R&RS STYLE GUIDE Revised April 1998

FOREWORD

Enclosed is a working copy of the R&RS Style Guide. This guide is intended to assist all project staff in maintaining stylistic consistency in all correspondence and research products. The style guide includes a quick reference word list; rules regarding abbreviation, grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and numerals; a miscellaneous section including guidance on italics and lists; citation style guidelines; research paper guidelines; and proofreading marks.

The R&RS Style Guide is based on the information found in the CDIE Publications Style Guide. Secondary sources, such as the Chicago Manual o/Style, were also consulted for situations not addressed by the CDIE Publications Style Guide. The R&RS Style Guide is a working document that will expand and change to fit the needs of the project.

The R&RS Style Guide should be used to resolve conflicts between the CDIE Publications Style Guide, past practices, and current formatting. If you have any style issues you would like to see addressed in this guide that do not already appear or any questions, please contact Stacey Cramp at 202-661-5864.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

QUICK REFERENCE WORD LIST .......................................................................................... 1

.ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 3

GRAMM.AR ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6

ACI1VE VS. PASSIVE VOICE •.••••.•.•••••••••.•••••••••••..••••••••••••••.•••••.•.•••.•••••••.•••.•••••••..•••...•.•.•••••••••••.••.••.. 6 COLLECfIVE NOUNS •••••••••••••••.•.•..•.•••••••....•.•..••••.••..•.•....•••.....•..•......•..........•.••...••••...•.•••.••••••....••..•. 6 COLLOQUIALISMS •••.•.••.•...•...•.•••••••..•.•...• ••••••••.....••••••.....•....... •...•.•.•.•.•.•.....•...•.•..•••.•...•....•...•..•...•.•• 6 GENDER-SPECIFIC TERMS .•.••••...••••••••.•••••.•.••••••...••..••••...•••....•.•...•.•.•.•.•.•.....•••.••.••••.......•.•.••.•••.••.••.. 6 LATIN TERMS .•.•.•.•.••••••••.•.•.•••••••••••..••.•.••••••.•.•.••..••••..••.•.•••••.•.•.•.•.•......••..•••.•.••.•.••••.•.•.•.••.•.••..••.•••.•• 7 P ARALLELISM ..•.•.•••••••....•.•.•••••••.•.•.••••••••.•.•••...•....•••..••...••....••...•.•••...•.•...•.•.•.••.•.•..•.•.•.....•..•..•..••..••.. 7 POSSESSIVES .••.•..•••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••.•••••••••••.•••.•••..•.•••••••••••••••.•••.•.•••.•.•••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••.••.•••. 7 PREPosmoNs •••.•.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••..••••.•••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••.•••••••.••..•••••• 7 SPLIT INFINITIVES •••••.•••••••••••••.•••.••••••••••••.•.•.••••••••••••••.•.••••..••••••..••.•.•.•••.•••.•.•.••.••••••••.•.•••.••.•••.•••.•••• 8 WORD CHOICE .•.•.•.••.•••.•.•••••••••.•.•.•.•••••••••••••••.••.••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••.•.•.•.•••...•••••..•.•••.••••.•••.••..•..••..•.• 8

AIM ................................................................................................................................... 8 AFFEcrlEFFECf •..••••••••.•.•...•..••••.••.•.........•...•..•.•.•....•.•.•.•••.•.•.••...........•••••........................... 8 ALTERNATE/ALTERNATIVE ••••••••.•••••.••..•••..•••.••.••...••.•••••••••••••••..••.•.••.••••...•.•.•.••••.••.••.•••••••. 8 AssURE/ENsURElINSURE •••••••••.•••••...•..••.•.••.•..•..•....•..•..•.•••.•.••••••.•.•..•.•...•...•.•.•.••....•..•...••.•• 8 COMPosFlCoMPRlsFlCONSTITUTE •.•.••..•••...••.•.•••.••.•••.•.•...•.•••.•.•.•.•.••.•.••••.•••.•.•.••.....•••••.••.• 8 CONTINUAIlCONTINUOUS •••••.••.••.•.•.•••••••.•.•..••..•••.•.••.•.•.•••..••.•••••.••••••••.•.•...••••...••••••.•.•••.••• 9 DIFFERENT FROMIDIFFERENT TIIAN •.•...••....••...•..••••••••••••••••.••••..••.•.•.••.•••••.••.•..••....••..••.••••. 9 F ARTHERIFURTHER •••••.•••••••••••.•...•••••••••••••.•.••.••.••.•••••..•.•.•.•••.•.•.•...•.••••.••••.•.•••.••••••.•••.•••.•••• 9 FEWERIl.ESS •. •••••••••••••••.•.•••••••.•••••••.•.•..••.•.•.•••...••••.•.••••••.•••••••••.•••.•••.••...••••.•••...••••••••.•••••.••• 9 HOPEFULLy •.•.•.•.•••.•••••.••••••••••••••..•••••••••.••....••...•••...••.•..•.•.•.•••.•••.•••.••.•....•...•.•.•••••••.•••.••.••. 10 LIKE/SUCH AS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 10 NONRESTRICTIVE'JREsTRICl1VE PHRASES (THATIWHICH) ..•••••.••••••••••••••.•••••••••.•••••••••.•••• 10 WHolWHOM ••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••...••••••.•••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••.•••••••••.•••••••••••••••••• 10

PUNCTUATION ••••.••..•••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••.••...•••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.....•...•••••••••••••••• 11

APOSTROPHE .••.••.•.••.••••••.•.•..•.•.•.•.•.••.•..•..•••.•..••.•.••.•.••••••..••••..•.•....•.•••.•.•.••..•.•••..•••••••.•.•••..•••••.••.•••• 11 BRACKETS ••••••.•.••••.•.•.•.•.•••.••.•.•.•.••.••••.•••.•••••.•.••..••••..••...•••.•.••.••.•.•.•..••••••••••.•.••.•••••••••.....•.••.•••••..••. 11 BULLETS ...•.••.••.•.•..•...•••.•...••.•.•••••••••••••••..••••••.••....•...•.....•••.••••.•.•.•.••.••.•.••.•.•••.......•....•.•.••.•.••..••.••.•• 11 SEMICOLON •.•...••...•••.••....•.•.••.••••••••••.•..•••.......•..•••••••.••..•••.••.•.••.••..•.•••.•.•.•.•.•..•.•..•..••.••.....•..••..•..•..• 12 COLON .......•...•....•..••••..•..•••.••.••..••.•.•.•.••••••.•.........••..••••...••..•.•...•.•.•.•...•.••..•.•..•••.••••...••.•...•.•...•••••.••. 12 COMMA •.•...•....•....•••..••.•..•.•..•.••..••••••.••.•....•.•.....•...........•..•...••...•...••••.••...••....•....•..•.•.•...•..•...•.•••••... 13 DASHES .•.•...•.•.••.••••.•••.•....•.••.•...•.•..•••....••..•.....•........••....•..••...•..••..•.•••.•.•..•....•.....•......•....•••...••.•..••. 15 ELLIPSIS POINTS ..•.•.•.••..•..•••.•.•.•••.•.•.•.••••..•.•.•.•.•....•.•.••.•.•••...••.•..•.•.•.•••.••....•.•.•..••••.•.•.....•.••••..•..•••.• 18

EXCLAMATION POINT ••.•••••••••••••••••••••.•••.•.•.••••••.••••••.••••••.••••...••.••••.••••.••..•••••••••.•••.•••.••••••••..••••••••.• 19 'N' .•.•.••.••....•.•.•••...•.•..•......•••.•••.•.•.•.•....•.•.••..•.••.•.•••.•••..•••••••..•••..•.•••.•..•.•.••..••.•..•.•...•..••.••..•.••...•••.•••.• 19 PARENTHESES •.•.•................•••.•....•....•..••.•••......••...••.••.•••...•.••.•..•.•.••..•••.•.•••..•••.•...••.•.•.•..•••••••.••••.... 19 QUOTATION MARKS ......•.•.•.....•.•.•....••......•.•.••..............••..•.....•••..........••..•.••.•••..•..•.......•....•••...•..•..• 20 FOREIGN, ACCENTED CHARACTERS •...•...........................•••..•.••...•......••.•...•....................•..••.•.•••• 21 A

