimtodemonstratethatlaypeoplehaveinappropriate
(30) concernsaboutexotichazards,thesestudiesoftenuse questionablemethods,suchasaskinglaypeopleto rankrisksthatarehardtocompare.Incontrast,arecent studyshowedthatwhenlaypeopleweregiventhe necessaryfactsandtime,theyunderstoodthespecific(35) risksofelectromagneticfieldsproducedbyhigh-
voltagepowertransmissionwellenoughtomakeinformeddecisions.
Riskcommunicationshouldthereforebebasedontheprinciplethatpeopleprocessnewinformationin
(40) thecontextoftheirexistingbeliefs.Ifpeopleknownothingaboutatopic,theywillfindmessagesaboutthattopicincomprehensible.Iftheyhaveerroneousbeliefs,theyarelikelytomisconstruethemessages.Thus,communicatorsneedtoknowthenatureand
(45) extentofrecipients’knowledgeandbeliefsinorderto designmessagesthatwillnotbedismissedor
misinterpreted.Thisneedwasdemonstratedinaresearchprojectconcerningthepublic’slevelofknowledgeaboutrisksposedbythepresenceofradon
(50) inthehome.Researchersusedopen-endedinterviews andquestionnairestodeterminewhatinformation
shouldbeincludedintheirbrochureonradon.Subjects whoreadtheresearchers’brochureperformed
significantlybetterinunderstandingradonrisksthan(55) didacontrolgroupwhoreadabrochurethatwas
writtenusingadifferentapproachbyagovernmentagency.Thus,carefulpreparationcanhelpriskcommunicatorstoproducebalancedmaterialthattells
peoplewhattheyneedtoknowtomakedecisions(60) abouttechnologicalrisks.
1. Whichoneofthefollowingbestexpressesthemainpointofthepassage?
(A) Riskcommunicatorsareeffectivelyaddressingtheproliferationofcomplextechnologiesthathaveincreasingimpactonpublichealthandsafety.
(B) Riskcommunicatorsshouldassesslaypeople’sunderstandingoftechnologiesinordertobeabletogivethemtheinformationtheyneedtomakereasonabledecisions.
(C) Expertswhowanttocommunicatetothepublicaboutthepossiblerisksofcomplextechnologiesmustsimplifytheirmessagetoensurethatitisunderstandable.
(D) Riskcommunicationcanbeperceivedasthetaskofpersuadinglaypeopletoaccepttheimpactofaparticulartechnologyontheirlives.
(E) Laypeoplecanbeundulyinfluencedbysubjectiveconcernswhenmakingdecisionsabouttechnologicalrisks.
2. Theauthorsofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytoagreethattheprimarypurposeofriskcommunicationshouldbeto
(A) explainratherthantopersuade(B) promoteratherthantojustify(C) influenceexpertsratherthantoinfluencelay
people(D) allaypeople’sfearsaboutmundanehazards
ratherthanaboutexotichazards(E) fosterpublicacceptanceofnewtechnologies
ratherthantoacknowledgepeople’sethicalconcerns
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 33. Accordingtothepassage,itisprobablethatwhichone
ofthefollowingwilloccurwhenriskcommunicatorsattempttocommunicatewithlaypeoplewhohavemistakenideasaboutaparticulartechnology?
(A) Thelaypeople,perceivingthattheriskcommunicatorshaveprovidedmore-reliableinformation,willdiscardtheirmistakennotions.
(B) Thelaypeoplewillonlypartiallyrevisetheirideasonthebasisofthenewinformation.
(C) Thelaypeople,fittingthenewinformationintotheirexistingframework,willinterpretthecommunicationdifferentlythantheriskcommunicatorshadintended.
(D) Thelaypeople,misunderstandingthenewinformation,willfurtherdistorttheinformationwhentheycommunicateittootherlaypeople.
(E) Thelaypeoplewillignoreanycommunicationaboutatechnologytheyconsiderpotentiallydangerous.
4. Whichoneofthefollowingismostclearlyanexampleofthekindofriskperceptiondiscussedinthe“studies”mentionedinline8?
(A) Askydiverchecksthelinesonherparachuteseveraltimesbeforeajumpbecausetangledlinesoftenkeeptheparachutesfromopeningproperly.
(B) Apersondecidestoquitsmokinginordertolessentheprobabilityoflungdamagetohimselfandhisfamily.
(C) Ahomeownerwhodecidestohaveherhousetestedforradonalsodecidesnottoallowanyonetosmokeinherhouse.
(D) Apersonwhooftenweavesinandoutoftrafficwhiledrivinghiscaratexcessivespeedsworriesaboutmeteoriteshittinghishouse.
(E) Agroupoftownspeopleopposesthebuildingofanuclearwastedumpoutsidetheirtownandproposesthatthedumpbeplacedinanothertown.
5. Itcanbeinferredthattheauthorsofthepassagewouldbemorelikelythanwouldtheriskcommunicatorsdiscussedinthefirstparagraphtoemphasizewhichoneofthefollowing?
