readiness standards comprise 65% of the u. s. history test 11 (a)

Readiness standards comprise 65% of the U. S. History Test

11 (A)

Readiness Standard (11)The student understands the emerging political, economic, & social issues of the Un. S. from the

1990s into the 21st century.

The Student is expected to:(A) Describe U. S. involvement in world affairs, including

the end of the Cold War, the Persian Gulf War, the Balkans Crisis, 9/11, & the global War on Terror



The Student is expected to:(A) 1 Describe U. S. involvement in world affairs, including the end of the Cold War (SEE ALSO Supporting Standard 2 [D] 7 & 8 [B] 1)

The Student is expected to:(D) 7 Explain the significance of

1991 (Cold War ends)

The Reagan Administration’s military buildup ultimately broke the Soviet Union financially, forcing it to draw closure to the hostile relationship it had maintained with the U. S. since

1948 during the Truman years.

Tearing down of the Berlin Wall in 1989 heralded the

soon-coming establishment of a New World Order.

http://www.180coach.com/knocking-down-walls-like-a-champion/

• Towards the end of Jimmy Carter’s presidency, and continued strongly through the subsequent presidency of Ronald Reagan, the United States rejected disarmament and tried to restart the arms race through the production of new weapons and anti-weapons systems.

• The central part of this strategy was the Strategic Defense Initiative, a space based anti-ballistic missile system derided as “Star Wars” by its critics. However, the SDI would require technology that had not yet been developed, or even researched, such as space and earth based laser battle stations sensors on the ground, in the air, and in space with radar, optical, and infrared technology to detect incoming missiles.

The Cold War Arms Race

• During the second part of 1980s, the Soviet economy was teetering towards collapse and was unable to match American arms spending. The Soviets feared the SDI because the U.S. would have an edge if it ever came to nuclear war.

• Numerous negotiations by Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to come to agreements on reducing nuclear stockpiles, but the most radical were rejected by Reagan as they would also prohibit his SDI program. However, due to enormous costs and far too complex technology for its time, the project and research was cancelled.


• During the mid-1980s, the U.S-Soviet relations significantly improved. Mikhail Gorbachev assumed control of the Soviet Union after the deaths of several former Soviet leaders, and announced a new era of perestroika and glasnost, meaning restructuring and openness respectively.

• Much of the Soviet Union began to declare independence and slowly became free of Soviet influence. One of the most iconic events of the collapse of the Soviet Union was the destruction of the Berlin Wall on November 10, 1989.

• On December 8, 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was established. This event marked the end of the 50- year-long Cold War.


The Details

By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985, the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s. These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state. An ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of

economic reform called perestroika, or restructuring. Perestroika relaxed the production quota system, allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country’s resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more productive areas in the civilian sector.

By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985, the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s. These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state. An ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of

economic reform called perestroika, or restructuring. Perestroika relaxed the production quota system, allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country’s resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more productive areas in the civilian sector.

Despite initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union’s deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West. Partly as a way to fight off

internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced glasnost, or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions. Glasnost was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and moderate the abuse of power in the Central Committee. Glasnost

also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating détente between the two nations.

Despite initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union’s deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West. Partly as a way to fight off

internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced glasnost, or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions. Glasnost was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and moderate the abuse of power in the Central Committee. Glasnost

also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating détente between the two nations.

Thaw in relations

In response to the Kremlin’s military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling-back of the arms race. The first was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland. At one stage the two men,

accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each country’s nuclear arsenal by 50 percent. A second Reykjavík Summit was held in Iceland. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan’s proposed Strategic Defense Initiative,

which Gorbachev wanted eliminated. Reagan refused. The negotiations failed, but the third summit in 1987 led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear-

armed, ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles) and their infrastructure.

In response to the Kremlin’s military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling-back of the arms race. The first was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland. At one stage the two men,

accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each country’s nuclear arsenal by 50 percent. A second Reykjavík Summit was held in Iceland. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan’s proposed Strategic Defense Initiative,

which Gorbachev wanted eliminated. Reagan refused. The negotiations failed, but the third summit in 1987 led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear-

armed, ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles) and their infrastructure.

East–West tensions rapidly subsided through the mid-to-late 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in 1989, when Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush signed the START I arms control treaty. During the following year it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain. In addition, the

security advantage of a buffer zone was recognized as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Central and Eastern Europe.

