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Geoforum Vol 15No 4 pp 543--5611984 Pergamon Nress LtdPinted in Great Brian

Ravine Erosion and Reclamation in India

MARTIfJ J HAIGH Oxford UK

Abstrct Ravine and gully erosion affects 1of Indias land area Zones of severe ravine trenching are found along the margins of the Gangetic Basin and in the semi-arid northwest Ravine reclamation is currently Tated as a high national priority and India has the Tiird Worlds leading soil conservation movement This paper reviews the technical contributions made to the study of ravine origins and genesis by government soil conservation research workers in the light of the dissident views expressed by academic geoscientists It also reviews the soil conshyservation establishments major contributions to cost-effective ravine reclamation planning However it is emphasised that while great advances have been made towards technological remedies for ravine erosion relatively little has been accomshyplished in the realm of social science Successful ravine reclamation requires the support and involvement of the local cultivator and local community and probably reform of local land tenure and social arrangements Towards this end much experience has been accumulated in non-government circles through the activities of Gandhian sarvodaya groups It is recommended that their ideas and methods are integrated into ravine rcclamation activities

erosion and land conservation were exclusively theIntroduction province of the worlds major scientific nations

Gully erosion due to river channel trenching is a their colonial extensions and international organisshy

problem that threatens vast tracts of the worlds ations agricultural land The damage is greatest in the

This paper seeks to redress the balance Its concernalluvial plains of the cemi-arid and arid zones and most serious where it threatens precarious is with Indias im al struggle with the pioblems of

subsistence-oriented agricultural systems in the ravine and gully erosion Its goal is tw award longshyoverdue recognition to the research and experiencedeveloping world of Indias sriall cadre of soil conservationists and

Ravine-cut landscapes occur in many areas and geoscientists and to the Third Worlds leading

have many names The French call them lavaka the non-colonial soil conservation movement It is an

Brazilians vossoroca or bocoroca (TRICART attempt to collect and collate that rkaterial within Indias internal publications which is of value to the1972 PRANDINI 1974 OKA FIORI and

SOARES 1976) They have been reported from global struggle against ravine and gully erosion

Zimbabwe (STOCKING 1978) Madagascar (PETIT and BORGEAT 1965) Central Russia

Swaraj hidian Approach to Science and(BOGOLYUBOVA and KARAUSHEV 1979) and many parts of the American Southwest where Development they are associated vith the name arroyo

There is evidence of prejudice against Indian scienshy(COOKE and REEVES 1976) tific publication in the west Even in India there is

However on reading the scientific literature one growing concern about the quality of Indias scienshy

might be forgiven for wondering if concern for gully tific publications (RAMASEHAN 1982) and there

is no doubt that this concern is sometimes justified

Studies Oxford PolytechnicDeparlment of Social In part the problem results from India Overall

Oxford OX3 OBP UK

343

544

approach to self-reliant development In business and technology it has been Indian policy to build internal capacity even if that is initially of low quality rather than to allow its own endeavours to be swamped by products from outside Slowly and against enormous odds this economic strategy appears to be succeeding

Indias universities and research centres seem to be operating under the same principles In many cases they lack the resources and facilities to compete effectively with institutes in the west However they are by no means colonial institutions Foreign influence is restricted to a handful of returned scholars The shortage of funds for foreign travel and the limitations of institutional libraries together with the magnitude of Indias internal traditions of scholarship and culture have helped enhance this isolation Indias science like Indias industry develops in its own independent insular world (EISEMON 1982)

Soil Conservation Research in India

Indian work in soil conservation has origins which can be traced back before independence (RAMA RAO 1970) However the modern movement has followed an American lead (PANDE 1981) The pioneering Journalof Soil and Water Conservation in India was launched in 1952 by workers in the Damodar Valley Corporation (Bihar) a scheme modelled on Americas Tennesee Valley Authority and which absorbed much of its ethos

During the 1960s the DVC lead was superseded by the work of Central Government institutes es-pecially the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research Demonstration and Training Institute at Dehra Dun UP though the fading impress of the American model remained Indian soil conserv-ation however lAc much Indian science has become progressively more self-contained and introverted as the years have passed The reasons for this are not wholly clear though there seems to be a belief that Indias own research is more relevant to its immediate problems and experience than that from elsewhere Citation analysis of the IndianJournalof Soil Conservation6-9 1978-1981 reveals that two-thirds ot the citations are drawn from Indian publications and one-quarter from American The average age of the foreign sources is conspicuously greater than those from India

GeoforumVolume 15Number 41984

The fact that ravine erosion as such is not recogshynised elsewhee in the world has helped compound the isolation of Indian research The literature on related phenomena gully erosion stream trenching and arroyo incision is heavily domina-ed by Amerishycan work but this is scattered through a geoscienshytific literature which only partially penetrates the research libraries of India

Ravine Lands of India

Land degradation by ravines and gullies is wideshyspread in India The NATIONAL COMMISSION ON AGRICULTURE (1976) estimated that 367 million ha (1 of Indias iand area) is damaged NARAYANA and BABU (1983) claim 4000000 ha as a more reasonable estimate of land covered by gullies In colonial days the problem was considered to be even worse The NATIONAL PLANNING COMMITTEE (1943) believed that 38 of United Indias land area suffered severe gully erosion and that 8 of the United Provinces some 2 million ha

were barren ravines

There are four major areas of severe ravine erosion (SHARMA 1980 Figure 1) The largest is the Yamuna-Chambp Ravine Zone Ravines flank the Yamuna river for nearly 250 km and in the Agra and Etawah Districts attain depths of more than 80 m Nearly 389000 ha are affected along the Yamuna in Southern Uttar Pradesh but the -rea affected along the tributary Chambal River is still greater The Chambal ravines flank the main chanshynel in a 10 km wide belt which extends southward from the Yamuna confluence some 480 kin to the town of Kota in Madhya Pradesh Ravines infest the basins of several Chambal tributaries notably the Mej and Morel-Dhund Altogether some 5000 km 2

are affected The whole region is so seriously eroded that the only remaining vestiges of the allushyvial plain which antedated incision are the artificialshyly protected islands on which villages sitedare (3HARMA 1980 pp 20-21)

In arid Gujarat the Ravine Belt covers 500000 ha and extends from the southern bank of the Tapti River along the banks of the Narmada and Watrak to the borders of Rajasthan in the Sabramati and Mahi basins There are other areas of substantial ravine erosion in Chota Nagpur Bihar the Mahashynadi and Upper Son Valley of Mirzapur all on the southern fringes of the Gangetic Plain and the Siwalik and Rhabar tract of the western Himalayan

oI

545 GeoforumVolume 15Number 41984

degdegE 720 700 080 840 880 92 9odegE

if

32N

2 Siwalik Foothi1s 280 Punjab Zone

3

euro

munacambal 140

Chota Naqpur

ZoneGujarat

200 Zone

100

120 Ravine Zones 120

80 ON

72 9 70 d- 84 88 92E

Figure 1 Distribution of ravine zones in India (SHARMA 1980)

Figure 2 Ravine near Jaipur Rajasthan [Type 4a TEJWANI 1968 D2 GUPTA andPRAJAPATI 1983 SETIH etal 1969 G2 BIIULYAN 1967 (sec Table 2) reclaimabilityclass 1 BALI and KARALE 1977 (see Table 3)]

546 GeoforumVolume 151Numbei 41984

foothills (SHARMA 1980) Less extensive ravi-nous badlands can be found near Mathura in Uar Pradesh in the Upper Tapti Basin of Gujarat near Jaipur in Rajasthan (Figure 2) and even in Kashmir(SINGH 1958 Table 1)