(A) laypeople’stendencytobecomealarmedabouttechnologiesthattheyfindneworstrange
(B) laypeople’stendencytocomparerisksthatexpertswouldnotconsidercomparable
(C) theneedforlaypeopletoadoptscientists’adviceabouttechnologicalrisk
(D) theinabilityoflaypeopletorankhazardsbythenumberoffatalitiescausedannually
(E) theimpactoflaypeople’svaluesystemsontheirperceptionsofrisk
6. Accordingtothepassage,manylaypeoplebelievewhichoneofthefollowingaboutriskcommunication?
(A) Itfocusesexcessivelyonmundanehazards.(B) Itisatoolusedtomanipulatethepublic.(C) Itisamajorcauseofinaccuraciesinpublic
knowledgeaboutscience.(D) Itmostoftenfunctionstohelppeoplemake
informeddecisions.(E) Itslevelofeffectivenessdependsonthelevelof
knowledgeitsaudiencealreadyhas.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#26:December1997Questions14-20
Inrecentyears,scholarshavebeguntousesocialsciencetoolstoanalyzecourtopinions.Thesescholars
havejustifiablycriticizedtraditionallegalresearchfor itsfocusonafewcasesthatmaynotberepresentative(5) anditsfascinationwitharcanemattersthatdonot
affectrealpeoplewithreallegalproblems.Zirkeland Schoenfeld,forexample,havechampionedthe
applicationofsocialsciencetoolstotheanalysisofcaselawsurroundingdiscriminationagainstwomenin
(10) highereducationemployment.Theirstudieshavedemonstratedhowthesesocialsciencetoolsmaybe
usedtoservetheinterestsofscholars,lawyers,and prospectiveplaintiffsaswell.However,their
enthusiasmforthe“outcomesanalysis”technique(15) seemsmisguided. Offundamentalconcernistheoutcomesanalysts’
assumptionthatsimplycountingthenumberofsuccessfulandunsuccessfulplaintiffswillbeusefulto
prospectiveplaintiffs.Althoughtheoddsareclearly(20) againsttheplaintiffinsexdiscriminationcases,
plaintiffswhobelievethattheircauseisjustandthattheywillprevailarenotswayedbysuchevidence.In
addition,becauselawsuitsaresodifferentinthedetails ofthecase,inthequalityoftheevidencetheplaintiff(25) presents,andintheattitudeofthejudgetoward
academicplaintiffs,givingprospectiveplaintiffsstatisticsaboutoveralloutcomeswithoutanalyzingthe
reasonfortheseoutcomesisofmarginalassistance.Outcomesanalysis,forexample,ignoresthefactthatin
(30) certainacademicsexdiscriminationcases—thoseinvolvingseriousproceduralviolationsorincriminatingevidenceintheformofwrittenadmissionsofdiscriminatorypractices—plaintiffsaremuchmorelikelytoprevail.
(35) Twodifferentapproachesoffermoreusefulapplicationsofsocialsciencetoolsinanalyzingsex
discriminationcases.Oneisaprocesscalled“policy capturing,”inwhichtheresearcherreadseachopinion; identifiesvariablesdiscussedintheopinion,suchas(40) theregularityofemployerevaluationsoftheplaintiff’s performance,trainingofevaluators,andthekindof evaluationinstrumentused;andthenusesmultivariate analysistodeterminewhetherthesevariablespredict
theoutcomeofthelawsuit.Theadvantageofpolicy-(45) capturingresearchisthatitattemptstoexplainthe reasonfortheoutcome,ratherthansimplyreporting theoutcome,andidentifiesfactorsthatcontributetoa plaintiff’ssuccessorfailure.Takingaslightlydifferent approach,otherscholarshaveadoptedatechniquethat(50) requiresreadingcompletetranscriptsofallsex
discriminationcaseslitigatedduringacertaintimeperiodtoidentifyvariablessuchasthenatureofthe
allegedlyillegalconduct,theconsequencesforemployers,andthenatureoftheremedy,aswellasthe
(55) factorsthatcontributedtotheverdictandthekindofevidencenecessaryfortheplaintifftoprevail.Whilethefindingsofthesestudiesarelimitedtotheperiodcovered,theyassistpotentialplaintiffsanddefendantsinassessingtheircases.
14. Whichoneofthefollowingbestexpressesthemainideaofthepassage?
(A) Theanalysisofalimitednumberofatypicaldiscriminationsuitsisoflittlevaluetopotentialplaintiffs.
(B) Whenthenumberoffactorsanalyzedinasexdiscriminationsuitisincreased,thevalidityoftheconclusionsdrawnbecomessuspect.
(C) Scholarswhoarecriticaloftraditionallegalresearchfrequentlyofferalternativeapproachesthatarealsoseriouslyflawed.
(D) Outcomesanalysishaslesspredictivevalueinsexdiscriminationcasesthandocertainothersocialsciencetechniques.
(E) Givenadequateinformation,itispossibletopredictwithconsiderablecertaintywhetheraplaintiffwillbesuccessfulinadiscriminationsuit.
15. Itcanbeinferredfromtheauthor’sdiscussionof traditionallegalresearchthattheauthoris
(A) frustratedbecausetraditionallegalresearchhasnotachieveditsfullpotential
(B) criticalbecausetraditionallegalresearchhaslittlerelevancetothoseactuallyinvolvedincases
(C) appreciativeoftheroletraditionallegalresearchplayedindevelopinglater,moreefficientapproaches
(D) derisivebecausetraditionallegalresearchhasoutlasteditspreviouslysignificantrole
(E) gratefulfortheabilityoftraditionallegalresearchtodevelopuniquetypesofevidence
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 316. WhichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutZirkeland
Schoenfeldcanbeinferredfromthepassage?
(A) Theywerethefirstscholarstousesocialsciencetoolsinanalyzinglegalcases.
(B) Theyconfinedtheirstudiestotheoutcomesanalysistechnique.
(C) Theysawnovalueintheanalysisprovidedbytraditionallegalresearch.
(D) Theyrejectedpolicycapturingasbeingtoolimitedinscope.
(E) Theybelievedthattheinformationgeneratedbyoutcomesanalysiswouldberelevantforplaintiffs.