East–West tensions rapidly subsided through the mid-to-late 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in 1989, when Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush signed the START I arms control treaty. During the following year it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain. In addition, the

security advantage of a buffer zone was recognized as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Central and Eastern Europe.

In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and by 1990 Gorbachev consented to German reunification, the only alternative being a Tianamen scenario. When the Berlin Wall came down,

Gorbachev’s “Common European Home” concept began to take shape. On December 3, 1989, Gorbachev and Reagan’s successor, George H. W. Bush, declared the Cold War over at the

Malta Summit; a year later, the two former rivals were partners in the Gulf War against Iraq.

In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and by 1990 Gorbachev consented to German reunification, the only alternative being a Tianamen scenario. When the Berlin Wall came down,

Gorbachev’s “Common European Home” concept began to take shape. On December 3, 1989, Gorbachev and Reagan’s successor, George H. W. Bush, declared the Cold War over at the

Malta Summit; a year later, the two former rivals were partners in the Gulf War against Iraq.

East Europe Breaks Away

By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the Communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power. Grassroots organizations, such as Poland’s

Solidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. In 1989, the Communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate the organizing of competitive elections. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched Communist leaders. The Communist

regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a violent uprising.

By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the Communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power. Grassroots organizations, such as Poland’s

Solidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. In 1989, the Communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate the organizing of competitive elections. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched Communist leaders. The Communist

regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a violent uprising.

The tidal wave of change culminated with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European Communist governments and graphically ended the Iron

Curtain divide of Europe. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe peacefully overthrew all the Soviet-style communist states: East Germany, Poland, Hungary,

Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria, Romania was the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.

The tidal wave of change culminated with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European Communist governments and graphically ended the Iron

Curtain divide of Europe. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe peacefully overthrew all the Soviet-style communist states: East Germany, Poland, Hungary,

Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria, Romania was the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.

Soviet Republics Break Away

In the USSR itself, glasnost weakened the bonds that held the Soviet Union together and by February 1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party was forced to

surrender its 73-year-old monopoly on state power. At the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by glasnost and the festering “nationalities question” increasingly led the Union’s component republics to declare their autonomy from Moscow, with the Baltic states withdrawing

from the Union entirely.

In the USSR itself, glasnost weakened the bonds that held the Soviet Union together and by February 1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party was forced to

surrender its 73-year-old monopoly on state power. At the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by glasnost and the festering “nationalities question” increasingly led the Union’s component republics to declare their autonomy from Moscow, with the Baltic states withdrawing

from the Union entirely.

Soviet Dissolution

Gorbachev’s permissive attitude toward Central and Eastern Europe did not initially extend to Soviet territory; even Bush, who strove to maintain friendly relations, condemned the January 1991 killings in Latvia and Lithuania,

privately warning that economic ties would be frozen if the violence continued. The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup and a growing number of Soviet republics, particularly Russia, who threatened to secede from the USSR.

The Commonwealth of Independent States, created on December 21, 1991, is viewed as a successor entity to the Soviet Union but, according to Russia’s leaders, its purpose was to “allow a civilized divorce” between the Soviet Republics

and is comparable to a loose confederation. The USSR was declared officially dissolved on December 25, 1991.

Gorbachev’s permissive attitude toward Central and Eastern Europe did not initially extend to Soviet territory; even Bush, who strove to maintain friendly relations, condemned the January 1991 killings in Latvia and Lithuania,

privately warning that economic ties would be frozen if the violence continued. The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup and a growing number of Soviet republics, particularly Russia, who threatened to secede from the USSR.

The Commonwealth of Independent States, created on December 21, 1991, is viewed as a successor entity to the Soviet Union but, according to Russia’s leaders, its purpose was to “allow a civilized divorce” between the Soviet Republics

and is comparable to a loose confederation. The USSR was declared officially dissolved on December 25, 1991.

Aftermath

NATO has expanded eastward into the former Warsaw Pact and parts of the former Soviet Union since the end of the Cold War. The aftermath of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the post–Cold War world is widely considered as unipolar,

with the United States the sole remaining superpower, although the recent behavior of Russian President Vladimir Putin in the Ukraine & Crimea may suggest a resurgence of Russian power and

subsequent renewal of U. S.-Russian tensions if not estrangement.

