ramsden 1994 current challenges to quality in higher education

7/28/2019 Ramsden 1994 Current Challenges to Quality in Higher Education

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ramsden-1994-current-challenges-to-quality-in-higher-education 1/12

Inno vativ e H ighe r Education, V ol. 18, No. 3, Spring 1994

C u r r e n t C h a l l e n g e s t o Q u a l i t y

i n H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n

P a u l R a m s d e n

ABSTRACT: T h i s p a p e r c o n s i d e rs s o m e i m p l i c a ti o n s f o r t e a c h i n g i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n o fq u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e d e m a n d s m a d e i n c ir c u m s t a n c e s o f f i n a n c i a l r e s t r a in t . T h e p a p e rs u g g e s t s t h a t r e s p o n s e s m u s t b e a n c h o r e d i n i m p r o v e m e n t i n s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g . T h i s h a si m p l i c a t i o n s f o r u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h i n g , f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f i t s e f f e c ti v e n e s s a n d f o r

l e a d e r s h i p i n u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e p a p e r c o m m e n c e s w i t h a d i s c u ss i o n o f a n u n d e r s t a n d i n go f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o nr e s u l t i n g f r o m a n A u s t r a l i a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s t u d e n t p e r c e p t io n s o f u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h i n g .T h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a r i s i n g f r o m t h i s s t u d y s u g g e s ts t h a t , g i v e n t h a t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i sa n e d u c a t i o n a l o n e , b o t h e v a l u a t i o n o f t e a c h i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p s h o u l d b e i nh a r m o n y w i t h e f f e c t iv e a p p r o a c h e s t o l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g .

This ar ticle considers some implications for teaching in higher edu-

cation of quality assurance demands made in circumstances of finan-

cial res tra int. My position is developed around Australian experiences

but readers from other systems, particularly those from the UnitedKingdom, will identify with the context. The paper suggests that

responses must be anchored in improvement in student learning. This

has implications for university teaching, for the evaluation of its effec-

tiveness and for leadership in universities. The paper will address each

of these a rea s-t eac hing, evaluation and leadership. First reference

will be made to the educational context to which the paper relates and

to the understanding of teaching and learning which underpins the

discussion.

Today's lecturers are expected to deal with growth in participation inhigher education and an unprecedentedly broad spectrum of student

ability and background. In this context there has been an expanded

P a u l R a m s d e n i s P ro f e s so r o f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n a n d D i r e c t o r o f t h e G r i f f it h I n s t i t u t e f o rH i g h e r E d u c a t i o n a t G r i f f it h U n i v e r s i t y , B r is b a n e , A u s t r a l i a . H e h a s t a u g h t i n po ly *t e c h ni c s , u n i v e r s it i e s , a n d s c h o o ls in t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m a n d A u s t r a l i a . H i s re s e a r c h

f i el d i s t h e i n f lu e n c e o f t e a c h i n g a n d a s s e s s m e n t o n th e q u a l i t y o f s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g . D r .R a m s d e n h a s b e e n p r o f e s s io n a l ly i n v o l v e d i n f a c u l ty d e v e l o p m e n t fo r o v e r 1 5 y e a r s a n dp u b l i s h e d t h e t e x t Learning to Teach in Higher Education, R o u t l e d g e , N e w Y o r k ( 19 92 ).H e h o l d s d e g r e e s f ro m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o n d o n a n d t h e U K C o u n c i l f o r A c a d e m i c

A w a r d s , a n d a P h . D . f ro m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L a n c a s t e r .

177 9 1994 Human Sciences Press, Inc.



Current Challenges to Quality in Higher Education 179

w i l l a n d w i l l n o t b e r e w a r d e d b y le c t u r e r s ; p e r c e p t i o n s o f a n e x c e s s i v e

a m o u n t o f c o n t e n t t o g e t th r o u g h ; p o o r t e a c h i n g , e s p e c i a l l y a l a c k o f

f e e d b a c k o n l e a r n i n g ; a n d a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t y o u h a v e n o c o n t ro l o v e r o r

i n d e p e n d e n c e i n l e a r n i n g .

O n t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e c o in , d e e p a p p r o a c h e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

b e i n g c l e a r a b o u t w h a t y o u h a v e t o k n o w o r w h a t y o u d on ' t h a v e t o

k n o w ; w i t h l o n g -t e rm , a c t iv e e n g a g e m e n t w i t h t h e c o n t e n t , w i t h s t im -

u l a t i n g a n d i n s p i r in g t e a c h in g , w i t h b e i n g t a u g h t b y s t a ff w h o c a r e

a b o u t w h a t y o u a r e l e a r n i n g a n d a b o u t y o u a s a s tu d e n t , a n d w i t h

p e r c e p t i o n s o f i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d r e s p o n s i b l e c h o i c e o v e r l e a rn i n g .