17. Theauthor’scharacterizationoftraditionallegalresearchinthefirstparagraphisintendedto
(A) providebackgroundinformationforthesubsequentdiscussion
(B) summarizeanopponent’sposition(C) argueagainsttheuseofsocialsciencetoolsin
theanalysisofsexdiscriminationcases(D) emphasizethefactthatlegalresearchersactto
thedetrimentofpotentialplaintiffs(E) reconciletraditionallegalresearcherstotheuse
ofsocialsciencetools
18. Theinformationinthepassagesuggeststhatplaintiffswhopursuesexdiscriminationcasesdespitethestatisticsprovidedbyoutcomesanalysiscanbestbelikenedto
(A) athleteswhocontinuetoemploytrainingtechniquesdespitetheirknowledgeofstatisticalevidenceindicatingthatthesetechniquesareunlikelytobeeffective
(B) lawyerswhohandlelawsuitsforalargenumberofclientsinthehopethatsomepercentagewillbesuccessful
(C) candidatesforpublicofficewhoaremoreinterestedinmakingapoliticalstatementthaninwinninganelection
(D) supportersofacausewhorecruitindividualssympathetictoitinthebeliefthatlargenumbersofsupporterswilllendthecauselegitimacy
(E) purchasersofacharity’sraffleticketswhoconsiderthepurchaseacontributionbecausethelikelihoodofwinningisremote
19. Thepolicy-capturingapproachdiffersfromtheapproachdescribedinlines50-62inthatthelatterapproach
(A) makesuseofdetailedinformationonagreaternumberofcases
(B) focusesmoredirectlyonissuesofconcerntolitigants
(C) analyzesinformationthatismorerecentandthereforereflectscurrenttrends
(D) allowsassessmentofaspectsofacasethatarenotspecificallymentionedinajudge’sopinion
(E) eliminatesanydistortionduetopersonalbiasonthepartoftheresearcher
20. Whichoneofthefollowingbestdescribestheorganizationofthepassage?
(A) Atechniqueisintroduced,itsshortcomingsaresummarized,andalternativesaredescribed.
(B) Adebateisintroduced,evidenceispresented,andacompromiseisreached.
(C) Atheoryispresented,clarificationisprovided,andaplanoffurtherevaluationissuggested.
(D) Standardsareestablished,hypotheticalexamplesareanalyzed,andthecriteriaareamended.
(E) Apositionischallenged,itsshortcomingsarecategorized,andthechallengeisrevised.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#27:October2000Questions8-13
ManyeducatorsinCanadaandtheUnitedStatesadvocatemulticulturaleducationasameansofachievingmulticulturalunderstanding.Thereare,
however,avarietyofproposalsastowhatmulticultural(5) educationshouldconsistof.Themostmodestofthese proposalsholdsthatschoolsandcollegesshould
promotemulticulturalunderstandingbyteachingabout othercultures,teachingwhichproceedsfromwithin
thecontextofthemajorityculture.Studentsshould(10) learnaboutothercultures,proponentsclaim,but
examinationoftheseculturesshouldoperatewiththe methods,perspectives,andvaluesofthemajority
culture.Thesevaluesaretypicallythoseofliberalism:democracy,tolerance,andequalityofpersons.
(15) Criticsofthisfirstproposalhavearguedthatgenuineunderstandingofotherculturesisimpossibleif
thestudyofotherculturesisrefractedthroughthedistortinglensofthemajorityculture’sperspective.Notallculturesshareliberalvalues.Theirvalue
(20) systemshaveariseninoftenradicallydifferentsocial andhistoricalcircumstances,andthus,thesecritics argue,cannotbeunderstoodandadequately
appreciatedifoneinsistsonapproachingthemsolelyfromwithinthemajorityculture’sperspective.
(25) Inresponsetothisobjection,asecondversionofmulticulturaleducationhasdevelopedthatdiffersfrom
thefirstinholdingthatmulticulturaleducationoughtto adoptaneutralstancewithrespecttothevalue
differencesamongcultures.Thevaluesofoneculture(30) shouldnotbestandardsbywhichothersarejudged;
eachcultureshouldbetakenonitsownterms.However,themethodsofexamination,study,andexplanationofculturesinthissecondversionofmulticulturaleducationarestillidentifiablyWestern.
(35) Theyarethemethodsofanthropology,socialpsychology,politicalscience,andsociology.Theyare,
thatis,methodswhichderivefromtheWesternscientificperspectiveandheritage.
Criticsofthissecondformofmulticultural(40) educationargueasfollows:TheWesternscientific
heritageisfoundeduponanepistemologicalsystemthatprizestheobjectiveoverthesubjective,thelogical
overtheintuitive,andtheempiricallyverifiableoverthemystical.Themethodsofsocial-scientific
(45) examinationofculturesarethusalreadyvalueladen;thechoicetoexamineandunderstandotherculturesby
thesemethodsinvolvesacommitmenttocertainvalues suchasobjectivity.Thus,thesecondversionof
multiculturaleducationisnotessentiallydifferentfrom(50) thefirst.Scientificdiscoursehasaprivilegedplacein Westerncultures,butthediscoursesofmyth,tradition, religion,andmysticalinsightareoftenthedominant
formsofthoughtandlanguageofnon-Westerncultures.Toinsistontryingtounderstandnonscientific
(55) culturesbythemethodsofWesternscienceisnotonly distorting,butisalsoanexpressionofanattemptto maintainaEurocentricculturalchauvinism:the
chauvinismofscience.Accordingtothisobjection,itis
onlybyadoptingthe(oftennonscientific)perspectives(60) andmethodsoftheculturesstudiedthatreal
understandingcanbeachieved.
8. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthemainpointofthepassage?
(A) Proponentsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingdisagreeaboutboththegoalofmulticulturaleducationandthemeansforachievingthisgoal.
(B) Proponentsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingclaimthateducationshouldbefoundeduponanepistemologicalsystemthatrecognizestheimportanceofthesubjective,theintuitive,andthemystical.
