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WATER ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

ARCHITECTURE RESPONSIVE TO WATERFRONTS AND WATERBODIES

RANI PADMINI PALACE

CHITTORGARH

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CONTENTS

3. LOCATION, CLIMATE AND COMPLEX

4. SOURCE OF WATER, HISTORY AND EVOLUTION

5. REASON FOR SELECTION, BUILDING

6. GENESIS OF RAJPUT ARCHITECTURAL STYLE

7. PHYSICAL FORM AND SPATIAL ORGANISATION

12. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

13. ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

19. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE

20. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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RANI PADMINI PALACE

CHITTORGARH FORT

CHITTORGARH

LOCATION

Chittorgarh is located in the

southern part of the state of

Rajasthan, 112 km (69.6 mi) from

Ajmer, midway between Delhi

and Mumbai on the National

Highway 8 (India) on the road

network of Golden Quadrilateral.

Chittorgarh is situated where

National Highways No. 76 and 79 intersect at 24°53′11″N 74°38′49″E. It is situated at a

height of 180m from the Gambhiri River which is a distributary of River Berach.

CLIMATE

The climate of Chittorgarh is arid. Summers are quite hot (April-June) and winters are cool

(October-February). It experiences scanty rainfall between June and August.

COMPLEX

Chittorgarh fort is the oldest fort of India and the most splendid, located at a height of 180m

and sprawling up to 700hectares of land .It is also known as a Water Fort as it had 84 water

bodies, of which only about 20 exist today. These include talabs (ponds), kunds (wells), and

baories (stepwells). All the talabs have a natural catchment. The kunds and baories are

located below the talabs, so that even the seepage from the latter is not lost. The fort is

roughly in the shape of a fish and has a circumference of 13 km (8.1 mi) with a maximum

width of 3 km (1.9 mi).

The fort

The fort is approached through a zig zag and difficult ascent of more than1 km (0.6 mi) from

the plains, after crossing over a bridge made in limestone. The bridge spans the Gambhiri

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River and is supported by ten

arches (one has a curved shape

while the balance has pointed

arches). Apart from the two tall

towers, which dominate the

majestic fortifications, the

sprawling fort has a plethora of

palaces and temples (many of

them in ruins) within its

precincts.

SOURCE OF WATER

40 per cent of the 700 hectare wide sprawl of the fort comprises the water bodies. The

average reservoir depth is about 2 m. taken together;

this means these reservoirs can store about 4 billion

litres of water.

84 odd large tanks and reservoirs situated at a

considerably high level pitching in water from the river

Berach by means of canals and deep bore wells or

seepage of the rain water through soil hence the fort

had a constant supply of water all-round the year.

In a year of more than normal rainfall (average annual rainfall: 700 mm), enough water

would be stored to last the next 12 months. Even after water loss due to seepage and

evaporation and other causes, an army of 50,000 could live in the fort for four years without

fear of thirst.

HISTORY AND EVOLUTION

The construction of the complex dates back to the age of Mahabharata, that is, 3rd

century BC

successive to the Vedic age and preceding the Mauryan dynasty.

As cited in the Mahabharata epic, Bhīma, the second of the Pandavas, known for his mighty

strength gave a powerful hit with his fist to the ground that resulted in water springing up to

form a large reservoir. It is called Bhīmlat sarovar, an artificial tank named after Bhīma. Folk

legend also mentions that Bhīma started building the fort.

By the end of the 6th

century, Mauryas came into possession of the fort and held their sway

there for about two and a half centuries, the fort is believed to have derived its name also

from one of the Mauryan rulers itself, known as Chitrangada Mori.

Historical records show Chittorgarh fort as the capital of Mewar for 834 years. It was

established in 734 AD by Bappa Rawal, founder ruler in the hierarchy of the Sisodia rulers of

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Mewar. It is also said that the fort was gifted to Bappa Rawal as part of Solanki princess’s

dowry in the 8th century.. Three important battles were fought for control of the fort; in 1303,

Ala-ud-din Khilji besieged the fort; in 1535, Sultan of Gujarat Bahadur Shah besieged the

fort; and in 1568, Mughal Emperor Akbar attacked the fort. Not that there were only defeats

at the fort. Excluding the periods of siege, the fort had always remained in possession of the

Sisodia of the Guhilot (or Gehlot/Guhila) clan of Rajputs, who descended from Bappa Rawal.