Origin of Indias Ravines

In the West there is much debate concerning the origins of ravine-like arroyos trenched channels and badlands Some workers prefer to relate these features to climatic changes causewhich modifi-cation to ground cover concentration of run-off and changes to the level of ground water tables Others believe that they are caused by human activities which have induced the concentration of surface flow (HUDSON 1971 COOKE 1974 PATTON and SCHUMM 1975 COOKE and REEVES 1976 SCHUMM 1Q77 GRAF 1979) Certainly in southern Arizona newspaper reports from the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth Centuries record the exact dates of channel trenching in this region(SHERiDAN 1981 andCOOKE REEVES 1976) Further there is at least one arroyo Greenes Canal which is completely artificial It was created around 1910 as an irrigation canal It evolved into an arroyo following floods in 1914 which carved a deep incision into the ditchs floor (COOKE and REEVES 1976 pp 53-54) The arguments on both sides of the arroyo debate are so welldocumented that the leading reviewers of the sub-ject (COOKE and REEVES 1976 pp 187-189)allow the possibility of convergence and conclude that both explanations are possible Soviet workers who face similar problems in the central Russian

uplands and Dnieper Highlands have independentshyly reached the same conclusion (BOGOLY-UBOVA and KARAUSHEV 1979)

Indian soil conservation workers have on the whole preferred explanations couched in land-use terms (GUPTA 1973 GUPTA and PRAJAPATI1983) Gullies and ravines are explained as due to surface run-off mismanagement (PRAJAPATI etal 1982 ALl 1974) especially deforestation overgrazing and ill-considered tillage in an environshyment which is particularly susceptible to erosion (KAUL 1962a TEIWANI 1959) This susceptibilshyity is in part due to the intensity and concentration of rainfall during the monsoon (SINGH et al 1976 BABU et al 1978 RAGHUNATH et al 1982)and in part due to the erodibility of the deep allushyvial soils where most of the ravies develop(MEHTA et al 1958 VERMA and PATEL 1969 NARAIN et al 1979) The report of the NATIONAL COMMISSION ON AGRICUL-TURE (1976) points out that in India there are no historical records to indicate when ravine erosion started though it is certainly pre-Mughal (HABIB 1963 p 14) However the report agrees that indisshycriminate land-use practices leading to a disturbshyance of the hydrological balance is one of the reasons Ceriainly ravine erosion on the Choca Nagpur Plateau in Bihar is closely associated with forest thinning (SHARMA 1980 p 28)

Western theories which relate ravine and gully eroshysion to climate find little support within the Indian scientific community In India the main zones of ravine erosion have no obvious relation to climate In Gujarat and Rajasthan the rainfall is only 500-

Table 1 Area affected by ravines in India (million ha)

NATIONAL COMMISSION ON AGRICULTURE (1976) and

MINISTRY OF HOME

All India Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Bihar Rajasthan GujaratPuijablaryanaWest Bengal Tamil Nadu Maharastra

AFFAIRS (1972)

3669 1230 0683 0600 0452 0400 0120 0104 0060 0020

547 GeoforumrVoume 15Number 41984

750 mmyear but in the Yamuna-Chambal Ravine Certainly the enormity of the Chambal andZone it ranges upwards from 750 to 1330 mmyear Yamuna ravines which achieve depths of 60-80 mIn the western Sub-Himalayan Zone the annual lends weight to the geological argument Howeverrainfall is 1125-1225 mmyear and in Chota Nagpur it is possible that the tectonically induced susshy1125-1500 mmyear (SHARMA 1980) ceptibility to ravine trenchment has in fact been

brought to realisation by human activities In otherIndias geoscientists however prefer another words neotectonics may have prepared the way forexplanation They note that most of Indias ravine- ravine erosion but in most circumstances thelands are to be found on the margins of the Gange- actual ravine erosion may have been triggered andtic Plains AHMAD (1968 1973) argues for the exacerbated by human activities possibility of peripheral uplift of the Peninsular Shield by pressure against the Himalayas and sug- Classificationof Gullies andRavines gests that the discontinuous pattern of incision isdue to differential rates of disturbance PRA- The international literature contains a substantialMILLA and RAI (1972) write of the rejuvenation number of different approaches to the classificationof the Deccan Foreland SHARMA (1968 1979 of gully and related channels (IMESON and1980) extends the argument by pointing out that KWAAD 1980) The Indian approach is notablethere is no easy correlation between intensity of for its single-minded orientation towards the probshyhuman occupance or deforestation and the intensity lems of erosion control and land reclamation Inof ravine erosion along the margins of the Deccan such circumstances plan-form (cf IRELAND et alIn addition he cites a number of geomorphological 1939) is much less important than depth of incisionstudies which illustrate the polycyclic character of and bed-width It is unfortunate that the Indiansriver valleys in Peninsular India (SHARMA 1979 hae yet to agree on the details of a gully classifishy1980) cation but several ad hoc variations have been

Table 2 Classification of channels based on dimensions

Gujarat (TEJWANI Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan Chambal River Basin1968) (GUPTA and (BHULYAN 1967) (SETH et al 1969)PRAJAPATI 1983)

Very small GI gullies up to I m DI shallow ravines up GI gullies up to I m DO gullies less than 15 mdeep and 18 in bed- to 15 m deep (18 overall) deep and 3 m widewidth (10 overall)t

DI gullies less than 15 m and more than 3 m wide (60 overall)Small G2 gullies up to 3m D2 medium ravines G2 gullies 1-5 m D2 gullies between 15 anddeep and more than 15-5 m deep deep (39 5 m deep more than 318 m bed-width overall) m wide (24 overall)

Medium G3 guilies 3-9 m deep D3 deep ravines 5-10 G3 gullies more than D3 trenches 5-10 m deepand not less than 18 m deep 5 m deep (43 (6 overall)m of bed width overall)side-slope 8-15

Large G4 (a) gullies 3-9 in D4 very deep rav iesdeer and less 10 m deep than 18 mn of bed-width

(b) ravines more than 9 in deep Side-slopes steep to vertical and gullied

Survey of 137000 ha area of ravine land bull Survey of 1570 ha area near Alnia River confluence Chambal Command Area

9


developed to meet the needs of individual projects Once established a soil pipe extends headwards up(Table 2) (NB The dimensions selected reveal a the hydraulic gradient and expands its sides andgreat deal about the varying character of Indias roof by collapse Eventually roof collapse exposesgully problems) It is however agreed that gulliesvary the pipe at the soil surface - iniaially as a steepshyin size along a regular scale that can bc sided oval depression then laterexpressed in as a trenchterms of depth bed-width and side- Further evolution is controlled by the parallelslope steepness (GUPTA and PRAJAPATi 1983) retreat of the gully side-walls and deposition on theThese concepts are at present best encapsulated gully floorby the system devised by TEJWANI and DHRU-VANARAYANA (1961) for the Gujarat RavineZone In the Indian literature the soil conservation workshyand which TEJWANI (1972 19741975) ers prefer to explain ravine evolution in terms ofbelieves should be extended to the description of all surface run-off (TEJWANI et al 1975 Table 4)Indias gullied lands However for the purposes ofreclamation the Tejwani system is in danger of

and in this they are joined by the soil conservationtextbooks of America and Russia (SOBOLEVbeing supplanted by rival schemes notably a 5-classravine land classification proposed by BALI and Table 3 Ravinc reclaimability groups (BALI andKARALE (1977 BALI 1972 a b and c 19671968) KARALE 1977)which includes gully depth width slope with drainshyage density soil texture depth to caliche hard pan Class I Very good ravinous lands that can be reclaimedor rock especially on the inter-gully table-land anddepth to ground water (see Table 3) readily with minor reclamation operations oflevelling and scraping These lands includeshallow ravines (GI) with widths up to 30 m or

more simple and compound bed-slopes of up to5 lack extremes of texture and do not haveEvolution of Gully Channel and Ravinelands within a depth of 15 m a calcareous layer hardpan bed rock salinity or alkalinity Ground water level is below 25 mIt has long been recognised that gully channels are Class II minor reclamation operations but requiring Good lands that can be reclaimed re-dily withthe product of two types of flow concentration more dozing work than class IThe depth andsurficial and subterranean There are two types of width specifications for this group are the samegully channel continuous and discontinuous as class I but bed-slopes range between 5and(HEEDE 1967 1974) Continuous gully channelsevolve at the ground surface as a result of the con- RD They have a low frequency of gullies Theyalso lack extremes of texture hard pans calichesalinity or alkalinity within the depth of 1-15 mcentrati a of overland flow As flow is concentrated Class III Moderate laids that can be reclaimed withits power to transport sediment increases

exponentially Continuous gully channels begin medium intensity reclamation measures These lands have moderately deep ravines with narrowshycoalescence of tills

as a and have channels which to-moderate width medium frequency withbecome deeper downslope until the point where this are moderately fine and fine often demandinggrowth is limited by deposition or a local base-level