A s u r f a c e a p p r o a c h t o l e a r n i n g i s l i k e l y to b e t h e r e s u l t w h e r e

t e a c h i n g d r a w s o n w h a t c o u l d b e s t y l e d a d u a l i s t e p i s t e m o l o g y , o n e i n

w h i c h k n o w l e d g e i s s e e n a s a n e n t i t y d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e p e r s o n w h o

k n o w s i t , a n d w h e r e t h e o r y a n d p r a c ti c e o c c u p y s e p a r a t e c o m p a r t-

m e n t s ( E l b e , 1 9 8 8 ; R a m s d e n , 1 9 9 3 b ) . T h e r e i s a c o n t r a r y d i s c o u r s e i n

w h i c h t h e c u r r i c u l u m d o e s n o t h a v e t o b e c o n c e i v e d a s a t ak e n - f o r-

g r a n t e d b o d y o f s k i ll s a n d k n o w l e d g e . I t m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d i n a n o n-

d u a l i s t w a y a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s c o n s t i t u t e d i n th e s o c i al i n t e r a c t i o n

b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s a n d t ea c h er s . K n o w l e d g e is g iv e n n e w m e a n i n g b y

e a c h n e w l e a rn e r . T h i s m o d e l r e p r e s e n t s a v ie w o f t e a c h i n g a s a k i n d o f

c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n t e a c h e r s a n d t a u g h t . T e a c h i n g i s a b o u t h e l p in g

t o m a k e l e a r n i n g p o s si b le .

T h e r e i s a c o n n e c t io n , th e n , b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s ' l e a r n i n g o f p a r t i c u l a r

c o n t e n t a n d t h e q u a l i t y o f o u r t e a c h i n g o f t h a t c o n t e n t . A re c e n t

i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a n s t u d e n t s ' e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e i r c o u r s e s p ro -

v i d e s s o m e i n s i g h t s i n t o th i s c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n -

i ng . D u r i n g 1 9 89 , a C o u r s e E x p e r i e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( C E Q ) w a s

t e s t e d i n 5 0 i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e t o t a l s a m p l e c o m p r i s i n g n e a r l y 4 , 5 0 0

s t u d e n t s i n a r a n g e o f s u b j e c t a r e a s ( i nc l ud i ng h u m a n i t i e s , n a t u r a l

s c ie n c e s , so c ia l s ci e nc e s , a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l p r o g r a m s s u c h a s m e d i c i n e ,

e n g i n e e r i n g , a n d a c c o u n t i n g ) a s p a r t o f a t r i a l o f p e r f o r m a n c e i n di ca -

t o r s (L i n k e , 1 9 91 ; M a t h e w s , B r o w n & J a c k s o n , 1 9 90 ; R a m s d e n , 1 99 1).

T w o i m p o r t a n t o u t c o m e s fr o m t h i s s t u d y a r e r e l e v a n t t o o u r c o n ce r n s

h e r e .

T h e f i r s t i s t h a t s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e r e l a t i v e q u a l i t y o f t e a c h -

i n g v a r y b y f i e ld o f s t u d y . F i e l d s o f s t u d y s u c h a s m e d i c i n e a n d e n g i-

n e e r i n g a r e r a t e d b e l o w av e r a g e , n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s a r e a b o u t a v e r a g e ,

w h i l e h u m a n i t i e s a n d v i s u a l a r t s a r e r a t e d a b o v e a v e r a g e. D i ff e re n c e s

i n p e r c e i v e d t e a c h i n g q u a l i t y w e r e q u i t e l a rg e a n d t h e y a r e c o n g r u e n t

w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h e r e w e r e a l s o d i f f e re n c e so b s e r v e d w i t h i n t h e f i e ld s o f s t u d y . E l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g w a s t y p -



180 INNOVATIVE HIGH ER EDUCATION

i c a l ly r a t e d l o w e r t h a n o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f e n g i n e e r i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , a n d

p s y c h o l o g y l o w e r t h a n o t h e r s o c ia l s ci e nc e s .

T h e s e c o n d m a i n f i n d i n g is t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t u d e n t s ' e v a l u a t i o n s

e x i s t w i t h i n s u b j e c t a r e a s a n d d i s c ip l in e s . I n t h e C E Q s t u d i e s , t h e r e

w e r e e x c e l le n t , a v e r a g e , a n d p o o r e x a m p l e s o f t e a c h i n g w i t h i n s o c ia l

s c ie n c e s, m e d i c in e , e n g i n e e r i n g , a n d s o o n . S t a t i s t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e

f e w e x t r e m e d e p a r t m e n t s a t e a c h e n d o f t h e d i s t r i b u t io n d if fe r f r om

t h o s e a t t h e o t h e r e n d b y fr o m o n e to tw o s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s : c er-

t a i n l y a f o rm i d a b l e v a r i a t i o n , w h o s e v a l i d i t y w a s c o n f i r m e d b y in t e r-

v i e w a n d g r a d u a t e s u r v e y d a t a ( se e R a m s d e n , 1 9 90 & 1 99 1) .

I t m a k e s s e n s e , t h e n , t o t a l k a b o u t t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f

t e a c h i n g b o t h a t t h e l e v e l o f p r o g r a m s a n d a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

t e a c h e r .

R e s p on d i n g to C h a l l en ge s

Teaching to Enhance Learning

O n e m o d e l o f u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h i n g , e n s h r i n e d i n a sp e c i a l p l a c e is

e s s e n t i a l l y a l e c t u r e r - d o m i n a t e d o n e . T h e t e a c h e r i s a t r a n s m i t t e r o f

i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t s l a t e r p r o c e s s i n d e p e n d e n t l y ( or n o t, a s

t h e c a s e m a y b e ). L e c t u r e s a r e p o s s i b l y t h e s a f e s t a n d e a s i e s t m e t h o d o f

t e a c h i n g . T h e y t a k e e f fo r t t o p r e p a r e t h e f i r s t t i m e , b u t t h e y a r e

e m i n e n t l y r e c y c l a b l e . T h e l e c t u r e r s t a y s i n c o n t r o l t h r o u g h o u t . T h e

h a r d a n d r i s k y p a r t s o f t e a c h i n g l i k e e n g a g i n g i n a d i a lo g u e w i t h

s t u d e n t s a n d t a k i n g r e s p o n s ib i l it y f or h e l p i n g t h e m t o l e a r n a r e

l a r g e l y a v o i d e d . I f t h e s t u d e n t s d o n o t l e a r n , i t i s t h e i r f a u l t a l o n e .