NATO has expanded eastward into the former Warsaw Pact and parts of the former Soviet Union since the end of the Cold War. The aftermath of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the post–Cold War world is widely considered as unipolar,

with the United States the sole remaining superpower, although the recent behavior of Russian President Vladimir Putin in the Ukraine & Crimea may suggest a resurgence of Russian power and

subsequent renewal of U. S.-Russian tensions if not estrangement.

The Cold War defined the political role of the United States in the post–World War II world: by 1989 the US held military alliances with 50 countries, and had 526,000 troops stationed abroad in dozens of countries, with 326,000 in

Europe (two-thirds of which in west Germany) and about 130,000 in Asia (mainly Japan and South Korea). The Cold War also marked the zenith of peacetime military-industrial complexes, especially in the US, and large-scale military funding of science. These complexes, though their origins may be found as early as the 19th century, grew

considerably during the Cold War. The military-industrial complexes continue to have great impact on their countries and help shape their society, policy and foreign relations.

The Cold War defined the political role of the United States in the post–World War II world: by 1989 the US held military alliances with 50 countries, and had 526,000 troops stationed abroad in dozens of countries, with 326,000 in

Europe (two-thirds of which in west Germany) and about 130,000 in Asia (mainly Japan and South Korea). The Cold War also marked the zenith of peacetime military-industrial complexes, especially in the US, and large-scale military funding of science. These complexes, though their origins may be found as early as the 19th century, grew

considerably during the Cold War. The military-industrial complexes continue to have great impact on their countries and help shape their society, policy and foreign relations.

End of the Cold War Timeline

1985 — Gorbachev comes to power.1987 — Reagan and Gorbachev sign the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) in Washington. It removes more than 2,600 medium-range nuclear missiles from Europe.

March 1989 — Hungary decides to allow free elections and take down the fence between Hungary and Austria. Gorbachev says he will not stop the moves.June 1989 — Poland holds its first free elections. The Solidarity (labor) Party beats the Communists.

July 1989 — Thousands of East Germans “vacation” in Hungary and then flee to the Austria and the West.October 1989 — East German leaders celebrate the 40th anniversary of the founding of the Communist GDR. Two days later 70,000 protesters demand an end to the regime. Russian

troops stay in their barracks and GDR soldiers and police back down. Communist leader Honecker is voted out of office by the Politburo.November 1989 — Soldiers in East Berlin open some of the gates in the Berlin Wall. Crowds respond by tearing the wall down.

November 1989 — Bugaria’s communist party leader resigns. Free elections held in June, 1990.December 1989 — Protesters in Czechoslovakia jangle keys in front of the government saying, “Your time is up.” The government gives up without violence, and elections are held.

End of the Cold War Timeline ctd.

.

December 1989 — Romanian communist forces kill 73 in riots. Crowds storm the government and later capture the leader Ceausescu. He and his wife are tried and executed. Elections are held.

June 1991 — In Yugoslavia, the provinces of Croatia and Slovenia declare their independence igniting a decade of fighting and genocide. Eventually, the country splits into Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and the region of Kosovo.

August 1991 — Russian military leaders put Gorbachev under house arrest and take over governing in order to save the Soviet Union. Boris Yeltsin, leader of the Russian Republic, occupies the Parliament building, defying the coup. The Army backs down.

December 1991 — The republics of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine act to dissolve the Soviet Union, finally freeing Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan.



The Student is expected to:(A) 2 Describe U. S. involvement in world affairs,

including the Persian Gulf War

The Gulf War

The Gulf War (August 2, 1990-February 28, 1991), codenamed Operation Desert Storm (January 17, 1991–February 28, 1991) was a war waged by coalition forces from 34 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq’s invasion and annexation of Kuwait. The war is also known under other names, such as the Persian Gulf War, First Gulf War, Gulf War I, Kuwait War, or the First Iraq War, before the term “Iraq War” became identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War (also

referred to in the U.S. as “Operation Iraqi Freedom”).

The Gulf War (August 2, 1990-February 28, 1991), codenamed Operation Desert Storm (January 17, 1991–February 28, 1991) was a war waged by coalition forces from 34 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq’s invasion and annexation of Kuwait. The war is also known under other names, such as the Persian Gulf War, First Gulf War, Gulf War I, Kuwait War, or the First Iraq War, before the term “Iraq War” became identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War (also

referred to in the U.S. as “Operation Iraqi Freedom”).