(HEEDE 1974) Discontinuous gullies are heavy draft Soils have slight to moderate salinity

compound bed-slopes of 10-15 Soil textures

rather andor alkalinity and possess calcium carbonatedifferent they begin as an abrupt headcut tend to hard pan or bed rock within 05-1 m from thebecome more shallow downslope and often end as a surface midslope alluvial fan Class IV Poor includes medium-to-deep gullies of narrow

width There are severe limitations due toDiscontinuous gullies are particularly associated complex and strong be-d-slopes a high frequencyof gullies extremes of textures salinity andwith the subterranean concentration of flow in soil alkalinity and the occurrence of hard layers bedpipes (Figure 3) Frequently this is caused by a rock or pans within 05 m from the surfacelocal lowering of the water-table which increases the These lands are very costly to reclaim or may nethydraulic gradient JONES (1968) indicates that in be suitable for agriculture after reclamationReclamation of such lands for horticultural usesArizona hydraulic gradients as low as 3 can initi- is recommendedate piping especially when the soil contains lines of Class V Unsuitable there are severe limitations forstructural weakness such as shrinkage cracks reclamation of these lands for agriculture orSHARMA (1979 1980) believes that the solution of horticulture and the very high cost meansreclamation is not desirable Such lands wouldcalcareous layers in the soil is an important factor be best developed for forestry and grasslandbut this idea does not seem to be widely accepted


Tabla 3 Continued

Reclamation suitability groupsClass Property Very good Good Moderate Poor Unsuitable

1 Depth of the lt25 lt25 22-50 25-50 gt50gully (m)

2 Width of the above 30 above 30 15-30 15-30 Up to 15gully (m)

3 Bed-slope simple simple simple compound complex complexcompound compound compound 10-15 15-25complex and steep up to 5

25 5-10

gradient4 Frequency of lt500 lt500 500-1000 500-1000 gt 1000

gullies (length in m)

5 Texture within si sli with- sI sil sc sil I c s Is Sand or1m of out any hard scl concre-depth pan concre- hard pansic tary concreshytioiary layer clay layer be- tionaryor bed rock low 05 m layer6 Occurrence of none or 1-15 m 05-10 m none or lithiccalcareous below 15 surfae any depth paralishylayerhard m followed any dhrn thic strongpanbed byrock salinitytexturesevere

salinity texur alkalinityalkalinity acontact

within 05 m of the

7 Depth of the surfacegt25 gt25 1-25 05-1 lt05inter-gullied zones above lithic or paralithic contact (m)

8 Ground water gt25 gt25 lt25 lt25 lt25table (depth in m)

s sand sl sandy loam sil sity loam sic silty clay Is loamy sand 1loam scl sandy clay loam c clay

1948 SCHWAB et al 1981) SHARMA (1979 larly in India observation suggests that both surflshy1980 Table 4) by contrast emphasises the import- cial and subterranean processes are at work in allance of pipe erosion (see also OLLIER and gully systems Nevertheless the authors researchesBROWN 1971 OLLIER and MacKENZIE in ravine lands near Jaipur Rajasthan discovered1974) vertical-sided flat-floored ravines identical to those produced by soil-pipe exposure in ArizonaIt has long been realised that discontinuous and

continuous gullies are part of a continuum seriesthat discontinuous gullies may evolve into con- Rates of Ravine Expansiontinuous ones by coalescence and that most gullychannels are a hybrid of the two types (HEEDE The problem of ravine erosion in India has attained1967 1974 OLLIER and BROWN 1971) Simi- the status of a national emergency because in many


Figure 3 Vertical ravine sidewall (height 6 m)with soil pipes Rajasthan

areas ravine systems are aggressively encroaching on agricultural lands (DAYAL 1975) Ulnfortu-nately few reliable siampes have been directed to the evaluation of this problem One notable excep-tion is a study which compared the area given over to ravines in Badoh village Kota District Rajas-than as represented on the maps of 19231924 with that identified on air photographs dated 19531954 In the 30-year period the ravined areas increased by 53 (KHYBRI 1973)

It has been said however that the ravine lands across all Rajasthan increase their area by 500 ha each year that is an increase of 175 hayear for each 1000 ha of existing ravine land (G SINGH et al 1966) Ahuja (in TEJWANI et al 1975) who appears to have pioneered this type of study con-sidered that each year around 810 ha of ravine land was added to the ravines of Madhya Pradeshs Morena Bhind and Gwalior districts Accepting the data quoted by SHARMA (1980) there are 419000 ha affected by ravines in this area which means that the annual rate of expansion is 193 ha for each 1000 ha of existing ravine land

SHARMA (1976) has studied ravine extension in the Morel Basin of Rajasthan The estimated rate of ravine extension ranged from 06 to 10 myear and was greater on sandy than on the clayey loam soils SHARMA (1979) also conducted a study of ravine extension in the Lower Chambal Valley Here analysis based on the comparison of Survey of India maps and interviews with local farmers indicated that the rate of ravine extension is between 025 and 045 myear and that the rate of extension is a function of soil type and ravine size

A case study conducted at the Soil Conservation Research Centre at Vasad in the Gujarat Ravine Zone which examined a 024 ha catchment with a 10 slope found that gully erosion advanced at an accelerating pace during 2 years of observation In August 1973 the gully-affected area was only 173 m2 In 1974 after 1294 mm of rainfall its area had expanded to 200 m2 The following year supplied only 657 mm of rainfall but by August 1975 the young ravine had expanded to 231 M2 (SINGH and KAMANNAVER 1975) So in 2 years the gully had increased its area by more than one-third In

551 GeoforumVolume 15Number41984

the second year of observation despite receiving 16 and the area added to the gully increased byonly little over half the rainfall of the previous 15 year the rate of expansion remained between 15 and

Table 4 Evolution of gully channels and ravine systems

(1)TEJWANI et al (1975) India

Stage 1 Rills form in a sheet-washed surface and cut throughtopsoil to subsoils beneath

Stage 2 Small gully cuts down into sandy layers below subsoil These are readily washed out and the gullywidens by undercutting and collapse forming vertical headcut and side-walls Stage 3 Incision stopped by encounter with stable horizon or water-table Headcut and side-walls retreat laterally and become less steep

Stage 4 Either vegetation and shi ubs colonise the side-walls then stabilise the gully channel andor the cycle is repeated on a bigger scale

k4) OLLIER and BROWN (1971) New Guinea

Stage 1 Rills begin 10-30 m from slope head A rill is a small channel formed by downward erosion alongthe entire length of a watercourse Stage 2 Major fills grow into gullychannels Relict rills arr left as small hanging tributaries

Stage 3 Gully heads extend byparticle extrusion Pore water causes particles to be extruded from a free-face in saturated porousmaterial This process is enhanced by guily wall undermining and collapse The authors have no explanation for headcut origination Stage 4 Colonisation by dense tropical vegetaion fossilises the gully system Ercsional features persist relatively unltered (studybased on a young volcanic cone of pumice and ash)

(2) SHARMA (1980) India

Stage 1 Subterranean solution of calcium carbonate nodules creates a swallow hole

Stage 2 Swallow holes become linked to walls on incising master channel by soil pipes and a steepening of the local hydraulic gradient (cf JONES 1968)

Stage 3 Subterranean pipe system is opened up by collapse

Stage 4 Side-wall retreat causes the channel to get wider and more shallow as and if sediments accumulate on channel bed

