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Theses and Dissertations Hunter College

Fall 12-21-2016

Rationality, Parapsychology, and Artificial Intelligence in Military Rationality, Parapsychology, and Artificial Intelligence in Military

and Intelligence Research by the United States Government in the and Intelligence Research by the United States Government in the

Cold War Cold War

Guy M. LoMeo CUNY Hunter College

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RATIONALITY,PARAPSYCHOLOGY,ANDARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCEINMILITARYANDINTELLIGENCERESEARCHBYTHEUNITEDSTATES

GOVERNMENTINTHECOLDWAR

By

GuyLoMeo

Submittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeof

MasterofArtsinHistoryofScience,HunterCollegeTheCityUniversityofNewYork

December21,2016

ThesisSponsor:

December21,2016 DanielMargócsyDate Signature

December21,2016 JonathanRosenbergDate SignatureofSecondReader

2

TABLEOFCONTENTS

TableofContents.................................................................................................................................................2ListofFigures........................................................................................................................................................3Chapters

1. IntroductionofThemesandtheHistoryofParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligence...............................................................................................................................................4Section1–ParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligenceinHistory................................15

2. TheOriginsofState-SponsoredResearchintoParapsychologyandArtificial

IntelligenceintheColdWar..........................................................................................................27Section1–Parapsychology’sOriginsintheEarlyColdWar...........................................34Section2–ComputingResearchInvolvingArtificialIntelligence................................46

3. Parapsychology,ArtificialIntelligence,andtheHypeCycleinColdWar

Research.................................................................................................................................................54Section1–HypeCyclesandParapsychology........................................................................57Section2–TheHypeCyclesofArtificialIntelligence........................................................65Section3–TheFateofParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligenceattheEndof

theColdWar.............................................................................................................70

4. Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................80

5. Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................84PrimarySources.................................................................................................................................84SecondarySources.............................................................................................................................88

3

LISTOFFIGURES

1. PatPrice’ssketchofcraneatthesecretSovietR&DsiteatSemipalatinsk..............282. DrawingreproducedfromCIAsatellitephotograph..........................................................283. TheFiveMainPhasesoftheHypeCycle..................................................................................58

4

CHAPTER1-INTRODUCTIONOFTHEMESANDTHEHISTORYOFPARAPSYCHOLOGYANDARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE

Scientificdevelopmentsinthetwentiethcenturyprogressedatanexponentialrate.

Whileitmaybeeasytoseethatsomeofthosepursuitswerenefariousinnature,itismore

difficulttotrytoidentifywhichpursuitswererationalandwhichwerenot.More

problematicstillisthetaskofdefiningtheveryconceptofrationality.Rationalityislargely

subjective,meaningdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleorgroups.TheperiodoftheCold

Warwasexpressiveofthisconundrum,asmuchofthestate-sanctionedresearch

throughouttheperiodthatwasconsideredrationalatthetime,inthatcontext,wasnot

consideredsobeforeorafter.

Thefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturyislitteredwithexamplesofscientificresearch

thatseriouslyquestionedrationalityasitwasthenunderstood;itreachedsuchadegree

thatbythetimeoftheColdWar,theverydefinitionoftheconceptwasalsocalledinto

question.1Theseedsforthiscanbeseenincertaintypesofresearchcarriedoutby

governmentsduringtheSecondWorldWar,whichareknownthroughouttheworldas

horrific,suchasthoseconductedbytheThirdReich.Yet,therationalityofthoseobjectives

isoftennotconsideredtosuchanextent.Theideaofapproachingwarsorconflictswith

theconceptofrationalityactingastheguidingforcebehindthedecision-makingprocess

1PaulEricksonetal.,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind:TheStrangeCareerofCold

WarRationality(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,2013),1-4.

5

onlybeganwiththeonsetoftheColdWar;thestrategiesutilizedbythemilitaryin

previous‘hot’warsprovedtobeinapplicable.Inaway,itcanbesaidthattheColdWar

manifestedasenseofrationalitythatwaswhollyitsown.

ThetermCold-Warrationalitydoesnotrefertoaspecific,acceptedconceptof

rationality,butrathertheattemptsmadebyscholarstoformulateauniversalsystemof

rationalbehaviorintheperiodoftheColdWar.Thisgrandioseundertakingwasnecessary

astherationalproceduresthatguidedtheartofwarthroughouttheprecedingworldwars

wereinapplicableintheunchartedwatersoftheColdWar.Initiatedbynationalsecurity

analystsandnuclearstrategists,thiscampaignwas“summonedintobeinginordertotame

theterrorsofdecisionstooconsequentialtobelefttohumanreasonalone,traditionally

understoodasmindfuldeliberation.Inthatimpliedgapbetweenreasonandrationalitylay

thenoveltyofCold-Warrationality.”2Itwasespeciallyconcernedwiththemostoptimalor

appropriatewaytomakedecisionsininternationalrelations,butwasalsosupposedto

filterdownandworkwithmuchmoremundanesituations,suchasafamily’sdomestic

relationsunderasingleroof.

Proponentsofthisnewconceptualizationsoughtto“articulateapurerationality,

validindependentlyoftheproblemstowhichitwasapplied,andthereforevalidfor

everyoneandalways.”3Thereweremanydifferenttheoriesadvancedthatclaimed

superiorityoveritscompetitors,noneofwhichwereeverawardedthattitle.Thetaskof

2Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,2.3Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,2.

6

constructingthistypeofrationalityspannedtheperiodroughlyfrom1945tothemid-

1980sandinvolvedpartiesoriginatingfromdiverseareasofsociety,including“sharp

minds,powerfulpoliticians,wealthyfoundations,andmilitarybrass.”4Thealliance

betweentheUnitedStatesgovernment,privateindustry,andacademiawillbeathemeI

examinethroughoutthispaper.Oneofthemostprominentoftheseinstitutions,andone

whosereportswillbeaprimaryfocusinthisstudy,istheRandCorporation(Researchand

DevelopmentCorporation).TheideaofcounteringmaneuversmadebytheSovietUnion

throughtheuseofsystematicrationaldecision-makingwasamajorfactorinthe

authorizationofcontroversialscientificresearchprojectsthatwerenotrationalendeavors

atthetime.Twoexamplesofsuchprojects,andtheonesthatIwillanalyze,are

government-sponsoredresearchintoparapsychologyandartificialintelligence.

Theoverarchingpositionofthescientificcommunityatthetimewasthatbothareas

fellontheirrationalsideofthedebate.AstheColdWarprogressedandfinancialsupport

forthesefieldsgrew,theperspectiveonartificialintelligence’sstatusbegantoshift,while

parapsychologyremainedonthefringes,aplaceitoccupiestothisday.Whatbeganasa

projectthatwasquixotic,shadowy,andindistinct,evolvedintoonethatbecamemoreand

morerefinedtoreflecttheprinciplesthatwerebeingdevelopedregardingColdWar

rationality.ThelifeofthesetwodisciplinesprovidesalensthroughwhichColdWar

rationalitycanbeglimpsed.However,thephrase“ColdWarrationality”itselfisa

misnomer,asitimpliesthattherewasaconsensusonwhatexactlythatmeant.Infact,the

4Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,3.

7

termwasneverdefinedinasingularfashion.Rationalitywouldbebetterunderstoodby

analogizingittoanamoeba-typeorganism,i.e.,amorphousandconstantlyalteringits

appearancetomeetnewchallenges.5

Whatisseenasrationalvariesbetweensocietiesandtimeperiods.Logically,

rationalityinthepresentshouldbemoresoundandsensiblethantherationalityofpast

eras.Thismaybeatrendoverlongperiodsoftime;however,sometimesthereare

stretcheswhereirrationalityreignssupreme.Rationalityandirrationalityarehardto

defineconceptsandinterpretationschangeastimepasses.Inaway,thesetermsare

subjectivebecausenotallsocietiesusethepreceptsoflogicinthesameway.Forthis

reason,rationalityshouldbeexaminedinthecontextofwhatevertimeperiodisunder

investigationratherthanpurelyasalinearprogression.

AnexampleofanepochwherethissituationplayedoutistheColdWar,where

unprecedentedthreatscreatedavolatilesituationthatmadeitextraordinarilydifficultto

drawthelinebetweenwhatwasrationalandirrational.Thesecircumstancesresultedin

thedevelopmentofstate-fundedresearchintoparapsychologyandartificialintelligence.

Theformer,forinstance,representsaparadoxthatwasthedrivingforcebehindthisstudy.

Parapsychology,especiallyinthelastfewcenturies,hasbeenanareaofcontention

amongacademics.Ithasbeenviewedasapseudosciencebyestablishedscientists.

Surprisingly,fromtheresearchcampaignsintoitssupposedexistenceintheeighteenth

centurybypeoplelikeFranzAntonMesmer,tothisveryday,theoverarchingviewhas

5Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,1-4.

8

changedverylittle.6Yet,foraperiodofseveraldecadesinthetwentiethcentury,all

previousscholarshiponthesubjectwascastasideandmillionsofdollarswerefunneled

intoprojectsthatdidnotattempttoproveitsreality,butratherassumedit,andattempted

tomakesuchphenomenaapplicableinamilitaryandintelligencegatheringsetting.Asa

result,itcanbesaidthatparapsychologywasanintegralpartofthezeitgeistthatwasCold

Warrationality.

Toputtheparadoxintheformofaquestion,howcouldphenomenathatwere

considerednonexistentbythescientificeliteforquitealongtime,suddenlybecome

possible,andevenprobable,intheeyesofagovernmentthatwouldconsideritselfthe

mostcogentoneontheplanet?Aswillbemadeclearinthenextchapter,thegovernment’s

firstencounterwithpseudoscientificdoctrineswasaresultofparanoiacoupledwithapre-

emptivestrikestrategy.Putmorecolloquially,theinitiationofparapsychologicalresearch

canbedescribedasamassiveexampleoftheplatitude“bettersafethansorry.”Although

notnearlyonthesamelevelasparapsychology,thesamequestioncouldberaised

concerningresearchintoartificialintelligence.

ArtificialIntelligence,orAI,wasontheperipheryofmainstreamsciencewhenthe

conceptwasfirstintroduced,andwasmuchmoremundanethanmodernsciencefiction

wouldhavethepublicbelieve.Nevertheless,thefundamentalissueremains:withsomuch

conventionalscientificresearchthatcouldhavebeensponsoredbythegovernment,what

compelledthemtofinancethesecontroversialresearchprojectsthroughouttheColdWar?

6DavidRayGriffin,“ParapsychologyandPhilosophy:AWhiteheadianPostmodern

Perspective,”JournaloftheAmericanSocietyforPsychicalResearch87,no.3(July1993):217-88.

9

Theanswerisneitherexplicitnorelementary,butpartofawiderphenomenarevolving

aroundtheaforementionedconceptofrationality,whatitwas,andwhatitwasnot.In

ordertoproperlyexplicatethequandarysurroundingthesetwodisciplines,abrief

historiographyfromtheeighteenthcenturytotheirdevelopmentsinthemid-tolate

twentiethcenturywillshedlightonhowtheseunorthodoxenterprisesenteredanarena

normallyreservedforprojectsthatrepresentthecuttingedgeofscientificand

technologicalexploration.Theconceptofrationalitywillinformthisstudyasitprovidesa

contextthroughwhichColdWarscientificpursuitscanbescrutinized.Theuseof

rationalitytoevaluateparapsychologyandartificialintelligencewillalsoaidininterpreting

thereasoningbehindthedecisionsmadebyofficialswhenitcametofundingor

terminatingtheseprograms.

Bothoftheseconceptshavebeenaroundsincetheearliestperiodofrecorded

historyandcanbelocatedinalmostanycivilization.Asdisparateasthesetwofieldsare,

therearesomesignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthem.Firstandforemost,bothhavebeen

metwithahigh,thoughunequal,degreeofoppositionfromcriticsinthepastaswellasthe

present.Antagonismtowardparapsychologyhastraditionallybeenmuchmorevirulent

thanthattowardartificialintelligence.Oneexplanationforwhythisissoisbecause

parapsychologicalphenomenahasbeenintricatelytiedtodeeplyingrainedbeliefsystems

inwaysartificialintelligencehasneverexperienced.Onecanfindextrasensoryperception

andrelatedphenomenadescribedintextsrangingfromtheSumeriancuneiformtablets,to

ancientSanskritliterature,totheJudaic,Christian,andIslamicholybooks.Thefarther

10

backinhistoryonegoes,themoreabstracttheseconceptsare,buttheyarepresentand

pervasivenonetheless.

Parapsychologicalprocessesareattheheartofmanyreligiousandspiritual

experiences,fromtelepathiccommunicationtodisplaysofpsychokinesis.Prophetshave

claimedtohavenonverbalcommunicationwiththeirdeities,whileothersituationsclearly

describepsychokinesisbeingperformedbyfiguresofsuchsignificanceasMoses,Elijah,

andJesusChrist.7Tobeclear,theseareonlyindicativethatsuchconceptualizationswere

presentthousandsofyearsbeforethepresenttime,notthatthoseeventsactuallytook

place.Sincereligionandsciencearealmostalwaysatodds,thefactthatparapsychology

hoverssomewhereinthemiddleaddsskepticismamongscientists.Thoughnotas

prevalentinspiritualliteratureasparapsychology,artificialintelligencehasalonghistory

rootedinsimulation,art,andmechanicalintelligence.Oneofthemorefamiliarexamples

wouldbetheGolemofJewishtradition,acreaturemadeanimatefromwhollyinanimate

parts.Asecularexampleofartificialintelligenceinhistorywouldbethehomunculusthat

startedtogainattractionintheearlymodernperiod.

Whilebothfieldshavelongbeenconsideredindependentofeachotherbytheir

respectiveresearchers,theyarelinkedtogetherinauniquefashion.Thepointof

convergenceisthefieldofpsychologyproper.Oneofthemaingoalsofpsychologyisto

mapthewaythemindfunctions.Parapsychologyattemptstodojustthat,focusingonthe

phenomenathatorthodoxpsychologydoesnotconsider.Parapsychologiststrytoidentify

7JStaffordWright,“ParapsychologyandtheChristian,”TheChurchman67,no.2(March1953):89-98.

11

unknownprocessesthatpermitextrasensoryperceptiontooccur.Parapsychology

essentiallypicksupwherepsychologyleavesoff.Thefieldofartificialintelligencestrivesto

dothesamething,buthasitssightssetonanalternativeendgame.OneofAI’sprinciple

goalsisequippingmechanicalandelectronictechnologywiththeabilitytothink,act,and

respondinthesamewayasthehumanmind.Simplyput,thegoalofAIresearchisto

automatethehumanmind’shighermentalfacultiesinanonhuman.However,theobjective

downthelineistogobeyondthisandcreateanintelligentmachinethatissuperiortothe

humanmind.8Althoughpsychologyproperinformsbothofthesedisciplinesandprovides

acontextthroughwhichtheycanbeviewed,itisnotofteninvokedbyresearchersineither

fieldasevidencefortheirtheories.Thisisbecauseitdoesnotassistinexplainingoneofthe

mostproblematicaspectsofthistypeofcontroversialresearch:reproducibility.The

desideratumofbothdisciplinesisathoroughlyexplainable,replicableunderstandingof

whatagenciesareresponsiblefor,orplayapartin,certainprocessesofthemind.

Forinstance,parapsychologistsinthetwentiethcenturyhaveoftensoughtto

explainpsychicphenomenaintermsofquantumphysics,citingtheexoticnatureofnon-

localityonthesubatomiclevel.Quantumphysicsisnotusedasanexplanation,butasan

oversimplifiedprecedentsetterfor“actionatadistance.”9Despitetheircompatibility,or

lackthereof,theideawastoapplythecuttingedgeofhardscience,physics,toasoft

8PamelaMcCorduck,“BrassforBrain,”inMachinesWhoThink:APersonalInquiryIntotheHistoryandProspectsofArtificialIntelligence,25thed.(Natick,MA:A.K.Peters,2004),3-36.

9ChrisClarke,“ANewQuantumTheoreticalFrameworkfor

Parapsychology,”EuropeanJournalofParapsychology23,no.1(2008):3-30.

12

science,psychology,inanattempttoexplainitinscientificterms.Likewise,proponentsof

artificialintelligencetriedtomergethehardscienceswiththesoft,onlyintheopposite

direction.Artificialintelligenceasafieldisanoutgrowthofelectronicandcomputer

technology.Artificialintelligence,firstandforemost,isonlyapplicableinamachine;it

requiresapieceofhardware.Endowingthathardwarewitha“brain”ofhumanlevel

intelligenceisthegoalofAI.Thatpieceofthepuzzleiswhatweasmachineorcomputer

userswouldunderstandassoftware.