F r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h i s m o d e l , t h e p r o b l e m o f q u a l i t y i n t ea c h -

i n g , e v e n f o r l a r g e c l a s s e s , c a n b e s o l v e d t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y . T h e i n f o r m a -

t io n m u s t b e d e l i v e re d t o m o r e s t u d e n t s , u s i n g d e v ic e s s u c h a s r e p e a t e d

l e c t u r e s , v i d e o t a p e s , l a r g e r l e c t u r e t h e a t e r s , o r m u l t i m e d i a p r e s e n t a -

t io n s . T h i s m o d e l o f t e a c h i n g a p p e a r s t o d r a w o n a d u a l i s t e p i s t e m o l -

o g y , r e f e r r e d t o a b o v e ( s e e M a r g e t s o n , i n p r e s s f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d u a l i s t c o n c e p ti o n ).

F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e e p i st e m o l o gy , t h e p r o b l e m o f

l a r g e c l a s s e s i s n o t s o v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f s m a l l c l a s s es : i t i s h o w

t o r e l a t e t o s t u d e n t s a n d h o w t o e n g a g e t h e m i n l ea r n in g . T h e r e a r e

d o z e n s o f d i f f e r e n t p o s s ib l e a p p ro a c h e s . W h a t i s r e q u i r e d i s t e s t i n g o u t

i d e a s fo r t e a c h i n g i n p r a c t ic e , a n d a p p l y i n g k n o w l e d g e o f e d u c a t i o n a lp r i n c i p l e s i n a n e n t e r p r i s i n g w a y . I t e n c o m p a s s e s a c y c l e o f c o n t i n u o u s




i m p r o v e m e n t i n q u a l i t y , s i nc e le a r n i n g h o w to i m p r o v e s t u d e n t s ' e x pe -

r i e n c e s o f l e a r n i n g i s a p r o c e s s t h a t n e v e r e n d s . T e a c h e r s w h o t h i n k

l i k e th i s a r e n o t o n l y m o r e s a t i s f i e d t e a c h e r s ; t h e y a r e a b l e t o u s e t h e i r

k n o w l e d g e o f e d u c a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s t o c o p e w i t h n e w a n d d i ff i c u lt

e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s .

E f f e ct iv e u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h e r s a r e a d a p t i v e t o th e c h a n g e d c ir cu m -

s t a n c e s t h a t l a r g e r c l a s s e s b r i n g . B u t t h e s k i l l s t h e y p o s s e s s a r e d i f f i -

c u l t t o a c q u i r e , a n d d i f fi c u lt t o p ra c t ic e . T h i s i s w h y I b e l i e v e t h a t

t e a c h i n g i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n m u s t b e s e e n a s a h i g h l y p r o f e s s i o n a l

a c t i v i t y . I f i t i s a p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t i v i t y , c e r t a i n a d d i t i o n a l t h i n g s f o ll o w .

P r o f e s s i o n a l t e a c h i n g w a r r a n t s a p r o f e s s i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o i t s e v a l u a -

t io n , b a s e d o n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w a s s e s s m e n t i n f l u e n c e s le a rn -

i n g . I t a l s o d e m a n d s p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p . T h e s e p o i n t s

w i l l b e t a k e n u p s h o r t l y b u t l e t m e f i rs t e x p a n d o n m y p a s s i n g r ef e r-

e n c e t o e d u c a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s .

R e s e a r c h f ro m s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s t a n d p o i n t s , i n c l u d i n g s t u d i e s o f

s c h o ol t e a c h i n g , h a s i d e n t i f i e d s o m e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f g o o d

t e a c h i n g ( s u m m a r i z e d i n R a m s d e n , 1 9 9 2 ) . L e t m e f r a m e t h e s e a s s i x

p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h w i l l b e a d d r e s s e d h e r e b r i e f l y ( fo r d e t a i l s e e R a m s d e n ,

1 9 9 3 a )

Princ ip le 1: In teres t and explanat ion . A f a c i l i t y f o r g i v i n g c l e a r

e x p l a n a t i o n s o f c o m p l e x s u b j e c t m a t t e r i s a m a n d a t o r y p a r t o f a l ec -

t u r e r ' s r e p e r t o i r e . I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h i s f a c i l i t y c a n b e l e a r n e d ( s e e

B r o w n , 1 97 8) . E v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n c l ea r e x p l a n a t io n w o u l d

a p p e a r t o b e t h e r e l a t e d a b i l i t y t o m a k e t h e m a t e r i a l o f a s u b j ec t

g e n u i n e l y i n t e r e s t i n g , s o t h a t s t u d e n t s f i n d it a p l e a s u r e t o l e a r n i t.

W h e n o u r in t e r e s t i s a r o u s e d i n s o m e t h in g , w e e n jo y w o r k i n g h a r d a t

i t. W e c o m e t o f ee l t h a t w e c a n i n s o m e w a y o w n i t a n d u s e i t t o m a k e

s e n s e o f t h e w o r l d a r o u n d u s .