(5)SCHWAB et al (1981) USA

Stage 1 Channel created by incision into topsoil This process may be quite slow where the topsoil resists erosion Stage 2 Gully channel enlarges in th and depth Headcut advances upstream Channel cuts into the C horizon and the weak weathered parent material is removed Awaterfall develops where flow plunges from the upstream segment to the eroded channel below Stage 3 Healing begins with vegetation beginning to grow in the channel and on its margins

Stage 4 Gully is abilised The channel reaches a stable gradientthe gully walis a stable slopeVegetation colonisation proceedssufficiently to anchor the soil and permit the development of a new topsoil

(3) SOBOLEV (1948) USSR

Stage 1 Rills form often on a scarpface due to human activities landsliding or differential slope retreat Stage 2 Small gully forms on valleyside slope due to accidental concentration of flow due to natural or artificial causes Gully head cuts upslope

Stage 3 Gully deepens towards the development of an equilibrianlongitudinal profile involving no erosion or deposition beyondheadcut advance and side-wall retreat Stage 4 Either the gully achieves a stable long profile and heals as its banks retreat to a gentle angle or it continues to grow to become the size of a ravine

552 GeoforumVolume 15Number 41984 Current wisdom prefers that gully systems undergoallometric that is proportional growth The UNITED STATES SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE (1966) has developed a formula to pre-dict headcut advance This equation has the form

R - a(W)ba2 (P)c

where R is a headcut advance W is drainage area above the headcut P is the summation of dailyrainfall totals r eater than 127 mm a and a- are scaling constant b is an exponent of value 046 and c is an exponent of value 020

A detailed empirical study of allometric gully sys-tern expansion has been published by FAULKNER (1974) BHAN (1973 1981) has modellelt the growth of the Kamtari Basin ravines in the Yamuna belt as an exponential power function of area against time

Land Capability Classification

The problem of spreading ravine-affected areas has had to be incorporated into agricultural planning for the ravine lands TEJWANI (19741975) had pro-duced a land capability classification which is based on two criteria land-slope and distance from the

gully rim (Table 5) For example class 6(a) land is within 6 m of the gully rim Studies of ravine-wall retreat along the Mahi River ravines near Baroda found annual retreat rates ranging from I to 5 m year Clearly class 6(a) land has avery limited life expectancy

BALI and KARALE (1977) present a more optishymistic alternative This is a 5-point classification of ravines based on degree of reclaimability The scheme (Table 3) incorporates concern for gullydepth and local slope and for the problems disshycovered by past reclamation efforts SONI (1968) discovered that a shallow calcareous pan will cause the roots of trees to spread horizontally so that the trees planted for reclamation purpose die Soil proshyperties such as texture the presence of saline alkaline layers and ground water depth as well as depth to caliche or rock also affect the constxuction and subsequent behaviour of terr ices so these too are included BALI and KARALE (1977) also mention that information on land ownership and land-use practices are important for project planshyning Balis previous ravine work was heavilyoriented to air photograph interpretation where social factors are more easily ignored (BALI et al 1969)

The professional soil conservationists however

Table 5 Land capability classification in ravine lands (TEJWANI 1975 258)

Land capability Landform class type

1 table lands 2 table lands 3(a) table lands and

broad interfluves 3(b) table lands 3(c) table lands 4t table lands 6(a) gully margins 6(b) table lands 6)c) beds of small

(G1-G3) gullies7(a) table land 7(b) deep and narrow

gully channels

tNo class 5 is identified See Table 2 colunin 1

Slope angle ()

Distance from gully rim (m)

0--1 gt60 1-3 gt60 0-3 6-60

3-5 gt6 5-10 gt6 10-15 gt6 0-15 lt6 15-25 lt6

gt25 lt6

Criteria for land capability classes are described in HUDSON (1971 pp 169-175)

553 GeoforumNolume 15Number 41984

have a growing awareness of the complex problems has seenof project implementation both a revival of interest in decentralisedThey are ctirrently Gandhian approaches toengaged in several integrated reclamation schemes rural development and newin different contexts which they call

successes for environmentalist groups practicshyOperationsResearch projects (JAISWAL

ing Gandhian methods The echniques of Sarvoshyet al 1977 daya have begun to turn the tide against defores-TEJWANI et al 1975 GUPTA and PRAJAPATI1983) tation in the Himalaya of Uttarakhand Sooner orlater groups modelled on the Himalayas Chipko

Andolan (MISHRA and TRIPATHI 1978) will getround to tackling theRavine Reclamation ravine lands The ravinousbadlands of Chambal and elsewhere with their

Soil conservationists infestations of bandits (BALI 1972a) have an emoshythe world over spend a large tional and media attraction not far short of that ofpart of their time reclaiming gullied lands but the Himalayanowhere is this an exact science (HEEDE 19781979) Practical soil conservationists also recognisethat land conservation is as much

Meanwhile establishment soil conservationists conshya social scientificproblem as a technological problem (HUDSON

tinue to conduct solid if rather piecemeal research 1983) Further it is

into the technical problems of ravine reclamationwideiy recognised that the TEJWANI et al (1975) stress the importance ofsocietal pressures that encourage land degradation regulating land use Their first reclamation priorityand which restrict the effectiveness of soil conser-vation programmes are often more intractable than

is closure to grazing and other biotic disturbancePart of thethe technological problems

reason is to allow the recovery of vegeshyof erosion control tati3n Overgrazing is a major problem on the com-Despite this soil conservationists tend to be trained mon lands of India andfirst as technologists in many areas deforesshysecond as environmentalists tation Pnd desertification is being abetted by thisand last of all as applied s3cial scientists The situ- process In arid Rajasthan Acharya et al (in JAISshyation is clearly reflected in the contents of theworlds top two soil conservation textbooks WAL et al 1977) report that 80-90 of the range-

SCHWAB et al (1981) land is degraded and current livestock fodderignore the social aspects of requirements are ansoil conservation HUDSON eighth larger than the lands(1971) cites hunan- productive capacity Simple closure ofkind as a cause but describes only technical cures a tract ofravine land atBy contrast in 1982-1983 the worlds premier con-

Vasad Gujarat resulted in a 35increase in tree cover in just 5 years (SINGH andservation journal The Journal of Soil and Water DAYAL 1974 a b 1975 TEJWANI et al 1975)Conserationcarried one to two articles per issue on the broad political problems of conflict resolu-Similar results were obtained in an experiment atKota in the Chambal Region (KAULtion and 1962 a bon the sociological problems of soil con- VERMA et al 1969)

servation implementation

Despite some glimmerings of promise in the early Closure to grazing can also reduce soil loss by morethan 80 (MIRCHANDANIdays of soil conservation in India (BLACKMORE et al 1958) and

and HOLSCHER increase the development of the grass root systems1957) the profession has pre- by up to 184 (PANDEY et al 1967) This inserved the blinkers of the standard textbooks In turn would help stop gully incision by increasing1975 Indias Central Siil and Water Conservation soil strength GRAF (1979) models ravine incisionResearch Demonstration and Training Institute as a cusp catastrophe where the axes are vegetationhad a staff of 66 but there were only five posts in coverstrength and run-off erosivitythe newly created section of economics and extenshysion Central government institutes everywhere PATNAIKtend to be slow to react but change has begun et al (1974) afforested a 2 ha 20slope catchment in the Chandigarh Siwaliks This

measure reduced surfaceIndia however has the advantage of possessing a reduced flood peaks run-off by 54 and

dynamic by 57 RASTROGIand vital environmentalist andmovement SHARMA (1970) note that(AGARWAL control of surfaceet al 1982) This is further blessed water-flow is also necessary to restrict gully headcutby having been endowed with an indigenous and advance and permit vegetation regeneration Theywidely accepted political philosophy dedicated to peoples action

recommend water diversion by the construction offor development The last decade terraces