Artificialintelligenceresearcherssoughttoincorporatethepsychologicalprocesses

ofthehumanbraininthesoftwarethatisthebrainofacomputer.Whereas

parapsychologyusedhardscienceinitssearchforanswersinasoftscience,artificial

intelligencetriedtoutilizethesoftscienceofpsychologyinitsquesttoformalizeor

mathematizetheprocessesofthebrainformachineintelligence.Inadditiontothese

parallels,intheircurrentincarnations,theyshareacommonperceptionbythegeneral

public:theyareeitherwhollyendorsedordownrightcondemned.Whilethoseopinions

mayormaynotberootedinascientificframeofthought,scientistsseemtobejustas

polarizedonthesubjectaswell.10Theseperspectivesshedlightonthecontemporary

rationaleofsociety,althoughtheydonotdefinewhatrationalityis.

Parapsychologyisuniqueamongthenumerous“pseudoscientific”doctrines

becauseithasgarneredsomemeasurablelegitimacyincertaincirclesofscientists,albeit

outsidethemainstream.Eventhoughitisnotseenaslegitimatebyorthodoxscience,itis

10NoAuthorListed,“AnticipatingArtificialIntelligence,”NatureInternationalWeeklyJournalofScience532,no.760(28April2016):413.

13

notcondemnedwiththesameincendiarylanguageas,say,cryptozoologyorastrology.

Parapsychologyhas,infact,actuallycreatedalittlenicheforitselflocatedbetween

conventionalscienceand“pseudoscience,”somedescribingitasaproto-science.Itis

interestingthatthecontroversysurroundingparapsychologyhasnotbeensettledafter

morethanacenturyofseriousresearch,whenmostotherunorthodoxideasfadeaway

muchsooner.Moreinterestingisthatparapsychologyseemstogothroughcyclesof

interestanddisinterest.

Themid-tolatetwentiethcenturycanbeseenastheacmeofparapsychological

researchbecauseofthewaytheresearchwasconductedandbywhom.Thevalidityof

reportsandexperimentspriortothetwentiethcenturyaredifficulttoassesssincethere

areoftentoomanyquestionsleftunanswered.However,attheturnofthecentury,credible

andcompelling,thoughnotconclusive,researchwasbeingcarriedoutbyamultitudeof

countriesaroundtheglobe.Theimpetusforthisinquiry,aswellasforAI,wassimilarto

thatofmanyotherscientificandtechnologicalbreakthroughs:war.Inordertoanalyzewhy

bothdisciplinesgainedcurrencyinsomecirclesandnotothers,onemustlookatthe

historicalandsociologicalfactorsthatgeneratedthedominantviewpointofeachresearch

community.

Acomprehensiveexaminationoftheirrespectivehistorieswouldspanseveral

volumes.Forthatreason,thisstudywillfocusontheresearchcarriedoutatthebehestof

theUnitedStatesgovernment.Ratherthanstressingthetechnicalaspectsoftheresearch,

thespotlightwillbedirecteduponthepersonagesandinstitutionsinvolved.Interestingly,

14

thereareseveralcharactersandestablishments,suchastheRandCorporation,thatfigure

prominentlyinrationalityresearchandeitherESPorAI.Examplesofexperiments,

especiallythoseinparapsychology,willbediscussedinpassingsoastoprovidethereader

withwhatisneededtounderstandaparticularargument.

Theaimofthisanalysisisnottogivecredibilitytoonefieldovertheother;such

wouldbeafutiletasksincebothfields“survived”theColdWar,andarestilltheobjectof

governmentresearch.Rather,thegoalistouncoverthekeyplayersandseehowtheories

ofColdWarrationalityinfluencedtheirdecisionsinseeingparapsychologyasfactor

fiction.Allofthephenomenathatfigureinthedisciplineofparapsychologyareintricately

entangledwithoccultism.Orthodoxsciencemayhavethrownoccultpracticesintothe

wastebinofpseudosciencelongago,butthesamecannotbesaidforthegeneralpublic,or

evenforgovernmentandcorporateleaders.

Withregardtothetwentiethcentury,this‘greatdivide’wasoneofthemainreasons

governmentresearchintotheparanormalwasabletoreachunprecedentedlevels.This

goesforboththeUnitedStatesandothercountries.Almostwithoutexception,boththe

UnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionresearchedthepracticalapplicationsofparapsychology,

whilethecivilianresearchcommunitiesexaminedit“inthenameofscience.“Thiswill

becomeclearasIconductanexegesisofthereportsanddocumentation.Whilethemain

focusofthisthesisistheColdWar,governmentinvolvementbegandecadesearlier.These

previousforaysintotheparanormalpavedthewayfortheprojectsoftheColdWar.

15

Section1–ParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligenceinHistory

ParapsychologicalresearchintheWestcanbetracedbackquiteaway.Phenomena

associatedwithparapsychologycanbewitnessedinsomeremarkablyoldtexts.

ExtrasensoryperceptionisutilizedatapivotalmomentintheancientIndianSanskritepic,

theMahabharata,whenShakuni,theprinceofGandharaKingdom,cheatedinadicegame

byusingadiethathecouldcontrolwithhismind.11Scientists,ofcourse,disregardthisas

anexampleofevidenceforthephenomena’sreality.Toomuchtimehaspassedtoevaluate

thoseclaims;thus,animaginarylinemustbedrawntoseparatewhatcanandcannotbe

consideredrelevant.Whatcanbeconstruedasgermanetothisstudycanbelabeled

experimentalparapsychology,whichisunderstoodaspsychicresearchconductedina

modernsetting,asinalaboratory.

SomehistoriansidentifyFranzAntonMesmerasthefirsttodealwiththe

phenomenainthisway,whileotherscontendthatitbeganinthenineteenthcentury.Still

othersciteJ.B.Rhineastheinitiator.Acursoryexaminationoftheselinkswillbefruitful

becausetheyrepresenttheearliestinstancesofdebatethatservetoinformthegeneral

scientificcommunityonparapsychologyinamodernsetting.Towardtheendofthe

eighteenthcentury,FranzMesmerdevelopedhistheoryforwhathecalled“animal

magnetism”:unlikemineralmagnetism,whichhadcorporealeffects,animalmagnetism

determinedhealth,wellbeing,andothermysteriousmechanisms.Inthebeginning,Mesmer

11JohnD.Smith,trans.,“TheHall:TheGamblingMatch,”inTheMahābhārata,PenguinClassics(NewDelhi:Penguin,2009),121-63.

16

wouldusemagnetsonapatient,wavingthembytheafflictedarea,forexample,to

manipulatethefluidinthepatients’bodyandthusrelievetheillness.Afterawhile,he

forewentthemagnetsandjustusedhandstostrokethepatientwhereitwasnecessary.

Hewasquitepopularforhis“medicine”andwasevenknowntosucceedwhenthe

conventionalremediesofthetimefailed.Thisimperceptiblephenomenonenthralled

Mesmer’scontemporaries.AsrelayedbyRobertDarnton,itwasunderstoodinasimilar

fashionaswas“Newton'sgravity,madeintelligiblebyVoltaire;Franklin'selectricity,

popularizedbyafadforlightningrods…andthemiraculousgasesoftheCharlieresand

MontgolfieresthatastonishedEuropebyliftingmanintotheairforthefirsttimein

1783.”12ThelinkbetweenMesmer’sworkandthefieldofparapsychologylayinthenature

ofbothoftheirmechanisms.Theconduitthroughwhichthedevice(magnet)usedto

deliveritscureisimperceptibletoregulartestingequipment.Mesmerthoughthehad

discoveredanotherforceinnature,equivalenttogravityorelectromagnetism.The

problemwasthatthisforce,asitwaspresented,seemedonthesurfacetoviolatethe

principleofcausality,butitdidnot.Oneofthereasonswhyitattainedaminordegreeof

reputabilitywasbecauseitwasbuiltuponthesamepremiseasNewton’slawofgravity,

whichalsotheorizedthatactionatadistancewasatplay.Whatmademattersworsefor

thishypotheticalforcewasthatscientistscouldnotreplicatehisexperimentstoa

12RobertDarnton,MesmerismandtheEndoftheEnlightenmentinFrance

(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1968),10,accessedMay12,2016,http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/283547.html.

17

successfuldegree.Replicabilityisasignificantprincipleinscientificexploration,even

thoughitsusefulnessisstillbeingdebated.13

AcommissioninitiatedbyKingLouisXVItestedMesmer’sideasin1784.The

commission,whichfamouslyincludedsuchprominentfiguresasBenjaminFranklinand

thechemistAntoineLavoisier,wereassignedthetaskofinvestigatingthepurportedreality

ofamagneticfluid,thehypotheticalconduitthroughwhichMesmer’scureworked.

Unsurprisingly,theverdictwasthatthefluiddidnotexistandthatthephenomena

witnessedcouldbeattributedtomoremundanecauses.However,thiswasonlyhalfthe

story,asthecommissionhadsecretlydistributedareportthatdetailedtherealmotivation

behinditsfindings,whichwerethephenomena’sapparent“moraldangers.”14This

confidentialassessmentstressedthe“moraldangersofthemagnetictherapywheremost

ofthepractitionersweremen,mostofthepatientswerewomen,andwheresomuch

stimulationbytouchwasinvolvedandsomuchexcitementgenerated.”15Whilethereisno

doubtthattherewasjustificationforconcern,especiallyifthetreatmentoccurredbehind

closeddoors,itisalsoevidentthattheconclusionsofthecommissionweremotivatedby

morethanthescientifictheoriesunderinvestigation.Hadthatworrisomeperspectivebeen

presentfromtheoutset,thereisagoodpossibilitytheirpriorbiashadnegativelyaffected 13ArturoCasadevallandFerricFang,“ReproducibleScience,”InfectionandImmunity78,no.12(September27,2010):4972-75,accessedOctober1,2015,http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2981311/

14Darnton,MesmerismandtheEndoftheEnlightenmentinFrance,64n.10,accessed

May28,2016,http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/283547.html.15JohnBeloff,Parapsychology:AConciseHistory(NewYork:St.Martin’s,1993),20.

18

theirobjectivity.Thistheme,whichrecursthroughouttheliteratureonmost

pseudosciences,isclearlypalpablewithregardtoparapsychology.Thisbias,ofcourse,is

twofold,andgoesforthosewhoareproponentsofparapsychology,aswell.Forthetime

being,itisimportanttoemphasizethateventhoughmesmerismdidnotfadeaway,the

officialconsensusontheissuehadbeensetforposterity.

OneofthedefiningturningpointsforparapsychologyintheWestinthenineteenth

centurywasthefoundingoftheSocietyforPsychicalResearch(SPR)onFebruary20,1882,

inLondon.TheSocietyforPsychicalResearchwasthefirstlearnedinstitutionofitskind,

withamissionstatementto“examinewithoutprejudiceorprepossessionandinthe

scientificfacultiesofman,realorsupposed,whichappeartobeinexplicableonany

generallyrecognizedhypothesis.”16Whilestillalittlewaysofffromcontemporary

experimentalparapsychology,itisthefirstinstancewhereresearcherstriedtodisentangle

purportedpsychicalphenomenainanorganizedway.

OneofthemajorimpetusesfortheinaugurationoftheSPRwasthegrowthand

spreadofSpiritualism,whichhadgainedanunprecedentedfootholdintheupperechelons

ofsociety.WhatmakestheSPRsignificantisnotsomuchthephenomenaitstudied,orthe

fruitsofthatresearch,butratherthewayitwentaboutobtainingthatinformation.

AccordingtoprofessorAlanGauld,apsychologistandparapsychologistknownfor

uncoveringfraudinparapsychologicalexperiments,theresearchconcerned“thatlarge

bodyofdebatablephenomenadesignatedbysuchtermsasmesmeric,psychical,and

16JohnBeloff,Parapsychology,65.

19

‘spiritualistic’”andwasconducted“inthesamespiritofexactandunimpassionedenquiry

whichhasenableSciencetosolvesomanyproblems.”17Whetherthiswasupheldin

practiceisupfordebate,butthenotionofresearchingthephenomenainthesamewayas

othermorereputablefieldscanbeconsideredoneofthefirstgreatattemptsat

transitioningpsychicalresearchfromthenon-scientifictothescientificsideofthe

demarcationproblem,evenifitwasnotunderstoodinthoseterms.

Eventually,theSPRbranchedoutandevenhadasisterorganizationintheUnited

StatescalledtheAmericanSocietyforPsychicalResearch(ASPR),foundedin1885,which

lookedintothesamepurportedphenomenaonthissideoftheAtlantic.TheASPRwasthe

sourceofthemostprogressiveinvestigationsofparapsychologyintheUnitedStatesuntil

thetimeofJosephBanksRhineintheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.Inabroad

way,thisexemplifiestheonlychangesparapsychologyexperiencedfromthenineteenthto

thetwentiethcentury,ashifttowardinstitutionalorganizationandprofessionalismwhen

conductingexperiments.Inasimilarfashion,enquiriesintomachineintelligencebecame

morewidespreadandsystematicinthesametimeperiod.

Oneoftheaspectsofparapsychologyandartificialintelligencethatmadethemso

enthrallingtoeighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryaudienceswasthattheirproposed

methodofoperationwasimpalpabletothefive-sensesandindistinguishablefromthe

othersupernaturalandoccultforcesthatcaptivatedthemindsofpeopleatthetime.

Althoughitmaybeeasytoseehowparapsychologyfitsthatdescription,earlyworkin

17AlanGauld,TheFoundersofPsychicalResearch(London:Routledge&K.Paul,

1968),167.

20

machineintelligencehadthesameinexplicableunderpinnings.Artificialintelligencewas

becomingmanifestthroughtheworksofinventorssuchasJacquesVaucansonandPierre

Jaquet-Droz,whose“DefecatingDuck”and“Lady-Musician,”respectively,becamefocal

pointsintheeighteenthcenturybecausetheywereportrayalsofmechanicaldeviceswith

life-likecapabilities.Sospellbindingwerethesecontraptionsthatpeopleoftenspententire

weeks’worthofwagesinordertowitnessthemysteriousmachinesatwork.18Researchers

haveidentifiedcorrelationsbetweenthesekindsofdevicesandtheonesscientistsare

incorporatingartificialintelligenceintotoday.AccordingtoProfessorJessicaRiskin,

artificialintelligenceengineerstoday"’haveanextraordinaryamountincommonwiththe

people…fromthe[eighteenth]andearly[nineteenth]century’.LikeVaucanson,they

believethatnewtechnologiesmightletthembridgethegapbetweenmachinesandlife--a

beliefthathasledmodernresearcherstobuildartificialinsects,fish,gorillasandeven

people."19ThecommonalitiesalsoextendtoearlyAIandparapsychology.

Mesmerhasaninterestingdoppelgangerinthesphereofmachineintelligence,the

creatoroftheTurk,WolfgangVonKempelen.LikeMesmer,Kempelenwascapitalizingon

themysteriesofthetime,butratherthanwithaninvisiblefluidheawedhisaudienceswith

hissupposedautomaton.ThemajordifferencebetweenthetwowasthatKempelenwas

18EtienneBenson,“ScienceHistorianExaminesthe18th-CenturyQuestfor

'ArtificialLife',”StanfordUniversity,October24,2001,accessedJune9,2016,http://news.stanford.edu/news/2001/october24/riskinprofile-1024.html.

19Benson,“ScienceHistorianExaminesthe18th-CenturyQuestfor'ArtificialLife',”accessedJune9,2016,http://news.stanford.edu/news/2001/october24/riskinprofile-1024.html.

21

uncoveredasafraudwhowillfullydeceivedthemasses.Variousformsofautomatawere

particularlypopularintheeighteenthcenturyandKempelensoughttoexploitthe

“automatoncraze”followingthesuccessofVaucanson’sworks.20Hecreatedadevicecalled

TheTurkthatpurportedlywasabletoplayagameofchessagainstahumanopponent,

makingmovesdependentuponthosemadebytheopponent,ratherthanonesthatwere

simplypredeterminedorpreprogrammed.Initiallythegadgetdefiedexplanationand

garneredinterestfromsuchhistoricalgiantsasNapoleon;however,soonitwasdiscovered

tohavebeentheresultoftrickery.AlthoughKempelenexhibitedTheTurkwith“allofthe

internal-mechanism-displayingpageantryoftheera’sotherfamousautomatonsandwould

attimesmakeashowofwindingupthedevice,theTurkwasactuallyamerepuppet.”21

Kempelen’sTurkmarkedthebeginningofthedeclineinpublicamusementwith

automaton-typedevices.BothKempelenandMesmerreflecttheneedinthescientific

communitytostayvigilantandnotgetsweptupinpublicfervor.

Inconjunctionwiththeinitiativetodevelopmachineswithhuman-levelcapabilities

wastheconceptofbuildingthemtoperformhumanfunctions.Ratherthanimitatingthe

bodilyfunctions,asthedefecatingduckdid,inventorsbegantobuildmachinesthatcould

performmorepracticalfunctions,suchastheworkperformedbyhumans.Thoseavenues

ofinnovationbecamemorewidespreadinthenineteenthcenturyandtheycloselyalign

20MinsooKang,SublimeDreamsofLivingMachines:TheAutomatonintheEuropeanImagination(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,2011),7.