Princ ip le 2: Concern and respec t for s tudent s and s tudent l earn-

ing. G o o d t e a c h i n g i s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h f r i g h t e n i n g s t u d e n t s , o f

s h o w i n g t o u g h n e s s , s t r i n g e n c y , a n d i n f l e x i b il i ty i n t h e f a c e o f s t u d e n t

m y s t i f ic a t io n ; a n a p p r o a c h w h i c h a p p e a r s t o b e p a r t o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l

c u l t u r e o f s o m e d i sc i p li n e s , n o t a b l y e n g i n e e r i n g a n d m e d i c in e . I t is

e v e r y t h i n g t o d o w i t h b e n e v o l e n c e a n d h u m i l i t y ; i t a l w a y s t r i e s t o h e l p

s t u d e n t s f e el t h a t a s u b je c t c a n b e m a s t e r e d ; i t e n c o u r a g e s t h e m t o t r y

t h i n g s o u t f o r t h e m s e l v e s a n d s u c c e e d a t s o m e t h i n g q u i c k l y ; i t h e l p s

s t u d e n t s t o b e a d v e n t u r o u s i n t h e i r l e a r n i n g b y o f fe r in g a se c u r ee m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e t o c o m e h o m e t o (s e e E b l e , 1 98 8). R e l a t e d t o g e n e r -




o s i t y a r e h o n e s t y a n d i n t e r e s t i n t e a c h i n g , v e r s a t i l i t y i n t e a c h i n g

s k i ll s , a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y t o o u r s t u d e n t s . T e a c h i n g l i k e t h i s, t h e r e f o r e ,

r e q u i r e s d e v e l o p i n g a k e e n i n t e r e s t i n w h a t i t t a k e s t o h e l p o t h e r

p e o p l e l e a rn ; i t im p l i e s p l e a s u r e i n t e a c h i n g a n d a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h

s t u d e n t s , a n d d e l i g h t i n i m p r o v i s in g . I t is f u t i l e to p le a d t h a t t h e s e

t h i n g s a r e i m p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e in a c l i m a t e o f t i g h t r e s o u r c e s a n d a

r e q u i r e m e n t t o b e a c c o un t a b le . I f w e w a n t h i g h q u a l i t y t e a c h i n g a n d

l e a r n in g , w e c a n n o t d o w i t h o u t t h e m .

Princip le 3: Approp r ia te assessm ent a nd feedback. S e t t i n g a p p r o pr i-

a t e a s s e s s m e n t t a s k s , a s s t u d i e s o f s t u d e n t s ' e x p e r i e n c e s s h o w , is a

d i f fi c u lt b u t c r u c ia l s k i ll . I t i m p l i e s q u e s t i o n i n g i n a w a y t h a t d e m a n d s

e v i d e n c e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e u s e o f a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i q u e s f o r d is c ov -

e r in g w h a t s t u d e n t s h a v e l e a rn e d , a n d a n a v o i d a n c e of a n y a s s e ss -

m e n t s t h a t r e q u i r e s t u d e n t s t o ro t e - l e a r n o r m e r e l y t o r e p r o d u c e d e t a i l.

~ Q u a l i t y o f a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e d u re s " w a s o n e o f t h e k e y f e a t u r e s o f g o od

t e a c h i n g a s p e r c e i v ed b y s t u d e n t s n o t e d i n M a r s h ' s r e v i e w o f t h e

s t u d e n t e v a l u a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e ( M a r s h , 1 9 8 7 )

G i v i n g g e n u i n e l y h e l p f u l f e e d b a c k o n s t u d e n t s ' w o r k i s a n e q u a l l y

e s s e n t i a l c o m m i t m e n t . T h e q u e s t i o n w h i c h d i f f e r e n t i a t e d m o s t e f f e c -

t i v e l y b e t w e e n t h e b e s t a n d w o r s t co u r se s in o u r A u s t r a l i a n t e a c h i n g

p e r f o r m a n c e i n d i c a t o r s t u d y w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e q u a l i t y o f f ee d -

b a c k o n s t u d e n t s ' p r o g r e s s

Principle 4: Clear goals and in tel lectual challenge. R e s e a r c h i n t o

e f f e c ti v e s c h o o l in g o v e r w h e l m i n g l y s h o w s t h a t c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h a c a-

d e m i c e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h l e v e l s o f p u p i l p e rf o r-

m a n c e . L e c t u r e r s i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d f i n d t h i s a s p e c t o f

e f f ec t iv e t e a c h i n g r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . W h a t t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o

h a v e m o r e d i f fi c u lt y w i t h i s e x p la i n i n g t o s t u d e n t s w h a t m u s t b el e a r n e d i n o rd e r to a c h i ev e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d w h a t c a n b e l e ft o u t fo r

t h e t i m e b e i n g . B r e a k n e c k a t t e m p t s t o ~ c ov er t h e g r o u n d " i n t h e

a b s e n c e o f a c l e a r s t r u c t u r e f o c u s e d o n k e y c o n c e p ts c r e a t e s t u d e n t

c o n f u s i o n a n d d e a d e n s t u d e n t e x c i t e m e n t .

Princ iple 5: Indepen dence, control, an d active learning. H i g h q u a l i t y

t e a c h i n g i m p l ie s a r e c o g n it io n t h a t s t u d e n t s m u s t b e e n g a g e d w i t h t h e

c o n t e n t o f l e a r n i n g t a s k s i n a w a y t h a t is li k e ly t o e n a b l e t h e m t o r e a c h

u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A c o n s e q u e n c e i s t h a t c o n t r o l o v e r l e a r n i n g s h o u l dr e s i d e b o t h w i t h t h e t e a c h e r a n d w i t h t h e s t u d e n t .