(C) Proponentsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingclaimthatitisnotenoughtorefrainfromjudgingnon-WesternculturesifthemethodsusedtostudytheseculturesarethemselvesWestern.
(D) Criticsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingdisagreeabouttheextenttowhichaculture’svaluesareaproductofitssocialandhistoricalcircumstances.
(E) Criticsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingclaimtheseproposalsarenotvalueneutralandarethereforeunabletoyieldagenuineunderstandingofcultureswithadifferentvaluesystem.
9. Criticswhoraisetheobjectiondiscussedinthesecondparagraphwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowing?
(A) Thesocialandhistoricalcircumstancesthatgiverisetoaculture’svaluescannotbeunderstoodbymembersofaculturewithdifferentvalues.
(B) Thehistoricalandsocialcircumstancesofaculturecanplayanimportantroleinthedevelopmentofthatculture’svalues.
(C) Itisimpossibleforoneculturetosuccessfullystudyanothercultureunlessitdoessofrommorethanoneculturalperspective.
(D) Genuineunderstandingofanothercultureisimpossibleunlessthatculturesharesthesameculturalvalues.
(E) ThevaluesofliberalismcannotbeadequatelyunderstoodifweapproachthemsolelythroughthemethodsofWesternscience.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 310. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribes
theorganizationofthepassageasawhole?
(A) Difficultiesinachievingagoalarecontrastedwiththebenefitsofobtainingthatgoal.
(B) Agoalisarguedtobeunrealizablebyraisingobjectionstothemeansproposedtoachieveit.
(C) Twomeansforachievingagoalarepresentedalongwithanobjectiontoeach.
(D) Difficultiesinachievingagoalareusedtodefendseveralradicalrevisionstothatgoal.
(E) Thedesirabilityofagoalisusedtodefendagainstanumberofobjectionstoitsfeasibility.
11. Theversionofmulticulturaleducationdiscussedinthefirstparagraphisdescribedas“modest”(line5)mostlikelybecauseit
(A) reliesontheleastamountofspeculationaboutnon-Westerncultures
(B) callsfortheleastamountofchangeintheeducationalsystem
(C) involvestheleastamountofEurocentricculturalchauvinism
(D) istheleastdistortingsinceitemploysseveralculturalperspectives
(E) deviatesleastfromaneutralstancewithrespecttodifferencesinvalues
12. Giventheinformationinthepassage,whichoneofthefollowingwouldmostlikelybeconsideredobjectionablebyproponentsoftheversionofmulticulturaleducationdiscussedinthethirdparagraph?
(A) astudyofthedifferencesbetweenthemoralcodesofseveralWesternandnon-Westernsocieties
(B) astudyofagivenculture’sliteraturetodeterminethekindsofpersonalcharacteristicsthecultureadmires
(C) astudythatemploysthemethodsofWesternsciencetoinvestigateanonscientificculture
(D) astudythatusestheliterarytheoriesofonesocietytocriticizetheliteratureofasocietythathasdifferentvalues
(E) astudythatusesthemethodsofanthropologyandsociologytocriticizethevaluesofWesternculture
13. Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldprovidethestrongestobjectiontothecriticisminthepassageofthesecondversionofmulticulturaleducation?
(A) Itisimpossibletoadopttheperspectivesandmethodsofacultureunlessoneisamemberofthatculture.
(B) Manynon-Westernsocietieshavevaluesystemsthatareverysimilartooneanother.
(C) Somenon-Westernsocietiesusetheirownvaluesystemwhenstudyingculturesthathavedifferentvalues.
(D) StudentsinWesternsocietiescannotunderstandtheirculture’sachievementsunlesssuchachievementsaretreatedasthesubjectofWesternscientificinvestigations.
(E) Genuineunderstandingofanothercultureisnecessaryforadequatelyappreciatingthatculture.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#28:October2000Questions14-19
InstudyingtheautobiographiesofNativeAmericans,mostscholarshavefocusedonas-told-tolifehistoriesthatweresolicited,translated,recorded,andeditedbynon-NativeAmericancollaborators—that
(5) emergedfrom"biculturalcompositeauthorship."Limitingtheirstudiestosuchwrittendocuments,these
scholarshaveoverlookedtraditional,preliteratemodes ofcommunicatingpersonalhistory.Inaddition,they
havefailedtoaddresstheculturalconstructsofthe(10) highlydiverseNativeAmericanpeoples,whopriorto contactwithnonindigenousculturesdidnotsharewith Europeansthesameassumptionsaboutself,life,and writingthatunderlietheconceptofanautobiography— thatindeedconstitutetheEnglishword’srootmeaning.(15) Theideaofselfwas,inanumberofpre-contact
NativeAmericancultures,markedlyinclusive:identity wasnotmerelyindividual,butalsorelationaltoa society,aspecificlandscape,andthecosmos.Within thesecultures,theexpressionoflifeexperiencestended(20) tobeorientedtowardcurrentevents:withthe
participationoffellowtribalmembers,anindividualpersonwouldarticulate,reenact,orrecordimportantexperiencesasthepersonlivedthem,amodeofautobiographyseeminglymorefragmentedthanthe
(25) Europeancustomofwritingdowntherecollectionsofa lifetime.Moreover,expressionitselfwasnotamatter
ofwritingbutoflanguage,whichcanincludespeechandsigns.Oralautobiographycomprisedsongs,chants,
stories,andeventheprocesswherebyonerepeatedly(30) tookonnewnamestoreflectimportanteventsand
deedsinone’slife.Danceanddramacouldconveypersonalhistory;forexample,theadventofavisiontoonepersonmightrequiretheenactmentofthatvisionintheformofatribalpageant.