CAPITALIZATION .................................................................................................................... 22

GEOGRAPHIC 'fERMS .•......••.•....•.••.........•.•.•.....•..•.••.•.•••....••..........••••.•..•••..••••.••••...••.•••.••••••••.•.••••... 22 GOVERNMENTS •.•.•.••...•••.•.•...••••••••....•.•.•.•.•..•.•••.•...•.••.••....•.•.•.•••...•••....••..••.•..••.•••..•.•.•.•.•••....••••••.•. 22 PLACES ..••.•••.....••••..•.•..•.•.•.•••••.•.•..•.•.•••...•.•••.•••.••....•....••......•..••.••.......••.•..•..•.••••.•••..••.••.••.•.•..••••.•.•• 23 PROGRAM, PROJECT •..•...•••••••••.•••..•....•••.•...••.•..••...•.•..•..•..•••...••....•....•.•.•.••••.•••.••..•..•..•••.•.•••.•.•..•.•.• 24 DTLES (PEOPLE) ..•...•..•.••....•••.....•.•......•...•.•.••....•..••.•..••.•..•••...•••.•..•..•.•••.••••..•.•.•.•....•.•..•..•.••.•..•.•.•.• 25

OTHER ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 25

NUl\fE.RAI.S ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 26

DATES •.•.•.•..•.•..••.••...•...•.•••••.•••..••••••.•.••..•.•...•.••••....•.....••.•...•.•••.....••...••.•..•..••.••••.•.•....•....•.•••.•.•..•..• 26 FRACTIONS •.•.••..•.••.••..•.••.••.••.••••.•..•.•••..•••••.••.••.•••..•.•..•••.•.••...•••••••.......•.•..•••..•.••..••.•.•.••..•..•.•.•.••.•••. 27 NUMBERS .....••..•.•.•......•.•.•.•.•.•.•..•.•....•.•.•...•.•........••.•..••....••....•••...••...•..•....••...•.•.•.•.......••...••..••••.•... 27 DEGREE SYMBOLS .•.•..••..•.••.••.•.••...••....•...•..••••••••••••.•.••.•...••....••....••••..••.••.••.•.•.••..•..•.•..••.••••.•••••.•.•• 29

MISCELLANEOUS .................................................................................................................... 30

ITALICS .....••.•.••.....•..•..•.•....•••••••••••.•....•.•.•..••.••..•••.••.•••.••.••.•.•••••...••••...••..•.••.••.••.•••.•.•.••.••••..•••..•.•.••• 30 LISTS •..•.•.••.•.•.•.•.•......•••.•.•.•.•.••••.•.•.••.•.•.•.••••••••..•.•••...•••••..••.••.••••••.•••••.•...•••••.•••••...••.•.•.••.••.••.•••.•.•.• 31

CITATIONS ................................................................................................................................. 33

IN-'fEXTCITATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 33 BmLIOGRAPHIC ENTRIES •••.•.•.••••..•.•.••..•.•..••.•••••.••.••••••••.•••.•.••.•.•.••.••.••..•.•..•..••.••.•..•.•..••••.•••••••.••.•. 33 INTERNET CITATIoNs---BmLIOGRAPHIC •••••.•..•...••.•.•••••..•••...••..•••••....•.•...•.•..••••••••.•••••.•••.•••.•••.•.••• 36 FOOTNOTES .•••.•••.••••••.•.•.•••.•.•.•.•••••••••.•...•.•.•••..•••..••••..••.•..•••..•••.••.•••..•..•••••.•..•..••.•.••.•..••••.••••.•.••.••.• 37 INTERNETCITATIONs--FOOTNOTEAND ENDNOTE ..••••.••.••..•••••.•••.••.•••••••••••••.•.•••••.•••••••••••••••••••.•• 37

RESEARCH PAPER FORMA.T GUIDELINES ...................................................................... 39

PROOFREADIN'G MARKS ........................•.............................................................................. 41

ii

,

QmCK REFERENCE WORD LIST

the Administrator (referring to head of US AID)

adviser

the Agency (when referring to USAID)

Agencywide

antigovernment

catalogue

Cold War

close out (noun, e.g. close out of missions)

close-out (adjective, e.g. close-out mission)

decision-maker

decision-making

dialogue

e-mail

end-user

fiscal year 1998

FY98

follow-up (as noun and adjective)

interagency

Internet

judgment

macroeconomic

millennium

Mission (cap if referring to a specific one; e.g., the Cairo Mission)

mission (lower case when talking about missions in general)

nationwide

new independent states

non-European

nongovernmental

overstaffed

policymaker (one word)

policymaking (one word)

post-Cold War

postconfiict

prewar

progovernment

R&RS project or Research & Reference Services project

reengineering

requester . .

soclOeCOnOmIc

sub-Saharan Africa

strategic objective

twentieth century

U.S. (adjective; e.g., U.S. trade policy)

United States (noun; e.g., foreign policy of the United States)

USAID

USAIDlEgypt (the country-Egypt, in this example-is preferred over the city)

the Web

war-tom

web page (two words)

web site (two words)

World Wide Web

worldwide

•

•

2

,

~

I '"

ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations should be used only when they aid the reader, not as a shortcut for the author. In general, use abbreviations for the name of an organization when the organization is commonly referred to in its abbreviated form (e.g., UNICEF) or when the name is long and cumbersome and the organization is referred to frequently in the paper. Spell out abbreviations on first reference, followed closely (though not necessarily immediately-see "Placement of First Abbreviation," below) by the abbreivation in parentheses. When appropriate, and when the abbreviation is not one commonly used, use a shortened form of the name instead of an abbreviation (e.g., the foundation, the institute, the project-note lower case).

1. Defining USAID As an exception to the above, do not write (USAID) after the first reference to U.S. Agency for International Development. The Agency and its acronym are sufficiently well known within the development community that it is usually overkill to write Agency for International Development (USA/D). News releases and other documents prepared primarily for public consumption are an exception to this rule.

2. Write abbreviations in all caps, no space, no period. Exceptions: Unesco, U.K, U.S., U.S.S.R

3. United States, U.S. Spell out United States as a noun; abbreviate it to U.S. when using as an adjective. When writing of amounts in U.S. currency, omit the periods.

foreign policy of the United States U.S. trade policy U.S. dollars The project cost US $12 million. (in constant US$)

4. Frequency of Defining Abbreviations Abbreviations should be defined anew in each major section of the report (front matter, main body, and each appendix) or if a subsequent reference appears some distance from the original reference. The shortened form should be repeated only if it will be used again soon after this reference. Unless the name appears frequently and considerable space is conserved or monotony is avoided by using the abbreviation, it is better to use the full name (or a shor­tened form of the name) of an organization rather than risk confusion.

5. Placement of First Abbreviation It may not be necessary to place a parenthetical abbreviation after the first mention of an organization's name. Usually such an abbreviation is properly placed immediately after the full name. If, however, no text or only a brief span of text intervenes between the full name of the organization and the first natural occurence of the abbreviation, the connection is obvious and the parenthetical insertion can be dispensed with.

Another such organization was the International Basic Economy Corporation (mEC). Founded in 1947, mEC sought to be a model of enlightened capitalism. (fussy)

3

Another such organization was the International Basic Economy Corporation. Founded in 1947, mEC sought to be a model of enlightened capitalism. (shorter, smoother; gives reader credit)

6. Abbreviations of Foreign Agencies In general, use English translations of names of foreign agencies or government bodies, even when the abbreviation is based on the foreign name: Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE).