T h e s ig n i fi c a n ce o f i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d c h o ic e e m e r g e s r e p e a t e d l y i n

r e s e a r c h o n s t u d e n t r a t i n g s a n d p e r c e p t io n s o f f a v o ra b l e a c a d e m i c

e n v i r o n m e n t s , a t h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a n d u p p e r s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n

l ev e ls . Y e t m o s t p r e v a i l i n g s y s t e m s o f l e a r n i n g i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n

a d o p t m a s s p r o d u c t i o n s t a n d a rd s ; t h e y h a n d l e e a c h i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t

i n t h e s a m e w a y , e v e n t h o u g h w e k n o w f or c e rt a in t h a t t h e y o p e r a te i n

d i f fe r e n t w a y s . A c ti v e e n g a g e m e n t , i m a g i n a t i v e i n q u i r y a n d t h e f i nd -

i n g o f a s u i t a b l e l e v e l a n d s t y l e a r e a l l m u c h m o r e l i k e l y to o c c u r i f

t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s t h a t n e c e s s i ta t e s t u d e n t a c t iv i ty , s t u d e n t p ro b l e m -

s o l v in g a n d q u e s t io n - a s k in g , a n d c o o p e r a ti v e l e a r n i n g a r e e m p l o y e d .

R e c e n t l y , T a n g (1 99 0 ) h a s r e p o r t e d p o s i t i v e e ff e ct s f o r h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n

s t u d e n t s w h o c o o p e r a te d i n g r o u p d i sc u s s io n s in p r e p a r i n g f o r a s si g n -

m e n t s . T h e y p e r c e iv e d th e i r a c t i v it y to b e u s e f u l f or u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

c o n t e n t t o b e l e a r n e d a n d t h e y u s e d d e e p a p p r o a c h e s to l e a r n i n g i t.

Principle 6: Learning from students. N o n e o f t h e f o r e g o i n g p ri n c i-

p l e s i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r g o o d t e a c h i n g . E f f e c ti v e t e a c h i n g r e f u s e s t o t a k e

i ts e f fe c t o n s t u d e n t s f o r g r a n t e d . I t s e es t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t e a c h i n g

a n d l e a r n i n g a s p r o b le m a t i c , u n c e r t a i n , a n d r e l a ti v e . G o o d t e a c h i n g is

o p e n t o c h a n g e ; i t i n v o l v e s c o n s t a n t l y t r y i n g t o f i n d o u t w h a t i t s e ff e c ts

a r e o n l e a r n i n g , a n d m o d i f y i n g t e a c h i n g i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e

co l l ec t ed .

Evaluating Quality

T h e s e c on d c h a l l e n g e a d d r e s s e d h e r e i s s o m e t i m e s s t a t e d a s " H o w

c a n w e a s s e s s t h e e f f e c ti v e n e s s o f u n i v e r s i t ie s , r e w a r d h i g h q u a l i t y ,

a n d p e n a l i z e p o o r q u a l i ty ? " A b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n w o u l d b e ~ W h a t d o e s i t

t a k e t o im p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y o f l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g i n h i g h e r e d u c a-

t io n ? " T o a s s e s s b o t h s t u d e n t s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s e f f e c ti v e ly , w e n e e d t o

f oc u s o n w h a t m a t t e r s m o s t o f a l l - t h e p ro c es s of c h a n g e t h a t w e c a lll e a rn i n g . T h e a c cu r ac y w i t h w h i c h w e m e a s u r e a n d r e w a r d l e a r n i n g i s

a n i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t io n b u t i t o u g h t to b e s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e l e ar n -

i ng i t s e l f .

T h e r e i s a b r o a d t h e f a i n t l y r is ib l e n o t i o n t h a t t h e r e e x i st s i n o u r

i n s t i t u t io n s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t io n a l a rg e n u m b e r o f u n d e r p e r f o r m i n g

l e c t u r e r s w h o , w e r e t h e y b u t g o a d e d b y t h r e a t s a n d p r o m i s e s, w o u l d

s o m e h o w m a g i c a l l y b e c o m e g o o d t e a c h e r s . A d o p t i n g t h i s s t a n d o n e i s

l i k e ly t o e m p l o y t h e r i t u a l t o k e n s o f e v a l u a t i o n s u c h a s i n t e r - le c t u r e r

c o m p e t i t io n t o b e a g o o d t e a c h e r , s t a n d a r d i z e d m e a s u r e s o f l e c t u r i n ge f f e c ti v e n e s s , a n d r a n k i n g p e o p l e o n a s i n g l e s c a le o f t e a c h i n g p e r fo r -




m a n c e . T h e s e h a v e u n f o r t u n a t e s i d e- e ff e c ts o n t e a c h e r s w h o a r e a l-

r e a d y u n d e r p r e s s u r e t o d o m o r e w i t h l e ss : t h e y t e n d t o e n c o u r a g e

t h e m t o im i t a t e t h e s i g n s of g o od t e a c h i n g r a t h e r t h a n r e a l l y to t e a c h

w e l l .