(35) Onecanviewasautobiographicaltheelaboratetattoosthatsymbolizedawarrior’svalorousdeeds,and
suchartifactsasadecoratedshieldthatcommunicated theaccomplishmentsandaspirationsofitsmaker,ora robethatwasemblazonedwiththepictographichistory(40) ofthewearer’sbattlesandwassometimesusedin
reenactments.Alsoautobiographical,andindicativeof highstatuswithinthetribe,wouldhavebeenatepee paintedwithsymbolicdesignstorecordthe
achievementsanddisplaythedreamsorvisionsofits(45) owner,whowasoftenassistedinthepaintingbyother
tribalmembers. Atribewould,then,havecontributedtothe
individual’snarrativenotmerelypassively,byits socialcodesandexpectations,butactivelybyjoining(50) intheexpressionofthatnarrative.Suchintracultural
collaborationmayseemalientotheEuropeanstyleof autobiography,yetanyautobiographyisshapedbyits creator’sideasabouttheaudienceforwhichitis
intended;inthissense,autobiographyisjustlycalleda(55) simultaneousindividualstoryandculturalnarrative.
AutobiographicalexpressionsbyearlyNativeAmericansmayadditionallyhavebeenshapedbytheculturalperspectivesofthepeoplewhotransmittedthem.
14. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyexpressesthemainconclusionofthepassage?
(A) ScholarshavetendedtooverlookthenuancesofconceptsaboutidentitythatexistedinsomeoftheearlyNativeAmericancultures.
(B) AsdemonstratedbyearlyNativeAmericans,autobiographycanexistinavarietyofmediaotherthanwrittendocuments.
(C) TheNativeAmericanlifehistoriescollectedandrecordedbynon-NativeAmericanwritersdifferfromEuropean-styleautobiographiesintheirdepictionsofanindividual’srelationtosociety.
(D) EarlyNativeAmericanscreatedautobiographieswithformsandunderlyingassumptionsthatfrequentlydifferfromthoseofEuropean-styleautobiographies.
(E) TheautobiographicalformstraditionallyusedbyNativeAmericansaremorefragmentedthanEuropeanformsandthuslesseasilyrecognizableaspersonalhistory.
15. Whichoneofthefollowingphrasesbestconveystheauthor’sattitudetowardtheearlierscholarshiponNativeAmericanautobiographiesthatismentionedinthepassage?
(A) “failedtoaddress"(line9)(B) “highlydiverse"(line10)(C) “markedlyinclusive"(line16)(D) “seeminglymorefragmented"(line24)(E) “alientotheEuropeanstyle"(line51)
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 316. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyconveys
themeaningofthephrase"biculturalcompositeauthorship"asitisusedinline5ofthepassage?
(A) writtenbyamemberofoneculturebutbasedontheartifactsandoraltraditionsofanotherculture
(B) writtenbytwopeople,eachofwhombelongstoadifferentculturebutcontributesinthesamewaytothefinishedproduct
(C) compiledfromthewritingsofpeoplewhocomefromdifferentculturesandwhoseidentitiescannotbedetermined
(D) writtenoriginallybyamemberofoneculturebuteditedandrevisedbyamemberofanotherculture
(E) writtenbyamemberofoneculturebutbasedonoralcommunicationbyamemberofanotherculture
17. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribesthefunctionofthethirdparagraphwithinthepassageasawhole?
(A) torefutetraditionalinterpretationsofcertainartifacts
(B) topresentevidencethatunderminesatheory(C) toprovideexamplesthatsupportanargument(D) tocontrastseveraldifferentmodesofexpression(E) toenumeratespecificinstancesinwhicha
phenomenonrecurred
18. Theauthorofthepassagerefersto"self,life,andwriting"(lines12-13)mostprobablyinorderto
(A) identifyconceptsaboutwhichEuropeansandNativeAmericanshadcontrastingideas
(B) defineawordthathadadifferentmeaningforearlyNativeAmericansthanithasforcontemporaryNativeAmericans
(C) illustratehowwordscanundergoachangeinmeaningaftertheirintroductionintothelanguage
(D) positafundamentalsimilarityintheoriginsofaconceptinbothEuropeanandNativeAmericancultures
(E) explainhowtheassumptionsthatunderlieEuropean-styleautobiographyarose
19. Whichoneofthefollowingwouldbemostconsistentwiththeideasaboutidentitythattheauthorattributestopre-contactNativeAmericancultures?
(A) Apersonwhoisbornintoonetribebutisbroughtupbymembersofanothertriberetainsanamegivenatbirth.
(B) Apictographthatrepresentsaspecificpersonincorporatesthesymbolforaconstellation.
(C) Asimilarritualforassuminganewnameisusedindiversecommunities.
(D) Anamegiventoonememberofacommunitycannotbegiventoanothermemberofthesamecommunity.
(E) Adecoratedshieldthatbelongedtoanindividualcannotbetracedtoaparticulartribe.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#29:December2000Questions8-14
TheautobiographicalnarrativeIncidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself(1861),byHarriet
A.Jacobs,aslaveofAfricandescent,notonlyrecountsanindividuallifebutalsoprovides,implicitlyand
(5) explicitly,aperspectiveonthelargerUnitedStatesculturefromtheviewpointofonedeniedaccesstoit.Jacobs,asawomanandaslave,facedthestigmastowhichthosestatusesweresubject.Jacobscraftedhernarrative,inaccordancewiththemainstreamliterary
(10) genreofthesentimentaldomesticnovel,asanembodimentofcherishedculturalvaluessuchasthedesirabilityofmarriageandthesanctityofpersonalidentity,home,andfamily.Shedidsobecauseshewaswritingtothefreewomenofherday–theprincipal
(15) readersofdomesticnovels–inthehopesthatthey wouldsympathizewithandcometounderstandher
uniquepredicamentasafemaleslave.Byapplying theseconventionsofthegenretohersituation,Jacobs
demonstratestoherreadersthatfamilyanddomesticity(20) arenolessprizedbythoseforcedintoslavery,thus
leadingherfreereaderstoperceivethosevalueswithinabroadersocialcontext.