7. Ad Hoc Abbreviations Avoid creating ad hoc abbreviations. Their use can confuse the reader and impede com­prehension. A string of abbreviations can be unintentionally humorous:

The MOA'S AD program included both MADs and FADs at all levels of the extension system.

Although longer, this is more comprehensible:

The agricultural demonstrator program of the Ministry of Agriculture included both male and female agricultural demonstrators at all levels of the extension system.

8. I.e., E.g., and Other Latin Abbreviations Avoid using most Latin abbreviations, especially i.e., e.g., and etc. in formal writing. The English equivalent is now preferred: that is for i.e., for example for e.g., and and so on or and the like for etc. These Latin abbreviations, however, are acceptable within parentheses.

9. Misapplying "Etc." and Its Equivalents Do not use etc. simply to avoid completing a series (books, reforestation, etc.); its use, and that of its English equivalent, should be limited to lists whose logical extension is obvious (grains: barley, maize, wheat, etc.) or to end a series that repeats part of a list already quoted in its entirety.

10. Avoiding Redundancy With "Etc." and Its Equivalents Never use for example. such as, or e.g. with etc. or and so on and their equivalents. Such usage is redundant because these terms already imply an incomplete list.

Several crops. such as beans, corn, wheat, and so on, had been grown in the area for many years. (incorrect) Several crops, such as beans, corn, and wheat, had been grown in the area for many years. (correct)

11. To avoid the overworked etc. and its equivalents, try omitting the and in a series of three or more. The omission implies that more could be added to the list.

The forest provides many essentials: thatch, timber, fodder, fuelwood.

12. Headings, Titles Use only commonly understood abbreviations in headings and titles.

4

13. Periods in Abbreviations Use periods in abbreviations ofI-atin terms (when they are unavoidable), academic degrees, months, proper names, states, and in cases in which abbreviations might be confused with other words; otherwise, omit. (See also LATIN TERMS; PLACE-NAMES.)

Q.E.D. (''which was to be demonstrated") et al. ("and others") LL.D. Dec. Jos. Mass. Calif. a.m. No. NE ft lb kg ha PL480

5

GRAMMAR

Active vs. Passive Voice Prefer the active voice to the passive. The active voice, idenifying both doer and receiver of the action, leaves no loose ends. It may be that progress was made, but then the reader is left to wonder who, exactly, it was that made the progress. Moreover, the active voice is stronger and more vivid, expressing direct action.

In 1995 the island of Antigua was ravaged by hurricane Marilyn. (weak) In 1995 hurricane Marilyn ravaged the island of Antigua. (strong)

Exceptions are pennissible when the subject is unknown, understood, or irrelevant.

President Yeltsin was reelected in 1996. A bomb was set off at noon in the main plaza, apparently.

Collective Nouns A collective noun nonnally takes a singular verb, but if the idea of numbers rather than unit is to be conveyed, the noun takes a plural verb.

The staffwas criticized for its inappropriate conclusions. The staff have journeyed from all parts of the country to attend the meeting. Or rephrase: Staff members have journeyed .... An anny marches on its stomach. A legion of fire ants were advancing on the plantation. The couple were reunited in Oslo. Seventy percent of the people go hungry, because 90 percent of the food goes to the well­off.

Colloquialisms Use colloquialisms with moderation. judiciously employed, they can liven up a report. If a colloquialism is understandable in context, it is rarely if ever necessary to enclose it in quotation marks-which merely draw undue attention. Compare:

Planners tried to "jump start" the economy using "meat cleaver" tactics when in fact "microsurgery" was in order. Planners tried to jump-start the economy using meat-cleaver tactics when in fact microsurgery was in order.

Gender-Specific Terms In general, avoid using the gender-specific he, him, his in gender-neutral contexts. When possible, recast singular pronouns as plurals. Do not, however, use a plural pronoun to refer to a singular noun (Everyone was in their seat). Incorrect grammatical construction, and other fonnulations that call attention themselves, cannot compensate for the English language's scarcity of gender­neutral pronouns.

6

Latin Terms Latin is a dead language-a suggestion of the appropriateness of Latin expressions in writing that seeks to be fresh and clear. In general, avoid Latin expressions. Often they can be eliminated altogether, with no English substitute given. When that is not feasible, try substituting the following:

a priori circa ceteris paribus e.g. etal. etc. i.e. inter alia mutatis mutandis

Parallelism

presumably about, around other things being equal for example and others and so forth, and the like that is among others the necessary changes having been made

Parallel parts of a sentence-those similar in meaning or relationship-must be parallel in construction. Seeing is believing is parallel and euphonious. Seeing is to believe is neither. Following are common violations of parallelism (the grammatical equivalent of mixing apples and pork rind), with their correction in brackets:

The committee's task was to study the problem, propose solutions, and then writing a report [and write a report]. Playing arbitrage both requires nerves of steel and a stone heart. [Playing arbitrage requires both nerves of steel and a heart of stone.] (doubly unparallel) The council voted for the following measures: • Reinforcing the bulkheads of the canal • Hiring an auditor for the co-op • More books for the village library [Buying more books for the village library] E-mail is cheap, fast, and 80 percent of U.S. companies use it [and used by 80 percent of U.S. companies]. [Or, E-mail is cheap and fast, and 80 percent of U.S. companies use it.]

Possessives I. The possessive case of singular nouns is formed by adding an apostrophe and an s; the

possessive of plural nouns ending in s is formed by adding an apostrophe only. Note that proper nouns ending in s follow the same rule requiring addition of an apostrophe and an s as do other singular nouns: Ross's report, AAAS's view, Arkansas's governor, girls' dresses.

2. Exception: The possessive of many biblical and classical names ending in s is conventionally formed by adding the apostrophe only: Jesus' words, Moses 'journey, Mars' shield.

Prepositions Used with care, such constructions are idiomatic and unexceptionable; sometimes they are the only choice, as in, What's this thingjor? At the same time, prepositions-at-the-end can be weak or inelegant. Use discretion.

7

•

•

Split Inf'mitives Generally to be avoided but acceptable for smoothness or when it is desired to emphasize the intervening adverb.

The factory aims to more than triple production by the end of 1998. (aims more than to triple would be graceless)

WORDCUOICE

AlAN Use a before words beginning with consonant sounds, even if the initial letter is a vowel (as in one). Use an before words beginning with a vowel sound, even if the initial letter is a consonant (as in herb).

a European a historic event a hotel

AFFECfIEFFECf

an FCC ruling an herb

As a verb, affect means "to influence"; as a noun, it means "the subjective aspect of being an emotion." As a verb, effect means ''to bring about"; as a noun, it means "result"

Smoking can adversely affect your health. The listener feigned interest; his enthusiasm was merely an affect. The comments were intended to effect discussion. Imposing economic sanctions produced the desired effect.

AL TERNATFl ALTERNATIVE

Alternate means "first one and then the other." Alternative means "one without the other"--one of two or more things or propositions to be chosen.

We attended on alternate days because we had no alternative.

AssUREiENSUREnNSURE

Assure applies to people and means "to promise, cause (someone) to count on, remove doubt." Ensure applies to events and means ''to make certain an outcome; guarantee." Insure should be reserved exclusively in the sense "indemnify life or property against risk."

The broker assured investors the shipment was insured for full value, and that would ensure they would lose no money. Careful planning and dedicated personal ensured [not assured] the project's success.

COMPOSE/COMPRiSE/CONSTITUTE

I. Of the three c-words, comprise is most frequently misused, being mistaken in one way or another for the other two. The whole comprises its constituent parts; the parts compose, constitute, or make up the whole. The construction is comprised o/is never correct.

Mestizos [compose, constitute, or make up] 85 percent of the population.