21“TheMechanicalTurk,”HarvardUniversityPress|Blog,August29,2011,

accessedJune18,2016,http://harvardpress.typepad.com/hup_publicity/2011/08/the-mechanical-turk.html.

22

withthetypeofartificialintelligenceresearchthatwillbethefocusofthisstudy.Bythe

middleofthenineteenthcentury,sophisticatedapparatus,suchasCharlesBabbage’s

DifferenceEngine,establishedthatmechanizedmachinescouldperformtasksotherwise

onlyachievablebyhumanlabor.Thesetasks,however,wereperceivedtobesimpleand

onlymadeuseofahuman’slowestmentalfaculties.22Themachinedidnotthinkinorderto

reacttoasituation,butfollowedpreprogrammedrules.Certaininformationinputtedinto

themachinecorrespondedwithaspecificoutput.Theassociationwasbuiltinanddidnot

requirethought.Astraightforwardexampleofthiswouldbetheuseofmoderncalculators,

whichperformmathematicalequationsbaseduponrulesratherthanreason.

Reasonisrecognizedasoneofmankind’shighermentalfacultiesandthusfarits

programmabilityhaseludedscientists.Asaresult,manyscientistshavecontendedthat

machinescannotbreakthatthreshold,whichessentiallyisseenasthedemarcationpoint

betweenhumanityandothercreatures.Likeparapsychology,thedriveforartificial

intelligencehasstimulatedeffortstomapthefunctionsofthemind,thepathittakesto

reachdesiredoutcomes,andhowtheuseofrationalityisintegraltothatprocess.These

undertakingshaveachievedlimitedsuccess.Unlikeparapsychology,however,this

conundrumhasnotledtoitsbeingconsideredapseudoscience,butascienceyettobe

understood.Withrelationtothemind,artificialintelligenceattemptstocreatearational

entitywhileparapsychologyattemptstouserationalitytocreateaworkingmodelfor

22SethBullock,“CharlesBabbageandtheEmergenceofAutomatedReason,”inTheMechanicalMindinHistory,ed.PhilHusbands,OwenHolland,andMichaelWheeler(Cambridge,MA:MIT,2008),27-37,accessedFebruary11,2016,http://site.ebrary.com/lib/huntercollege/reader.action?docID=10214161&ppg=30.

23

perceivedirrationalmentalprocesses.Therelationshipbetweenthebrainandrationality

isunambiguousinbothinstances;itisjustexpressedindifferentways.

WhileBabbage’sandothercontemporaries’machineswerebynomeansintelligent,

theirperformancesweresuperiortothatoftheirhumancounterparts.Thiswasthecase

fortworeasons:theyworkedfasterthanhumanscouldandperformedcalculations

flawlessly,thuseliminatinghumanerror.23InconjunctionwiththeIndustrialRevolution,

theseprogrammablemachineswereintroducedintotheworkplaceandsoonlosttheir

appealtothepublic.Despitetheirincreasingregularity,modificationscontinuedapaceand

advancementsinawidearrayoffields,notablymathematicsandelectricalengineering,

fromthelatenineteenthcenturytothemiddleofthetwentieth,radicallyalteredtheway

humansandmachinesinteracted.24

Thisbriefhistoricalbackgroundillustratessomeofthecommonalitiesbetween

thesetwoseeminglydistinctfields.Bothparapsychologyandartificialintelligencewere

alluringtoscientistsandlaypeoplebecausethemechanismthroughwhichthey“worked

theirmagic”wasconcealedfrompublicviewandpublicawareness.Despiteendless

hypotheticalmodels,parapsychologyproponentsnevercameanyclosertohammeringout

thefinerdetailsofhowitfunctionswithintherationalmind.Artificialintelligencewas

23Bullock,“CharlesBabbageandtheEmergenceofAutomatedReason,”inThe

MechanicalMindinHistory,29,accessedFebruary11,2016,http://site.ebrary.com/lib/huntercollege/reader.action?docID=10214161&ppg=30.

24PhilHusbands,OwenHolland,andMichaelWheeler,“Introduction:The

MechanicalMind,”inTheMechanicalMindinHistory,4,accessedFebruary11,2016,http://site.ebrary.com/lib/huntercollege/reader.action?docID=10214161&ppg=30.

24

similarinthat,althoughpeoplewereawareoftheleversandgearswithinthemechanical

machinesthatcausedmovement,theydidnotknowhowthatmovementwascausedin

termsofananimatingforcewithrationalguidance.

TouseBabbage’smachinesasanexample,itwascommonknowledgeatthattime

thatmachinescouldsimulatehumanbehaviorandeffectivelyperformmeniallabor.What

wasgroundbreakingwasthetransitionfromsimulatingmeniallabortocognitive

functioning.25Havingamachinethatcouldessentially“think”onitsown,givenavarietyof

situations,wasunheardofandwasconsideredquitemiraculous.Peopledidnotknowhow

apurelymechanicaldevicecouldthinkorcarryoutmentalprocesses.Thequestionsthat

neededtobeanswered,suchastheconduitthroughwhichtheseprocessesweretotake

place,werealsothesamequestionsbeingruminateduponintherealmofparapsychology.

Neitherdisciplinehasbeenabletosatisfactorilycomeupwithatheoryoranswerthatcan

beexperimentallytested,butthatisnotduetoalackofeffort.Instead,contemporary

scientists,workingonbehalfoftheUnitedStatesgovernment,havebeenconducting

researchintobothfieldsforthebetterpartofacentury.However,itonlybegantofully

takeshapefromaroundthetimeoftheColdWar,whichisthefoundationfortheprimary

focusoftheargument:officialUnitedStatesgovernmentsupportforresearchinthefields

ofparapsychologyandartificialintelligencethroughouttheColdWar.

25Bullock,“CharlesBabbageandtheEmergenceofAutomatedReason,”inThe

MechanicalMindinHistory,29-30,accessedFebruary11,2016,http://site.ebrary.com/lib/huntercollege/reader.action?docID=10214161&ppg=30.

25

Tooversimplify,theColdWarmadethedividebetweenconventionalwarfareand

unconventionalwarfaremuchmoreobscurethanithadpreviouslybeen.Indeed,themost

desirousoffensiveanddefensivestrategiessoughtafterwerethosethatgaveonesidethe

upperhandovertheotherwithoutnecessarilyhavingbootsontheground.These

sentimentsalonewerenotthesolemotivationbehindthegovernment’sinvolvementwith

parapsychologyandartificialintelligence,buttheallurethatthesedisciplinesprovidedfor

fightingawarfromadistancewastoogreattoneglectwhentheydidarise.

Succinctlyput,theexceptionalnatureoftheColdWarinconjunctionwiththe

ambiguousnessofrationalitycreatedasituationthatpermittedunorthodoxconcepts,like

parapsychologyandartificialintelligence,tobeevaluatedinwaysthatwereuntetheredto

priordogma.ThesenewresearchinitiativesnotonlyspannedthelengthoftheColdWar,

butalsooutlivedit.Bytracingtheevolutionoftheseprojects,thispaperwillargueseveral

points.Thenextchapterwillfirstexaminethepost-1945worldandthewayitwasthrust

intoasituationwheretherelationshipbetweenthegovernmentandthefringesofscientific

inquirybecamemoreentangledthaneverbefore.Secondly,Iwillarguethattheinitial

decisionsmadepertainingtofringeresearchwerelargelytheresultofthegeopolitical

atmosphereratherthanbecauseofthe‘science.’Oncethatisestablished,the

parapsychologyandartificialintelligenceprogramsinthefirstdecadesoftheColdWarwill

beanalyzedandshowntobebothrationalandirrationaldependingonthewaytheywere

understood.ThethirdchapterwillevaluatethesecondhalfoftheColdWarandhowthese

projectsprogressedinawaythatcouldnothavebeenanticipated.Itwillalsoconsiderthe

26

financialaspectsofeachprogramandhowthemoneyawardedtothemdoesnotaccurately

indicatethelevelofactualsupport.Lastly,Iwillexameachprojectinrelationtotheendof

theColdWarandwhethertheywerecontinuedorterminated,withparticularscrutinyon

howthatinformstheprocessofthe‘hypecycle,’aconceptualizationthatwillbeintroduced

anddiscussedatlengthtowardtheendofthepaper.

27

CHAPTER2–THEORIGINSOFSTATE-SPONSOREDRESEARCHINTOPARAPSYCHOLOGYANDARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCEINTHECOLDWAR

WhiletheUnitedStateswasthepioneerincomputerandAItechnologyintheCold

War,theparapsychologyprogramwasaresponsetoperceivedadvancesmadeinthatfield

bytheSovietUnion.ThatresponsewaslargelytheresultoftheRandCorporationstudyled

byDr.JanusIrving,whichsuggestedthattheUnitedStatesshouldnotfallbehindin

researchregardingextrasensoryperception.Withoutthatprovocation,therewouldhave

beennoimpetustoevenarousethethoughtsofaparapsychologistlikeAndrijaPuharich.

Ineffect,itwasarationalmovetooverlookthesupposedirrationalityof

parapsychologybecausenotdoingsocouldpossiblyhavemadethecountryvulnerableif

theSovietsdidinfactmakeprogress.ExtremeexampleswouldbeaRussiantelepathically

readingstatesecretsorpsychokineticallydetonatingabombintheUSfromsafelywithin

Sovietborders.Whilesuchscenariosmightsoundlikesciencefiction,theywerethekinds

ofapplicationssomethoughtparapsychologycouldhavemilitarily.Althoughmaterials

fromtheSovietUnionhavenotbeenmadeavailable,apicturedrawnbyoneofthepsychics

usedbytheUnitedStatesGovernmentwillgivethereadersomeperspectiveonhow

precisethesemethodscouldbe,ifneededinamilitarysetting.Figure1isasketchmadeby

aCIApsychicofalocationtowhichhehadonlybeengivengeographiccoordinates.Figure

2isareproductionofanactualphotographofthoseexactcoordinates.Thedrawing,which

28

isagantrycrane,isremarkablyaccurateandillustratesoneofthehypothetical

applicationsofparapsychologyinwarfare,especiallyinlocationswhereobtaining

photographicintelligenceisdangerousorimpossible.

Ontheothersideofthespectrum,artificialintelligenceresearchwasconductedfor

muchthesamereason.Fromthebeginning,theideaofamachineexhibitingintelligence

rivalingthatofahumanbrainwasunderstoodasirrational.Criticscitednumerous

practicallimitationstothekindsoftasksthatamachinecouldintelligentlyundertake,such

astheastronomicalamountofpre-loadeddatathatneedstobeatthemachine’sdisposalto

carryouteventhesimplestassignments.HubertDreyfusjuxtaposedthiswiththe

intelligenceandcommonsenseofayoungchild.ThefactthattheleadingluminariesinAI

couldnotcreateamachinetomatchthecommonsenseofafouryear-oldchildwasseenas

Figure1:PatPrice’ssketchofcraneatthesecretSovietR&DsiteatSemipalatinsk.

Figure2:DrawingreproducedfromCIAsatellitephotograph.(Soastonotdivulgeactualqualityofsatellitetechnology.)

29

evidencethatAIwasanirrationalendeavor.However,aswithparapsychology,itwaseasy

toimaginethemilitaryapplicationsforafullyrealizedartificialintelligence.

Despitethedrawbacksitenduredupuntilthatpoint,theprospectofcreatinga

successfulartificialintelligencewasnotyetdampenedbyitsimmediatefailures.

Parapsychologistshadnotpresentedtheworldwithanythingnewintermsof

developmentsoutsideofrefinedresearchproceduresandprotocols.Verylittlehad

changedregardingthereportingofthephenomena,whichmadeitmoredifficulttoget

establishmentscientiststobecomeinterested.But,artificialintelligencewasstilla

relativelyyoungdiscipline,sofailureswerenotperceivedinthesamewayasfailureswere

inparapyschologicalstudies.Electronictechnologyhadnotbeeninvestigatedfor

thousandsofyearsanddidnothavethedeeplyrootedoppositionthatparapsychologyhad.

Thisisoneofthekeydifferencesthathelptoexplainwhy,thoughbothwereirrational,

artificialintelligenceresearchwasestablishedoutofitsowninherentpotentialwhilethe

programsinparapsychologywerelaunchedinreactiontoresearchintoextrasensory

perceptionbytheSovietUnion.

TherationalityaspectofColdWarresearchwasdebatedmuchmore

comprehensivelyinthedevelopmentofartificialintelligencethanitwasinparapsychology

circles.Itseemsasthoughtherewasareal,livelydebateovertherationalityofartificial

intelligence,directlyaffectingitspossiblefuture.Incontradistinction,ColdWarresearch

intoparapsychologyneverreachedthesamelevelofdialoguethatAIdid.Intermsof

orthodoxscience,therewasneveranyreasontohaveadiscussionoveritsrationality

30

becausethathadbeendonenumeroustimesinthepast,andtheprecedenthadbeenset.

Governmentresearch,atleastwhathasbeendeclassified,didnotmakeanydiscoveries

thatscienceproperwouldconsidergroundbreakingorworthinvestigating.Whileitmust

beacknowledgedthatthemostexplosiveinformationaboutagivensituationisgenerally

whatiskeptclassified,speculationaloneisnotenoughtofueladiscussionamong

conventionalscientists.Despitetheseshortcomingsforbothartificialintelligenceand

parapsychology,federalfundingcontinuedunabatedthroughtheearlyColdWar.Itwasnot

untilthe1970sthatanothershiftingovernmentsupportfortheseprogramsisdiscernible.

ThischapterwillestablishthegeopoliticalatmospherefromWorldWarIItothe

mid-1960s,andhowthatcontextsetthestageforthedevelopmentofresearchin

pioneeringfieldsrangingfromperceivedpseudoscienceslikeparapsychologytothe

seeminglyunfathomablesuchasartificialintelligence.Examinationsofthesediverse

disciplineswerenotauthorized“inthenameofscience,”butweretheresultofcomplex

deliberationssurroundingtheconceptofrationality:howitinformeddecision-makingand

howtouseittorespondtothemaneuveringsoftheSovietUnion.Theindeterminatestatus

ofrationalityatthetimehadsignificantanddirecteffectsonthegovernment’sresponseto

certainperceivedthreats.26Thesethreats,whichwerebothrealandimagined,werethe

primarymotivationbehindstudiesintorationalityandthesubsequentdevelopmentofthe

programsinquestion.

26Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,5.

31

Thedawnofthetwentiethcenturywitnessedanexponentialgrowthofresearch

intoparapsychologyandartificialintelligenceacrosstheUnitedStatesandEurope.Yet,the

historiesofparapsychologyandartificialintelligencerarely,ifever,crossedpathsdirectly.

Ifaconnectionhastobemade,themosttangiblerelationshipwouldhavebeenthroughthe

variousinstitutionsandthinktanksthatstudiedbothdisciplinesintermsofpracticality

andusefulnessinconjunctionwiththeirproposedrationality,suchastheRand

Corporation.Mostoftenthesestudieswerecommissionedatthebehestofthemilitaryand

intelligencesectorsofthegovernment.PriortotheColdWar,parapsychologywaslargely

theprerogativeofcivilianscientists,whilethegovernmentalwayshadahandinthe

developmentofcomputertechnology.

State-sponsoredparapsychologyresearchintheearlyyearsoftheColdWarhadits

antecedentsinthepsychologicalwarfareprogramsfromthebeginningofthetwentieth

century.27Theintelligencecommunityandthemilitaryhadbeeninvestigatingthe

practicalusesofpsychologicalwarfareinthisperiodandmanyofthereportsarestill

classified.Althoughanexaminationofthesepreliminaryprogramsisoutsidethescopeof

thisstudy,itissignificanttonotethatthepsychologicalwarfareresearchbegantotakeon

newcharacteristicsfromthelate1940son.Coincidentally,andcontrarytopopularbelief,

researchershaveidentifiedthisexacttimeframeasthestartingpointforthemodern

conceptionofartificialintelligence.BothparapsychologyandAIresearcherswere

27ChristopherSimpson,“DefiningPsychologicalWar,”inScienceofCoercion:

CommunicationResearchandPsychologicalWarfare,1945-1960(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1996),3-74.

32

attemptingtobridgethegapbetweenscience,warfare,andtheburgeoningstudyof

rationalityinthecontextoftheColdWar.