There were also success stories of establishment of the fort and its reconstruction after every

siege, before it was finally abandoned in 1568, all of which are narrated. Rawal Rattan Singh

was the 36th

ascendant of Bappa Rawal and the first adopted son of Rana Samar Singh.

REASON FOR SELECTION

The palace was the first of its kind that is, characteristically a lake palace which then inspired

the construction of larger lake palaces of Jaipur, Jodhpur etc. throughout Rajasthan.

The palace was the first to implement science in its most raw form. Although it didn’t show

much of a technical advancement, the selection of materials was done carefully so as to make

the structure as rigid as possible.

Last but not the least the palace is one of the oldest, built with the perspective of regulating

the microclimate and temperature to create comfortable environment for the inhabitants. This

feature corresponded with the directions given to us for choosing a site that was responsive to

the natural or man-made water bodies surrounding them.

BUILDING

The palace is a white, three storied structure (a 19th century reconstruction of the original)

with Chhatris (pavilions) crowning the palace’s roof, cradle like projected balconies at the

openings called jharokhas and a water moat surrounding the palace.

The 84 niches containing idols of the chaurasi deva

This little abode of the then known Indian version of Cleopatra, measures an approximate

200sqm in area and faces north. It appears as a structure floating in lake, guarded by a

massive fortified wall to its north running from west to east and embankments on the other

three sides which have now disappeared due to lack of maintenance. The palace is located to

the southern side of the Chittorgarh fort amidst the chaurasi deva sarovar, the water in which

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is primarily sourced from the Bhimlat sarovar, the most ancient of all the reservoirs.

Padmini Palace

Rani Padmini was the second wife of Maharana Rawal Rattan Singh and originally belonged

to Sri Lanka, then known as Singhaldweep. Since Sri Lanka was abundant with greenery and

water bodies, she was not accustomed to the scorching summer of the arid region and hence

was given a summer retreat in this palace which was surrounded by water on all sides and

was so constructed as to receive minimum glare and have a regulated temperature with the

breeze blowing along the water flowing in, making it as comfortable for the princess as

possible.

THE GENESIS OF RAJPUT ARCHITECTURAL STYLE

The architectural style of the palace shall be described as an abstraction of the Hindu temple

architecture of medieval India which was basically devised by many generations of the

Vishwakarma clan, commonly known as Sthapatis and Shilpis, implying the artists, sculptors,

architects, planners etc. while Vishwakarman, himself is the Hindu presiding deity of all

craftsmen and architects. He is believed by Hindus to be the "Principal Universal Architect",

the architect who fabricated and designed the divine architecture of the Universe, the Lord of

Creation.

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The very basic principles of planning and design of structures, in the Indus valley civilization

(earliest known civilization on Indian land) were taken from the vastu shastra belonging to

the Rig Veda. They resulted in well planned cities as well as the supplementary services,

geometrical symmetry in both planning and their elevations while the later Rajput

architectural practice saw a relaxation in the same and hence resulted in irregularity in

planning and asymmetry turned out to be exploited for its own potential. Irregularity, as said

earlier, dominated the planning to a large extent. The various apartments in the complex

typically were joined in a loose, meandering fashion, creating an overall form with irregular

geometry and boundary while no axes predominated. The parts connected in ways which are

logical in function but geometrically casual. The palaces were built in stages over very long

periods of time and so it seemed reasonable to regard their irregularity as a consequence of

their piecemeal construction.

PHYSICAL FORM AND SPATIAL ORGANISATION

Arising directly from the meandering plan, the walls and elevations are similarly irregular.

Fixed in no singular plane, they establish varied rhythms of advance and recess.

The outer walls are often contiguous with the fortifications, which enclose part of the hillside

on which the fort is built, creating the sometimes false impression of a multi-storeyed

structure.

The appearance from the exterior is of airy pavilions supported by grim embattled walls.

Unlike the preceding temple architecture and succeeding typical Rajput architecture, which

was highly ostentatious, the architectural features of Chittorgarh fort were far simpler in form

and ornamentation.