8

The plan [comprises, consists of, or is composed ot] three elements. A lawyer, a traditional healer, and three farmers [compose, constitute, or make up] the village council

2. Comprise will always be semantically correct if used in the sense "contain," "consist of," "embrace," "hold."

The United States comprises 50 states and the District of Columbia. The village council comprises a lawyer, a traditional healer, and three farmers.

3. Use comprise to indicate the listing is complete. Use include when the listing is considered only partial or when emphasis on completeness is either unnecessary or completeness is understood.

The U.S. Constitution comprises a preamble and 27 Articles, including the original Bill of Rights. Brazil's terrain includes fertile savannas and low mountain ranges. Include in the roster everyone from the class of'66.

CONTINUAL/CONTINUOUS

Continual means "continuing at frequent intervals." Continuous means "continuing without interruption."

Spooked by one sound after another, the dog barked continually through the night. The burglar alarm wailed continuously until police broke in and shut it off.

DIFFERENT FROM/DIFFERENT THAN

1. The preferred form is almost without exception different from-always so when what follows different is a simple noun or pronoun.

Tea is as different from [not than] coffee as nectar is from motor oil.

2. Exceptions may occur when what follows difforent is a full clause.

Djakarta today is a different city than it was just 10 years ago. Those who stuck it out will experience a very different plebe summer than did midshipmen in past years.

3. In such constructions, however, differentfrom what or differentfrom how, though wordier, will spare the writer any censure attaching to use of different than.

F ARTHERIFURTHER

Use farther for physical distance. Use further in figurative comparisons.

The train traveled 50 miles farther the second day than the first. Nothing could be further from the truth. The further they investigated, the more they doubted their hypothesis.

FEWERILESS

Fewer applies to numbers of things that can be counted. Less applies to mass or quantity.

We had fewer problems this time, so the project required less time to complete.

9

•

•

HOPEFULLY

Unless what is meant is "in a hopeful manner"-for example, She spoke hopefully of the future­the discreet writer will avoid this term, at least in formal papers. Many authorities frown on hopefully used in the sense "we hope" or "it is to be hoped" because its grammatical meaning is different from its intended meaning. An adverb cannot modify a noun, as it tries to in Hopefully, the meeting will end soon. Nonetheless, the word appears to be gaining slow acceptance as an overall sentence modifier like happily or mercifully, principally because no other phrase quite conveys what is intended by hopefully.

LIKE/SUCH AS

Not interchangeable; resist shortening such as to like in the cause of brevity. Like introduces items that resemble or have the same characteristics as the subject under discussion. Such as introduces instances or examples.

Snuff has a vile flavor, like spoiled milk or rancid cheese. The lifeboat holds supplies such as [not like] water, canned food, medicine, and emergency flares. Many rural-development projects, such as [not like] roads, irrigation, and electrification, failed for lack of maintenance.

NONRESTRICTIVEIRESTRICTIVE PHRASES (THATIWHICH)

That introduces restrictive clauses (essential to the meaning of a sentence) and is never preceded by a comma. Which introduces nonrestrictive clauses (parenthetical clauses, which merely supplement information in a sentence) and is always preceded by a comma.

Photographs that are in bad taste have no place in the Sunday supplement. Photographs, which are said to be worth a thousand words each, give life and substance to the Sunday supplement.

WHolWHOM

Who and its compound forms are used as the subject of a sentence. Whom and its compounds are used as the complement of a verb or the object of a preposition.

Give the report to whomever you wish. Who is the team leader? Whoever did not receive the memo should be excused. President Marcos, who the people decided was unworthy to hold office, fled the Philippines in 1986.

(People decided he [therefore who] was unworthy.) President Marcos, whom the people deemed unworthy to hold office, fled in 1986.

(People deemed him [therefore whom] unworthy.)

to

...

~ 6 z

PUNCTUATION

Apostrophe In all printed matter, use the "smart" (curled) apostrophe (and quotation marks), not the standard, straight typewriter apostrophe.

Brackets 1. Use brackets to enclose parenthetical material that is already in parentheses.

Others argue that traditional forms of cooperation (such as kye [mutual credit societies]) and laborsaving activities already existed.

2. Use brackets to enclose editorial comments or clarification in quoted material.

Or,

"The evaluation team concentrated on examining the RECs [regional educational centers]."

"The evaluation team concentrated on examining the [regional education centers]."

3. Punctuation with brackets follows the rules for parentheses.

Bullets 1. Bullets function to draw the reader's eye to brief essential points or to capsule examples that

quickly drive home a point. Used sparingly, bullets guide the reader's attention for rapid comprehension; used immoderately, they betray fragmented and incoherent thought. Rules of thumb: no more than eight bullets to a list, no more than one bulleted list every 600 words.

2. Do not use bullets to set forth long paragraphs of objectives or accomplishments or methodology. That is best left to narrative treatment or to numbered paragraphs.

3. If any single bulleted item in a series consists of more than 10 lines, put aside the bullets and number the paragraphs.

4. Bulleted lists should follow the following conventions:

• Initial cap each item in the list, even if the list is composed of one-word items.

• If any item in the list is a complete sentence, use a period at the end of each. If no element in the list is a complete sentence, use no terminal punctuation.

• Do not use semicolons and and to link items in a bulleted list; this type of punctuation clutters the lists unnecessarily.

• If more than one line of text per bullet, separate bullets by a double space.

II

Semicolon 1. Use the semicolon to separate main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction but too

related in meaning to form separate sentences.

When angry, count four; when very angry, swear. (-Mark Twain) Polls show 60 percent of Argentines to be disenchanted with state institutions; a full 80 percent prefer reform over revolution or military rule as a remedy to the nation's ills.

2. Always separate by a semicolon main clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs such as consequently, however, indeed, moreover, therefore, or thus, which should be followed by a comma.

Raising interest rates failed to curb inflation; moreover, it caused a massive flight of capital.

The following punctuation, though often seen, is substandard:

The international community took steps to investigate the genocide, however it has largely failed to incorporate the implications of genocide in its assistance programs in Rwanda.

3. If any element of a series other than the last item contains internal punctuation, use semicolons to separate the main elements.

The clinics administer first aid; dispense aspirin, chloroquine, and sulfa drugs; and hold weekly classes on insect control and other community health issues.

But,

Colon

The clinics administer emergency first aid, hold weekly classes on community health issues, and dispense aspirin, sulfa drugs, and other medications. A semicolon is placed outside a closing quotation mark.

It was named a "people's republic"; in practice, it was anything but.

1. Use the colon to introduce explanatory or summarizing material.

The report has three parts: project goals, project impacts, and conclusions and recommendations.

2. Note that items in a series following a colon are not automatically separated by semicolons. Commas are used unless one or more of the items (except the last) contain internal punctuation.

3. Do not use a colon to introduce a list that is a complement or object of an element in the introductory statement.

The three countries examined were: Egypt, Peru, and Zambia. (incorrect) The three countries examined were Egypt, Peru, and Zambia. (correct)

12

•

This rule also applies to the use of colons before lists that are broken out of text and placed on separate lines.

4. Use a colon after the introductory statement only when it contains the words as follows, the following, orfor example; when the introductory statement is grammatically complete without the list that follows; or when the statement is followed by an illustrative example.

5. Generally lower-case the first word of a single full sentence that follows a colon. If, however, the colon introduces a series of complete sentences integral to the paragraph (that is, not broken out on separate lines), capitalize the first word of each sentence.

But,

The project had one overriding goal: it sought to alleviate hunger in the upland region.

Privatization brought many benefits: It increased crop yields. It generated small agribusinesses. It provided jobs for women. Most important, it gave people more control over their lives.

6. Use the colon to introduce a quote of more than two sentences within a paragraph (for shorter quotations, use the comma). See also COMMA; QUOTES AND QUOTATION MARKS.