ThestartoftheColdWarusheredinaneraofunprecedentedanxietyandparanoia

onaglobalscale.Nopotentialweaponorresearchendeavorwasseenastoofar-fetchedor

tooirrationalfortheUSSRtoconsider.Indeed,theverynatureoftheColdWarcalledinto

questiontheartofwarmorethaneverbefore.Withoutatraditionalfrontline,theColdWar

catalyzedtheemergenceofunconventionalapproachesgearedtowardbreechingenemy

defenses,apracticethathadrootsinWorldWarII.Suchtacticsplayed“asignificantrolein

U.S.foreignpolicyduringtheearlyColdWaryears,oftenintheformofcovertparamilitary

operationsledbytheCentralIntelligenceAgency.”28Asaresult,thegovernment,not

wantingtobecaughtoffguardbyanotherSputnik-typeevent,couldnotbrushoff

informationthatitotherwisewouldnotentertain,suchasreportsdescribingtheutilization

ofmindcontrolandextrasensoryperception.29Althoughmultiplereasonshavebeengiven

forwhythegovernmentstartedlookingintoparapsychology,thedetailthatremains

constantisthatitwasaresponsetoworkbeingconductedbytheSovietUnion.As

previouslynoted,theUnitedStateswasthepioneeringforceinthedevelopmentof

artificialintelligence.WiththeSovietUnionspearheadingresearchintoparapsychology,it

28JosephL.Voteletal.,“UnconventionalWarfareintheGrayZone,”JointForce

Quarterly80(January1,2016):101-9.29MichaelJ.NojeimandDavidP.Kilroy,“TheSputnikCrisisandtheNuclearAge,”

inDaysofDecision:TurningPointsinU.S.ForeignPolicy(Washington,DC:PotomacBooks,2011),77-94.

33

isclearthatbothsuperpowerswereinacompetitiontomastermindunorthodoxoffensive

anddefensiveweaponsintheColdWar.

IntheUnitedStates,researchrevolvedaroundwhatmethodologieswerefeasible,

nomatterhowbizarretheymighthaveseemed.Manyoftheintellectualelitesinthe

countryatthetimecontemplatedthisveryquestion,wonderingwhererationalitybegan

andended.Thisquestionofrationalitywasquitebroad;itsstudywasnottheresultof

wantingtoframeparapsychologyandartificialintelligenceasreasonable.Instead,those

fieldsmaterializedasaresultofthevacuumleftbyhavingtoomanydifferenthypotheses

ofrationality,noneofwhichwasdefinitive.Putanotherway,thestudyofrationalityinthe

ColdWarmadeclearthattheveryideaofrationalitywasanartificialconstruct.The

inabilitytodevelopaformulaoralgorithmforuniversalrationalbehaviormeantthatthere

wasnorubricwithwhichtoevaluatehowtoproceedinagivensituation.

Thereweremanyattemptstocreateasystemofthisnature,notallofwhich

includedalgorithmsormathematicsingeneral.Theyincludedsuchconceptsasgame

theory,prisoners’dilemma,nuclearstrategy,operationsresearch,groupthink,Bayesian

decisiontheory,systemsanalysis,rationalchoicetheory,andexperimentalsocial

psychology.Thislistisbynomeansexhaustive,butitrepresentsamajorpartofthe“loose

andsomewhatmotleyconglomerate…[that]definedthefieldofcontestationaboutwhat

rationalityshouldbeundertheradicallyalteredconditionsoftheColdWar.”30The

relevanceliesinnothoweachtheoryofrationalityfailed,butthattheydidfail.Notasingle

30Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,4.

34

theoryadvancedcouldbeuniversallyappliedtoalldecision-makingsituations.This

influencedUnitedStatespolicyregardingparapsychology.Sinceparapsychologyhad

alwaysbeenconstruedasirrationalbyorthodoxscience,itshouldhavebeenbrushedoffas

outlandishandawasteofvaluableresources.However,withtheconceptofrationalityin

anuncertainstate,theUnitedStatesdecidedthatparapsychologicalresearchwasactually

rational,giventhestateofglobalaffairs.

Section1–Parapsychology’sOriginsintheEarlyColdWar

InitialinvestigationsintoparapsychologybythegovernmentduringtheColdWar

grewoutofstandardpsychologicalwarfareoperationsfromtheprecedingworldwars.

Psychologicalwarfarewasnotanewweaponinthemilitary’sarsenalinthetwentieth

century,buthadexistedsincetheearliestrecordedconflicts.TheUnitedStatesmade

extensiveuseofpsychologicalwarfareinthetwentiethcentury,mostnotablyinLatin

AmericaandSoutheastAsia,whichhasbeenextremelywelldocumented.31

Psychologicalwarfarebecameintertwinedwiththefieldofcommunications,

makingthisacademicdisciplinefertilegroundforliteratureregardingpsychological

manipulation.Althoughgovernmentfundingofuniversityresearchisastandardpractice,

whatmakesthisparticularareaunique,thoughsimilartocomputertechnologyintermsof

control,isthat“[m]ilitary,intelligence,andpropagandaagenciessuchasthe[DoD]andthe

31Simpson,“AcademicAdvocates,”inScienceofCoercion,42-51.

35

[CIA]helpedbankrollsubstantiallyallofthepost-WorldWarIIgeneration’sresearchinto

techniquesofpersuasion,opinionmeasurement,interrogation,politicalandmilitary

mobilization,propagandaofideologyandrelatedquestions.”32Ineffect,thegovernment

heldamonopolyovercommunicationsresearchthroughitsfinancialsponsorship.The

governmentdidnottellthescientistswhattheycouldandcouldnotsay,butitcould

influencewhichscientists’statementswereseenasauthoritativeandwhichwerenot.

Thestudyofpsychologicalwarfarewascompoundedbytherumorsof

parapsychologicalstudiesintheSovietUnion.TheSovietsopenedthedoortotheworldof

extrasensoryperceptionfirst.Awarenessofthisraisedcuriositywithintheintelligence

community’spsychologicalwarfareresearch,whichwascomplementedbyitsown

exposuretoawidevarietyofpseudoscientific,occult,andparanormalthemes,especiallyin

SoutheastAsia.

TheSovietUnion’sresearchintoparapsychologyreachedWesternintelligence

agenciesthroughvariouschannels,somemorereputablethanothers.Twoofthemore

prominentconduitsweretheslowleakofinformationonparanormalresearch33andSoviet

displaysofpsychicalcoercionintheformofshowtrials,whichweredesignedtoinfluence

publicopinion.34TheyhadbeenusedunderdifferentcircumstancesintheSovietUnionin

32Simpson,ScienceofCoercion,1-2.33FloraLewis,SpecialtoTheNewYorkTimes."EmigreTellsofResearchinSovietin

ParapsychologyforMilitaryuse."NewYorkTimes(1923-CurrentFile),Jun19,1977.http://search.proquest.com/docview/123111711?accountid=27495.

34U.S.NationalCouncilforSovietandEastEuropeanResearch,ProceedingsofCongressandGeneralCongressionalPublications,TheOccultinModernRussianandSoviet

36

the1930sintheMoscowTrialsandevenearlierthanthat,buttheseearlierdemonstrations

wereneversuspectedtohaveusedparapsychologicalmanipulation.35Bythe1960s,the

streamofinformationfromtheSovietbloconESP-relatedresearch,inadditiontotheir

publicdisplaysofmanipulatedindividuals,werelargelyresponsiblefortheUnitedStates’

studyoftelepathy,clairvoyance,andotherrelatedphenomena.

Thefirstsignificantdocumenttoappearwithrespecttopossibleapplicationsof

unconventionalpsychologicalphenomenaoccurredinthelate1940s,whentheColdWar

wasinitsearlystages.TheSovietshadbeenexceptionallyproductiveintheir

interrogationsofpoliticaldissidents,extractingconfessionsinwaysthatdefiedthelogicof

Westernintelligence.Theyreceivedadmissionsofguiltfrompeoplewhoseeminglyshould

nothavebeeneasily“broken”,whichpromptedenquiriesintothepossibleinfluenceof

someunknownpsychologyprocessonprisoners.ThemostfamouscaseisthatofJosef

Mindszenty,aHungarianarchbishop,cardinal,andleaderoftheCatholicChurchin

Hungary.

CardinalMindszentywasknowntobeastaunchanti-communist.Priortohisarrest

inDecember1948onchargesoftreasonandconspiracytooverthrowtheHungarian

government,hewrotealetterstatinganyconfessionorrelatedstatementswouldbe

Culture,byBerniceGlatzerRosenthal,99thCong.,2dsess.,open-filereport,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,pt.806-03(Washington,DC:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1993),13-18.

35WilliamChase,“StalinasProducer:TheMoscowShowTrialsandtheConstruction

ofMortalThreats,”inStalin:ANewHistory,ed.SarahDaviesandJamesR.Harris(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2005),226-48.

37

completelyfalse.Indeed,evenPresidentTrumancalledthetriala“sickeningsham.”36

However,knowingthatitwasfraudulentdidnottranslateintoknowinghowtheSoviet

accomplishedthefeat.Thatvoidinintelligenceproveddifficulttofill.Asaresult,“the

cardinal’strialkick-startedfearsintheUSAthatthe‘Reds’hadmasteredtheartofmind

control–paranoidsuspicionsthatonlygrewintheyearsthatfollowed.”37

Thesecircumstancesareoftencitedbyresearchersasthegenesisofwhatwould

eventuallybecometheCIA’sinfamousMK-ULTRAproject,overshadowingkeyelements

involvingtheuseofparapsychology.TheobviousanswertohowtheSovietsreceivedthe

cardinal’sconfessionisthroughtorture.Withthatestablished,thequestionbecame,by

whatmeans?WeretheyimplantingideasintoMindszenty’sheadtelepathically?Werethey

creatingphysicaltraumathroughsomepsychokineticprocess?Asludicrousasthismay

seem,itcameoutyearslaterthattheSovietswereworkingonthisverytacticwitha

parapsychologicallygiftedwomannamedNinaKulagina.38

DocumentaryfootageofhercaneasilybefoundonYouTubewhichshowsher

performingmanyseeminglyimpossiblefeats.Thevideos,releasedbytheSovietUnionat

theFirstMoscowInternationalConferenceofParapsychologyin1968,mighthavebeen

fictitiousandmadeforpropagandapurposes,butthatinformationhasnevercometolight.

36MichaelOtterman,AmericanTorture:FromtheColdWartoAbuGhraibandBeyond(Carlton,Vic.:MelbourneUniversityPress,2007),15.

37Otterman,AmericanTorture,15.38Dr.MontagueUllman,“PKintheSovietUnion,”inResearchinParapsychology,ed.

WilliamG.Roll,RobertL.Morris,andJ.D.Morris(Metuchen,N.J:ScarecrowPress,1974),120-25.

38

Theveracityofthevisualevidencewouldhavenobearingontheargumentbeingmade

becausewhethertheywererealorfakedoesnotdetractfromthefactthat,intheabsence

ofabsoluteknowledge,thegovernmentcouldnotdismissthepossibilitythattheywere

legitimateandthattheSovietswereinvestigatingthephenomena.

A1949RandCorporationmemorandumexaminedtheuseofhypnoticsuggestion

andotherpsychologicalmanipulationtechniquesintheSovietUniontoelicitfalse

confessions.39Thisreport,authoredbyeminentYalepsychologistIrvingL.Janis,concluded

withaseriesofrecommendationsthatinfluencedthementalityoftheintelligenceand

militarycommunitiesfordecadestocome.Janisassertedthatthe“successfuluse…would

representaseriousthreattodemocraticvaluesintimeofpeaceandwar.Inaddition,it

mightcontributetothedevelopmentofunconventionalmethodsofwarfare,whichwillbe

widelyregardedasimmoral.”Hewentontosaythatthe“resultsofscientificresearchin

thefieldunderdiscussionwouldobviouslylendthemselvestooffensiveaswellas

defensiveapplications.”40Thedocumentleavesonewiththeimpressionthat,althoughthe

existenceofsuchphenomenaisnotwholeheartedlyaccepted,enoughevidencewasthere

towarrantfurtherinvestigation.Thiswasqualifiedbythedeclarationthatsuch

unorthodoxapproachescouldyieldoffensiveaswellasdefensiveapplications,andthatit

wouldbewisetokeepupwithSovietresearchincaseofabreakthrough.

39JanisLesterIrving,“AretheCominformCountriesUsingHypnoticTechniquestoElicitConfessionsinPublicTrials?”SantaMonica,CA:RANDCorporation,1949.http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM161.

40Irving,“AretheCominformCountriesUsingHypnoticTechniquestoElicit

ConfessionsinPublicTrials?”19-20.

39

ThefactthatthedocumentoriginatedwiththeRandCorporationissignificant

becauseRandwasalsothesourceformuchofthetheorizingonrationality,andthe

influenceofthelatterontheformercanbeseeninthesuggestedcourseofaction.The

realityofthephenomenaitselfwasnotthecoreissue.Thereportwasnotmeanttovalidate

theexistenceofparanormalprocesses,butrathertosubstantiatetheexistenceofaSoviet

paranormalprogram.HadspeculationabouttheSovietUnion’suseofparapsychologynot

arisen,theUnitedStateswouldnothavehadanydesiretoconductitsownresearch.

Scienceproperhadlongconsideredparapsychologytobeirreconcilablewithestablished

beliefs.Itwasseenasirrational.Thatviewremainedlargelyunchangedatthetimeofthe

ColdWar.ThegoaloftheRANDCorporationwastotrytosynthesizeparapsychologywith

thesebeliefsinawaythatwouldallowESPtobeanalyzedasobjectivelyaspossible.

RAND’scadreofelitescientistsandintellectualshadthetaskoftryingtomakesenseofa

theoreticallyimpossibleweaponbeingdeployedfromanenemythatwasdelvinginto

subjectsthathadnopriorcounterpartorcomparableprogramintheUnitedStates.

Fromalogisticalstandpoint,thematerialandfinancialsupportrequiredtostarta

researchprogramdesignedtoexaminethepossibleusesofextrasensoryperceptionfar

outweighedanypotentialbenefitsthatcouldhaveresulted.Atleast,thatis,untilwordofa

Sovietprogrambegantospread.Parapsychologywasseenasirrationaltoinvestigatein

andofitself,butcrossedthethresholdintorationalterritorywhenitwasbelievedthe

USSRhaddevelopedaweaponpreviouslyunknownintheWest.Unfortunately,butnot

consequentially,thesmokinggunevidenceforSovietpsychicalcoerciontechniquesnever

40

turnedup.Forinstance,afteranumberofyears,JosefMindszentybrokehissilenceonthe

issueandquelledthecolorfulrumorsthathadbeencirculatingsincehisconfession.He

statedthattheSovietshadkepthimawakefortwenty-ninedaysstraightandthatnothing

paranormaltookplace.41

DiscussionsaboutColdWarparapsychologyusuallycitethemostpopularcases;as

aresult,someofthemoreintriguingcharactersareomitted,suchasDr.AndrijaPuharich,

bornHenryKarelPuharić.PuharichwasbornonFebruary18,1918,inChicago,toCroatian

immigrantsfromtheAustro-HungarianEmpire.Puharichissignificantforseveralreasons,

notleastofwhichisthathisfootprintcanbeseenfromthebeginningofthegovernments’

parapsychologicalresearchprogramsallthewaytotheirrenewedinitiativesinthetwenty-

firstcentury.Hisbiographyreadslikeasciencefictionnovel,completewithtalesofcontact

withextraterrestrialbeingsandcommunicationwithancientEgyptiandeities,yethewas

takenquiteseriouslybytheUnitedStatesgovernment,before,during,andafterthese

supposedeventstookplace.42

Puharichembodiedtheconvergenceofalltheelementsthataidedininitiatingthe

parapsychologicalresearchprograms:hehadadeepinterestintheoccult,hewasintheUS

ArmyMedicalCorpsinvolvedinspecializedpsychologicalresearch,andhewasawell-

establishedacademician.Hewaseducatedinthefieldofmedicineanddidpost-graduate

41Otterman,AmericanTorture,197.42JosephHanlon,“UriGellerandScience:ANewScientistSpecial

Investigation,”NewScientist,October17th,1974,170-89.

41

workinphilosophy.Puharich’sexpertknowledgeinascientificfieldandinphilosophywas

vitaltohisparanormalresearch.Hewasalsoaninventorofmedicaldevicesandobtained

severalpatentsforhiscreations,theesotericnatureofwhichcanbegleanedfromtheir

titles:“MethodandApparatusforImprovingNeuralPerformanceinHumanSubjectsby

Electrotherapy”and“MethodandApparatusforSplittingWaterMolecules.”Otherswere

lessexotic,suchasmethodsforimprovinghumanhearing.Theseexamplesshowhis

aspirationtoenhancehumanperceptionbeyondthefivesenses;itiseasytoseewhy

certainsectorsofthegovernmentwouldbeinterestedinsuchcapabilities.