554

Ravine Reclamation Engineering

Reclamation engineering is founded on the premisethat re-contouring the land will stop erosion Itignores the fact that re-shaped land tends to beinherently more erodible than that which is undis-turbed Worse engineering structures requiremaintenance which is expensive They also can bepositively harmful if they are not maintained pro-perly which requires an unusual degree ofcommunity involvement and support Further en-gineering structures tend to have a life expectancywhich rarely exceeds that of the problem they are intended to counter ALl (1974) epitomises the en-gineering philosophy He noted that losses of soisoil nutrients and moisture are increased by slopesof only 1-2 His solution level all land in theslope range 05-3 The Indian soil conservation establishment has developed a rarge of treatments which range from ploughing out for minor gully networks to more complex schemes involving gullyplugging and the terracing of gully sidewalls(TEJWANI et al 1975 Table 6) Most of this workhas been conducted at the Vasad research station in Gujarat (eg PRADHAM et al 1976)

In economic terms the success or failure of a phys-

Table 6 Reclamation recommendations (GUPTA andPRAJAPATI 1983) (structural measures after closure tograzing)le

1 Small gullies (less than 3 m depth Clearing minor levelling contour burds with piped outlets earthencheckdam with masonry spillway Earth bunds andcheckdam to be protected by vegetation with (Cynodon dactylon) grass2 Medium gullies (3-9 mdepth) Clearing levellingbench terracing of side-slopes plugging of tributarygullies earthen and brick checkdam at 1-2 m verticalintervals Structures to be protected y grassing3 Deep gullies (more than 9 in) Peripheral bunding anddiversion of water to amasonry spillway (In areas likeChambal where the rainfall isheavier graded bunds are preferred (cf DAYAL 1975) The object istostarve the gully of water Lateral earthen bunds at120-150 m intervals guard against breach of thecontour bund Bunds are protected by grassing(Dichanthium annulatum Cenchurus ciliate Panicumantidotale(PRAJAPATI et al 1982 SINGH e al 1969) Afforestation preferably with local speciesDalbergiasissoo (slopes) Dendrocalamusstrictus(Bamboo) and Eucalyptus camnaldenis(beds) alsoAcacia spp Albizzia lebbeck Azadiracita indica and Tectona grandis(MAJUMDAR et al 1962TAMHANE et al 1964 GIDWANI et al 1967SINGH and MONAPPA 1968 SINGH etal 19731977 PRADHAIM etal 1976 PRDHAM 1979)Bamboo may prove the most useful tree crop (PURland KHYBRI 1975)

GeoforumXolume 15Number 41984 ical reclamation project can often be expressed in terms of water conservation Bunds and check damsin the desert concentrate water and silt At VasadGujarat conservation measures reduced run-offfrom 35 to 27 of the rainfall The increase inavailable water resulted in increased agriculturalproduction the value of which was one-tenth that ofthe whole treatment (SINGH and DAYAL 1974 ab 1975 SINGH 1976 KAUL 1957)

AHMAD (1957) reports from Attock DistrictPakistan that plants grow more effectively on bunds(also VERMA et a[ 1978) KAMANNAVAR et al (1977) believe that the increased productivity of grasses and firewood can be used to offset the expense of bunding and soil conservation work butadds the caution that the life expectancy of bunds isonly about 20 years Further bund systems requiremaintenance which can cost as much as 1 of theinitial investment each year (KAMANNAVAR 1975)

Physical reclamation measures then are at best adebatable economic proposition (KAUL 1962 ab) At worst they can be a disaster FARMER (1974) cites a case from Malwa Madhya Pradeshwhere the Mysore System of bunding designed for the permeable soils developed on the Archaenrocks of South India was employed in a region ofless permeable black cotton soils The resultsp r e b e bl k cot n sol T e r s wast waoverloaded bunds which burst causing major eroshysion and destruction

Ravine Afforestation and Agricultural

Development

Frequently the best use for ravine-lands is to retirethem from grazing and cultivation to grassland orbetter still forest and that this is a must for deepand narrow ravines throughout India(TEIWANI el al 1975) In spite of this India p

really cannot afford to retire much land from ecoshynomic production (KAUL 1962a 1963 BALI19671968 1972a b c PRAJAPATI et al 1972)Ravine afforestation projects have a long-standingpedigree in India These are the preference for

economically useful tree species and for thedevelopment of food and fodder reserves TheFisher Forest project of Etawah UP was undershy

taken in the late Nineteenth Century The Gwalioriavine lands of Madhya Pradesh were forested inthe early Twentieth Century Today ravine landafforestative reclamation research continues at theSoil Conservation Centres at Vasad (Gujarat)

555


Agra (Uttar Pradesh) and Kota (Chambal area of Dendrocalamus strictus andRajasthan) (BHIMAYA several fruit speciesand KAUL 1960 BHI- have proved unsuccessful (VERMAMAYA and GANGULI et al 1978)1964 JALOTE and Ber (Zizyphys spp including ZMALIK 1974 PRADHAM and VASAVA 1974 nauritania)how-PRADHAM et al 1976 PRAJAPATI et al 1968

ever is one of the most hardy fruit trees of Indias PURl and KHYBRI 1975 SINGH et al 1968

arid ravine lands and it is both cultivated and grows1969 1977) wild in many areas The problem with the species isits poor germination rate PURl et al (1976) have

The report of the NATIONAL COMMISSION ON found that they can increase germination from 40 to86 by soaking the seeds forAGRICULTURE a few minutes(1976) recommends the follow- insulphuric aciding species for foret fuel and fodder developmentof steeply sloping ground including river banksber (Zizyphus snp) druin stick It is within the wild-plant communities of the ravine(Maringa pter- lands thatigosperma) many of thekrair (Accacia cathechu) sissoo

most useful reclamationspecies may(Dalbergia sissoo) be found SAJWANsiris (Albizzia libbek) (1976) hasand reviewed the dominant species and their associatepossibly bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) species in the Yamuna(KAUL 1963) However it is still Ministry of Agri-ravines Dichanthimshy

culture policy Denchrus-Elyonurus grasslandthat wherever possible the ravine TEJWANI et al(1975) have published details of the specificbeds and adjacent table-lands should be reclaimed soilshyholding properties of such species (see also SRINIshyfor agriculture PRAJAPATI et al (1974 1975 VASAN et al 1962 1970)1978) have examined the problems of cultivatingland reclaimed as level bench terraces within ravinechannels For a period of more than a decade Ravine Reclamation as Applied Social Scienceexperiments have been undertaken on terraces conshystructed at Chhalesar in the Yamuna Ravine Zone near Agra Early results (PRAJAPATI et al 1974) The worst enemies of soil conservation are ignorshy

indicate that relatively large applications of nitrogen ance and poverty A problem which is not perceived

fertiliser is an impossible problem to curewere required to maximise the yields of There can be few rain-fed Karif soil conservationists who have escapedBaira (Pennisetuin typhoides) 100 that first kgha was suggested A decade or so later the

great trauma which results from the realisation thatthe intendedoptimum treatment was found to be 80 kgha (PRA-

client does not believe that he has a problemJAPATI et al 1975) More recently however thesame research team has published the results of While there is a relatively high degree of soil conshyexperiments with still lower applications of 50 kgha servation consciousness in India problems of poorand less They found that yields were greatest at the perception are still widespread CHAUHAN (1958highest level of application (50 kgha) irrespective 1966) who workedof the mode of application Applications at Chhalesar Agra Districtrecom- UP ranks asmended by other workers in semi-arid

one of the few who have attemptednorth-west to look at farmers attitudes to ravine and gullyIndia have ranged from 50 to 60 kgha (PORWALand MATHUR 1973 RAM 1973)

erosion Presently two-thirds of Chhaesar villagesarea is ravine land and associated gullies In placesResearch at the Soil Conservation Centre at Kota

the ravines are up to 15 m deep and wide enough toallow cultivationin the Chambal ravine lands has focused on the in their beds Land-use statisticscompiled from map data chart a steady decline inbattle with waterlogging and salinity for agricultural

development the agricultural base Between 13851886 and 1955of the low-lying ravine bedsGAWANDE et al (1980) 1956 the cultivated area declined from 53 to 37have worked in an areaadjacent to the Sultanpur Irrigation Canal Records for the period 19221923-19551956 show aHere 45 seepage has created a