T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p e r f o r m a n c e a p p r a i s a l a s a m e t h o d o f e n h a n c i n g

t e a c h i n g q u a l i t y i n h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n h a s n e v e r b e e n p ro v e n . I t h a s a

c e r t a i n s y m b o l i c v a l u e , b u t f r o m a p r a c t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w i t is r a t h e r

d a n g e r o u s b e c a u s e o f i t s u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s . I t t e n d s t o c r e a te

d e f e n s i v e n e s s a n d c o m p e t i t i o n o v e r m e a n i n g l e s s g r a d i n g s ; i t c a n w a s t e

p e o p l e ' s t i m e ; i t i s s o m e t i m e s a n e x c u s e f o r n o t m a n a g i n g e f f e c t i v e l y .

A t a t i m e o f c r is i s , s u c h a s n o w , w e n e e d t o f o c u s a l l o u r e f f o r t s o n t h e

g o a l o f e n h a n c i n g e x c e l le n c e , r a t h e r t h a n o n i c o n s w h o s e w o r t h i s

q u e s t i o n a b l e .

S o m e c u r r e n t w a y s a t l o ok i n g a t e v a l u a t i o n a n d a p p r a i s a l i n h i g h e r

e d u c a t i o n m a k e t h e s a m e e r r or s a s b a d t e a ch i n g : o v e r l o a d i n g p e o p le

w i t h b u s y w o r k , i g n o r in g t h e m , b e l i t t l in g t h e m , t h r e a t e n i n g t h e m

w i t h s t ic k s a n d c a r r o ts , r e q u i r i n g t h e m t o g u e s s w h a t w i ll a n d w o n ' t be

t e s te d , a n d p r e s s i n g t h e m i n to u n r e a l i s t ic c o m p e t i ti o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r

t o p a s s a s s e s s m e n t s . T h e e f f e c t w i l l b e t h e s a m e o n s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t

a s i t is o n s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g : i t w i ll b e t o d i s c o u r a g e s t a f f f r o m l e a r n i n g

t o t e a c h b e t t e r . L e a r n i n g t o t e a c h , a f t e r a l l , is a le a r n i n g p r o c e s s in

i t s e l f a n d j u s t t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s a p p l y .

E v a l u a t i o n i s n o t f u n d a m e n t a l l y a b o u t m e a s u r i n g , n o r a b o u t s t u d e n t

r a t i n g q u e s t i o n n a i re s , n o r a b o u t n u m b e r s t h a t y o u co l l ec t a t th e e n d o f

a c o u r s e. I t ' s a c t u a l l y a b o u t le a r n i n g : l e a r n i n g f r o m o u r s t u d e n t s a b o u t

h o w w e c a n h e l p t h e m t o u n d e r s t a n d . G o o d t e a c h e r s a n d g o o d d e p a r t -

m e n t s d o t h a t c o n s t a n tl y .

E v a l u a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f o n l y t w o th i n g s . F i r s t , u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n e 's

s t u d e n t s a n d t h e i r l e a r n i n g . S e c o n d , c o m p e t i n g a l l t h e t i m e w i t h o n e -

s e l f i n o r d e r to d o b e t t e r . T h e r e a l l y g o o d t e a c h e r s I k n o w a r e a l w a y s

g e t t i n g b e t t e r t h r o u g h c o m p e t i n g, n o t a g a i n s t a n e x t e r n a l s t a n d a r d o ra g a i n s t t h e i r c o l le a g u e s, b u t a g a i n s t t h e m s e l v e s . T h e y a r e r e a d y a b o v e

a ll to r i s k t h e u n k n o w n b y b o l d l y t h r o w i n g a w a y w h a t d o e s n 't h e lp t h e

s t u d e n t s t o l e a r n a n d t r y i n g s o m e t h i n g n e w . T h e y ' r e a l w a y s re f le c t in g

a b o u t w h a t i s e f fe c t iv e , a l w a y s h o n i n g a n d p o l i s h i n g t h e i r a s s e s s-

m e n t s , t h e i r l a b s, t h e i r l e c t u r e s , a n d t h e i r c o u r s e s. N o t o n l y do t h e y

l i s t e n t o t h e i r s t u d e n t s : t h e y a p p l y w h a t t h e y l e a r n f r o m l is t e n i n g t o

t h e m .

I n th i s d e f i n i ti o n o f e v a l u a t i o n , t h e n , e v a l u a t i n g t e a c h i n g a n d t e a c h -

i n g i t s e l f a r e t w o s i d e s of t h e s a m e c o in . E v a l u a t i o n i s n 't a m e c h a n i s ma d d i t i o n a l t o t e a c h i n g ; i t 's a p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g h o w t o t e a c h b e t t e r .




If we take our lead from what we know about learning, any meth-

odology for measuring and enhancing quality in universi ties must

build in a sense of ownership and responsibil ity for the process among

teachers. Like a good student assessment regime, it should provide

plenty of feedback and encourage openness and cooperative activity. It

should minimize anxiety and the sense of being cont inually inspected.

It should be valid, generous, and fair. It should be the subject of a

dialogue between assessors and assessed. It should not do anything

that discourages people from trying to criticize their performance can-

didly and from trying to use the information they gather about their

performance to enrich what they subsequently do.

How can this be done? Certainly not by providing taxonomies of

indicators and hoping for the best. A better approach might be to

develop wha t have been called ~'qualitative indicators of performance"

designed to help teachers themselves form rigorous professional judg-

ments about the standard of a course's or department's performance

across several key areas. Out of this process of self-audit, which will

have identified strengths to build upon and weaknesses that need to be

addressed, groups of teachers will devise development plans to improve

the standard of their courses. These plans will then become perfor-

mance objectives against which t he y- and external audit ors -ca n eval-

uate progress made.This scheme combines expert educational knowledge with a belief in

the capacity of academics to govern themselves. It asserts that helping

students to learn and being open to continuous self-examination of

practice are more critical than the existence of evaluatory contrivances

or the use of parti cular teaching styles. It does not deny the importance

of accountability, but it represents a certain view of it, based on the

premise that educators know more about education than non-educa-

tors. This is no different from the equivalent premise in other self-

regulating professions.