Comma 1. Serial Comma

• In enumerations, always use the serial comma: a, h, and c. The obligatory comma before the conjunction eliminates any possibility of ambiguity, and it provides the necessary degree of separation between the final two items that and or or, standing alone, thwarts.

Blood, sweat, and tears was Churchill's formula for victory. Open elections, the promise of untainted political leaders, and cleaner air and water have restored popular pride. (Without second comma, a false lead.)

2. Coordinate Adjectives • Use a comma to separate a series of modifiers of equal rank. Rule ofthumh: if the

modifiers can, without altering the meaning, be shuftled indiscriminately or connected by and, commas are used.

Credit is allocated to small, family-owned, low-tech businesses.

• But do not use commas when the modifiers build successively one on the other.

harsh statist economic policies spiced apple walnut rum butter cake

3. Independent Clauses • Use a comma to divide two clauses with separate subjects and predicates joined by a

conjunction.

13

By 1997,46 percent of fanners were full or partial tenants, and 22 percent of the land area was fanned by tenants.

4. Dependent Clauses • But do not use a comma to separate two clauses that share a subject.

Mechanization plays an increasingly important role in rural strategy and is likely to continue to do so.

5. Introductory Phrases • Use a comma to separate a long introductory phrase from the rest of the sentence, or a

short phrase if momentary misreading could occur.

In Mali during the drought of the 1960s and 1970s, food aid saved countless lives. In 1993 the second phase of Jamaica's parks project got under way. In 1886, people afflicted with typhoid usually died.

6. Nonrestrictive Phrases • Nonrestrictive phrases and clauses add information to a sentence but are not essential to

its meaning. They are always set offwith commas (or, alternatively, parentheses).

The program was part of a coordinated donor effort, which included the International Monetary Fund, to promote structural adjustment. Benjamin Franklin is credited with coining an apt monetary phrase, "A penny saved is a penny earned."

7. Restrictive Phrases • Restrictive phrases and clauses are essential to the meaning of a sentence. They are often

introduced by the relative pronoun that. They are never set off with commas (or parentheses) and never take the relative pronoun which.

The initiative that sought to preserve Jamaica's remaining wilderness areas was called the Protected Areas Resources Conservation project. Benjamin Franklin coined the sage aphorism "There is no little enemy."

8. Specifying Phrases • Be sure to include the closing comma, identical in function to the closing parenthesis, in

specifying phrases.

the January 14, 1997, memo a Newark, N.J., antidrug program Article I, Section II, of the Constitution

9. With Numbers • Use commas in numbers of four or more digits to facilitate quick comprehension.

1,000 36,581,402

14

10. With Quotation Marks • Place commas and periods inside closing quotation marks.

Dashes

"The time has come," the Walrus said, "To talk of many things: Of shoes-and ships-and sealing wax­Of cabbages-and kings-And why the sea is boiling hot­And whether pigs have wings."

(-Lewis Carroll)

Three types of dashes commonly appear in printed matter. They are the hyphen (-), the en dash (-), and the em dash (-).

1. Hyphen • The hyphen is used principally to divide words at the end of a line and to join words to

fonn compound modifiers. The trend is away from hyphenation--even when a compound modifier precedes the noun-when there is little chance of misunderstanding: central bankfunds, civil society groups. But hyphenation is used when even momentary misreading is possible: cost-effective government, fine-looking glass.

• Keep in mind that omission or insertion of the little hyphen can spell a big difference in meaning.

best-advertised shoe polish (the wax with the most or most polished ads) best advertised shoe polish (of polishes advertised, this is tops) one-time burglar (the perp committed but one burglary) onetime burglar (a habitual burglar during a past period, now ended)

• The hyphen is used in participial compounds preceding a noun.

a well-written report ill-suited goals far-reaching expectations

• When the modifier follows the noun, however, the hyphen is not used.

a report well written goals ill suited to reality The government's expectations were far reaching.

• In hyphenated compounds preceding a noun, the hyphen is dropped if the compound is preceded by an adverb modifying only the first word of the compound: a well-written report, but a very well written report.

• Insert no hyphens after adverbs ending in Iy: a carefully prepared report, an impeccably attired premier.

15

Do not use a hyphen to separate standard prefixes (anti, co, de, inter, intra, macro, micro, non, over, pre, re, pro, sub, semi, socio, under) or suffIXes (fold, /ike, most, ward, wide, wise) from the words they modify.

Agencywide antigovernment nonproject coauthor micropolicy nongovernmental fourfold interagency intramural

lifelike nationwide macroeconomic prewar reinvent semiarid socioeconomic subproject

~ Exception: Hyphenate to avoid doubling a vowel or tripling a consonant (except with prefixes of two or three letters).

anti-inflationary bell-like brass-smith semi-independent preexisting

~ Exception: Hyphenate prefIXes before proper nouns or numbers.

non-European un-American post-1918

~ Exception: Hyphenate with the prefIXes all, ex, quasi, and self

all-important ex-major quasi-legal self-motivated

• Do not use a hyphen with a temporarily formed compound predicate adjective; in such cases modification is sufficiently clear that the hyphen is not needed to avoid ambiguity.

2. Endash

The effect was far reaching. They thought the idea ill considered. His speech was well received.

The en dash can be created in MS Word by selecting!nsertl~boVS,Eecial Characters. Simply click on the selection for - En Dash then press lnsert.

16

• The en dash, for which the hyphen is a poor, though frequently used, substitute, has a number of specialized uses. Use the en dash to mean to or through.

the period 1993-97 Miami-Havana flight Read pages 3-8.

• But never use the en dash with the wordsfrom or between.

The drought lasted from January through [not-] October. Between 1950 and [not-]1996, forest cover dwindled by 50 percent.

• Use as the minus sign.

Temperatures plummeted to -50°F.

• Use to join coequal elements-that is, the first element does not modify the second element but rather links to it as an equal.

Colombia-Panama border public--private collaboration win-win situation

• Distinguish this punctuation from that of compound adjectives in which the first element modifies the second-that is to say, most instances. These constructions, except as noted immediately below, take the hyphen.

Colombia-style politics public-access channel no-win situation

• Use the en dash to join compound adjectives one element of which consists of two words or of a hyphenated word.

post-Cold War realities industrial revolution-style tumult on-again-off-again negotiations

17

• For visual balance, use in place of the hyphen in all-caps constructions and in certain other constructions containing caps and periods, and to separate groups of letters or numbers.

SUBSIDIZED-CREDIT PROGRAMS

U.S.-funded activities D.C.-bound legislators PN-AAX-294 (301) 555-1212

3. Em Dash

The em dash can be created in MS Word by selecting!nsertl~boVS,Eecial Characters. Simply click on the selection for - Em Dash then press lnsert.

• Use the em dash to set off an explanatory or emphatic phrase from the main part of the . sentence. Use of em dashes rather than parenthesis or commas indicates more emphasis or a greater break in the flow of thought.

Prosthetic devices--they're often made by the victims themselves-provide at least some measure of rehabilitation. The devices (formed of molded plastic) are individually fitted.

• Use the em dash to signal the summing up of a list of items.

Maize, rice, and sugar beets-these were the only cash crops grown.

• Prefer the em dash to the comma before such expressions as that is, namely, i.e.

Drought ravaged the chief crops-namely, rice and sorghum.

• The em dash (as well as the colon) can be used to introduce an appositive.

Pakistan profited from programs in community forestry-entrusting stewardship of woodland resources to local populations.

Ellipsis Points 1. Use ellipsis points (three spaced dots: •.. ) to indicate that words have been omitted within a

quoted sentence. If the ellipsis closes the sentence, add a period and a space (making four dots) immediately after the last word and before the ellipses points. Four dots are also used to indicate omission of the first part of the next sentence within a quotation or of a whole sen­tence or paragraph. Ellipsis points are not customarily used to introduce a quotation or end one that ends with a period, because the existence of text preceding and following a quotation is generally assumed.