decline in the area double cropped and a genshyhigh vater-table Open wells eral reduction in crop yieldsyield saline waters and salinity levels are increasingThe research workers have had some success with CHAUItAN (1966)planting salt tolerant crops like IR 49 Paddy jaya described the progress ofenvironmental decline Sheet erosiondhaincha (Sesbaina aculeata) fig (Ficus casica) ceived by local

as not pershyfarmerspara grass and wheat Experiments with ber (Zizy-

Even small incisions and phys spp) the date palm

rills as long as they could be obliterated by tillage(Poenix dactilifera) were treated as matters of no concern Gullies


received attention only when they became large collective village living (DOCTOR 1967) In theenough to hinder agricultural operations but in Gramdan village each man contributes hs possesshygeneral were then too large for the individual far- sions to the village and continues to work accordingmer to remedy The loss of the land was reconciled to the best of his ability Each is asked to live inas providential order to help others live The concept seems hopelessly romantic from a Western viewpointAttitudes of fatalism or carelessness are often rein- However it makes a great deal more sense to theforced by land tenure factors Many farmers are religious Hindu where spiritual wealhh is conshytenants for (often) absentee landlords The land sidered better than material wealth and renuncishydoes not belong to the farmer who in turn is ation is part of the life duty The Sarvodaya philshyunlikely to worry about the state of anothers prop- osophy appeals to the thoughtful and the educatederty Land holding problems also work against and it insists on leadership by example Still givenremedial soil conservation works Tenant farmers the entrenched nature of the caste system and natushyare frequently reluctant to work on land improve- ral human possessiveness what is really surprising isment when the main end result will be that land- that voluntary Grarndan collectives have evolved inlords will increase the reit RUTTER (1984) some village The fact that some exist of coursereports a typical instance from Andhra Pradesh lends tremendous moral leverage to the SarvodayaHere a non-government development agency movement as a whole Gandhian revolution thrivesplanted a small demonstration [arm forest in a ser- through moral pressure Today this whole moveshyiously defore-sted region The response of the land- ment is undergoing revival and the seeds for futureowner was to triple the rent success in rural development and reform are sown

Y P SINGH (1961) examined farmers attitudes to Certainly long-term success in soil conservation assoil conservation work in the Chota Nagpur area in all aspects of rural development requires a rad-Bihar Here poor attitudes were correlated with ical re-orientation of rural attitudes In the Unitedignorance illiteracy poverty small and scattered States soil conservation extension has beenland-holdings and lack of credit facilities PILLAI successfully promoted by subsidised self-help andand NAIR (1978) working in Trivandrum District encouragement but in India too many cultivatorsKerala confirm that the farmers least willing to are too poor for this to be a wholly realistic optionaccept the necessity for soil conservation work BHATITACHAJEE (1965 p 212) was of the opinshytended to be older poorer less educated arJ liess ion that in India the state will have to play a centralsocially active than average SINGH (1961) con- role in the instigation financing and execution offirmed that the prevalence of share cropping inhi- projects The government will have to bear thebited the acceptance of soil conservation measures brunt of the cost at least in the short term in theas did village factionalism notably the friction name of future national prosperity Thebetween high and low caste NATIONAL COMMISSION ON AGRICUL-TURE (1976 pp 268-269) advises that the preserv-TAMHANE (1964 1968) stressed that community ation of the nations economic base is a duty forinvolvement is essential for successful ieiamation central government to be executed by loans to stateThe British-sponsored Indore Dry Farming Project government and subsidies for appropriate projectspaid lip service to the ideal by involving local culti- theIt is noted that ravine reclamation requiresvators as paid labourers in their reclamation treatment of the whole of the affected catchmentschemes TAMHANE (1964) prefers that peoples and that it presupposes the existence of technicalco-operatives and village panchayats should control financial and practical aid by local government anthe reclamation process In practice however this appropriately educated -arming community anddoes not aget around the more seriout problems spirit of co-operation amongst the rural populationwhich are built into the social and land-holding (TAMHANE 1966) Perhaps the inspiration that issystem needed to turn rural development into a selfshyreinforcingSarvodaya workers have long recognised that a resources to

process is a policy which causesbe concentrated conspicuously inmore radical change is needed Acharya Vinoba rural areas which hae independently demonstratedBhave is associated with the bravest and most their willingness to reshape their village economyrevolutionary approach to the problem through his and who are prepared to make themselves responshycampaign for Bhoodan or land gift and Gramdan sible for the necessary work Recent experience in

557 GeoforumjVolume 15Number 484

social forestry lights the vay (MISHRA and TRI- NATHAN (1982)PATHI 1978) adds Since there is no cropinsurance worth the name and since farming is theriskiest profession in the world the poor farmer willDiscussion and Conclusion not be able to derive benefits from the newnology techshyif the price is kept high There is aIndia is engaged in a most serious struggle with great needenvironmental decline due to ravine and gully ero-for more applied research into thedevelopment of procedures to overcomesion The NATIONAL COMMISSION ON AGRI- the prob-

CULTURE (1976 lems due to land fragmentation patterns of landpp 191-192) notes tenure and the problems of conservation technology

The problem of ravines has assumed urgency because financing within the agricultural community In thisthey are fast spr 2ading into cultivated lands the works and ideas of Gandhian non-government This organisations may havedeterioration has a leading role to playnot only affected agricultural landbut also habitations roads railways and other publicproperties The other problem isthe presence of anti-social elements in the ravines which provide escape-Is India winning the war against the depredations ofits ravines During Indias first four Five Year Plansroutes and hideouts for dacoits [bandits] The activeerosion problem in ravine lands needs to be seen inthe (the period between independence and 1971) ravine

background of economic loss It has been estimated reclamation works were attempted on just 49000ha Ninety-two percent of thisthat the production potential of ravine areas in Uttar

area was reclaimed Pradesh Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan alone would by afforestation while 78 (3880amount to 3 million tonnes of food grains annually In ha) werereturned to agricultural production (NATIONALaddition fruit fodder fuel timber and industrial raw COMMISSION ONmaterial could be produced AGRICULTURE 197617225 p 193) No-one appears to have published

This paper has attempted to outline the work a critique of the success or otherwise of these proshyof jects thoughIndias soil conservationists and other applied scien-

there are rumours of some upsetsand indeed it would be amazing if this were not thetists towards ravine reclamation It is a small group caseperhaps dwarfed by the enormity of the problemyet this small cadre of scientists has produced sound What is certain howevercriteria for the management of the physical prob-is that Indias ravines

have continued to grow and that in each decadelems and has made great progiess towards control- have added about 1 of their total area In the firstling their physical causes Unfortunately ravine ero-sion ravine management

two decades after independence land reclamationand ravine reclamation are al in part social problems It is in the study of

work tackled an area equivalent to perhaps twoshythirds of that newly claimed by the ravines At thatthe social problems of ravine management that the stage the battle was clearly being lostIndian research effort faces most problemsCHAUHAN (1966) has shown how the peasant During the 1970s Indias ravine-lands will havefarmer can become an accomplice to the destruction added perhaps 37000 ha to their area However inof his own land In many instances this situation isexacerbated by the patterns 1972 India launched its 7-year Plan for Ravineof land-holding and Reclamation (MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRSprivilege within the country Many farmers aretenants who pay high rents for their land If their 1972) This time more than 11 million ha of ravineshyland in Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh and Rajasshyland is improved by reclamation these rents will

rise and for the tenant the stakes are raised in the than have been scheduled for reclamation The planincludes the ambition to reclaim 55000 ha for agrishyannual gamble of agricultural production perhaps culture 27500to unacceptable levels If the land is being destroyed

for horticulture and provides forafforestationby erosion then that is not the tenants worry Let and the treatment of table-lands on

the land-owner pay to stop the gullies if he cares the ravine margin No-one has yet reported the finalresults of this project (cf SHARMA 1980) Howshyever it may be that India is beginning to turn theMost of Indias farms are small and land fragmen- tide of battletation continues with the expansion of population