Imp lications for Lead ership

Professional teaching demands professional educational leadership.

Let me now move on to the implications of these ideas for educational

development and educational leadership. We can apply educational

development and educational leadership to improving the quality of

education, as long as we see improving quality as a learning processitself.




E d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s c a n m a n a g e i n a w a y t h a t w i l l e n c o u r a g e s t a f f t o

f o c u s o n t e a c h i n g a n d i t s i m p r o v e m e n t b y m i r r o r i n g t h e e f f e c ti v e

t e a c h e r ' s w o r k w i t h s t u d e n t s . T h i s i n v o l v e s c l e a r g o a l s a n d c r e a t i n g

c h a l l en g e i n a n e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e p e o p le t a k e r e s p o n s ib i l it y f o r t h e i r

o w n d e v e l o p m e n t . I t i n cl u d e s e n c o u r a g i n g c o o p e ra t io n b e t w e e n p e o p l e

a n d d i s p l a y i n g c o n c e r n a n d r e s p e c t f o r p e o p l e . I t i n v o l v e s g i v i n g a l o t

o f f e e d b a c k a s w e l l a s c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r i n g t h e e f fe c ts o f o n e 's o w n

a c t i o n s in o rd e r to i m p r o v e t h e m . I t m e a n s e n g a g i n g i n a c o n v e r s a t i o n

o r d i a l o g u e r a t h e r t h a n a t r a n s m i s s i o n p r o c es s . I t i n h e r e s i n t h e r e la -

t i o n sh i p s b e t w e e n p e o p le r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f t h e

l e a d e r a n d t h e l ed . T h e d e p a r t m e n t h e a d o r c o u r s e c o o r d i n a t o r n e e d s t o

u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g a b o u t w h e r e t e a c h e r s a re : he o r s h e s h ou l d, i n

t h e j a r g o n p h r a s e , ~ u n d e r s t a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' r e a l i t y . "

W h a t t h a t m e a n s i s s i m p l y t h a t t h e h e a d s h o u l d b e r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e

d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d p r o b l e m s t h a t t o d a y ' s u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h e r s f a c e . A c a -

d e m i c le a d e r s n e e d t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h o s e p r e s s u r e s m e a n , p r e fe r a-

b l y b y b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n t h e t e a c h i n g t h e m s e l v e s . A n e f f ec t iv e a c a-

d e m i c l e a d e r a l s o n e e d s t o e x p r e s s t h e v i s i o n o f t e a c h e r s t h r o u g h

r e c o g n i z in g t h e i r i d e a ls , s h a r i n g t h e m , a n d h e l p i n g t h e m t o l e a r n f r o m

e a c h o t h e r . H e o r s h e w i l l a l s o t r y t o r e m o v e i m p e d i m e n t s t o w o r k i n g

e f fe c ti v el y . W h a t a s p e c t s o f t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l c o n t e x t a r e m a k i n g i t

h a r d f o r t e a c h e r s t o do t h e i r b e s t ? H o w c a n t h e y b e c h a n g e d ?

T h i s k i n d o f l e a d e r s h i p w i l l e n c o u r a g e s t a f f t o b e c o m e i n v o l v e d i n t h e

p r o c e s s o f i m p r o v i n g t e a c h i n g ; i t w i l l p r o v i d e a n e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e

t h e y c a n w o r k t o g e t h e r a s a t e a m . W e k n o w f r om s t u d i es o f s c h o o l

e f f ec t iv e n e s s t h a t p r i nc i p a ls w h o e n c o u r a g e t e a m w o r k a n d p r o m p t

p e o p l e t o w o r k i n a c o o p e r a t i v e w a y h e l p t o c r e a t e a n e n v i r o n m e n t i n

w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t s l e a r n m o r e a n d i n w h i c h t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s

e n j o y w h a t t h e y a r e d o in g . S c h oo l e f f e c t i v e n e s s r e s e a r c h r e v e a l s t h a t a

v i t a l c o m p o n e n t o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s t h e s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l ; i n a g o o d

s c ho o l, w h e r e t h e c h i l d r e n l e a r n a l o t a n d e n j o y t h e i r w o r k , t h e p r in c i-p a l i s t y p i c a ll y s o m e o n e w h o k n o w s w h a t h e o r s h e w a n t s t h e s c ho o l t o

a c h i e v e a n d h e l p s t e a c h e r s t o w o r k t o g e t h e r t o w a r d s h a r e d g o al s. H e o r

s h e is p r im a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n s o l v in g e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s r a t h e r

t h a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o n es . H e o r s h e p r o v i d es l e a d e rs h i p t h a t e n a b l e s

s t a f f t o o p e r a t e a s a t e a m . I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t a c a d e m i c l e a d e r s a l s o

n e e d t o l e a r n h o w t o g iv e t h e k i n d o f q u a l i t y f e e d b a c k t h a t t e l l s

s o m e o n e h o n e s t l y w h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g w e l l a s a t e a c h e r a n d w h a t t h e y

m i g h t d o t o o v e rc o m e a n y w e a k n e s s e s . T h e y w i ll a l s o b e c o n t i n u o u s l y

m o n i t o r in g t h e e f fe c ts o f t h e i r m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s a n d s t r i v in g t oi m p r o v e t h e m .