Puharich’ssignificancealsoliesinthefactthathewasoneofthefirstscientiststo

introducethemilitarytothepracticalapplicationsofextrasensoryperception.According

toPuharich,hehadbeencarryingoutresearchonpsychicabilitiesfortheUnitedStates

Navyfor‘ProjectPenguin’asearlyas1948.43Inanotheraccount,hestatedthatheleftthe

militaryin1948,whichaddstohismystique.Regardlessofthatepisode,whatisknownis

thathepresentedapapertoaPentagonbriefingonNovember24,1952,entitled,"Onthe

PossibleUsefulnessofExtrasensoryPerceptioninPsychologicalWarfare."44Thelecture,

presentedtoofficialswithintheResearchBranchoftheOfficeoftheChiefofPsychological

43Geraldo.Episodeno.3,firstbroadcastOctober2,1987insyndication.44JohnWilhelm,“PsychicSpying?TheCIA,thePentagonAndtheRussiansProbe

TheMilitaryPotentialofParapsychology,”WashingtonPost,August7,1977.

42

Warfare,apparentlygeneratedmuchinterestandcuriosityinthesubject,forarrangements

weremadeforPuharichtobereinstatedintotheArmysoonthereafter.45

WhatcamenextforPuharichwassocaptivatingthatitwouldguideandshapehis

workfortheremainderofhislife.OnNewYear’sEve,1952,Puharichwaswithhis

laboratoryassistantHankJackson,whenathirdman,aDr.Vinod,enteredatrancestate

andbegantocommunicatewithotherworldlybeings.Thereareseveralpointsthatare

significantinthecontextofthisexamination.Parapsychology,aswasstatedabove,wasfor

themostpartunderstoodasapseudosciencebythemajorityofthescientificcommunity.

Intryingtoexplicatethefactorsthatcontributedtothecreationofintelligenceandmilitary

parapsychologystudies,amajorcharacteristicfoundamongthemostvocaladvocatesof

theresearchwasabeliefintheparanormal.PeoplelikePuharich,andlaterthescientistsat

StanfordResearchInstitute,weretheclosesttheUnitedStatesgovernmentcametohaving

agroupcomparabletothosedoingparapsychologyresearchintheSovietUnion.

Puharich’scloserelationshipwiththemilitarythroughouttheColdWarwaspartlya

resultofhisinterdisciplinaryexpertiseinparapsychology,engineering,andmedicine.

Ratherthanseparatinghispersonalconvictionsfromhisresearchintotheseareas,he

integratedthem.Puharichbelievedhewasincommunicationwithanintelligentforce,and

heallowed“it”toguideandshapehisresearch.Forexample,afterbeingtoldbythe

intelligentsupernaturalforcethat“weshallnegateandrevisepartofyourwork,bywhichI

45AndrijaPuharich,TheSacredMushroom:KeytotheDoorofEternity(GardenCity,

N.Y.:Doubleday,1974),10-12.

43

meantheworkaspresentedbyyou,”Puharichreplied,“Itishelpfultohaveyourguidance.”

Then,aftertalkingabouttheLorenz-EinsteinTransformationequation,thevoiceaffirmed

that“[t]hewholegroupofconceptshastoberevised.Theproblemofpsychokinesis,

clairvoyance,etc.,atthepresentstageisallright,butprofoundlymisleading–permitusto

saythetruth.”46Unfortunately,afullreferenceortranscriptofwhattranspiredwasnever

madepublic.Whetheronebelieveshisaccountsaregenuineornotisofnoconsequence

herebecausePuharichwascompletelyovertakenbythesepurportedexperiences.

Sincethecontentdirectlyfocusesonparapsychologicalprocesses,whichwasoneof

hisspecialties,itfollowsthathewouldhaveworkedtoincorporatethisnewinformation

intohisownresearch.Indeed,afterafewweeksof“conversations”throughthemedium,

Dr.Vinod,Puharichperceivedtheseexchangestobeprofoundandtheinformationhewas

receivingtobenothingshortofsupremewisdom.Hecommentedthat“itwasadeeply

movingexperience,andwereallybelievedeverywordthatweheardbasedpurelyonthe

internalevidence.ThiswasinterruptedinFebruary1953whenIhadtoserveasacaptain

intheU.S.ArmyduringtheKoreanWar.”47Despitebeingwell-acquaintedwiththe

paranormal,thiseventforeverchangedhisperceptionofthenatureofreality.

Fromthenon,Puharich’scareerwouldcommingleconventionalresearchontheone

hand,suchashiselectronicinventions,andgovernmentextrasensoryperceptionresearch

46AndrijaPuharich,“Introduction,”inUri:AJournaloftheMysteryofUriGeller

(GardenCity,NY:AnchorPress,1974),1-10.47Puharich,“Introduction,”inUri,1-10.

44

ontheother.PuharichwasarguablythemostsignificantpersoningettingtheUnited

Statesgovernmenttoinvestigateparapsychology.Onequestionthatpeoplemayaskis

why,withhisbizarrebackground,thegovernmenttookPuharichseriouslyinthefirst

place.Althoughthisquestionhasmanyanswers,themostpertinentonegiventhecontext

ofthisessay,maybetoseeitasamicrocosmofthemajorargumentofthisthesis:the

questionofrationality.Justasparapsychologyandartificialintelligencethemselveswere

initiallygivenextrascrutinyinthefaceofmountingobjections,thegovernmentalsocasta

widernetamongtherealmofscientists.Inadditiontobelieversinaliens,thegovernment

alsoemployedscientologistsandrun-of-the-millpsychics.Insomecases,thegovernment

evenexposedcritiquesagainstthemasnothingmorethanpreconceivedprejudicesagainst

thephenomenawrappedinaveilofobjectivity.48Onedocument,abriefingreportissued

bytheDefenseIntelligenceAgencytitled“RecentAdversePublicityonParapsychological

Research,”isshortbutindicativeofthegovernment’sperspectiveonthesecharacters.

Theauthorofthedocument,whosenamehasbeenredacted,suspectsthatthesole

intentoftheskepticswastodebunkthephenomena,evenifthatmeantmanipulation.The

reportrelayshowthereareclaimsthat“parapsychologicalresearchers…weretakeninby

trickery,andthatmostifnotallparapsychologicalresearchissuspect”butthat“these

48Authorredacted,RecentAdversePublicityonParapsychologicalResearch(U)(CIA-

RDP96-00788R001100360001-1)(Washington,DC:DefenseIntelligenceAgency),March11,1983.

45

claimsareinfactgrossdistortions.”49ThedocumentwasauthorizedbyDr.JackVerona,a

renownednuclearphysicistandtheheadoftheScientificandTechnicalIntelligence

DirectorateoftheDIA,andwasintendedforinternaldistributionsoastocreateadivide

betweenpublicperceptionandtheviewsheldbyofficialsingovernment.Althoughthe

documentdoesnotmentionPuharichbyname,itisacleardefenseoftheresearchheand

otherswereconductingonbehalfofthemilitaryandintelligencecommunities.

Asidefromhisfringepursuits,thesheernumberofpatentsPuharichobtained

showedthathewasnomadman,andgavecredencetohisabilitytoconductresearchin

controversialareas.Toplacetheexampleinthewidercontextofthisanalysis,Puharich’s

worldviewwassuchthatthedistinctionbetweenwhatwasscienceandwhatwas

pseudosciencewasconsiderablylessstarkthanthatofascientistwithorthodoxviews.In

effect,hewasabletoincorporatetheseideassuccessfullybecausehisviewofwhatwas

rationalwasmoreinclusive.Puharich’suniquepositionasascientistwhobelievedthat

parapsychologywasarationalendeavormadetheideaofutilizingthephenomenamore

palatabletothoseinchargeofdirectingpolicy.Hisspecificcontributionstothe

government’sinvestigationsintoparapsychologyduringtheColdWarcannotbe

overstated.Aswillbeshowninthefollowingchapter,hispresencecouldbefeltin

governmentresearchlaboratorieslongaftertheColdWar.

49Authorredacted,RecentAdversePublicityonParapsychologicalResearch(U)(CIA-RDP96-00788R001100360001-1)(Washington,DC:DefenseIntelligenceAgency),March11,1983.

46

Section2–ComputingResearchinvolvingArtificialIntelligence

Itisimpossibletoexaminetheroleofartificialintelligencewithoutfirstexplicating

thecloserelationshipbetweenthefieldofcomputingandthefederalgovernment.

ResearchintoelectroniccomputingduringtheColdWarinvolvedscientistsfromthree

domains:academia,privateindustry,andthegovernment.Thesedivisions,however,easily

becameblurredasscholarsoftenmovedbetweeneachrealm,pendingsecurityclearance.

Inthisway,researchersforartificialintelligencemirroredscientistslikePuharichinthat

theywereabletomoveinandoutofthepublicandprivatesectorswithrelativeease.

Asidefromagroupofscientistshailingfromdiversebackgrounds,thedevelopmentof

electroniccomputingtechnologyinthetwentiethcenturywouldnothavereachedthe

degreeitdidhaditnotalsobeenforthecontinuousfinancialsupportoftheUnitedStates

government.Forthisreason,manyoftheinnovationsincomputertechnologysinceWorld

WarIIcanbetracedbacktofederalsponsorship.

Severalexplanationshavebeengivenforwhygovernmentsupportwas

indispensableinthisarea,especiallyforlong-termgoals.First,thegovernmentwaspoised

tofundresearchthattendedtocomplementratherthanpreempttheworkinuniversities

andprivateindustry.Aswithallareasofscientificresearch,certaininitiativesareavoided

forreasonsthathavenothingtodowithscience.Forexample,aprivatecorporationmay

resistconductingresearchinanareathatcouldpotentiallyreducetheprofitabilityof

currenttechnologiesbymakingthemobsolete.Thisincludestedious,long-term,

47

fundamentalresearchwheretheimmediatebenefitscannotbeprojectedorknown.50

Althoughtheywereneverwithouttheircritics,artificialintelligenceandparapsychology

gainedlegitimacyasaresultofthepatronageoftheDepartmentofDefense.Thishelped

reducesomeoftheresistancefrompartiesoutsidethepublicsectortogetinvolvedin

researchthatmightormightnotyieldresults.

Similartoparapsychology,theallureofutilizingcomputertechnologyinwar,both

hotandcold,wasenoughofanincentivetostimulategreateffortinmakingthetechnology

operational.Itisatthispointthatthehistoryofartificialintelligenceandstandard

computingresearchdiverge,sincecomputersreachedadegreeoffunctionalitythat

permittedthemtoperformsimplecalculations.Federalfundinginthefieldofcomputing

fromtheendofWorldWarIItothe1970sfacilitatednothingshortofarevolutionin

electronictechnology.Howeverambitiousthisendeavor,thecreationofanartificially

intelligentmachinewashardlymorethanathought,letaloneapracticalgoal;theconcept

itselfwasonlyspeculateduponafewyearsearlier.Althoughtheperiodgenerallythought

toinauguratethefieldofartificialintelligenceisthemid-1950s,theconceptioncanactually

betracedbackmorethanadecadeearlier.Accordingtoartificialintelligencepioneer

DonaldMichie,AlanTuringhadbeenruminatingonthepotentialityofmachines

50“ExecutiveSummary,”inFundingaRevolution:GovernmentSupportforComputing

Research(Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress,1999),1-15,accessedJanuary7,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/6323/chapter/1.

48

functioningonthelevelofthehumanbrainasfarbackas1941,albeitusingdifferent

phraseology,callingitmachineintelligence.51

Despitethecoalescenceofthemostarticulateintellectualsandextraordinary

resources,artificialintelligencewasjustnotarationalaimatthetime.Oneofthemost

elementaryproblemsencounteredbyresearcherswaswhatcouldandcouldnotbe

programmedintoamachine.SimilartothetasksperformedbytheDifferenceEngineinthe

timeofCharlesBabbageacenturyearlier,electroniccomputerscouldperformindividual,

specificfunctions,suchasmathematicalequations,butcouldonlyperformonetaskata

time.Bothquestionsandanswerswererecordedintothemachinefromtheoutset,and

whenquestionswereasked,thecomputeressentiallymadetheassociation.Ifthe

computerwasneededtocarryoutadifferenttask,itwouldhavetobeprogrammedfor

thatbeforehand.Thisbecameburdensome,especiallyinrelationtowaroperationswhen

datawasneededinrealtime.Detractorssawtheinabilitytomultitaskasasignificant

impedimenttocreatingartificialintelligence.

HubertDreyfuswasoneofthemostvocalcriticsofartificialintelligenceintheearly

yearsoftheColdWar.InhismonographWhatComputer’sStillCan’tDo:ACritiqueof

ArtificialReason,Dreyfusidentifiesthesheermagnitudeofrawinformationneededto

makethesimplestdecisionsasoneofthemostimpenetrableroadblocksinthecreationof

artificiallyintelligentmachines.Alsoamonghisobjectionswasthefactthatthehuman

51JackCopeland,“TheTuringTest,”inStudiesinCognitiveSystems,ed.JamesMoor,

vol.30,TheTuringTest:theElusiveStandardofArtificialIntelligence(Dordrecht:KluwerAcademicPublishers,2003),1-22.

49

brain,withmoredataaboutaparticularsituationatitsdisposal,reachesasolutionfaster

thanonewithlessinformation.Butamachinetakeseverlongertoreachasolutionthe

moreinformationithas.Therationaleforthiscritiquewasthatamachinewouldtakea

protractedamountoftimetoprocessinformationwhensearchingforthemostoptimal

outcome,whileahumanbrainunconsciouslyorinstinctivelygoesthroughthesearching

processimperceptiblyfast.Itwasthismechanism,arguedDreyfus,whichcouldnotbe

formalizedintoanalgorithm.Nomatterhowmuchinformationwasregisteredintoa

computer’smemory,endowingitwiththeproficiencyorcommonsenseofevenayoung

childwaswhateludedscientists.52Dreyfus’significancealsoliesinthefactthathewasa

consultantfortheRandCorporationwhenhiscritiquewaspublished,atimewhenRand

wasspearheadingartificialintelligenceresearch.Nevertheless,proponentsofartificial

intelligence,especiallywithintheorganizationlikeSimonNewellandJohnCliffordShaw,

werenottobedissuaded.

Withmillionsofdollarsinfinancialincentivecomingfromgovernmentcontracts,

researcherswerenotatalossforresources.Theprimaryfunderoftheseresearchprojects

inthefirstthreedecadesoftheColdWarwasARPA,laterrenamedDARPA(Defense

AdvancedResearchProjectsAgency).Muchofthefundingwasawardedtouniversities,

suchasStanfordUniversityandtheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT),with

additionalcontractsgoingtoprivatecorporations,suchasInternationalBusinessMachines

52HubertL.Dreyfus,“IntroductiontotheMITPressEdition,”inWhatComputersStill

Can'tDo:ACritiqueofArtificialReason(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,1992),ix-lii.

50

Corporation(IBM)andRadioCorporationofAmerica(RCA).DARPAwasinvolvedwith

artificialintelligenceresearchfromtheverybeginningandwasthecatalystforinnovations

incomputertechnology,rangingfromthecyberneticstothepredecessorofthemodern

Internet,theARPANET.DARPAisoneofthemainreasonsartificialintelligencewas

researchedtotheextentitwas.DueinparttothecreationoftheInformationProcessing

TechniquesOffice(IPTO),it“radicallychangedthescaleofresearchinAI,propellingit

fromacollectionofsmallprojectsintoalarge-scale,high-profiledomain.”53Indeed,the

UnitedStateswas,asitisnow,thegloballeaderinAIresearch.

Incontrasttoparapsychology,theUnitedStateswasapioneeringforceinartificial

intelligence.Advancesinelectronicsandcomputingtechnologywereoccurringatan

exponentialrate,anditwasbelievedthatartificialintelligencewouldbecomeareality

downtheline.Thegovernmenttookontheburdenoflayingthefoundationanddoing

preliminary(costly)researchinareasthatwereunappealingtoindustryandacademiaby

themselves.Forinstance,oneoftheinitialimpetusesforartificialintelligenceresearchwas

theestablishmentofauniversal,digital,symboliclanguagethatcouldbeunderstoodby

anymachine.TheseenquiriesweredirectlyrelatedtorationalitystudiesattheRand

Corporation.Decision-makingtoolsderivedfromtheseeffortsweretheresultofartificial

intelligenceresearchandfromthedebateoverrationality.Theveryideaofartificial

53“DevelopmentsinArtificialIntelligence,”inFundingaRevolution,198-225,accessedJanuary7,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/6323/chapter/9.

51

intelligencerestedonthenotionthatthemachinemakingthedecisionwoulddosobased

onsomeformofrationaldeliberation.

Sinceartificialintelligenceincorporatesmanydifferentdisciplines,researchwas

pursuedinavarietyoffields.Forthisreason,theSURprogramwouldbeusedtorepresent

DARPA’sprogressinartificialintelligence.Inadditiontotranslatingwords,theaimwasto

havetheprocesscarriedoutautomatically,asclosetoreal-timeaspossible.Oneofthe

fundamentalaspectsofSURwastheconstructionofauniversalformulaforrationality,asit

wasconsideredessentialtoasuccessfulspeechrecognitionprogram.