Rani Padmini Palace also depicted the same in its physical form. It may be compared to a

boat house in function but appeared to be a simple double storeyed house with plane white

walls adorned by Chajjas, jaalis and jharokhas at the openings and Chhatris making up

pavilions while domes and arches marked the places of worship, spaces for reception and

walkways respectively.

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The plan is oriented along the north-south axis with the main entrance on the northern side

accessed by flight of stairs.

The structure stands over a 5m high plinth constructed entirely in random rubble masonry of

limestone with the same mortar as described under the heading of construction materials.

On reaching the plinth level, to the left, there is a balcony; while if you enter straight by the

doorway which is basically a lintel laid over a 2.1m high parapet wall, you reach a courtyard.

To the left of this courtyard, is a room which may be described as the vanity room of rani

Padmini called the shringaar kaksha; while on the right is her dance room called the nritya

kaksha.

Since it was where the princess used to dress up, it demanded for utmost privacy and only

had one little jaalidaar opening towards the north to let in the cool air breezing along the lake

and was accessed through a verandah facing the south. This made for a cool interior of the

room.

The dance room has its access from north while an opening each on east and south so as to let

the light of rising sun and the light through the day in as sun was the main god of obeisance

and again no opening on the west so no glare was received and apart from that, the rays of

setting sun were considered inauspicious.

Looking straight, towards east is a Chhatri (or pavilion) and to its left is the stairway to access

the room on the upper floor which was right above the vanity room and was princess’s

bedroom. Further above is the terrace, where, to the north is a highly ostentatious jharokha in

the middle of the wall and three simpler ones, one on each of the adjacent and opposite walls.

There is only one small opening on the wall facing the west on the upper floor to minimise

the glare while facilitate cross ventilation and large openings on all other walls, placed

diametrically flanked by jharokhas and the one on south was accessed through a verandah.

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However, large openings are provided on the northern side to receive maximum natural

diffused light and on south (along with projections and jaalis) to receive the winter sun which

is desirable even though the palace isn’t used then.

JHAROKHAS

ALLOWING

INGRESS OF

NORTH LIGHT

AND CROSS

VENTILATION

POL (entrance doorway)

CHHATRI

BRACKETS

PARAPET

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The shayan kaksha or the bedroom of rani on the first floor had one opening on each wall

with the one to the west being small and the ones on the other three walls being considerably

large. The roof had beams running from east to west at an interval of 1.5m each. The beams

supported overlapping joints of the stone slabs which made up the roof. The openings were

highly ostentatious on the outer side and were called the jharokhas.

JHAROKHA

DOME

BANGALDAR ROOF

CHHAJJA

CHHATRI

JHAROKHA

KALASHA

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Rani’s bedroom

OPENING

ON THE

EASTERN

SIDE TO

LET IN THE

RAYS OF

RISING

SUN, THE

OBJECT OF

WORSHIP

JAALIS

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

The principal building material was stone, especially sandstone, marble and limestone

quarried from the Aravalis.

They were usually roughly cut blocks or rubble, faced with plaster and paint on the main

walls while intricate carving was done to articulate the surfaces of columns, brackets and

jaalis.

In this region, masonry work is in limestone in random rubble or dressed stone with mortar.

Stone spans up to 3.6m to 4.5m are achievable in this region by corbelling with stone beams

which was mainly employed for laying the roof and floor slabs. Stone walls in random rubble

are thicker at the base about 0.6m to 1.05m and gradually decrease on the ground floor to

0.45m

Columns and lintels are also made of dressed stone and stone beams are used in the roof.

Stone walls are on an average 0.45m thick and plastered with lime.

Roof is also 0.45m thick, double layered with a layer of stone veneer with lime kada on it.

Lime, jaggery, thatch and lentils are mixed together in the

mortar for masonry and plaster. This mixture is applied on

stone slabs. The stone slabs had an overlap at an interval of

1.5m approximately supported over beams in the same

direction as the overlap. A layer of Khora or clay pots is then

placed on it with stone slabs on top followed by damp earth.

Then the final flooring is done. Floors were finished with lime

plaster or marble plaster called Arraish. This provided a layer of insulation in the roof to

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prevent excessive heating of the topmost room in the building due to the glaring sun and high

temperature.