SWAMINATHAN (1982) notes that in suchcumstances where the cirnet take-home income of Acknowledgements -the farmer is very small the Thanks go to Dr H S Sharma Departshyrisks become cor- ment of Geography University of Rajasthan and Concept Pubshyrespondingly high as input costs rise SWAMI- lishers of New Delhi for permission to reproduce Figure 1

558

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SETH S P BHATNAGARment for grass and treeland development in ravinous R K and CHAUHANwatersheds - a case study S S (1969) Reclamability classification and nature ofIndian Journal of SoilConservation 10(23) ravines of Chambal Command Areas Journalof Soil30-38

PRAJAPATI and Water Conservationin India 17(34) 39-44M C PHADKE A BAGARWAL SHARMA H S (1968)M C and GIDWANI Genesis of ravines of the LowerH M (1968) Soil workingtechnique for afforestation of ravine land Chambal Valley India 21st InternationalGeographshyby directseeding Indian Forester94 733-744 ical Congress india Abstracts of Papers 18-19SHARMAPRAJAPATI M H S (1976) Morphology of ravines of theC SAJAWAN S S and

AGNIHOTI Y Morel basin Rajasthan India International Geshy(1972) Production potentiality of ography 1-219-233ravine lands Proc Symp Man made Forests in India SHARMAIII C-41-47 H S (1979) The Physiographyof the Lower

PRAJAPATI M C PHADKE Chambal Valley and its AgriculturalDevelopment AA B AGARWAL Study in Applied Geomorphology ConceptM C and RAGHUVIR (1974) Terracing in Yamuna New

ravines for agricultural crops Annals of the Arid Zone Delhi

SHARMA H S (1980)13 317-329 Ravine Erosion in India Con-PRAJAPATI cept New DelhiM C MISHRA D D and AGAR- SHERIDAN D (1981) Desertification in theWAL M C (1975) Dry farming practices under nor- UnitedStates Council on Environmental Quality Washingshymal and aberrant monsoon conditions in Agra regionof Yamuna ravines Soil Conservation Digest 3(1)

ton DC 37-42 SINGH A and DAYAL R (19 74a) Water resource

PRAJAPATI M C AGARWAL development in ravine utilisation - Vasad CentralM C MISHRAD D and SHARMA Soil and Water Conservation Research and TrainingG C (1978) Effect of levels Institute (Dehra Dun) Annual Report 15-17and methods of nitrogen application on Bajra (HB 3) SINGH A and DAYAL Ron ravine terraces (1974b) How to irrigateIndian Journal of Soil Conserv-ation 6(l) 28-30 terraced land Intensive Agriculture 12(2) 15SINGH APRAMILLA D and RAI R K (1972) Has

and DAYAL R (1975) Development ofDeccan water resourceForeland rejuvenated The Geographer(Aligarh) 19 in ravine utilisation - a case study

34-36 Soil Conservation Digest 3(1) 26-30 PRANDINI F L (1974) SINGH A and KAMANNAVEROccurrence of Bocorocas in Measurement of gully head extension

H K (1975)S Brazil Second InternationalCongress International - Vasad Cen-Association of Engineering Geology Proceeding

tral Soil and Water Conservation Research and Trainshy1(3) 361-3610 ing Institute (Dehra Dun) Annual Report 36SINGH A SHAH C MPURl D N and KHYBRI M L (1975) Economics of NAVER H K

and KAMAN-Chambal -avine afforestation (1976) Rainfall erosivity analysis atIndian Forester 101 Soil Conservation Research Centre Vasad Gujerat448-451PURl D N JOSHI V G and SINGH J p (1976) Indian Forester 102 126-132SINGH A (1976) A method for resourceEffect of seed treatment on the germination of ber gain assessshyseed in wasteland development projects Soil Con-Zizyphus mauritiana -

ment a common plant of servation Digest 4(l) 17-21Yanuna ravines Soil ConservationDigest 4(1) 40-41RAGHUNATH B SINGH B and MONAPPA KKULLAR A K and THOMAS (1968) Effect of differ-

P K (1982) Rainfall energy map of India ent depths of planting and manuring on the growth andIndian survival of poplars in the ravine lands IndianForesterJournalof Soil Conservction 10(2) 1-17RAM H (1973) Bajra ki sagham kheti se adhik upaj len 94 575

(Hindi) Kehti 26(2) SINGH B MONAPPA K and MISTRY N S (1969)15-17 Effect of different depths of planting and manuring onRAMA RAO M S V (1970) Soil Conservation in India(2nd Edn) ICAR New Delhi the growth and survival of populars in ravine lands(water balance-cum-growth studies) Indian ForesterRAMASEHAN S(1982) Some thoughts on scientificjournals in India Current Science 51(1) 95 531-5386-12RASTROGI R A and SHARMA T C (1970)

SINGH B PRADHAN I P and SINGH A (1977)trol Con- Effect of different types and time of mulchinga gully with vegetation Indian Farmers Digest on thesuccess and economics of afforestation in semi-arid3(10) 9-10

RUTTER J (1984) ravinous tracts of Gujarat Indian Forester 103 120-In Towards a Social ForestryPolicy 128in India India Development Group London (in prep-aration) SINGH G MISRA P R and BULIAN S (1966) SAJWAN S S

Ravine ravages must be controlled Indian Farming(1976) Dominant grasses and their 16(3) 21


SINGH H (1958) Land erosion in the Kashmir ValleyIndian Forester 84 617-622

SINGH Y P (1961) Peoples response to soil conserv-ation in two Damodar Villages BAC Bulletin (Sabour) 4 54-56

SOBOLEV SS (1948) Development of Erosion Pro-cesses in the European USSR and their Control (inRussian) Izvestiya an SSSR Moscow

SONI R C (1968) Reclamation and use of ravines inUP In Proceedings Symposium on the Reclam-ation and Use of Wastelands in India Bulletin of the Indian National Science Academty 40 254

SRINIVASAN V BONDE W C and TEJAWA-NI K G (1962) Studies on grasses and their suitabil-ity to stabilise and maintain in the ravine lands of Gujarat Journal of Soil and Water Conservation inIndia 10(12) 72-78

SRINIVASAN V VERMA B THAKUR J V and BONDE W C (1970) Some forgrasses pasturedevelopment in the ravine lands Indian Journal ofAgricultural Science (3) 268-272

STOCKING M A (1978) Remarkable erGsion in cen-tral Rhodesia Geographical Association of RhodesiaProceedings 11 42-56

SWAMINATHAN M S (1982) Indian agriculture at the crossroads CurrentScience 51(1) 13-14

TAMHANE R V (1964) Ravine reclamation - anambitious project Indian Farming 14(9) 13

TAMHANE R V (1966) Reclaiming the ravinesIndian Farming 16(4) 43-52

TAMHANE R V (1968) Critical Review of the Assess-ment of Soil Conservation Measures in India Ministryof Agriculture New Delhi

TAMHANE R V TEJWANI K G and DHRUVA-NARAYANA V V (1964) Soil and water conserv-ation research in the ravine lands of Gujarat BulletinNational Institute of Sciences 26 269-278

TEJWANI K G (1959) Soil and water conservation in the ravine lands of Gujarat Journal of Soil and WaterConservation in India 7(45) 79-84

TEJWANI K G DHRUVANARAYANA V V and SATYANARAYANA (1960) Control of gullyerosion in the ravine lands of Gujarat Journal of Soil

56

and Water Conservation in India 8(1) 65-75 TEJWANI K G and DHRUVANARAYANA V V

(1960) Reclamation of small and medium size gullies in Gujarat ravines Journal of Soil and Water Conservshyation in India 8(23) 26

TEJWANI K G and DHRUVANARAYANA V V (1961) Soil conservation survev and rand use capabilityplanning in the ravine lands of Gujarat J IndianSoc Soil Sci 9 233-244

TEJWANI K G (1972) Classification and reclamation of ravine lands Proc Symp on reclamation and use of wastelands in Ind Bulletin of tie Indian National Science Acadenr 40 161-162