Sincedefiningrationalitywasahighlycontestedsubjectatthetime,artificial

intelligenceresearchersattemptedtomakethetypeofrationalitytheywereconcerned

withdistinctfromtherationalitydebateingeneral.OneoftheproponentsofthiswasAllen

Newell,whousedthephrase“knowledgelevel”todescribethetypeofrationalitythey

wereafter.Hehypothesizedthattherewasalevelofknowledgeabovesimplesymbol

recognition,whichfunctionedasthecomponentthatchosethebestoptiontocompletea

givengoal.54ThiscanbeseenasaresponsetotheskepticismofcriticslikeDreyfus.

Thereneededtobeamechanismthatcouldreducetheperiodbetweenquestion-

and-answerinthesymbol-basedsystemasnewinformationwasadded,ratherthan

increaseit.Knowledgewasconceptualizedtobea“competence-likenotion,beinga

54AllenNewell,“TheKnowledgeLevel,”ArtificialIntelligence18,no.1(1982):87-

127.

52

potentialforgeneratingaction”andwas“intimatelylinkedwithrationality.”55Theideawas

thattherewasahigherorderfunctionthatcouldwadethroughallpossibleanswersto

reachthebestanswerpossible.

ResearchersatDARPAworkedonthisproblemfortheSURprogram,butwerenot

successful.Althoughseeminglysimpleinscope,thisprojectwouldprovetobe

tremendouslydifficulttocomplete.Infact,itprovedtobesuchacomplexundertakingthat

itwasnearlyabandonedinthe1960s,anddidnotbecomefullyrealizedforoverthree

decades.56Theinabilityofresearcherstocreateanalgorithmtotranslatelanguages,inthis

caseCyrillictoEnglish,providedcriticslikeDreyfuswithammunitionfortheirarguments

againstAI’srationalfoundations.

Nevertheless,DARPAandtheRandCorporationcontinuedtoworktogetheron

problemsrelatedtoartificialintelligence.Failuredidnotnecessarilyleadtoditchingthe

project.Itissignificanttonotethatthesameattitudewasmaintainedthroughoutthe

courseoftheColdWarwithparapsychologyaswell;botheffortsofferedjustenoughto

keeptheinterestofthegovernmentpiqued.SinceoneofthecoretenetsofDefense

DepartmentsponsorshipincomputertechnologyduringtheColdWarwaspreliminary

research,itwasgenerallyunderstoodthattheresearch’sutilizationwouldnotbereadily

knownuntilitwasneeded,or“required.”Asaresult,theleadingAIresearchers,including

55Newell,“TheKnowledgeLevel,”87-127.

56PhilipKlahrandD.A.Waterman.ArtificialIntelligence:ARANDPerspective.

SantaMonica,CA:RANDCorporation,1986.http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P7172.html.

53

JohnMcCarthy,MarvinMinsky,andSimonNewell,“view[ed]theirinstitutions’research,

duringthefirst10to15yearsofDARPA’sAIfunding,asessentiallyunfetteredby

immediateapplications.”Inotherwords,formuchoftheearlyColdWar,substantial

progressdidnothavetobedemonstratedforthefundingtocontinue.

Parapsychologywasaffordedthesameluxury.Justlikeanyotherscience,itwas

requiredtopassrigoroustesting.Sincethemilitarybegantohavenewobjectivesinmind

forartificialintelligence,“thenatureofDARPA’ssupportchangedradically—froman

emphasisonfundamentalresearchatalimitednumberofcentersofexcellencetomore

broad-basedsupportforappliedresearchtiedtomilitaryapplications—bothreflectingand

motivatingchangesinthefieldofAIitself.”57Undoubtedly,thegovernmenthaditssights

setonmilitaryapplicabilityfromtheverybeginning,buttheoverttransitionwouldhave

far-reachingeffects.

57“DevelopmentsinArtificialIntelligence,”inFundingaRevolution,205,accessed

January7,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/6323/chapter/9.

54

CHAPTER3–PARAPSYCHOLOGY,ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE,ANDTHEHYPECYCLEINCOLDWARRESEARCH

AstheEastandWestenteredthethirddecadeoftheColdWar,the

UnitedStatesgovernment’sperspectiveontheviabilityoftheresearchprojects

underinvestigationbegantoshift.Thiswas,inpart,aresultofthechangingstateof

theColdWarinthelate1960sthroughthe1970s.AlthoughtheUnitedStatesand

theSovietUnionneverdeployedtroopsoneachother’slandorofficiallydeclared

war,thereweredeadlybattlesthatwerefoughtwiththesupportofboth

superpowers.TheVietnamWarisoneoftheconflictsthatwasbornoutofthis

tedioussituation.TheUnitedStatessupportedSouthVietnamandtheSoviets

backedtheNorth.ThisproxywarleftmillionsofVietnamesemaimedordeadandit

createdamassiveplatformforanti-warsentimentswithintheUnitedStates.Inturn,

theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionenteredastateofdétente.Détentewas

consideredaneasingofrelationsbetweentheEastandtheWest,atleastintermsof

armedconflict.

ThenucleararmsracethatdominatedtheearlypartoftheColdWar

exacerbatedratherthanquelledfearsovernuclearwar.MutuallyAssured

Destruction(MAD)wasaconceptthatwaspromotedinanattempttogettheidea

outthatnuclearwarwasinnoone’sbestinterest.Anothereffortthatillustratedthe

gravityofthesituationwastheDoomsdayClock,createdbyscientistsinorderto

55

showhowclosetheworldwasperceivedtobefromglobalcatastrophe.Midnight

representednuclearwarwiththeSovietUnion.Thesymbolicclock,initiallysetto7

minutestomidnight,wasmovedascloseas2minutesawayfromworldwide

annihilation.TreatiessuchastheNuclearNonproliferationTreatyandthe

AntiballisticMissilesTreatyweresignedinanefforttosteerawayfromthearms

race.Withtheprospectofhurlingnuclearbombsateachotherbecamemore

remote,lessdevastatingmilitarymeasureswereaffordedmoreconsideration

amonggovernmentofficials.Amongthesewereparapsychologyandartificial

intelligence.

Thehypecycle,whichwillbediscussedinthefollowingsection,isaconcept

thatisusedtodescribetheriseandfallofcertaintechnologiesorfieldsofresearch.

Itisinstructiveinthisstudybecausebothartificialintelligenceandparapsychology

experiencethesecyclesinsimilarways.Bothresearchinitiativesexperienceddark

andgoldenageswithinacoupleofdecades.Theirebbandflowsarerepresentative

ofwhatinformationtechnologyandgovernmentadvisoryfirmGartnerInc.calls

‘hypecycles’58.Inshort,thecyclebeginswithanewconceptenteringpublic

consciousness.Sometimes,theconceptinquestionwillexperienceaperiodoftime

whereanticipatoryoutcomesaregreatlyinflated.Thenextstageoftheprocessis

whentheforecastedresultsarenotmetintherequisitetime.Thisisfollowedbya

58“AboutGartner,”GartnerInc.,2016,accessedApril4,2016,

http://www.gartner.com/technology/about.jsp.

56

severedownturnintheviabilityoftheconcept.Lastly,thetheorysuggeststhatthe

conceptualizationisrealizedsomewherebetweencompletesuccessandtotal

failure.

Thefactormakesparapsychologyandartificialintelligencesignificantisthat

theybothgothroughthesecyclescontinuously.Eventhoughtheyhadintervals

wheretherewasalullinsupport,parapsychologyandartificialintelligenceboth

reemergedfromthoseperiodsandre-intriguedgovernmentofficialsenoughto

startnewinvestigations.

Thischapterwillanalyzehowparapsychologyandartificialintelligencewent

throughthesecyclesandthefactorsthatwentintothem.Inthe1980s,the

parapsychologyprogramwasmovedbetweendifferentintelligenceagencieswhich

sparkedamorecriticaldebateinternallyaboutitsprogressandapplicability.

Reportswerepreparedbyindependentinstitutionsthataidedinprovidingamore

objectiveperspectiveontheprograms.Thesedebateselucidatehow

parapsychologyreemergedonaregularbasis,whythegovernmentwasrationalin

itsdecisiontoinvestigateit,andwhytheseresurgencesininterestarelikelyto

continueinthefuture.Theassessmentdescribedparapsychologygoingthrough

multiplehypecycles.

Theprogressofartificialintelligencewasalsodebated,albeitinamoreopen

forum.ThesedialoguesshowhowAIwasscrutinizedbycriticsandwhyresearch

continueddespiteminimalaccomplishments.Similartoparapsychology,artificial

57

intelligenceresearchcontinuallychangedhands,whichwidenedthedebated

considerably.ThischapterwillclosebyshowingthatbytheendoftheColdWar,

bothdisciplineswereonthestagerepresentativeofdisillusionment,butneither

programwasscrappedentirely,permittingthecycletorepeatitselfinthefuture.

Section1–HypeCyclesandParapsychology

TheuseoftheconceptofthehypecyclecomesfromtheAmerican

informationtechnologyfirmGartnerInc.,anorganizationthatregularlyconsults

withgovernmentandprivateindustry.59Althoughtheyneverweighedinonthese

subjectsspecifically,thehypecycleisapplicabletobothparapsychologyand

artificialintelligence.Beforeexaminingeachprogram,itisimperativetooffera

quickoverviewofwhathypecyclesareandhowtheyplayout.Thecyclebegins

whenthereisa“technologicaltrigger,”thatis,anideaorconceptualizationfora

newtechnology.Thisisfollowedbyanunprecedentedexplosioninanticipationand

expectationforthecapabilitiesofthetechnology,usuallyexaggeratedbymedia

beyondinitialprojections.Thenextstageistheperiodofdisillusionmentwhenthe

technology,andthehypebehindit,arenotrealized.Thefinalphase,whichvaries

dependingonthetechnologyinquestion,iswhenthetechnologyexperiencesa

59“AboutGartner,”TechnologyResearch|GartnerInc.,accessedApril25,

2016,http://www.gartner.com/technology/about.jsp.

58

slightresurgence,endingwithittaperingoffsomewhereinthemiddlebetween

bothextremes.Thelifeofthehypecycleisillustratedinthisinfographic60:

Theconceptofhypecyclesisnotuniversallyacceptedbyscholars,butthe

maincriticism,leveledbyBritishcomputerscientistRichardVeryard,workstothe

advantageoftheprogramsbeingexamined.61Thetheoryofthehypecycleattempts

toarticulatetheevolutionofcertainideasortechnologiesastheygofromthe

proverbialdrawingboardtotheproductionline.Criticsassertthatthisdoesnot

portrayacycle,butratheralinearphenomenonthatgoesfrompointAtopointB.

60GartnerResearchMethodologies(Stamford,CT:Marketing

Communications,2015),7,accessedMarch12,2016,http://www.gartner.com/imagesrv/research/methodologies/methodologies_brochure_14.pdf.

61RichardVeryard,“TechnologyHypeCurve,”DemandingChange,

September16,2005,accessedMay25,2016,http://demandingchange.blogspot.com/2005/09/technology-hype-curve.html.

Figure2:TheFiveMainPhasesoftheHypeCycle

59

Interestingly,however,parapsychologyandartificialintelligencedoinfacthavea

cyclicalnature.Historicallyspeaking,parapsychologyrearsitsuglyhead

periodically,withneitherproponentsabletofullysatisfycriticsandcriticsnever

abletofullystrikeitdownandputanailinitscoffin.Likewise,artificialintelligence

experiencedmanyupsanddownsinitsshorthistory,withperiodsknownasAI

Winterswhereitsfatewasseriouslycalledintoquestion.Yetneitherdiscipline

underwentthefinalstageoftaperingoffintoanacceptablemiddleground;they

loopbacktotheinitialstagewhereenthusiasm,orhype,issomehowre-inculcated

backintothem.62Thefieldsofparapsychologyandartificialintelligencehaveyetto

breakfreefromthissystem.

Thehypecyclesofartificialintelligencearemorepronouncedthanthoseof

parapsychology.ThemostglaringreasonisbecausetheAIexperiencedseveral

cycleswithinthesecondhalfoftheColdWar.Thehypecyclesofparapsychology

takemuchlongertobecomepalpablebycomparison.Thismaybearesultofthefact

thatparapsychologyhashadamuchlongerhistoryandhasaccruedmoreliterature

overthecenturiesthatinformthedebate.Despitehavingrootsthatreachbackto

ancienthistory,artificialintelligence,initscurrentconception,isanewfield.When

researchersweremetwithseeminglyimpassableroadblocks,criticswerequickto

jumponthemasproofoftheinfeasibilityofartificialintelligence.Oneexampleof

62Dr.MichaelD.Mumford,Dr.AndrewH.Rose,andDr.DavidA.Goshin,An

EvaluationofRemoteViewing:ResearchandApplications(WashingtonD.C.:AmericanInstitutesForResearch,1995),3-47.

60

thesekindsofroadblocksistheaforementionedbarrierresearchersmetwhenthey

wereunabletomatchthetacitknowledgeofayoungchildinmachineintelligence.If

andwhensolutionswerefoundforwhicheverissueswasathand,theperspective

revertedbacktoviability.Theprocesshappenedrapidlyandsetprecedentsfor

futureresearch.

Thisback-and-forthhadbeentakingplaceinthefieldofparapsychologyfora

verylongtimeandsodebatesarenotsoeasilysettled.Thislongandcomplex

historyofalternatingperspectivesisoneofthereasons,researcherscontend,why

interestinparapsychologyflairsupafterperiodsofdormancy.Whenthecase

appearstobesettledthatitisapseudoscience,therearealwaysscientiststogo

backtotheliteratureandseesomethingofworththatwasdisregardedbythose

thatdeemedthephenomenanonexistent,causingthecycletostartoveragain.63

Thiswasoneoftheconclusionsofapanelofresearcherscommissionedto

investigatetheprogressandpossiblefutureofparapsychologicalresearchbytheUS

government.

Thestudy,“AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing:ResearchandApplications,”

wascarriedoutbytheAmericanInstituteofResearch(AIR),andwasconductedat

thebehestoftheDefenseIntelligenceAgencyafterthatagencyinheritedthe

programfromtheCIA.Todayitiscolloquiallyknownasthe“AIRReport,”andwhile

itwaswidelythoughttohavedeliveredthedeathknelltostate-funded

63Mumford,Rose,andGoshin,AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing,3-47.

61

parapsychologyresearch,inrealityitshowshowgovernment-sponsoredresearch

intoESPwilllikelyreturninthefuture,apredictionthatcametofruitioninthe

earlytwenty-firstcentury.

TheAIRReportincorporatedanextensivesectiononthehistoryof

parapsychologyandunwittinglyillustratesthehypecyclesthatparapsychology

goesthroughbyassertingthatparapsychology“hasashiftingdatabase.

Experimentaldatathatonegenerationputsforthasrock-solidevidencefor[ESP}is

discardedbylatergenerationsinfavorofnewdata.”64Thereporttraces

parapsychologybacktotheSocietyforPsychicalResearch(SPR)ofthenineteenth

centuryandhowitperiodicallyreemergedfromitsownashes.Theauthorsinclude

thisnarrativeintheirstudyinordertoshowthattheveryphenomenathatthey

werebeingaskedtoresearchhadalreadybeendoneonacyclicalbasisfor

centuries.

TheSPR’sfirstpresident,HenrySidgwick,obtainedallegedevidencefroma

setoffivesiblings,calledtheCreerysisters.Theyweretestedfortelepathyby

havingonesisterleavetheroomwhiletheresearchershowedawordorimageto

theremainingsistersintheroom.Whenthefifthsistercamebackintotheroom,

therewasagoodprobabilitythatshewouldbeabletoguessthewordorimage.

64Mumford,Rose,andGoshin,AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing,3-47.

62

Thiswasseenaslegitimateevidenceformanyyears,untilitwasdiscoveredthatthe

sistershadcheatedandusedvarioussignalstotipofftheirsibling.65

Anothersetofexperimentscarriedoutattheendofthenineteenthcentury,

byDouglasBlackburnandGeorgeA.Smith,amesmerist,wasadvancedas

unassailableevidenceofpsychicalphenomena.Theseexperimentswerealongthe

samelinesatthoseconductedontheCreerySisters,withSmithblindfoldedand

askedtonametheobjectshowntoBlackburn.TheideawasthatBlackburnwas

telepathicallycommunicatingtheinformationtoSmith.Thisdata,however,also

provedtobefraudulentasoneparticipantpublishedaconfessionin1911,detailing

howthedeceptiontookplace.66Thosewhosawpsychicalphenomenaasrealwere

notdismayedforlong,asitwouldhavebeenirrationaltotakeafewinstancesof

fraudandusethatasevidencetodiscountallotherresearch.