Background

Throughout the Cold War, Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union, and there was a history of friction between it and the United States. The U.S. was concerned with Iraq’s position on Israeli–Palestinian politics, and its

disapproval of the nature of the peace between Israel and Egypt. The U.S. also disliked Iraqi support for many Arab and Palestinian militant groups such as Abu Nidal, which led to Iraq’s inclusion on the developing U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism on December 29, 1979. The U.S. remained officially neutral after Iraq’s invasion of Iran in 1980, which became the Iran–Iraq War, although it provided resources, political support, and some

“non-military” aircraft.

Throughout the Cold War, Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union, and there was a history of friction between it and the United States. The U.S. was concerned with Iraq’s position on Israeli–Palestinian politics, and its

disapproval of the nature of the peace between Israel and Egypt. The U.S. also disliked Iraqi support for many Arab and Palestinian militant groups such as Abu Nidal, which led to Iraq’s inclusion on the developing U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism on December 29, 1979. The U.S. remained officially neutral after Iraq’s invasion of Iran in 1980, which became the Iran–Iraq War, although it provided resources, political support, and some

“non-military” aircraft.

The Iraq-Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as Iraqi territory. Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empire’s province of Basra, something that Iraq claimed made it rightful

Iraq territory. Its ruling dynasty, the al-Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for its foreign affairs to the United Kingdom. The UK drew the

border between the two countries in 1922, making Iraq virtually landlocked. Kuwait rejected Iraqi attempts to secure further provisions in the region.

The Iraq-Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as Iraqi territory. Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empire’s province of Basra, something that Iraq claimed made it rightful

Iraq territory. Its ruling dynasty, the al-Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for its foreign affairs to the United Kingdom. The UK drew the

border between the two countries in 1922, making Iraq virtually landlocked. Kuwait rejected Iraqi attempts to secure further provisions in the region.

In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait’s behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border, and the U.S. naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing–Kuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq’s rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt. On July 15, 1990, Saddam’s government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League, including that policy moves were costing Iraq $1 billion a year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its “Arab brothers.” He threatened force against Kuwait and

the UAE saying “The policies of some Arab rulers are American . . . . They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security.” The U.S. sent aerial planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats.

In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait’s behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border, and the U.S. naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing–Kuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq’s rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt. On July 15, 1990, Saddam’s government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League, including that policy moves were costing Iraq $1 billion a year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its “Arab brothers.” He threatened force against Kuwait and

the UAE saying “The policies of some Arab rulers are American . . . . They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security.” The U.S. sent aerial planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats.

At the time of the invasion, the Kuwaiti military was believed to have numbered 16,000 men, arranged into three armored, one mechanized infantry and one under-strength artillery brigade. The pre-war strength of the Kuwait Air

Force was around 2,200 Kuwaiti personnel, with 80 aircraft and forty helicopters. In spite of Iraqi saber-rattling, Kuwait didn’t have its forces on alert; the army had been stood down on July 19. By 1988, at the Iran–Iraq War’s

end, the Iraqi Army was the world’s fourth largest army; it consisted of 955,000 standing soldiers and 650,000 paramilitary forces in the Popular Army. According to John Childs and André Corvisier, a low estimate shows the

Iraqi Army capable of fielding 4,500 tanks, 484 combat aircraft and 232 combat helicopters.

At the time of the invasion, the Kuwaiti military was believed to have numbered 16,000 men, arranged into three armored, one mechanized infantry and one under-strength artillery brigade. The pre-war strength of the Kuwait Air

Force was around 2,200 Kuwaiti personnel, with 80 aircraft and forty helicopters. In spite of Iraqi saber-rattling, Kuwait didn’t have its forces on alert; the army had been stood down on July 19. By 1988, at the Iran–Iraq War’s

end, the Iraqi Army was the world’s fourth largest army; it consisted of 955,000 standing soldiers and 650,000 paramilitary forces in the Popular Army. According to John Childs and André Corvisier, a low estimate shows the

Iraqi Army capable of fielding 4,500 tanks, 484 combat aircraft and 232 combat helicopters.

According to Michael Knights, a high estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding one million men and 850,000 reservists, 5,500 tanks, 3,000 artillery pieces, 700 combat aircraft and helicopters; and held 53 divisions, 20 special-forces brigades, and several regional militias, and had a strong air defense. Kuwait’s invasion by Iraqi

troops that began August 2, 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the U.N. Security Council. U.S. President George H. W. Bush deployed U.S.

forces into Saudi Arabia, and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene. An array of nations joined the Coalition, the biggest coalition since World War II.