The main reason for using jaggery was that it was a raw form of saccharin making for an

adhesive and also rich in iron and on mixing with the protein rich lentils, lime and thatch

made up a reinforced mixture which didn’t readily dissolve in water and hence was suitable

for construction amidst a water body.

Jaggery along with the pulp of Bael fruit also made for a natural water proofing solution

which wasn’t required here due to the presence of jaggery in the plastering mortar.

Arraish work as floor finish and on walls was a common feature. Since the availability of

timber in this region was limited, the same principles of jointing were used in stone, which

was found in abundance. The columns were either assembled with laterite stone or were

monolithic with timber type joints. Since wood was scarce, doorframes and window frames

were also of stone.

There are a common set of rules for construction of the typical forms. These were explained

in the local languages 'Jaag Sawaya, Kothi Puni' meaning in construction of a dwelling, the

length of a court shall always be about1/4th the whole number ('sawaya') of the width.

The openings were defined by erecting one stone slab on each edge while one made for the

base and one for lintel. Stone slabs of large spans were also used for making the floor and

roof slabs.

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

COLUMNS

The columns were

characteristically simplified

and reduced version of the

standard temple columns, less

richly carved, they had the

same essential form, with a

square base, an octagonal or

sixteen sided shaft and a

capital composed of a cluster

of corbels.

The entire column was

divided into three parts,

beginning from the base as the bottom most part, square in plan articulating at different

intervals to reduce the cross section to 0.8 of the base and extending to a height of 0.15 of the

entire height, where the shaft began and extended till 0.30 of the total length; beyond this the

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surface was articulated to make an octagon extending till 0.20 of the length and another 0.20

making a sixteen sided surface and finally the capital which was again 0.15 of the total length

of the column and circular in shape with the top cross section equal to that of the base which

then supported the entablature. The same formal fashion was followed in the articulation of

the dome.

DOME

The domes were usually of an

elliptical shape with a low rise

but covering a large span

laterally. The one used in the

dance room of Padmini Palace

was initially supported over a

hexadecagon, preceding an

octagon (both approximately

10cm thick, forming a lintel like

supporting system for the dome

which was circular in plan).the

octagon was then supported over the rectangular plot of beams, ultimately transferring the

load to columns at the four corners of the room.

In addition to this, the circular form was reticulated by corbelling dressed stone pieces in a

circular fashion with each course successively reducing in diameter to reach the top and form

the base for the domical form of a semi-circle which was then finally finished with the same

plaster of mortar. One of such unfinished structure from the same premises shows the

construction. This circular form was supported over an entablature which was composed of

the rectangular beams.

When the base of the dome does not match the plan of the supporting walls beneath it (for

example, a circular dome on a square bay), techniques were employed to transition between

the two. The simplest technique is to use diagonal lintels across the corners of the walls to

create an octagonal base which had been employed here.

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Dome

KALASHA

A Kalasha was characteristically a highly ornamental

projection atop a dome or the Bangaldar roof forming the

pinnacle.

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CHHATRI

A Chhatri may also be a called a pavilion as it was open on four sides with generally a dome

or flat slab supported over a beam and subsequently by columns, one at each corner of the

plan or placed diametrically in case of a circular or elliptical plans. Chhatris are elevated,

dome-shaped pavilions. Chhatris are commonly used to depict the elements of pride and

honour in the Rajput architecture of Rajasthan. They are widely used, in palaces, in forts, or

to demarcate funerary sites.

JHAROKHA

A jharokha shall be defined as a cradle like

balcony projecting from the main wall of a

façade. It usually marked an opening on a wall

and may either be left hollow for a person to

stand or be covered by a jaali to create a visual

barrier and facilitate ventilation and ingress of

filtered light. The floor was usually supported

over brackets like a chajja while it was covered

either with a flat slab supported over stubs or a

Bangaldar roof like covering.

A Bangaldar roof may formally be explained as

an elliptical parabloid. A parabola with

downward curvature slid along another

parabola, also with a downward curvature but

larger in magnitude and perpendicular to the

direction of the former.

The more commonly seen form in the fort was a result of articulation of rectangular planned

network of beams subsequently decreasing in size on reaching the pinnacle (each with a

thickness of 7.5cm to 10cm).