TEJWANI K C (19741975) Classification and reclamshyation of gullid iands Journal of Soil and Water Conshyservation iaIndia 2425 29-40

TEJWANI K G GUPTA S K and MATI-1UR IlN (1975) Soil and Water Conservation Research 1956-71 Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Dclhi

TRICART J (1972) Landforms of Humid TropicsForests and Savannahs Longmans Londoii

UNITED STATES SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE (1966) Procedure for Determining Rates of Land Danshyage and Depreciation and Volume of Sediment Proshyduced by Gully Erosion United States Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service EngineeringDivision Technical Release (Geology) No 32

VERMA B and PATEL A P (1969) Erosion studies on Mahi ravines in Gujarat Indian Journal of Agrishycultural Science 39 515-522

VERMA B PRAJAPATI N C and JOSHIE P (1978) Trial of fruit green manure and forage grassspecies for introduction in waterlogged and saline Chambal ravines Indian Journal of Soil Conservation 6(1) 17-23

VERMA B SINGH B and PATEL A P (1973)Study of the mortality of eucalyptus plantations in the Mahi ravines of central Gujarat Annals of the Arid Zone 12(12) 9-18

VERMA B SINGH B SARAF N H and MONAP-PA K (1969) Suitability and economis of grasses for reclamation and stabilisation of Mahi ravines in Gujarat Indian Forester 95(1) 33-44

544

approach to self-reliant development In business and technology it has been Indian policy to build internal capacity even if that is initially of low quality rather than to allow its own endeavours to be swamped by products from outside Slowly and against enormous odds this economic strategy appears to be succeeding

Indias universities and research centres seem to be operating under the same principles In many cases they lack the resources and facilities to compete effectively with institutes in the west However they are by no means colonial institutions Foreign influence is restricted to a handful of returned scholars The shortage of funds for foreign travel and the limitations of institutional libraries together with the magnitude of Indias internal traditions of scholarship and culture have helped enhance this isolation Indias science like Indias industry develops in its own independent insular world (EISEMON 1982)

Soil Conservation Research in India

Indian work in soil conservation has origins which can be traced back before independence (RAMA RAO 1970) However the modern movement has followed an American lead (PANDE 1981) The pioneering Journalof Soil and Water Conservation in India was launched in 1952 by workers in the Damodar Valley Corporation (Bihar) a scheme modelled on Americas Tennesee Valley Authority and which absorbed much of its ethos

During the 1960s the DVC lead was superseded by the work of Central Government institutes es-pecially the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research Demonstration and Training Institute at Dehra Dun UP though the fading impress of the American model remained Indian soil conserv-ation however lAc much Indian science has become progressively more self-contained and introverted as the years have passed The reasons for this are not wholly clear though there seems to be a belief that Indias own research is more relevant to its immediate problems and experience than that from elsewhere Citation analysis of the IndianJournalof Soil Conservation6-9 1978-1981 reveals that two-thirds ot the citations are drawn from Indian publications and one-quarter from American The average age of the foreign sources is conspicuously greater than those from India


The fact that ravine erosion as such is not recogshynised elsewhee in the world has helped compound the isolation of Indian research The literature on related phenomena gully erosion stream trenching and arroyo incision is heavily domina-ed by Amerishycan work but this is scattered through a geoscienshytific literature which only partially penetrates the research libraries of India

Ravine Lands of India

Land degradation by ravines and gullies is wideshyspread in India The NATIONAL COMMISSION ON AGRICULTURE (1976) estimated that 367 million ha (1 of Indias iand area) is damaged NARAYANA and BABU (1983) claim 4000000 ha as a more reasonable estimate of land covered by gullies In colonial days the problem was considered to be even worse The NATIONAL PLANNING COMMITTEE (1943) believed that 38 of United Indias land area suffered severe gully erosion and that 8 of the United Provinces some 2 million ha

were barren ravines

There are four major areas of severe ravine erosion (SHARMA 1980 Figure 1) The largest is the Yamuna-Chambp Ravine Zone Ravines flank the Yamuna river for nearly 250 km and in the Agra and Etawah Districts attain depths of more than 80 m Nearly 389000 ha are affected along the Yamuna in Southern Uttar Pradesh but the -rea affected along the tributary Chambal River is still greater The Chambal ravines flank the main chanshynel in a 10 km wide belt which extends southward from the Yamuna confluence some 480 kin to the town of Kota in Madhya Pradesh Ravines infest the basins of several Chambal tributaries notably the Mej and Morel-Dhund Altogether some 5000 km 2

are affected The whole region is so seriously eroded that the only remaining vestiges of the allushyvial plain which antedated incision are the artificialshyly protected islands on which villages sitedare (3HARMA 1980 pp 20-21)

In arid Gujarat the Ravine Belt covers 500000 ha and extends from the southern bank of the Tapti River along the banks of the Narmada and Watrak to the borders of Rajasthan in the Sabramati and Mahi basins There are other areas of substantial ravine erosion in Chota Nagpur Bihar the Mahashynadi and Upper Son Valley of Mirzapur all on the southern fringes of the Gangetic Plain and the Siwalik and Rhabar tract of the western Himalayan

oI


degdegE 720 700 080 840 880 92 9odegE

if

32N


3

euro

munacambal 140

Chota Naqpur

ZoneGujarat

200 Zone

100


80 ON

72 9 70 d- 84 88 92E












MINISTRY OF HOME


AFFAIRS (1972)

3669 1230 0683 0600 0452 0400 0120 0104 0060 0020












9












Tabla 3 Continued





25 5-10





within 05 m of the


































R - a(W)ba2 (P)c













gully channels


Slope angle ()


0--1 gt60 1-3 gt60 0-3 6-60

3-5 gt6 5-10 gt6 10-15 gt6 0-15 lt6 15-25 lt6

gt25 lt6





















554










Development





555







































558




































































































56














degdegE 720 700 080 840 880 92 9odegE

if

32N


3

euro

munacambal 140

Chota Naqpur

ZoneGujarat

200 Zone

100


80 ON

72 9 70 d- 84 88 92E












MINISTRY OF HOME


AFFAIRS (1972)

3669 1230 0683 0600 0452 0400 0120 0104 0060 0020












9












Tabla 3 Continued





25 5-10





within 05 m of the


































R - a(W)ba2 (P)c













gully channels


Slope angle ()


0--1 gt60 1-3 gt60 0-3 6-60

3-5 gt6 5-10 gt6 10-15 gt6 0-15 lt6 15-25 lt6

gt25 lt6





















554










Development





555







































558




































































































56






















MINISTRY OF HOME


AFFAIRS (1972)

3669 1230 0683 0600 0452 0400 0120 0104 0060 0020












9












Tabla 3 Continued





25 5-10





within 05 m of the


































R - a(W)ba2 (P)c













gully channels


Slope angle ()


0--1 gt60 1-3 gt60 0-3 6-60

3-5 gt6 5-10 gt6 10-15 gt6 0-15 lt6 15-25 lt6

gt25 lt6





















554










Development





555







































558




































































































56
























9












Tabla 3 Continued





25 5-10





within 05 m of the


































R - a(W)ba2 (P)c













gully channels


Slope angle ()


0--1 gt60 1-3 gt60 0-3 6-60

3-5 gt6 5-10 gt6 10-15 gt6 0-15 lt6 15-25 lt6

gt25 lt6





















554










Development





555







































558




































































































56
























Tabla 3 Continued





25 5-10





within 05 m of the


































R - a(W)ba2 (P)c













gully channels


Slope angle ()


0--1 gt60 1-3 gt60 0-3 6-60

3-5 gt6 5-10 gt6 10-15 gt6 0-15 lt6 15-25 lt6

gt25 lt6





















554










Development





555







































558




































































































56









































R - a(W)ba2 (P)c













gully channels


Slope angle ()


0--1 gt60 1-3 gt60 0-3 6-60

3-5 gt6 5-10 gt6 10-15 gt6 0-15 lt6 15-25 lt6

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554










Development





555







































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554










Development





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ravine erosion and reclamation in indiapdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaat733.pdf · overdue recognition...

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