Parapsychology’shypecyclecontinued,asadecadeorsolaterthefamed

researcherJ.B.Rhinebeganhisexperimentsthatreallypropelledparapsychological

researchintothemodernera.Rhine’sworkillustrateshowparapsychologygoes

throughhypecycles.Italsoshowsthat,historically,criticsweremoresubjective

thanobjectiveintheirattemptstodiscreditthephenomena.Punditswereinitially

quicktoattackRhinefromadirectionthatseeminglyleftlittleroomforinterpretive

65RobertM.SchochandLoganYonavjak,TheParapsychologyRevolution:AConciseAnthologyofParanormalandPsychicalResearch(NewYork:JeremyP.Tarcher/Penguin,2008),26-28.

66SchochandYonavjak,TheParapsychologyRevolution,26-28.

63

leeway:mathematics.Thisshouldhaveservedasadeathknellbecause,touseasold

phrase,numbersdonotlie.However,thisattemptbackfired.AstheAIRreport

recounts:

BurtonCamp,thepresidentoftheInstituteofMathematicalStatistics,issuedastatementthatifthecriticsweregoingtofaultparapsychologicalresearchtheycouldnotdosoonstatisticalgrounds.Thecriticsthenturnedtheirattentiontomethodologicalweaknesses.67

Hereinliesasignificantfactorinwhyparapsychologyisstillresearched.The

picturethatthehistoryportraysisonewherecriticswillgotoextraordinarylengths

todiscreditparapsychology.Ratherthanaccountfortheirinitialrejection,which

clearlyhadnobasisinreality(accordingtoCamp),theyjumpedtoanothertactic.

Whatnevercomesupinthedebateiswhycriticstriedtousefaultymathematicsto

discreditRhine.Ratherthanbeingheldaccountable,theyjumpedtotheirnextline

ofattack,whichwashismethodology.68Moderndayresearchersseethesetactics

usedbyskepticsasjustthat,tacticstodebunkthehypotheticalphenomenano

matterwhat.Currentparapsychologicalresearcherswithinthemilitary

establishmentseethatanddonottaketheconclusionsofthosecriticsseriously.

ItdoesnotmatterherewhetherRhine’sworkprovedthevalidityof

parapsychology,butratherhowtheresearchwasattacked.Shiftingfromcritiqueto

67Mumford,Rose,andGoshin,AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing,3-47.68Mumford,Rose,andGoshin,AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing,3-47.

64

critique,hopingthatonesticks,unwittinglyshowsthatthecritics’soledesirewasto

discreditthephenomena.Peoplewhoareinterestedinparapsychologyperceived

thisasareasontocontinueinvestigations.Criticshavelongridiculed

parapsychologistsforcherry-pickingevidencethatmakesthephenomenalookthe

best,69butparapsychologistschargeskepticswiththesamecrime.70Fromthisone

caninferthatthedebateismoredeeplyideologicalratherthanrootedinscientific

progress.

Proponentsofparapsychologyalwaysseemtoviewtheretortsofcriticswith

severeskepticism,andviceversa,creatingasituationofperpetualdisagreement.

Thisideologicaldivideisoneofthemajorreasonswhyinterestinparapsychology

revivifiesovertime,asnewergenerationsofgovernmentresearcherslookintothe

debateandconcludethattheargumentsfromestablishedsciencearenotstrong,

andmoreimportantly,insufficienttopreventfurtherresearch,especiallywithinthe

UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheAirForce.71

69RichardWiseman,"'HeadsIWin,TailsYouLose':HowParapsychologists

NullifyNullResults:ParapsychologistsHaveTendedtoViewPositiveResultsasSupportiveofthePsiHypothesisWhileEnsuringThatNullResultsDon'tCountasEvidenceagainstIt.Here'sHowThisSelf-deceptiveProcessWorksandFourSuggestionstoOvercomeIt.(Report)."SkepticalInquirer34,no.1(2010):36-50.

70ChrisCarter,"“HeadsILose,TailsYouWin”,Or,HowRichardWiseman

NullifiesPositiveResults,andWhatToDoAboutIt:AResponsetoWiseman’s(2010)CritiqueofParapsychology,"JournaloftheSocietyforPsychicalResearch74(2010):156-167.

71UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheAirForce,AirForceResearchLaboratory(AFMC)AFRL/PRSP,TeleportationPhysicsStudy,byDr.EricW.Davis,AFRL-PR-ED-TR-2003-0034(Lancaster,California:EdwardsAirForceBaseCA,2004),1-55.

65

Section2–TheHypeCyclesofArtificialIntelligence

Artificialintelligenceexperiencedmanyupsanddownsthroughoutthelatter

halfoftheColdWar,reflectingthenatureofhypecycles.Severalperiodshavebeen

identifiedasAIWinters,conjuringtheimageofabarrenwastelandwheretherewas

onceathrivingindustry.72Thatwouldbeagrossmisrepresentationofwhatactually

transpired.Fundingwasnotnecessarilypulledfromprojectsrelatedtoartificial

intelligence,butwascontinuouslyreoriented,sometimesloopingbacktopreviously

discardedapproaches.Thesameheldtrueforgeneralenthusiasm.When

breakthroughswerenotforthcoming,goalswerealteredinanefforttokeepthe

researchgoing.Agoodexampleofthisisthehistoryoftheartificialneuralnetwork

(ANN).

ANN’shavefalleninandoutoffavornumeroustimesthroughoutthehistory

ofartificialintelligence,arguablyexperiencingmicrocosmicexamplesofhypecycles

itself.TheconceptofANNswasfirstintroducedbyWarrenMcCulloch,a

neurophysiologist,andWalterPitts,amathematician,intheearly1940s.Although

theoreticallypromising,initialattemptstosimulateorganicneuralnetworksfailed,

leadingtoadeclineinenthusiasm.Then,someprogresswasmadeinthelate1950s

withthedevelopmentofthe“MultipleADAptiveLINearElements”model,or

72JoelMoses,“Macsyma:APersonalHistory”(paperpresentedatthe

MilestonesinComputerAlgebraconference,StonehavenBay,RepublicofTrinidadandTobago,May1-3,2008),1-9.

66

“MADALINE”forshort,whichgavethehypotheticalneuralnetworkavery

rudimentarycapacityto‘think’.ThenANN’stookanunexpectedturn,since“despite

thelatersuccessoftheneuralnetwork,traditionalvonNeumannarchitecturetook

overthecomputingscene,andneuralresearchwasleftbehind.”73Theseexamples

showartificialintelligence’smovementsthroughvarioushypecycles.

DisillusionmentreachedapeakwithpublicationofabookbyMarvinMinsky

andSeymourPaperttitledPerceptrons:AnIntroductiontoComputationalGeometry,

whichwashighlycriticaloftheseverelimitationsthatANNshad.74Thiscoincided

withaperiodofdrasticallyreducedfundingandresearchforalmosttwodecades

untilinterestinANNswasrevitalizedinthe1980swhenJohnHopfieldfromthe

CaliforniaInstituteofTechnologypresentedaninfluentialpapertotheNational

AcademyofSciences.75Newmodelshadmadeimprovementsbutthecelebration

wasshort-livedasitwasslowandineffectual.Bytheturnofthecentury,neural

73“NeuralNetworks-History:The1940'stothe1970's,”StanfordUniversity,

accessedJuly2,2016,https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/soco/projects/neural-networks/History/history1.html.

74GaryMarcus,“Is'DeepLearning'aRevolutioninArtificialIntelligence?,”

TheNewYorker,November25,2012,1,accessedMarch12,2016,http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/is-deep-learning-a-revolution-in-artificial-intelligence.

75“NeuralNetworks-History:The1980'stothepresent,”StanfordUniversity,accessedJuly2,2016,https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/soco/projects/neural-networks/History/history2.html.

67

networkshadagainbeensidelinedinfavorofalternativeapproaches.76These

episodesrepresentthefieldofartificialintelligencegoingthroughnumeroushype

cyclesasscientistsconsistentlybecamediscouragedeachtimetheyencountereda

newimpediment.

Thisrecurredonaperpetualbasisthroughoutthe1970sandthe1980s,

causingperiodiclapsesintheconvictionthatafullyrealizedartificiallyintelligent

machinewasfeasible.Forthisreason,thetermAIWintershouldbeunderstoodin

thecontextsofenthusiasmandprogress.Whetherornotthetotalamountoffunding

forartificialintelligenceincreasedordecreasedoverallislessrelevantthantheflow

ofmoneyinandoutofisolatedprojects.Forexample,whenresearchersfaced

algorithmprogrammingproblems,theonesthatDreyfuswascriticalof,theyshifted

theirattentiontoartificialneuralnetworksandtheMADALINEmodel.Whenthat

researchareaprovedfallacious,scientistsshiftedagaintoanewfieldofinterest

calledexpertsystems.Whenperceivedfailuresoccurredinparapsychology,

scientistswerequicktojumponthemasconclusiveevidence;whenthesame

occurredinartificialintelligenceresearch,theywerenotasquicktodenouncethe

entirefieldaspseudoscience.

Whenonelooksattheindividualpartsratherthanthewhole,itisevident

thatsolitaryprojectsworkingonminuteaspectsofartificialintelligencewere

76Marcus,“Is'DeepLearning'aRevolutioninArtificialIntelligence?,”

http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/is-deep-learning-a-revolution-in-artificial-intelligence.

68

constantlyredirectedorsublimatedtoworkondifferentproblems,thuscreatinga

situationwhereprogresswasattimesnon-existent.ThisleftDr.KevinB.Korbto

remark,“ManythousandshaveworkedononeaspectoranotheroftheAIresearch

programandithasachievedagreatmanythings,butwhereistheAI?”77Withall

theresourcespouredintoartificialintelligence,theresultswereessentiallythe

sameasparapsychology:neitherwasdemonstrable.WhilethedegreeofAI’s

progressmaynotbethatsimple,thesecircumstancesarereflectiveofartificial

intelligence’scorrelationwiththeconceptofhypecycles.

Thefieldofartificialintelligencesufferedfromtheunboundedspeculationon

whatcouldbeaccomplished.Evenwhentherewereaccomplishmentsworth

celebrating,theywerenotseenassignificantmilestonestothegeneralpublic.For

example,considerDARPA’sspeechrecognitionprograms,oftenconsideredthe

“HolyGrail”ofDARPA’stechnologicalquest.78Forasubstantialamountoftime,the

creationofautomatedlanguagetranslationinrealtimewasanabysmalfailure.It

onlybegantobecomearealityintheearlytwenty-firstcentury,longaftertheendof

theColdWar,whichisillustrativeofjusthowlittlewasactuallyachieved

throughoutthatperiod.Thepublicisnowacquaintedwiththiskindoftechnologyin

theformoftoolssuchasGoogleTranslate,buteventhesemechanismsfallshortof

77“TheTrueStateofArtificialIntelligence,”MonashUniversity,November9,2012,accessedDecember3,2015,http://www.monash.edu/news/articles/4531.

78ClayDillow,“DARPA'sNewestLanguageTranslatorWouldBeLess

HandheldDevice,MoreRobotAssistant,”PopularScience,April6,2011,accessedMay15,2016,http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2011-04/darpas-newest-language-translator-would-be-less-handheld-device-more-robot-assistant.

69

beingdefinedasartificialintelligence.

Thedividebetweenwhatisconsideredamassivedevelopmentbyscientists,

andthatbynon-scientists,illustrateshowlittlethesignificanceofsupposed

breakthroughsfilterdownfromthelaboratorytothebureaucratsofficeorthe

public.IndicativeofthiswasalackofappreciationbyDARPAitself.DARPA,the

patriarchalinstitutioninthelifeofartificialintelligence,wasunsurebythelate

1980swhatexactlywasachievedinthefieldofAIintheColdWar.Inthe

PresidentialAddressoftheAssociationfortheAdvancementofArtificial

Intelligence,titled“FoundationsandGrandChallengesofArtificialIntelligence,”Raj

Reddytoucheduponthissentimentwhenherememberedbeingaskedbysenior

DARPApersonnel,“Whatarethemajoraccomplishmentsofthefield?Howcanwe

measureprogress?Howcanwetellwhetheryouaresucceedingorfailing?”79These

arenotquestionsthatareaskedofsomeonewhoseworkshouldspeakforitself.

DARPAwasnotapassivesponsor,itwasintegralintheresearcheverystep

ofthewaybecauseofthetechnologiescapabilitiesintermsofnationaldefense.Had

artificialintelligencereallyexperiencedmassivedevelopments,asproponents

wouldargue,DARPAwouldhaveknownofthemfromthestart.Onecaninferfrom

thisthateventhoughartificialintelligenceresearchhaseversoslightlychipped

awayattheproblemsithasencountered,thosesuccessesarenotperceivedas

79RajReddy,“FoundationsandGrandChallengesofArtificialIntelligence,”in

“PresidentialAddress,”AIMagazine(Winter1988):9-21,accessedDecember2,2015,http://www.aaai.org/Library/President/Reddy.pdf.

70

profoundorlife-changinginanyway.EventhoughDARPAsupportedprojectsit

knewwouldnothaveimmediateapplications,thepromisesmadetoitranghollow

aftersomanyyears.

Section3–TheFateofParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligenceattheEndofthe

ColdWar

ParapsychologicalresearchinthesecondhalfoftheColdWar,specificallythe

1980sthroughthe1990s,isintriguingbecausemanyoftheparticipantsinthose

programshavegoneontodetailtheirexperiencestothepublic.Thelatterphaseof

parapsychologyresearchencapsulatedthe1980s,whentheresearchwas

transferredfromtheCentralIntelligenceAgencytotheDefenseIntelligenceAgency,

totheendoftheColdWarinthe1990s.Theprogram’sdesignatedcodenamewas

changedonseveraloccasionsthroughoutthistime.80Publicitysurroundingthe

government’sinvolvementwithparanormalactivitiesreachedacrescendoduring

thistimeduetothesensationalizationofthesubjectbyvariousmediaoutlets.81

Withtheprogramnolongersecret,thegovernmentwasinatoughposition.Having

80StevenAftergood,“StarGate[controlledRemoteViewing],”Federationof

AmericanScientists,lastmodifiedDecember29,2005,accessedMay12,2016,http://fas.org/irp/program/collect/stargate.htm.

81DanielDruckmanandJohnA.Swets,“ParanormalPhenomena,”inEnhancingHumanPerformance:Issues,Theories,andTechniques(Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress,1988),169-208,accessedJune29,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/1025/chapter/13.

71

knowledgethattheUnitedStatesofficiallyresearchedparapsychologyforseveral

decadesbythemid-1980s,peoplehavebeencuriousaboutwhatwasfoundthat

kepttheprogramaliveforsolong.Sinceparapsychologyisadeeplypolarizingissue,

severalcommitteesofscientistswerecommissionedtoanalyzewhatexactlythe

researchshowed.Oneofthesecommittees,theAmericanInstituteofResearch,was

responsiblefortheaforementionedAIRreportthatgaveapessimisticviewofthe

research.

AnotherbodythatwastaskedwiththesameobjectivewastheCommitteeon

TechniquesfortheEnhancementofHumanPerformancefromtheCommissionon

BehavioralandSocialSciencesandEducation(CBASSE)oftheNationalSecurity

Council.Thisreportiscuriousduetoasingleparagraphattheveryendofthetext.

Whileconcludingthattheactualdatajustdidnotsupporttheincredible

declarationsbeingmaderegardingESP,itnotesthatthecommitteewasurgedby

themilitarytoreconsiderbecauseseveralmilitarypersonnelhadconcluded

otherwise.Thereferenceisshortandvague,mentioningonlythat“twoofthe

militaryofficerswhobriefedus…urgedthecommitteetogiveseriousconsideration

toparanormalphenomena...Theydescribedavarietyofsuchphenomenathatthey

felthadmilitarypotential,eitherasthreatstosecurityorasaidstodefense.”82No

otherinformationordetailsaregivenastowhatparanormalphenomenathe

militarywastalkingabout,orhowitmightaidinnationaldefense.Onecanonly

82DruckmanandSwets,“”SourcesofInformation“withinParanormalPhenomena,”inEnhancingHumanPerformance:Issues,Theories,andTechniques,169-208,accessedJune29,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/1025/chapter/13.

72

speculatewhetherthemostpotentevidencewaskeptconcealedfromthe

committeeorthepublicforpurposesofnationalsecurity.

Nevertheless,thecommitteedidnotalteritsassessment,meaningthese

divergentviewsweretoremainirreconcilable.Thecivilianwingofthe

parapsychologyprograms,suchastheCIAandDIA,tooktheseassessmentsasacue

tobackawayfromparanormalresearch,atleastpublicly;ontheotherhand,the

militarystoodbyitsownscientificassessmentsandinitiatednewprojectsdelving

deeperintoparapsychologyandincorporatingitwithinquantumphysics.Before

brieflyevaluatingthemilitary’stwenty-firstcenturypsychicwarfareprogram,a

summaryofparapsychologyattheendoftheColdWarwillshedsomelightonhow

thattransitionoccurred.