Somecriticshavearguedthat,byconformingtoconvention,Jacobsshortchangedherownexperiences;
(25) onecritic,forexample,claimsthatinJacobs’swork thepurposesofthedomesticnovelovershadowthose ofthetypicalslavenarrative.Buttherelationship
betweenthetwogenresismorecomplex:Jacobs’sattempttoframeherstoryasadomesticnovelcreatesa
(30) tensionbetweentheusualportrayalofwomeninthisgenreandheractualexperience,oftencallingintoquestiontheapplicabilityofthehierarchyofvaluesespousedbythedomesticnoveltothosewhoareinhersituation.Unlikethetraditionalromanticepisodesin
(35) domesticnovelsinwhichamanandwomanmeet,fallinlove,encountervariousobstaclesbuteventuallymarry,Jacobs’sprotagonistmustsendherlover,a
slave,awayinordertoprotecthimfromthewrathof herjealousmaster.Inaddition,bytheendofthe(40) narrative,Jacobs’sprotagonistachievesherfreedom
byescapingtothenorth,butshedoesnotachievethedomesticnovel’sidealofastablehomecompletewithfamily,asthepriceshehashadtopayforherfreedom
isseparationfrommostofherfamily,includingoneof(45) herownchildren.Jacobspointsoutthatslavewomen
viewcertaineventsandactionsfromaperspectivedifferentfromthatoffreewomen,andthattheymustmakedifficultchoicesthatfreewomenneednot.Hernarrativethusbecomesanantidomesticnovel,for
(50) Jacobsacceptsreadilythegoalsofthegenre,butdemonstratesthatitshierarchyofvaluesdoesnotapplywhenexaminedfromtheperspectiveofafemaleslave,suggestingtherebythatherexperience,andthatofanyfemaleslave,cannotbefullyunderstoodwithout
(55) sheddingconventionalperspectives.
8. Theauthorofthepassagedisplayswhichoneofthefollowingattitudestowardthepositionofthecriticsmentionedinline23?
(A) completerejection(B) reluctantrejection(C) completeneutrality(D) reluctantagreement(E) completeagreement
9. Accordingtothepassage,Jacobs’snarrativedepartsfromtheconventionsofatypicaldomesticnovelinwhichoneofthefollowingways?
(A) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotultimatelyachieveherfreedom.
(B) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotwishforthesameidealsastheprotagonistsofdomesticnovels.
(C) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotencountervariousobstaclesinherquestforlove.
(D) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotultimatelyachievetheidealsofhomeandfamily.
(E) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotexperiencethestigmastowhichwomenandslavesweresubject.
10. Itcanmostreasonablybeinferredfromthepassagethatthecriticsmentionedinline23holdwhichoneofthefollowingviews?
(A) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativeoftencreatesausefultensionthataddsvaluetothenarrative.
(B) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativetendstocausethegoalsofbothgenrestobecompromised.
(C) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativetendstofavorthegenrehavingthegreaterdegreeofrealism.
(D) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativetendstofavorthegenrehavingthelesserdegreeofsentimentality.
(E) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativecansometimescausethegoalsofoneofthegenrestobecompromised.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 311. Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostsupport
thepositionofthecriticsmentionedinline23?
(A) MostreadersofJacobs’snarrativewhenitwasfirstpublishedconcludedthatitwassimplyadomesticnovelandwerethusdisinclinedtoseeitasanattempttoprovokethought.
(B) ManyreviewersofJacobs’snarrativeincludedpassionatestatementsintheirreviewscallingfortheimmediateabolitionofslavery.
(C) MostscholarsbelievethatJacobs’snarrativewouldnothavebeenabletocommunicateitsmessageeffectivelyifithadnotadoptedtheconventionsofthedomesticnovel.
(D) Jacobs’snarrativewasmodelednotonlyafterdomesticnovelsoftheperiodbutafterrealisticnovelswhosegoalwastopointoutsocialinjustices.
(E) Jacobs’sgoalincraftinghernarrativewasnotonlytopreachagainsttheinjusticesofslaverybutalsototellapowerfulstorythatwouldmakethoseinjusticesvividtoreaders.
12. TheauthordescribesJacobs’snarrativeasan“antidomesticnovel”(line49)forwhichoneofthefollowingreasons?
(A) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotlamentherseparationfromherfamily.
(B) Jacobs’sprotagonistisdisinclinedtowardstereotypicaldomesticaspirations.
(C) Jacobs’snarrativerevealsthelimitationsofthehierarchyofvaluesespousedbythedomesticnovelgenre.
(D) Jacobs’snarrativeimplicitlysuggeststhatthedesirefordomesticidealscontributestotheprotagonist’splight.
(E) Jacobs’snarrativecondemnsdomesticvaluesasahindrancetoitsprotagonist’sdevelopmentofpersonalidentity.
13. Withwhichoneofthefollowingstatementswouldtheauthorofthepassagebemostlikelytoagree?
(A) Someauthorsofslavenarrativesallowedthepurposesofthegenretoovershadowtheirownexperiences.
(B) Theslavenarrative,nolessthanthedomesticnovel,constitutesaliterarygenre.
(C) Authorswhowriteinaparticulargenremustobeytheconventionsofthatgenre.
(D) Anautobiography,nolessthananovel,shouldtellapowerfulstory.