According to Michael Knights, a high estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding one million men and 850,000 reservists, 5,500 tanks, 3,000 artillery pieces, 700 combat aircraft and helicopters; and held 53 divisions, 20 special-forces brigades, and several regional militias, and had a strong air defense. Kuwait’s invasion by Iraqi

troops that began August 2, 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the U.N. Security Council. U.S. President George H. W. Bush deployed U.S.

forces into Saudi Arabia, and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene. An array of nations joined the Coalition, the biggest coalition since World War II.

The great majority of the Coalition’s military forces were from the U.S., with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors, in that order. Saudi Arabia paid around US$36 billion of the US$60 billion cost. The war was marked by the beginning of live news on the front lines of the fight, with the primacy of the

U.S. network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast images on board the U.S. bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait

began with an aerial bombardment on January 17, 1991. This was followed by a ground assault on February24.

The great majority of the Coalition’s military forces were from the U.S., with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors, in that order. Saudi Arabia paid around US$36 billion of the US$60 billion cost. The war was marked by the beginning of live news on the front lines of the fight, with the primacy of the

U.S. network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast images on board the U.S. bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait

began with an aerial bombardment on January 17, 1991. This was followed by a ground assault on February24.

This was a decisive victory for the Coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory. The Coalition ceased their advance, and declared a cease-fire 100 hours after the ground campaign started.

Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on Saudi Arabia’s border. Iraq launched Scud missiles against Coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. United Nations Security

Council Resolution 687 passed in April 1991 established formal cease-fire terms. The controversies over enforcing this and subsequent resolutions would lead to the outbreak of another war 12 years later.

This was a decisive victory for the Coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory. The Coalition ceased their advance, and declared a cease-fire 100 hours after the ground campaign started.

Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on Saudi Arabia’s border. Iraq launched Scud missiles against Coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. United Nations Security

Council Resolution 687 passed in April 1991 established formal cease-fire terms. The controversies over enforcing this and subsequent resolutions would lead to the outbreak of another war 12 years later.

The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by Coalition forces. The fires started in

January and February 1991 and the last one was extinguished by November 1991. The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a

military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6 million barrels (950,000 m3) of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution.

The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by Coalition forces. The fires started in

January and February 1991 and the last one was extinguished by November 1991. The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a

military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6 million barrels (950,000 m3) of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution.



The Student is expected to:(A) Describe U. S. involvement in world affairs, including the

Balkans Crisis

Yugoslav Wars in the Balkans

The Yugoslav Wars were a series of wars fought in Yugoslavia from 1991 to 2001 between the republics that sought sovereignty on one side and the government in Belgrade on the other side that wanted to either prevent their independence or keep large parts of that territory under its control. The wars were complex: characterized by bitter ethnic conflicts among the peoples of the former

Yugoslavia, mostly between Serbs and Montenegrins on one side and Croats and Bosniaks in Bosnia on the other, but also between Bosniaks and Croats in Bosnia, between Croats on one side and Serbs and Montenegrins in Croatia on the other,

between Serbs and Slovenes in Slovenia, between Serbs and Albanians in Serbia, between Serbs and Kosovo Albanians in Kosovo and between Albanians and Macedonians in Macedonia. The wars ended at various stages and mostly resulted in full international

recognition of new sovereign territories, but with massive economic disruption to the successor states.

The Yugoslav Wars were a series of wars fought in Yugoslavia from 1991 to 2001 between the republics that sought sovereignty on one side and the government in Belgrade on the other side that wanted to either prevent their independence or keep large parts of that territory under its control. The wars were complex: characterized by bitter ethnic conflicts among the peoples of the former

Yugoslavia, mostly between Serbs and Montenegrins on one side and Croats and Bosniaks in Bosnia on the other, but also between Bosniaks and Croats in Bosnia, between Croats on one side and Serbs and Montenegrins in Croatia on the other,

between Serbs and Slovenes in Slovenia, between Serbs and Albanians in Serbia, between Serbs and Kosovo Albanians in Kosovo and between Albanians and Macedonians in Macedonia. The wars ended at various stages and mostly resulted in full international

recognition of new sovereign territories, but with massive economic disruption to the successor states.