C o n c l u s i o n s

We cannot derive the idea of quality from the concept of market-

driven competition, nor can it emerge from discussions between inter-

est groups, unless it is accepted that the values of those who have the

most power are more acceptable than the values of those who have less.

We can, however, try to enhance the standard of our students' l earning

through an enlightened approach to teaching, an approach that strives

to ask the right questions, recognizes the advantages of thoughtful

self-evaluation, and accepts the uncert ain ty of educational judgments.The problem must be correctly defined first. If we focus on the

students' learning first, and the teaching methods second, answers to

the difficulties become visible. I do not want to imply that I amdismissing the genuine technical problems posed by working with

groups of 500 students, or with marking 800 assignments. What I

mean is that the solutions which work are solutions that embody a

well-developed understanding of teaching and learning, and which

apply key educational principles within a particu lar set of constraints.

The practical difficulties do not melt away when viewed from this

perspective; but they cease to occupy the foreground of the problem,

and their ability to dominate our thinking is dissolved.

An understanding of university teaching as a professional activityimplies a professional approach to the evaluation of its quality. Devel-

oping the skills of good teaching requires the reflective application of

theory about education, about teaching, and about learning. It is indis-

putable that effective teachers in higher education are constantly

evaluating their own performance. There is an important sense in

which improving quality is about learning, and any mechanisms for

evaluating quality must encourage rather than deter the activity of

self-evaluation.

The problem of teaching as helping to make learning possible is alsoa problem of academic leadership. Academic leadership conceptualized

as ~helping to make teaching possible" provides a foundation for seeing

teaching as a continuous process of professional development. A profes-sional unders tand ing of teaching, and a commitment to quality as an

end in itself rather than a means to practical utility, will be useful

weapons in the fight to retain self-determination and autonomy inhigher education. The struggle will not be an easy one in a climate of

invasive external accountability. Perhaps it will be easier if we keep

reminding ourselves that there are no foolproof systems for quality;there are only teachers.



1 88 I N N O V A T I V E H I G H E R E D U C A T I O N

R e f e r e n c e s

Brown, G. (1978). Lec tur ing a nd exp la in ing . L o n d o n : M e t h u e n .

Elbe, K. E. (1988). The craf t o f teaching . (2nd ed .) . San F ranc i sco : Jo s sey -Bass .Linke , R. D. (1991) . Repo r t o f t he re search group on per fo rmance i nd ica tors i n h igher

education. C a n b e r r a : A u s t r a l i a n G o v e r n m e n t P u b l i s h i n g S e r v ic e .M arge t son , D . (i n p r e s s ). Cu r r en t e duc a t i ona l r e fo rm an d th e s i gn i f i cance o f p rob l em-

b a s e d l e a r n i n g . Studies in h igher educat ion .M a r s h , H . W . (1 98 7). S t u d e n t s ' e v a l u a t i o n o f u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h i n g : r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s ,

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i s s u e s a n d d i r e c t io n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . I n t e rn a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o fEducat ional Research , 11 , 255-378 .

M athe ws , R. L . , Brow n, P . R. , & Jack son , M. A. (1990) . Account ing in h igher educat ion"repor t o f t he r ev i ew o f t he accoun t ing d i sc ip li ne i n h igher educa t io~ C a n b e r r a :A u s t r a l i a n G o v e r n m e n t P u b l i sh i n g S e r v ic e .

Ramsden, P . (1990) . Rep ort to the h igher edu cat ion per forma nce indicators projec t on the

Course Experience Quest ionnaire tr ial . Wol longong : Cen te r f o r Techno logy andS o c i a l C h a n g e .

R a m s d e n , P . ( 1 99 1). A p e r f o r m a n c e i n d i c a t o r o f t e a c h i n g q u a l i t y i n h i g h e r e d u c a t io n :T h e C o u r s e E x p e r i e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i re . S tud i e s i n H ighe r Educa t ion , 16 , 129-150 .

Ramsden, P . (1992) . Learning to teach in h igher educat ion . N e w Y o r k : R o u t le d g e .Ram sden , P . (1993a ). W ha t i s good t eac h in g i n h igh e r educa t i on? In P . T . K n ig h t (Ed. ),

The aud i t an d as se s smen t o f t each ing qua l it y . B i r m i n g h a m : S t a n d i n g C o n fe r e n ce o nE d u c a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t .

Ram sden , P . ( 1993b, A pr i l ). Q ua l i t a t i v e i nd i ca to r s o f e f f ec t i venes s i n u n iv e r s i t y t e ach inga n d l e a r n i n g . K e y n o t e a d d r e s s a t t h e i n a u g u r a l c o n fe r e n c e o f t h e Q u e e n s l a n dB r a n c h o f t h e H i g h e r e d u c a t i o n R e s e a r c h & D e v e l o p m e n t S o c i et y o f A u s t r a l a s i a .

Sawyer , W. W. (1943) . Mathemat ic ian 's de l ight . H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n .

Tang , K . C . C . ( 1990, Novem ber ) . Co ope ra t i ve l ea rn in g and s tud y app roach es . Pa pe rp r e s e n t e d a t 7 t h a n n u a l c o n fe r e nc e o f t h e H o n g K o n g E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h A ss o -c i a t io n , U n i v e r s i t y o f H o n g K o n g .

ramsden 1994 current challenges to quality in higher education

Documents