(E) Autobiographiesshouldbeevaluatednotontheirliterarymeritbutontheirhistoricalaccuracy.
14. Whichoneofthefollowingprinciplesmostlikelygovernstheauthor’sevaluationofJacobs’snarrative?
(A) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatcapturethemoodofaparticularperiodaretherebymorevaluable.
(B) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatfocusonaccuratelydepictingtheeventsintheindividual’slifearetherebymorevaluable.
(C) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatforcereaderstoviewcertainfamiliarculturalvaluesinawidercontextaretherebymorevaluable.
(D) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatarewrittenfromaperspectivefamiliartothemajorityoftheirreadersaretherebymorevaluable.
(E) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatemploytheconventionsofanotherliterarygenrearetherebymorevaluable.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 3 Passage#30:December2000Questions15-22
Expertsanticipatethatglobalatmosphericconcentrationsofcarbondioxide(CO
2)willhave
doubledbytheendofthetwenty-firstcentury.ItisknownthatCO
2cancontributetoglobalwarmingby
(5) trappingsolarenergythatisbeingreradiatedasheatfromtheEarth’ssurface.However,someresearchhassuggestedthatelevatedCO
2levelscouldenhancethe
photosyntheticratesofplants,resultinginalushworldofagriculturalabundance,andthatthisCO
2(10) fertilizationeffectmighteventuallydecreasetherate
ofglobalwarming.TheincreasedvegetationinsuchanenvironmentcouldbecountedontodrawmoreCO
2
fromtheatmosphere.ThelevelofCO2wouldthus
increaseatalowerratethanmanyexpertshave(15) predicted. However,whileanumberofrecentstudiesconfirm
thatplantgrowthwouldbegenerallyenhancedinanatmosphererichinCO
2,theyalsosuggestthat
increasedCO2woulddifferentiallyincreasethegrowth
(20) rateofdifferentspeciesofplants,whichcouldeventuallyresultindecreasedagriculturalyields.
Certainimportantcropssuchascornandsugarcane thatcurrentlyhavehigherphotosyntheticefficiencies
thanotherplantsmaylosethatedgeinanatmosphere(25) richinCO
2.PattersonandFlinthaveshownthatthese
importantcropsmayexperienceyieldreductionsbecauseoftheincreasedperformanceofcertainweeds.Suchdifferencesingrowthratesbetweenplantspeciescouldalsoalterecosystemstability.Studieshave
(30) shownthatwithinrangelandregions,forexample,aweedygrassgrowsmuchbetterwithplentifulCO
2
thandothreeothergrasses.Becausethisweedygrasspredisposeslandtoburning,itspotentialincreasemayleadtogreaternumbersofandmoreseverewildfiresin
(35) futurerangelandcommunities. ItisclearthattheCO
2fertilizationeffectdoesnot
guaranteethelushworldofagriculturalabundancethatonceseemedlikely,butwhataboutthepotentialfortheincreaseduptakeofCO
2todecreasetherateofglobal
(40) warming?SomestudiessuggestthatthechangesaccompanyingglobalwarmingwillnotimprovetheabilityofterrestrialecosystemstoabsorbCO
2.
Billings’simulationofglobalwarmingconditionsin wettundragrasslandsshowedthatthelevelofCO
2(45) actuallyincreased.Plantgrowthdidincreaseunder theseconditionsbecauseofwarmertemperaturesand
increasedCO2levels.Butasthepermafrostmelted,
morepeat(accumulateddeadplantmaterial)begantodecompose.ThisprocessinturnliberatedmoreCO
2to
(50) theatmosphere.BillingsestimatedthatifsummertemperaturesrosefourdegreesCelsius,thetundra
wouldliberate50percentmoreCO2thanitdoes
currently.Inawarmerworld,increasedplantgrowth,whichcouldabsorbCO
2fromtheatmosphere,would
(55) notcompensateforthisrapidincreasein decompositionrates.Thisobservationisparticularly
importantbecausehigh-latitudehabitatssuchasthetundraareexpectedtoexperiencethegreatesttemperatureincrease.
15. Whichoneofthefollowingbeststatesthemainpointofthepassage?
(A) ElevatedlevelsofCO2wouldenhance
photosyntheticrates,thusincreasingplantgrowthandagriculturalyields.
(B) RecentstudieshaveyieldedcontradictoryfindingsaboutthebenefitsofincreasedlevelsofCO
2onagriculturalproductivity.
(C) ThepossiblebeneficialeffectsofincreasedlevelsofCO
2onplantgrowthandglobalwarming
havebeenoverstated.(D) IncreasedlevelsofCO
2wouldenhancethe
growthratesofcertainplants,butwouldinhibitthegrowthratesofotherplants.
(E) IncreasedlevelsofCO2wouldincreaseplant
growth,buttherateofglobalwarmingwouldultimatelyincrease.
16. Thepassagesuggeststhatthehypothesismentionedinthefirstparagraphisnotentirelyaccuratebecauseitfailstotakeintoaccountwhichoneofthefollowinginpredictingtheeffectsofincreasedvegetationontherateofglobalwarming?
(A) IncreasedlevelsofCO2willincreasethe
photosyntheticratesofmanyspeciesofplants.(B) Increasedplantgrowthcannotcompensatefor
increasedratesofdecompositioncausedbywarmertemperatures.
(C) Low-latitudehabitatswillexperiencethegreatestincreasesintemperatureinanatmospherehighinCO
2.
(D) IncreasedlevelsofCO2willchangepatternsof
plantgrowthandthuswillalterthedistributionofpeat.
(E) IncreasesinvegetationcanbecountedontodrawmoreCO
2fromtheatmosphere.
17. Whichoneofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthelastparagraphofthepassage?
(A) Itpresentsresearchthatmayundermineahypothesispresentedinthefirstparagraph.
(B) Itpresentssolutionsforaproblemdiscussedinthefirstandsecondparagraphs.
(C) Itprovidesanadditionalexplanationforaphenomenondescribedinthefirstparagraph.
(D) Itprovidesexperimentaldatainsupportofatheorydescribedintheprecedingparagraph.
(E) Itraisesaquestionthatmaycastdoubtoninformationpresentedintheprecedingparagraph.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
3 3 3 3 318. ThepassagesuggeststhatPattersonandFlintwouldbe
mostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutincreasedlevelsofCO
2intheEarth’s
atmosphere?
(A) Theywillnotincreasethegrowthratesofmostspeciesofplants.
(B) Theywillinhibitthegrowthofmostcrops,thuscausingsubstantialdecreasesinagriculturalyields.
(C) Theyareunlikelytoincreasethegrowthratesofplantswithlowerphotosyntheticefficiencies.
(D) Theywillincreasethegrowthratesofcertainspeciesofplantsmorethanthegrowthratesofotherspeciesofplants.
(E) Theywillnotaffectthephotosyntheticratesofplantsthatcurrentlyhavethehighestphotosyntheticefficiencies.
19. Theauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatementsabouttheconclusionsdrawnonthebasisoftheresearchonplantgrowthmentionedinthefirstparagraphofthepassage?
(A) TheconclusionsarecorrectinsuggestingthatincreasedlevelsofCO
2willincreasethe
photosyntheticratesofcertainplants.(B) Theconclusionsarecorrectinsuggesting
thatincreasedlevelsofCO2willguarantee
abundancesofcertainimportantcrops.(C) Theconclusionsarecorrectinsuggestingthat
increasedplantgrowthwillreversetheprocessofglobalwarming.
(D) Theconclusionsareincorrectinsuggestingthatenhancedplantgrowthcouldleadtoabundancesofcertainspeciesofplants.
(E) TheconclusionsareincorrectinsuggestingthatvegetationcandrawCO
2fromtheatmosphere.
20. Thepassagesupportswhichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutpeatinwettundragrasslands?
(A) MoreofitwoulddecomposeiftemperaturesrosefourdegreesCelsius.
(B) ItcouldhelpabsorbCO2fromtheatmosphereif
temperaturesrosefourdegreesCelsius.(C) Itwillnotdecomposeunlesstemperaturesrise
fourdegreesCelsius.(D) Itdecomposesmorequicklythanpeatfoundin
regionsatlowerlatitudes.(E) Moreofitaccumulatesinregionsatlower
latitudes.
21. Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,isLEASTconsistentwiththehypothesismentionedinlines22-25ofthepassage?
(A) TherootsofacertaintreespeciesgrowmorerapidlywhentheamountofCO
2inthe
atmosphereincreases,thuspermittingthetreestoexpandintohabitatsformerlydominatedbygrasseswithhighphotosyntheticefficiencies.
(B) WhengrowninanatmospherehighinCO2,
certainweedswithlowphotosyntheticefficienciesbegintothriveincultivatedfarmlandsformerlydominatedbyagriculturalcrops.
(C) WhentreesofaspecieswithahighphotosyntheticefficiencyandgrassesofaspecieswithalowphotosyntheticefficiencywereplacedinanatmospherehighinCO
2,the
treesgrewmorequicklythanthegrasses.(D) Whentwodifferentspeciesofgrasswith
equivalentphotosyntheticefficiencywereplacedinanatmospherehighinCO
2,onespeciesgrew
muchmorerapidlyandcrowdedtheslower-growingspeciesoutofthegrowingarea.
(E) ThenumberofleguminousplantsdecreasedinanatmosphererichinCO
2,thusdiminishing
soilfertilityandlimitingthetypesofplantspeciesthatcouldthriveincertainhabitats.
22. Accordingtothepassage,Billings’researchaddresseswhichoneofthefollowingquestions?
(A) WhichkindofhabitatwillexperiencethegreatesttemperatureincreaseinanatmospherehighinCO
2?
(B) HowmuchwillsummertemperaturesriseiflevelsofCO
2doublebytheendofthetwenty-
firstcentury?(C) Willenhancedplantgrowthnecessarilydecrease
therateofglobalwarmingthathasbeenpredictedbyexperts?
(D) WouldplantgrowthbedifferentiallyenhancedifatmosphericconcentrationsofCO
2wereto
doublebytheendofthetwenty-firstcentury?(E) Doespeatdecomposemorerapidlyinwettundra
grasslandsthanitdoesinothertypesofhabitatswhenatmosphericconcentrationsofCO
2
increase?
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
Reading Comprehension Problem Set #3 Answer Key
Passage #21: June 1996 Questions 9-14 9.C10.E11.D12.B13.A14.D
Passage #22: October 1996 Questions 7-14 7.C8.A9.B10.C11.A12.B13.B14.C
Passage #23: October 1996 Questions 15-21 15.B16.A17.B18.A19.E20.D21.B
Passage #24: June 1997 Questions 9-16 9.C10.A11.A12.D13.D14.B15.B16.A
Passage #25: December 1997 Questions 1-6 1.B2.A3.C4.D5.E6.B
Passage #26: December 1997 Questions 14-20 14.D15.B16.E17.A18.A19.D20.A
Passage #27: October 2000 Questions 8-13 8.E9.B10.C11.B12.D13.A
Passage #28: October 2000 Questions 14-19 14.D15.A16.E17.C18.A19.B
Passage #29: December 2000 Questions 8-14 8.A9.D10.E11.A12.C13.B14.C
Passage #30: December 2000 Questions 15-22 15.C16.B17.A18.D19.A20.A21.C22.C