Initially the Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA) sought to preserve the unity of the whole of Yugoslavia by crushing the secessionist governments; however the JNA increasingly came under the influence of the Serbian government

of Slobodan Milošević that evoked Serbian nationalist rhetoric and was willing to support the Yugoslav state insofar as using it to preserve the unity of Serbs in one state; as a result the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and ethnic Macedonians, and effectively became a Serb army. According to the 1994 United Nations report, the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia, but to create a “Greater Serbia”

from parts of Croatia and Bosnia.

Initially the Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA) sought to preserve the unity of the whole of Yugoslavia by crushing the secessionist governments; however the JNA increasingly came under the influence of the Serbian government

of Slobodan Milošević that evoked Serbian nationalist rhetoric and was willing to support the Yugoslav state insofar as using it to preserve the unity of Serbs in one state; as a result the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and ethnic Macedonians, and effectively became a Serb army. According to the 1994 United Nations report, the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia, but to create a “Greater Serbia”

from parts of Croatia and Bosnia.

Often described as Europe’s deadliest conflict since World War II, the conflicts have become infamous for the war crimes involved, including mass murder and genocide. These were the first

conflicts since World War II to be formally judged genocidal in character and many key individual participants were subsequently charged with war crimes. The International Criminal

Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established by the UN to prosecute these crimes.

Often described as Europe’s deadliest conflict since World War II, the conflicts have become infamous for the war crimes involved, including mass murder and genocide. These were the first

conflicts since World War II to be formally judged genocidal in character and many key individual participants were subsequently charged with war crimes. The International Criminal

Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established by the UN to prosecute these crimes.

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in the United States reported in April 1995 that 90 percent of all the atrocities in the Yugoslav wars up to that point had been committed by Serb militants. Most of these atrocities

occurred in Bosnia. In 1994 the US brokered peace between Croatian forces and the Bosnian Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the successful Flash and Storm operations, the Croatian Army and

the combined Bosnian and Croat forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, conducted an operation codenamed Operation Maestral to push back Bosnian Serb military gains. Together with NATO air strikes on the

Bosnian Serbs, the successes on the ground put pressure on the Serbs to come to the negotiating table.

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in the United States reported in April 1995 that 90 percent of all the atrocities in the Yugoslav wars up to that point had been committed by Serb militants. Most of these atrocities

occurred in Bosnia. In 1994 the US brokered peace between Croatian forces and the Bosnian Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the successful Flash and Storm operations, the Croatian Army and

the combined Bosnian and Croat forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, conducted an operation codenamed Operation Maestral to push back Bosnian Serb military gains. Together with NATO air strikes on the

Bosnian Serbs, the successes on the ground put pressure on the Serbs to come to the negotiating table.

Pressure was put on all sides to stick to the cease-fire and negotiate an end to the war in Bosnia. The war ended with the signing of the Dayton Agreement on the December 14, 1995, with the formation of Republika Srpska as an entity within

Bosnia and Herzegovina being the resolution for Bosnian Serb demands.

Pressure was put on all sides to stick to the cease-fire and negotiate an end to the war in Bosnia. The war ended with the signing of the Dayton Agreement on the December 14, 1995, with the formation of Republika Srpska as an entity within

Bosnia and Herzegovina being the resolution for Bosnian Serb demands.

Citing Serb atrocities and ethnic cleansing in Kosovo, the U.S. and NATO unleashed air attacks on Serbia after the failure of the “mini-Dayton” peace talks held in Rambouillet, France. President Clinton outlines no “exit

strategies” and warns that air strikes will continue as long as necessary. From the start, the Clinton administration ruled out sending U.S. ground troops to the Balkans, though debate over the utility of air power

alone repeatedly revives the issue. Vast floods of refugees spill into neighboring countries, threatening to enlarge the crisis and sparking criticism of the lack of contingency planning by NATO.

Citing Serb atrocities and ethnic cleansing in Kosovo, the U.S. and NATO unleashed air attacks on Serbia after the failure of the “mini-Dayton” peace talks held in Rambouillet, France. President Clinton outlines no “exit

strategies” and warns that air strikes will continue as long as necessary. From the start, the Clinton administration ruled out sending U.S. ground troops to the Balkans, though debate over the utility of air power

alone repeatedly revives the issue. Vast floods of refugees spill into neighboring countries, threatening to enlarge the crisis and sparking criticism of the lack of contingency planning by NATO.



The Student is expected to:(A) Describe U. S. involvement in world affairs, including 9/11

September 11, 2001

The September 11 attacks (also referred to as September 11, September 11th, or 9/11) were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks launched by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda upon the U. S. in New York City and the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area on Tuesday, September 11, 2001. Four passenger airliners were hijacked by 19 al-Qaeda terrorists so they could be flown into buildings in suicide attacks. Two of those planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the

North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City.