BRACKETS

These were the L-shaped or right angled supporting

elements, also known as corbels. It was usually a

piece of stone jutting out of a wall to carry any super

incumbent weight. They also had an ornamental

value associated to them as they had chiselled

grooves along their length to provide an aesthetic

appeal in addition to the structural value. The

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chiselled grooves imparted articulation to the plane surface.

CHHAJJA

The dripstone was a sloping shelf projecting out

of the wall to shelter an opening and sometimes

the entire wall as well.it is usually supported on

a carved bracket or just suspended as a

cantilever.

JAALI

Jaali is the term for a perforated stone or

latticed screen, usually with an ornamental

pattern constructed through the use of

calligraphy and geometry. Early work was

performed by carving into stone. However,

unlike the jaalis of Mughal character; these

jaalis had comparatively simpler patterns and

used simple geometrical shapes congregated

together to form a composition. Three basic rules were followed for the design of jaalis, they

were:

Start at the centre.

Keep equal borders.

Stick to odd numbers in the design.

FOLIATED ARCHES

The usual pointed arch ornamented by foliage like elements as the leaves covering the entire

thickness of the arch (intrados). The cusped arch was divided in five parts and had the

proportions in ¾ and ¼ of a whole. The arch is significant because, in theory at least, it

provides a structure which eliminates tensile stresses in spanning a great amount of open

space. All the forces are resolved into

compressive stresses. This is useful

because several of the available building

materials such as stone can strongly

resist compression but is very weak

when tension, shear or torsional stress is

applied to it. By using the arch

configuration, significant spans could be

achieved. This is because all the

compressive forces held it together in a

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state of equilibrium. This even applied to frictionless surfaces. However, one downside is that

an arch pushes outward at the base, and this needs to be restrained in some way, either with

heavy sides and friction or angled cuts into bedrock or similar.

In addition to these, mouldings, cornices and miniature columns adorned the interiors,

particularly at junctions of wall to wall, wall to ceiling, or a window opening.

INSCRIPTIONS

There were inscriptions adorning the walls depicting

floral patterns, dancing human figures, fish and snakes that existed in the sarovar and

geometrical patterns which were an integral part of all the craft works including the jaalis. All

these inscriptions were descriptive of the general practices of the region.

KHURRAS

Openings along the junction of the roof slab and parapet wall to suspend of the rain water

collected overhead and let into the sarovar itself.

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HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The structure became significant amongst the various events of the history of India as it was

here that the practice of JAUHAR began in India. Jauhar refers to the ancient Indian tradition

of self-immolation of women whose husbands had gone to war and were either killed or were

taken prisoner. This was done by the women to safe guard their honour.

Such painful method was preferred over other painless and easy ways like poisoning or

hanging as these were considered against the self-respect of any human in Hindu mythology.

Legend has it that Rani Padmini was famous for her beauty. Alla-ud-din Khilji was besotted

by her beauty and wanted to possess her. Deceitfully he took the Rani’s husband prisoner.

The Raja decided to fight for his and his wife’s honour. Rani Padmini was certain of the

Raja’s defeat, so to save her honour and dignity she along with the other women of the palace

self- immolated herself. And thereon started the practice of Jauhar.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

ARCHITECTURE OF THE INDIAN DESERT – KULBHUSHAN AND MINAKSHI JAIN

STONES IN THE SAND- THE ARCHITECTURE OF RAJASTHAN-GILES TILLOTSON

ANTIQUITIES OF CHITTORGARH – R.NATH

STRUCTURE SYSTEMS FOR ARCHITECTURE – PROF. HARBHAJAN SINGH

VISUAL SERIES FROM RANI PADMINI KA JAUHAR

WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM

WWW.CHITTORGARH.COM/TOURISM

MAPS FROM GOOGLE EARTH

RAJPUT ARCHITECTURE – SHIKHA JAIN

THE ILLUSTRATIONS AND PHOTOGRAPHS BELONG TO THE TEAM ITSELF

EXCEPT FOR THE FIRST THREE WHICH HAVE BEEN TAKEN FROM THE ABOVE

MENTIONED WEBSITES.

ERRATA

The proper nouns used across the report may vary from context to context as the

pronunciations remain the same but the spellings are perceived differently due to the actual

linguistic script being devanagari and all these words been written here in English.