2. If the ellipsis points occur in midsentence, a space precedes and follows them. Ellipsis points may not be split between lines, except that a period may end a line, with the three ellipsis points beginning the next.

18

•

•

3. Ellipsis points are also used to indicate a pause, an incomplete thought, or a trailing-off of a sentence.

Some of the emergency funds were ... well, not fully accounted for. On the one hand, relief efforts aided people; on the other ...

Exclamation Point 1. If part of a quotation, place inside quotation marks; if not, outside.

'n'

"But wait a bit," the Oysters cried, "Before we have our chat; For some of us are out of breath, And all of us are fat!"

(-Lewis Carroll)

He actually responded, "I don't remember"!

In expressions such as rock 'n' roll and slice 'n' dice, the n takes two apostrophes, to stand in for the missing a and d. Incorrect: rock n ' roll, rock 'n roll, rock 'n' roll.

Parentheses 1. Parentheses,like commas and dashes, may be used to set off amplifying, explanatory, or

digressive elements in a sentence. When these elements are closely related to the rest of the sentence, use commas; for more distantly related elements, use parentheses or dashes.

Per capita farm income (in current dollars) rose from $750 in 1985 to $1,200 in 1997. These three elements constitute the agricultural and rural services (and surveillance) system.

2. Use a close paren to set off numbers or letters marking the parts of a series.

Since 1990 the government has supported a dual price structure for three reasons: 1) to hold down urban consumer prices, 2) to provide production incentives, and 3) to minimize swings in grain prices.

3. If a sentence fragment enclosed in parentheses ends a sentence, place the period terminating the sentence outside the closing parenthesis.

Data were collected during a two-week period (during the in-country phase of the evalua­tion).

4. However, for a complete sentence enclosed in parentheses but not a part of another sentence, place terminating punctuation inside the closing parenthesis.

Having recovered from the war, Viet Nam is now a major exporter of high-quality rice. (The average Vietnamese, though, can generally buy only broken and coarse-grain rice.)

19

5. A complete sentence in parenthesis within a sentence does not take a capital letter (unless a direct quotation) or a period.

The team stayed at a guest house (there were no hotels) on the outskirts oftown.

6. Opening and closing parenthesis are of the same typeface.

During the interview, he spoke repeatedly of the "nucular" (sic) threat.

Quotation Marks . I. In all printed matter, use true quotation marks (","), variously called smart quotes or curly

quotes, rather than typewriter quotes. Typewriter quotes in a typeset document give it a careless, unprofessional appearance.

2. Place in quotation marks the following: articles from journals and newspapers; chapters of books; comic strips; exhibits; lectures and speeches; paintings and sculptures; radio and television programs; short poems (italicize epics: Homer's Riad); short stories.

3. Enclose a direct quotation of five typed lines or fewer in double quotation marks inside the sentence.

Bonifacio Gillego, a progressive congressman, began with a positive comment on the institution he is part of: "We can say that the very existence of Congress, after 1986, served as an effective check on the executive."

4. Quotations of one or two sentences introduced by such words as noted, observed, remarked, said, and asked are generally set off by a comma.

The congressman said, "Reformation brought many advances toward legislative independence. Nonetheless, we still have a long way to go."

5. Such quotations read more smoothly-and, especially when they involve an element of contrast, are more pointed-when the attribution is tucked away in the middle, splitting the quote.

"Reformation brought many advances toward legislative independence," the congressman said. ''Nonetheless, we still have a long way to go."

6. Very short quotations usually need no introductory punctuation at all. Or, for effect, they may be introduced by a colon.

He said ''Now go!" He said precisely, deliberately: "Now go."

7. Within text, introduce quotations of more than two sentences with a colon.

8. Quotations of more than five typeset lines are set off from the text. Indent such quotations one to three picas from the left margin (depending on column width). The blocked quotation should be set one or two points smaller than body type. (Actual point size used is best

20

•

determined by judgment rather than formula.} Assuming text is set in a serif typeface, the quote may be set in sans serif. Do not use quotation marks.

The Chicago Manual of Style is worth quoting:

Material set off from the text as a block quotation is not enclosed in quotation marks. Quoted matter within the block quotation is of course set off with double quotation marks; quotations within quotations, with single quotation marks; and so on ...• When a quotation that is run into the text in the typescript is converted to a block quotation, the quotation marks enclosing it are dropped, and interior quotations are changed accordingly.

9. Quotation marks are not used with epigraphs (quotations uses as ornaments to the text rather than as part of the text itself) or before a display initial beginning a chapter or section:

Oh, what a tangled web we weave, When first we practice to deceive!

- Sir Walter Scott

It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.

-Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice

10. Use single quotation marks in titles, headings, and subheadings: Venture Capital and tlte 'Asian Miracle' Nations

11. Use single quotation marks within a quoted phrase.

"Sir," the aging actor replied icily, ''the preferred term is 'hairpiece,' not 'rug.'"

12. Note that, as in the above example, commas and periods fall within the closing quotation marks, whether they are part of the quotation or not. Colons and semicolons fall outside the closing quotation mark. Whether a dash, question mark, or exclamation point falls within or without the closing quotation mark depends on whether it is part of the quotation.

The Bangladesh study referred to the role of the PL 480 Title I program in ensuring "a minimally adequate level of food consumption"; this goal seems to have been met. He asked, "Did you-" but was cut offbefore he could continue. She said peremptorily, "That's my fmal offer!"--then turned and left. Did she say, "That's my final offer!"?

13. Indirect quotations take no quotation marks.

The Chicago Manual of Style states that copy editors should pay close attention to every detail of a manuscript. With the franc at 580,200 to the dollar, the economists pondered what to do.

14. Place quotation marks before footnote numbers.

His policies were intended to "rescue the shaky U.S. dollar.,,7

21

15. Set off in quotation marks coined words or expressions or those used in a special sense. Do not overuse this device.

The new settlement pattern is a great improvement over the earlier "piano key" settlement design.

16. Letters and words used as words are generally put in italic. In some contexts, however, notably when spoken or written matter is referred to, it may be preferable to enclose them in quotation marks.

Did she say "forego," with an e, or "forgo," without? During the briefing, he mispronounced "nuclear" exactly 17 times.

Foreign, Accented Characters

Although foreign characters can be created through a number of methods, they are perhaps most quickly created using the Alt-(number) method. The chart below outlines the keystroke pattern for creating the most commonly used foreign and accented characters. Please note that this applies only to PC machines and not to Macintosh.

Simultaneously depress the Alt key and type in the three-digit number using the right-hand keypad.

i Alt-173

i.. Alt-168 a Alt-160 a Alt-133 ! Alt-131 Ii Alt-132 Ii Alt-0227 re Alt-145

~ Alt-135 e Alt-130 e Alt-138 e Alt-136 e Alt-137 f Alt-16I I Alt-141 i Alt-140 T Alt-139 fi Alt-l64 6 Alt-162 0 Alt-149 6 Alt-147 0 Alt-148 0 Alt-0245 re Alt-0156 B Alt-0223 11 Alt-163 iI Alt-151 Q Alt-150 n Alt-129

21A

•

•

I z

CAPITALIZATION

The trend has long been, and continues to be, away from excessive capitalization, which tends to confer undue importance on, or give excessive deference to, institutions, personal titles, and other entities.

Geographic Terms 1. Capitalize major divisions and recognized, established, distinct regions, sometimes most

readily identified by a popular appelation.

Eastern Hemisphere East Africa Barbary Coast the West (U.S. context) the West (North America) and Western Europe) Old World

2. Lower-case equator.

South Pole; the Pole Western Europe East Asia Pearl of the Orient Southeast Asia Great Plains

3. Lower-case earth unless in context with other named planets.

4. Lower-case compass directions and derivatives unless they are part of an established, commonly recognized name or region.