The September 11 attacks (also referred to as September 11, September 11th, or 9/11) were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks launched by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda upon the U. S. in New York City and the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area on Tuesday, September 11, 2001. Four passenger airliners were hijacked by 19 al-Qaeda terrorists so they could be flown into buildings in suicide attacks. Two of those planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the

North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City.

Within two hours, both towers collapsed with debris and the resulting fires causing partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the WTC complex, as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures. A

third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense), leading to a partial collapse in its western side. The fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, was targeted at Washington, D.C., but crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after its passengers tried

to overcome the hijackers. In total, almost 3,000 people died in the attacks, including the 227 civilians and 19 hijackers aboard the four planes. It also was the deadliest incident for firefighters in the history of the United States.

Within two hours, both towers collapsed with debris and the resulting fires causing partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the WTC complex, as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures. A

third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense), leading to a partial collapse in its western side. The fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, was targeted at Washington, D.C., but crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after its passengers tried

to overcome the hijackers. In total, almost 3,000 people died in the attacks, including the 227 civilians and 19 hijackers aboard the four planes. It also was the deadliest incident for firefighters in the history of the United States.

Suspicion quickly fell on al-Qaeda. Although the group’s leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, in 2004, he claimed responsibility for the attacks. Al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S. support of Israel, the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives for the attacks. The

United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, which had harbored al-Qaeda. Many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and

expanded law enforcement powers. Having evaded capture for years, bin Laden was located and killed by U.S. forces in May 2011.

Suspicion quickly fell on al-Qaeda. Although the group’s leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, in 2004, he claimed responsibility for the attacks. Al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S. support of Israel, the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives for the attacks. The

United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, which had harbored al-Qaeda. Many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and

expanded law enforcement powers. Having evaded capture for years, bin Laden was located and killed by U.S. forces in May 2011.

The destruction of the Twin Towers and other properties caused serious damage to the economy of Lower Manhattan and had a significant effect on global markets, closing Wall Street until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13. Many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed the

attack, either out of fear of further attacks or respect for the tragedy. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, and the Pentagon was repaired within a year. Numerous memorials have been

constructed, including the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York, the Pentagon Memorial, and the Flight 93 National Memorial in Pennsylvania.

The destruction of the Twin Towers and other properties caused serious damage to the economy of Lower Manhattan and had a significant effect on global markets, closing Wall Street until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13. Many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed the

attack, either out of fear of further attacks or respect for the tragedy. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, and the Pentagon was repaired within a year. Numerous memorials have been

constructed, including the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York, the Pentagon Memorial, and the Flight 93 National Memorial in Pennsylvania.

Domestic Reactions

Following the attacks, President Bush's approval rating soared to 90%. On September 20, 2001 he addressed the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts,

and described his intended response to the attacks. New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani’s highly visible role won him high praise in New York and nationally.

Following the attacks, President Bush's approval rating soared to 90%. On September 20, 2001 he addressed the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts,

and described his intended response to the attacks. New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani’s highly visible role won him high praise in New York and nationally.



The Student is expected to:(A) Describe U. S. involvement in world affairs, including

the global War on Terror

War on Terror

The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) is a term commonly applied to an international military campaign that started as a result of the

September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States. This resulted in an international military campaign to eliminate al-Qaeda and other militant organizations. The United States and many other NATO and non-NATO nations such as Pakistan participate in the conflict.

The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) is a term commonly applied to an international military campaign that started as a result of the

September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States. This resulted in an international military campaign to eliminate al-Qaeda and other militant organizations. The United States and many other NATO and non-NATO nations such as Pakistan participate in the conflict.

The phrase “War on Terror” was first used by President George W. Bush on September 20, 2001. The Bush administration and the Western media have since used the term to allege a global military, political, lawful, and

conceptual struggle—targeting both organizations designated as terrorist and regimes accused of supporting them. It was typically used with a particular focus on countries supporting militant Islamists, including al-Qaeda and similar organizations. Although the term is no longer officially used by the administration of U.S. President Barack Obama (which instead uses the term Overseas Contingency Operation), it is still commonly used by politicians, in the media and by some aspects of government officially, such as the United States’ Global War on Terrorism Service Medal.