Bythelastdecadeofthetwentiethcenturyprogramsrelatedtoartificial

intelligenceandparapsychologyhadbeeninoperationforoverthirtyyears.The

fruitsofthislaborarehighlycontested.Neitherprogramestablishedthesortof

successthathadbeenprojectedovertheyears,nordidtheyaidinwinningtheCold

WarovertheSovietUnion.Thisisnottosay,however,thatalltheresearchand

resourcesexpendedontheseprogramswasinvain.Throughoutthecourseofthe

ColdWar,theprogramsonextrasensoryperceptionproducedovertwelvethousand

documentstotalingnearlyonehundredthousandpagesofinformation,andthatis

justwhathasbeendeclassified.Muchofthismaterialhasnotbeeninvestigated,but

73

includesinternalmemos,committeebriefings,experimentsandresults,financial

records,andforeignintelligence.83

Infact,asfarasIhavebeenabletouncover,therehasbeennoacademic

historianthathasundertakenasystematicreviewofthesedocuments,leading

amateurandbuddinghistorianstowadethroughthematerialthemselves.Despite

steadyderisionandunsubstantiatedclaimsthattheintelligencecommunity

purposefullyliedinthedocuments,theyarethemostprestigioussourceof

informationforfutureparapsychologicalresearchersandenthusiasts.Sincethe

topiciscontroversial,anylaboratorylookingintoitwillbemetwithskepticism,

evenifdoneatarespecteduniversity.Attheveryleast,thegovernment-supported

studiesprovideanextralayerofprotectionagainstdeceitbecausetheywerecarried

outunderthebannerofnationalsecurity.

Whenthegovernmentofficiallyrecognizedtheparapsychologyprojectsin

themid-1990s,itdidsowiththeunderstandingthatthoseprogramswerepromptly

terminated.Mostoftheprogramswerecloseddown,butnotall.Thoughsmallerin

sizeandscope,theDefenseIntelligenceAgencymaintainedacadreofpsychicsand

continuedtocarryoutresearch.84Notmuchisknownaboutthesenewerprojects

83TamraL.Temple,“ProjectStargateInteractiveArchives,”ProjectStargate

InteractiveArchives,2016,accessedNovember3,2015,http://www.stargate-interactive.com/index.html.

84KennethKress,“ParapsychologyinIntelligence:APersonalReviewand

Conclusions,”JournalofScientificExploration13,no.1(1999):69–85,accessed

74

buttheirexistenceissignificantforseveralreasons.First,someoneinthe

establishmentmusthaveseenpotentialinpsychicwarfarefornewstudiestobe

authorized.Heretheconceptofrationalityshinesthrough,closelymirroringthe

situationthatinitiallysparkedthissagahalfacenturyearlier.Maybethemost

successfulresearchwaskeptclassifiedfromthepublicandinternallyservedasa

reasonforrenewedefforts.Thisissheerspeculation,butthepointisthatevenafter

theColdWar,aftertheprogram’sdisclosure,andafterassurancesthat

parapsychologywasnotuseful,theintelligencecommunitystillconsideredfurther

parapsychologicalresearchastherationalapproach.

AnotherreasontheDIA’sdecisiontocontinueresearchissignificantis

becauseitcouldrepresentthebeginningofanewhypecycle.Theendofoneera

usheredinanewone.Althoughitremainstobeseenifgovernment

parapsychologicalresearchwillcausehypeinthefuture,itcertainlyisasubjectthat

isdiscussedandnotastabooasonemightexpect.Indeed,althoughtheCIA

transferredtheprogramtotheDIA,formerDirectorofCentralIntelligenceRobert

M.GatesmadeitclearthattheCIAwouldcontinuetomonitorparapsychological

researchconductedbyotherinstitutions,especiallyintheacademicworld,withthe

intentionoffocusingonabilitiesthatwouldhavepracticalandoperational

December3,2014,http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_13_1_kress.pdf.

75

applications.85Inadditiontotheintelligencecommunity,themilitaryhasalso

shownrecentinterestinparapsychology.

In2004,theUnitedStatesAirForcereleasedaspecialreporttitled

“TeleportationPhysicsStudy,”alargesectionofwhichwasfocusedon“psychic

teleportation.”Psychicteleportationcanbethoughtofasasynonymfor

psychokinesis.Theauthorofthereport,Dr.EricW.Davis,declared:

Theteleportationphenomenondiscussedinthechapterisbasedonpsychokinesis(PK),whichisacategoryofpsychotronics.TheU.S.military-intelligenceliteratureisreviewed,whichrelatesthehistoricalscientificresearchperformedonPK-teleportationintheU.S.,ChinaandtheformerSovietUnion.Thematerialdiscussedinthechapterlargelychallengesthecurrentphysicsparadigm;however,extensivecontrolledandrepeatablelaboratorydataexiststosuggestthatPK-teleportationisquiterealandthatitiscontrollable.86

ThereportspeaksratherhighlyoftheresearchconductedbyPuthoffandTargat

StanfordUniversityandgoesontostatethatthecentralfigureininitiatingthe

UnitedStatesGovernmentresearchprogramsintoparapsychology,Andrija

Puharich,isconsideredanexpertinthefieldbythemilitary.87Thefactthatthis

reportwaswrittennearlyadecadeaftertheprogram’sdisclosuretothepublic(and

85RobertM.Gatesetal.,videoconferencewithTedKoppel,November28,

1995,ABCNewsNightline,ABC,WashingtonD.C.86UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheAirForce,AirForceResearchLaboratory,

TeleportationPhysicsStudy,viii.87UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheAirForce,AirForceResearchLaboratory,

TeleportationPhysicsStudy,55.

76

itstacitdisavowal)ismoreevidencethatanewhypecyclemightindeedbe

underway.

ForscientistsintheAirForcetoseepotentialinthesamephenomenathat

civilianscientistsvehementlyconsiderapseudosciencemeansthatthepublicisnot

awareofthefullsituation.DoestheAirForcehaveaccesstoinformationthatthe

generalpublicdidnotthatswaysthemtowardseeingparapsychologyasareality?

Whatdotheyseethatcivilianscientistsdonot?Thesequestionscannotbe

answereduntilmoreinformationismadeavailableinthefuture.Fornow,allthat

canbeinferredfromthecurrentcircumstancesisthatahighlyelite,prestigious,

wealthyandpowerfulsectorofAmericansocietyhasandcontinuestobea

proponentoftherealityofextrasensoryperceptionandrelatedanomalous

phenomena.Theconcomitantinferenceisthatthecivilianscientificestablishment

hasbeenunsuccessfulinitsrepeatedattemptstodiscreditparapsychologyinthe

eyesofitsmilitaryandintelligencecounterparts.

Ontheothersideofthespectrum,artificialintelligenceexperiencedsimilar

fluctuations,butisnotasinherentlycontroversialasparapsychologyistothe

scientificestablishment.Bycomparison,researchintoartificialintelligencewas

moreopenintermsofwhatthepublicwasmadeawareof.Evenwhenreading

publicationsbyscientistswhoareskeptics,thecondescensionpresentinliterature

criticalofparapsychologyisnotpalpabletothereader.Thisisbecausetheideaof

artificialintelligencedoesnotinvadeuponthepre-acceptedprinciplesthat

scientistsadhereto.ArtificialintelligencewasnotasuccessfulenterpriseintheCold

77

War,but,unlikeparapsychology,thequestionwasnever,“Shouldwecontinueto

researchit?”Rather,thequestionthatmorecloselyresemblestherealissueathand

was,“whataspectofartificialintelligenceshouldbestudiednext?”Theformer

questionreflectedthemajorityofscientist’sperspectiveonparapsychology,the

latteronartificialintelligence.Indeed,thecorrespondencebetweenDARPAandthe

AAAIpreviouslymentionedexemplifiesawillingnessofthegovernmenttocontinue

itssupportofartificialintelligenceresearch.

Despitetheroleplayedbytheprivateandacademicsectorsinthegrowthof

artificialintelligence,thegovernmenthasandwillcontinuetobethebackboneof

supportinthefield.Theentanglementofthesethreeentitiessolidifiedthefieldof

computertechnologyandthisrelationshipiswhatfuelsartificialintelligence

researchtoday.Theseassociationswerepivotalforprogressincomputer

technology.Interrelationshipssuchasthesewillcontinueandbecomestrongerin

thefutureascomputertechnologybecomesevenmoreubiquitousthatitalreadyis.

Eventhoughresearchregardingartificialintelligenceisnotlikelytobe

terminatedanytimesoon,itisimpossibletoascertainwhetheritsprevious

fluctuationsrepresentedbythehypecyclewillcontinueinthefuture.DARPA,the

governmententitythatisprimarilyconcernedwithartificialintelligence,is

currentlyundertakingthreepublicprogramsgearedtowardartificialintelligence:

“ProbabilisticProgrammingforAdvancingMachineLearning”(PPAML),

“CommunicatingwithComputers”(CwC),andthe“BigMechanism”.ThePPAML

servesasaperfectexampleofthehypecycleastheproject’sintendedpurposeisto

78

“createmoreeconomical,robustandpowerfulapplicationsthatneedlessdatato

producemoreaccurateresults–featuresinconceivablewithtoday’stechnology.”88

Thisisthesametechnologythatwassoughtintheoriginalresearchthatwas

ultimatelyunsuccessful.Onceabandoned,theconceptformachineswitha

sophisticatedenoughartificialintelligencetomakesdecisionsfasterandmore

accuratewithlesstimeandresourcesisbeingrevisited.

Onthewhole,theartificialintelligenceandparapsychologyprograms

followedsimilartrajectoriesthroughouttheColdWarandbeyond.Theideaofthe

hypecycleisastrongconceptualaidthatillustratestheperiodicepisodesofintense

optimismfollowedbywidespreaddisillusionment.Thesetrendswereconsistent

withthestateoftheresearchatthetimeandtheexpectationsthatwereassociated

withthem.AlthoughitisimportanttoacknowledgethattheadvancesmadeinAI

havebeenmoreimpressivethaninESP,tothepublic’sknowledgeneitherventure

tothisdayhasprovedsuccessfultothepointwheregovernmentscientistscan

confidentlydemonstratetheminanopenforum.Yet,bothparapsychologyand

artificialintelligencearestillbeinginvestigatedfortheirpotentialbenefits.

Oneofthefactorsthatmakeparapsychologyandartificialintelligence

uniquelyconnectedisthefactthatbothinitiativesinthepost-ColdWareraare

directlydescendedfromtheprogramsthattookplaceinthesecondhalfofthe

88Dr.SureshJagannathan,“ProbabilisticProgrammingforAdvancing

MachineLearning(Ppaml),”DefenseAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency,accessedJanuary29,2016,http://www.darpa.mil/program/probabilistic-programming-for-advancing-machine-Learning.

79

twentiethcentury.TheUnitedStatesAirForceproposedfurtherresearchinthe

workofDr.AndrijaPuharichandtheexperimentsconductedatStanfordUniversity,

citingspecificinterestintheareaof‘psychicteleportation,’whichismoregenerally

knownaspsychokinesis.Withregardtoartificialintelligence,DARPAdecidedthatit

wasimperativetogobackandreexaminethesameproblemitencounteredinthe

1960s;theartofendowingamachinewithasignificantlyreducedperiodbetween

questionandanswer,orinputandoutput.Inbothcasesthegovernmentisholding

itsownpreviousresearchasthebenchmarkorbasisforwhatendeavorstoexplore

inthefuture.

80

CONCLUSION

Artificialintelligenceandparapsychologyaretwoconceptsthathavebeen

investigatedinpasterasandwillsurelycontinuetobethesubjectsofinquiryinthe

future.ThesefieldsundoubtedlytranscendtheColdWar,yettheirhistorieswithin

thatperiodareillustrativeofthekindsofdecisionsthatbesettheleadersofthe

UnitedStates’intelligenceandmilitarycommunities.Therawfirepowerof

conventionalweaponsthatwereutilizedinformerwarswereofnoconsequencein

theColdWar,leavingofficialswiththetaskofcreatingoffensiveanddefensive

weaponryofadifferentcaliber.Artificialintelligence,atthetime,waslargelybeing

consideredforitsdefensivecapabilities,asU.S.authoritiessoughttohavespeech

recognitiontechnologythatunderstoodandtranslatedlanguagesinrealtime.

Parapsychology,theoreticallyatleast,wasacknowledgedashavingpotentialinboth

offensiveanddefensiveobjectivesbytheintelligencecommunity,particularlyafter

scientistslearnedofreportsfromtheSovietUnion.Theseaberrantresearch

initiativesseriouslyquestionedtheconceptofrationality,asitwasthenunderstood.

Thoughtheorists’ideasofrationalitywerebynomeansmonolithic,priortotheCold

Wartherewasafairlyunifiedperspectivethatparapsychology,andtoacertain

extentartificialintelligence,wereirrationalresearchendeavors.

TheColdWarthatenvelopedtheworldinthesecondhalfthetwentieth

centurycreatedasituationwherebothsuperpowersfeltitwasnecessary,and

81

rational,toinvestigateconceptsthatotherwisewouldnothavebeenentertained.

Theseforaysintothefringeresultedinabreakfromtheformofrationalitythathad

beenpreviouslyacceptedandusheredinanerawhererationalitywasunderstood

withintheconfinesofaveryspecificcontext:theneedforalternativemeasures

againsttheSovietUnion.Indeed,thedecisionstoauthorizeresearchinto

parapsychologyandartificialintelligencewerenotwithouttheircritics,butinthe

faceofextraordinarycircumstances,suchastheintelligencethattheSovietswere

workingonparapsychologicalwarfaremeasures,theUnitedStatesGovernmenthad

nootheroptionbuttoresearchit,lestitriskfallingbehindtheUSSR.Inconjunction

withthis,themilitarywasimpressedwiththeworkofascientistnamedAndrija

Puharich,whoarguedforgovernmentsupportforresearchintoextrasensory

perceptionformilitaryandintelligenceapplications.

Artificialintelligence,thoughseeminglylesscontroversialthan

parapsychology,wasnotasacceptabletothescientistofthemid-twentiethcentury

asitistooneofthetwenty-first.Sincetheconceptofartificialintelligenceinits

modernincarnationdevelopedalongsidecomputertechnology,researcherswere

hesitanttoendorsethenotionthatapieceofhardwarecouldseamlesslysimulate

thefunctioningofthehumanbrain.Oneofthemostprominentargumentscritiquing

AIwasthatdespiterecordingvastswathsofinformationintoadevice,thatdevice

wouldnothavethecomprehensionequivalentofasmallchild;wordssuchas‘wood’

and‘would’wereconfusedbythemachine.TheDefenseDepartmentwasneverfully

82

deterredbythesecriticisms,eventhoughartificialintelligencewouldencounter

numerousroadblocksthroughouttheColdWar.

Bothparapsychologyandartificialintelligenceparalleledeachotherinthe

sensethatthoseworkingontheprojectswereardentproponentsoftheirpotential

capabilitiesandtheresultstheywerereceiving.Ontheotherhand,membersofthe

governmentthatwerefarremovedfromtheprogramsdidnotalwayssharethat

senseofaccomplishment.Thisdivisioninsupportersanddetractorsextends

beyondtherealmofthegovernmentandpervadesthepublicsphereaswell.Since

neitherside,forbothparapsychologyandartificialintelligence,wasabletowholly

convincetheother,ascenarioofperpetualconflictarose.Thisclashpointedtowhat

researchershavetermed“hypecycles.”Theconceptofthehypecyclesymbolizes

howideasfallinandoutoffavorbasedonavarietyofdatapoints.Bothprograms

experiencedcyclesanalogoustothesethroughoutthecourseoftheColdWar.

Parapsychologicalphenomenahaveperplexedmanforcenturiesandwill

continuetointhefuture,especiallyifthoseattheapexofscientificprogress,suchas

theAirForceResearchLaboratory,continuetofinditworthinvestigating.Artificial

intelligenceisslowlybeingintroducedtodaythroughnumerouselectronic

platforms,butitisnotthekindofartificialintelligencethatonewouldexpect.The

speechrecognitionprogramsundertakenbyDARPAwereneverabletotranslate

theRussianlanguageinrealtime.Infact,thatsortoftechnologyisonlycomingto

fruitioninthepresent.Inmanycases,speech-to-textsoftwarefailstorecognize

83

voices,accents,andwordsingeneral.Nevertheless,artificialintelligenceasa

concepthasbecomeubiquitousinsocietyandispromotedbyprivateindustryin

waysthatwhollycontradicttheactionsofcorporationswhenAIwasinitsinfancy.

WhereascorporationsintheearlyColdWarwerereluctanttofinanceresearchinto

asubjectwithoutalargeprospectofreturn,privateindustryinthetwenty-first

centuryispouringbillionsofdollarsintoresearchingwaystoendowmachineswith

human-levelintelligence.Thisdrivebytheprivateindustryisbuoyedbythe

interestoftheDepartmentofDefenseindevelopingartificiallyintelligentmachines,

neitherpartyofwhichislikelytoenditspursuitsanytimesoon.

84

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