They headed north. in Rwanda, fighting in the west strife in Northern Ireland north-central states southeastern Asia western plant species the South Pacific Easterner (U.S.) southern Africa

5. Lower-case high-performing Asian economies, new independent states, newly emerging democracies, and other non descriptive names.

Governments 1. Lower-case government in all contexts, including national, state, municipal, and provincial:

federal government, government of Quebec, Honduran government, government of the United States, U.S. government, Maryland state government.

2. Capitalize the word mission when referring to a USAID country field Mission.

3. Capitalize references to USAID project- and policy-related documents: Impact Evaluation, Policy Paper, Working Paper.

22

4. Capitalize all words in main and subsection headings and titles of publications except prepositions and conjunctions of three letters or fewer and articles.

Mozambique's Transition From War to Peace

5. In headings, capitalize any preposition when it is, in effect, an integral part of the verb.

Weighing In on the Scales of Justice Following Up on Family Planning

6. Generally capitalize position titles when they precede a proper name, lower-case when they follow.

Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan Madeleine Albright, the secretary of state of the United States

7. However, capitalize Administrator in all contexts when referring to the head of the Agency for International Development.

Note that although an abbreviation formed from the first letter of each word in a term uses all capital letters, the first letter of each word in the term itself is not necessarily capitalized: gross domestic product (GDP) (not Gross Domestic Product).

Places 1. Spell out place-names in text, with the few exceptions noted here. Avenue and Street are

spelled out in text; Saint is usually abbreviated to St., but Fort and Mount are spelled out.

2. Capitalize a geographical element, such as Bay. Range. Street. or Valley, that is part of a place­name. Do not capitalize it when it appears alone or in inverted order.

Massachusetts Avenue; the avenue the Rocky Mountains; the mountains the Nile Valley; valley of the Nile

3. There are some exceptions arbitrary in nature but considered standard.

District of Columbia; the District English Channel; the Channel European Continent; the Continent Gulf of Mexico; the Gulf Panama Canal; the Canal River Thames

4. When two or more place-names share a common element, it is capped; when two or more places have the same name, form the plural with s or es.

Missouri and Mississippi Rivers the two Koreas two Parise~ne in France, the other in Virginia

23

•

s. When abbreviating u.s. state and territory names, use conventional, not Postal Service abbreviations: Port Chicago, Calif.; Tacoma, Wash.; Wheeling, W. Va. Except in tabular material, never abbreviate state names standing alone.

6. Do not abbreviate Alaska, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Samoa, Texas, or Utah.

7. Caution: In many foreign place-names, the descriptive geographic tenn is already "built in." Thus one would not write (or edit in) Rio Grande River, or Mount Fujiyama, because such would be redundant. Gobi is Mongolian for "desert"; Sahara, Arabic for same. Other names present more of a challenge. Editors routinely checking the spelling of a foreign place-name are advised to check further to detennine whether the name, as written, is tautological. Good atlases provide glossaries that can help in this.

8. Fonn plurals of capital letters, figures, and abbreviations of proper nouns using salone, without an apostrophe, unless indicating possession.

the 1990s five YMCAs USAID's resources the three Rs five TVs

9. Fonn plurals using an apostrophe and s for abbreviations with periods, lowercase letters, and other cases where s alone would be confusing.

two Ph.D.'s in the form of t's

10. Form plurals of names ending in s by adding es: the Joneses, the Thomases.

11. In words of foreign origin, prefer the more familiar or Anglicized plural.

adieu, adieus appendix, appendixes chateau, chateaus consortium, consortiums curriculum, curriculums focus, focuses fonnula, fonnulas forum, forums index, indexes (indices in mathematical usage) memorandum, memorandums, memos

Program, Project Capitalize program when attached to its full name or the essential parts of its name; lower-case project.

USAID'S Mali Forestry Refonn Program (MFRP); the Forestry Refonn Program; the reform program; the program. USAID's Village Reforestation project (VFR); the reforestation project; the project.

24

Titles (people) 1. Capitalize official position titles when they precede a proper name.

President Bill Clinton; President Clinton Prime Minister John Major Vice President Joseph Estrada Assistant Director Jenkins Defense Minister Gomez Acme Products President Huang Shi-lin

2. Do not capitalize position titles used alone or titles following names. Do not capitalize mere descriptive titles, even if they precede the name.

George Allen, governor of Virginia Madeleine Albright, the former ambassador to the United Nations and now secretary of state Sharon Delaney, the Mission director the defense minister; the prime minister; the prince; the king the high commissioner on refugees economist Robert Samuelson software guru Bill Gates first lady Janet Smith

Exception: Capitalize President (U.S.) when in apposition to the name of the sitting president.

Bill Clinton, the President, announced his support .... But, Jimmy Carter, the former president, took hammer in hand ....

3. When a word such asformer or then- modifies a title preceding a name, lower-case the title: Ambassador Moynihan but former ambassador Moynihan; ex-president Ford; then-president Ferdinand Marcos.

4. Capitalize honorifics: His Excellency, Her Royal Highness.

Other 1. Lowercase references to appendixes, sections, chapters, figures, tables, and the like.

In chapter S, three alternatives are presented. (see box 3.2) In Chapter 3, section 1.2, we explore ...

2. Seasons: Lower-case names of the seasons: spring, summer, autumn,fall, winter.

3. Communist: Capitalize only in references to the Communist party, not to a system or a believer.

In 1989-90 Hungary shook off communism to become a multiparty democracy. In 1994 the Socialist party, successor to the Communist party, was returned to power. He was accused of being a communist sympathizer.

25

NUMERALS

Dates 1. Do not abbreviate the names of days or months used as dates in formal writing. To conserve

space, they may be abbreviated in figures and tables.

a March 1,1997, memo (note comma after the specifying phrase 1997) Monday, February 22,1999 Tuesday, 23 February 1999 (compact, equally acceptable-Chicago's style and that favored by strunk and White, The Elements o/Style) June 1997 in figures and tables (note no closing period): 1197 or Jan '97; other months: Feb, Mar, Apr, May, June, July, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec

2. Note that commas enclose the year when preceded by a specific month and day, but not when preceded only by a month.

November 11, 1997 November 1997

3. When referring to historic personages, it is useful and appropriate to give the dates of their lives.

American naturalist John Muir (1838-1914), who crusaded for national parks, felt that ''the clearest way into the Universe is though a forest wilderness."

4. Spell out the names of whole decades when a century is not given; use numerals when a century is given. In informal context when specifying a specific year and the century can be educed, use apostrophe and the last two numerals of the year.

the eighties the 1980s (note that the numeral does not take an apostrophe) the class of '99

5. Use the following forms in writing spans of years:

1895-1905 (more than one century is included) 1900-1905 (first year ends in two ciphers) 1835-67 1995-97

26

Fractions Hyphenate as adjectives; do not hyphenate as nouns.

two thirds of the revenues a two-thirds interest The chainnan collected four fifths, the partners one fifth.

Numbers 1. In general, spell out cardinal and ordinal numbers under 10 and 10th.

six countries three million victims a pilot project three years old guerrillas only two hours from the capital Fifth Congress Third Street seventh century

• Exceptions: Use figures for people's and animals' ages. Use figures for percentages, money, and time of day. Use figures when the context is scientific or statistical or has a preponderance of dimensions, measurements, or proportions. Whether to use figures or spelled-out numbers in a given context is, however, often a judgment call.

a 7-year-old girl; an infant of3 months 1 percent; a 25 percent increase (note that the word percent is used, not the symbol %; the expression is not hyphenated) $3; a $50 million loan. A dollar will buy 60,000 francs. 8:36 p.m.; 7 a.m. (not 7:00 a.m.) Multiply by 5, then divide by 3. reached 9 feet 8 inches, 1 inch short of the record (note 9 feet 8 inches is treated as a unit, with no comma) The average plot is 2 hectares, but fanns of 7 to 9 hectares are not uncommon, and in the lowlands fanns may encompass 3,000 to 5,000 hectares. On all fanns, topsoil averages only 5 centimeters. Beneath that typically is a IS-centimeter layer of halloysite clay overlying a 2-meter bed of basaltic lava. Production averages less than 3 metric tons per hectare.