The phrase “War on Terror” was first used by President George W. Bush on September 20, 2001. The Bush administration and the Western media have since used the term to allege a global military, political, lawful, and

conceptual struggle—targeting both organizations designated as terrorist and regimes accused of supporting them. It was typically used with a particular focus on countries supporting militant Islamists, including al-Qaeda and similar organizations. Although the term is no longer officially used by the administration of U.S. President Barack Obama (which instead uses the term Overseas Contingency Operation), it is still commonly used by politicians, in the media and by some aspects of government officially, such as the United States’ Global War on Terrorism Service Medal.

U.S. and NATO-Led Military Operations

On September 20, 2001, in the wake of the Sep. 11 attacks, George W. Bush delivered an ultimatum to the Taliban government of Afghanistan to turn over Osama bin Laden and al-

Qaeda leaders operating in the country or face attack. The Taliban demanded evidence of bin Laden’s link to the September 11 attacks and, if such evidence warranted a trial, they offered

to handle such a trial in an Islamic Court. The US refused to provide any evidence.

On September 20, 2001, in the wake of the Sep. 11 attacks, George W. Bush delivered an ultimatum to the Taliban government of Afghanistan to turn over Osama bin Laden and al-

Qaeda leaders operating in the country or face attack. The Taliban demanded evidence of bin Laden’s link to the September 11 attacks and, if such evidence warranted a trial, they offered

to handle such a trial in an Islamic Court. The US refused to provide any evidence.

Subsequently, in October 2001, US forces (with UK and coalition allies) invaded Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime. On 7 October 2001, the official invasion began with British and US forces

conducting airstrike campaigns over enemy targets. Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan, fell by mid-November. The remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban remnants fell back to the rugged mountains of eastern Afghanistan, mainly Tora Bora. In December, Coalition forces (the US and its allies) fought

within that region. It is believed that Osama bin Laden escaped into Pakistan during the battle.

Subsequently, in October 2001, US forces (with UK and coalition allies) invaded Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime. On 7 October 2001, the official invasion began with British and US forces

conducting airstrike campaigns over enemy targets. Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan, fell by mid-November. The remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban remnants fell back to the rugged mountains of eastern Afghanistan, mainly Tora Bora. In December, Coalition forces (the US and its allies) fought

within that region. It is believed that Osama bin Laden escaped into Pakistan during the battle.

Total American casualties from the War on Terror(this includes fighting throughout the world):

x

US Military killed 6,639

US Military wounded 50,422

US DoD Civilians killed 16

US Civilians killed (includes 9/11 and after)

3,000 +

US Civilians wounded/injured 6,000 +

Total Americans killed (military and civilian)

9,655 +

Total Americans wounded/injured

56,422 +

Total American casualties 66,077 +

Monetary Costs

A March 2011 Congressional report estimated spending related to the war through fiscal year 2011 at $1.2 trillion, and that spending through 2021 assuming a

reduction to 45,000 troops would be $1.8 trillion. A June 2011 academic report covering additional areas of spending related to the war estimated it through 2011

at $2.7 trillion, and long term spending at $5.4 trillion including interest.

A March 2011 Congressional report estimated spending related to the war through fiscal year 2011 at $1.2 trillion, and that spending through 2021 assuming a

reduction to 45,000 troops would be $1.8 trillion. A June 2011 academic report covering additional areas of spending related to the war estimated it through 2011

at $2.7 trillion, and long term spending at $5.4 trillion including interest.

x

Expense CRS/CBO (Billions US$): Watson (Billions constant US$):

FY2001-FY2011

War appropriations to DoD 1208.1 1311.5

War appropriations to DoS/USAid 66.7 74.2

VA medical 8.4 13.7

VA disability 18.9

Interest paid on DoD war appropriations 185.4

Additions to DoD base spending 362.2-652.4

Additions to Homeland Security base spending

401.2

Social costs to veterans and military families to date

295-400

Subtotal: 1283.2 2662.1-3057.3

FY2012-future

FY2012 DoD request 118.4

FY2012 DoS/USAid request 12.1

Projected 2013–2015 war spending 168.6

Projected 2016–2020 war spending 155

Projected obligations for veterans' care to 2051

589-934

Additional interest payments to 2020 1000

Subtotal: 454.1 2043.1-2388.1

Total: 1737.3 4705.2-5445.4

readiness standards comprise 65% of the u. s. history test 11 (a)

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