2. Use figures for cardinal numbers of 10 or greater and for ordinal numbers of 10th or greater.

10 million residents 197 objectives 12th year of the regime I04th Congress

3. Spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence, but try to avoid beginning a sentence with a number larger than 100.

Fifteen schools were constructed. In 112 countries ....

27

•

• Exception: When beginning a sentence with a year is unavoidable, use figures.

1969 was a landmark year for space travel.

4. Spell out round numbers and indefinite expressions.

about a hundred protestors thousands of dollars

5. Spell out simple fractions standing alone, used as unit modifiers, or followed by of or of a:

too clever by half a quarter-acre plot one fourth of the work force

6. Express as figures quantities consisting of both whole numbers and fractions.

Using advanced tilling methods, the fanner saved 1 Vz acres of woodland.

7. Use figures for a series of four or more numbers, even if all the numbers are lower than 10.

The correct responses were 3,5, 7, and 9.

8. Use figures in a sentence for a related group of numbers ifat least one of them is 10 or higher.

Each of 15 major commodities (9 food and 6 nonfood) was produced domestically.

9. Use offigures does not affect the application of general rules for unrelated numerical expressions.

Group interviews were conducted with six to eight participants in each area during the 12 weeks the team was in the field. (not with 6 to 8 participants in each area during the 12 weeks .... )

10. Do not follow a spelled-out number with a figure in parentheses: Deliveredfive (5) bales of hay only clutters Delivered five bales of hay

11. However, numbers applicable to the same category should be treated alike within the same context, whether a paragraph or a series of paragraphs; do not use numerals for one of the numbers in a given category, then for consistency's sake use numerals for them all:

There are 25 graduate students in the philosophy department, 56 in the classics department, and 117 in the romance languages department, making a total of 198 students in the three departments.

In the past ten years fifteen new buildings have been erected. In one block a 103-story building rises between two old apartment houses only 3 and 4 stories high. The population of Gary, Indiana, grew from 10,000 to 175,000 in only thirty years.

28

Note that, as in the foregoing examples, numbers in the same context but representing different categories may be treated differently.

Degree Symbols

1. When using the degree symbol n in the context of a temperature measurement, insert a space between the number and the symbol, but keep the symbol and the unit of measurement together.

The north of the country is colder with average temperatures in January of -18°C, compared to -3°C in the south.

2. When using the degree symbol in the context of latitudinal or longitudinal measurement, do not insert a space between the number and the symbol.

The deserts of Kazakhstan are bounded by latitude 44° to 48° north and longitude 47° to 83° east.

29

•

•

MISCELLANEOUS

Italics 1. Use italics to designate the following: ballets, book titles, epics and long poems, magazines

(the in lower case, even if part of name), motion pictures, newspapers (the in lower case), operas, plays.

2. Use italics, never quotation marks, to designate the given names of ships, trains, aircraft, and spacecraft: U.S.S. Eisenhower, S.S. Sonia Lykes, City of New Orleans, Spruce Goose, Intrepid Note: U.S.S. and similar designations do not take italic. (Nautical lore holds that enclosing a ship's name in quotation marks portends bad luck.)

Ships and other craft are treated as living entities; avoid preceding their names with the.

3. Form possessive of ships and other craft by adding italic apostrophe and roman s: U.S.S. Mount Baker's.

4. Use italics to give words special emphasis.

The minister said only that he would try to meet the quotas; he promised nothing more.

5. Italics are often used effectively to signal that a new word or concept may be useful to commit to memory.

Planners try, often unsuccessfully, to foresee externalities-secondary effects, whether beneficial or harmful, that are not part of the planned activity.

6. Italics are also used in enumerations. They are especially helpful in making a section cohesive when the things enumerated are separated by several sentences.

Success depends on three factors. The first is business climate. As industry goes through economic restructuring, individual firms face major problems .... [And so on .... ] The second factor is availability of capital. Government capital needs are great, and the government has crowded private borrowers out of the marketplace .... [And so on .... ] The third factor is energy prices . ...

7. Use italics (not boldface) for lead-ins in a series of paragraphs (including bulleted paragraphs) on related topics.

8. Use italics to designate a foreign word on first appearance in a document. Thereafter, treat the word as Anglicized.

The island ofPhu Quoc is famous for producing Viet Nam's finest nuoc-mam-a piquant sauce of which a principal ingredient is decayed fish. Nuoc-mam is to Vietnamese what salt and pepper is to Americans.

9. Generally use italics to designate letters, numbers, and words used as words.

30

Edit is actually a back-fonnation of the word editor, suggesting early collaboration in the separate occupations of writing and editing.

10. In some contexts, however, such as when the spoken word is referred to, the editor may prefer to use QUOTATION MARKS.

11. Generally, punctuation marks, including opening and closing quotation marks, should be in the same typeface as the words to which they are adjacent.

"Make fast alongside Mount Baker," the captain ordered.

12. Both opening and closing brackets or parentheses, however, must be in the same typeface.

(For entertainment, they watched movies-this night, Citizen KaneJ

Lists 1. Short lists of items within a sentence that require emphasis or ranking may be preceded by

numbers set off by a single close paren. Of the list is already under a numbered item, set the items offwith letters.) A numbered list within a sentence should follow the rules of punctuation and grammar that would apply if the numbers were not used.

The issues reviewed below are I} the development of entrepreneurial talent, 2} the role of small-scale enterprises, and 3} the importance of market infrastructure.

2. Note that this list is not preceded by a colon unless the sentence structure itself requires it.

The following issues are reviewed below: I} the development of entrepreneurial talent, 2} the role of small-scale enterprises, and 3} the importance of market infrastructure.

3. Unless there is some other obvious internal logic, generally list items alphabetically: Argentina, Brazil, Chad, and Zaire. In more complex mixes, order short to long: repair roads, reconstruct airports, and inoculate against common childhood diseases.

4. Vertical Lists • Vertical lists of items removed from a sentence and placed on separate lines beneath it

should be used sparingly and only for items that require the emphasis such isolation provides.

• Short lists of 10 lines or fewer are typed in block fonn, preceded by numbers or bullets. In general, use bullets rather than numbers to introduce items in a short list except when the number of items is itself significant. If numbers are used, set them in roman followed by a period followed by a single space. Roman is used regardless of whether italics follow. Numbered paragraphs follow nonnal paragraph indentation. Bulleted paragraphs are set full left indented. Runover lines are blocked under the first letter of the first word.

• Long lists of more than 10 lines are treated as separate paragraphs. Use numbers rather than bullets to introduce each item.

31

•

•

5. Punctuation • Some rules of punctuation and capitalization are suspended for vertical lists broken out of

text on the theory that such lists are by their nature nonstandard formations. Short items require no terminal punctuation, but lists composed of complete sentences do take terminal periods. For visual consistency, all items in a list should have terminal periods if one or more of the items is a complete sentence. Internal punctuation for each item in a list is orthodox. The first letter of each listed item should be capitalized.

32

CITATIONS

In-Text Citations 1. All items cited in text should be included in a reference or bibliography section at the end of

the report. Sometimes, however, it is not practical or possible to track down full information; when that is the case, provide as much as is available.

2. Citations are placed in text in parentheses following the passage to which they relate and before the punctuation at the end of the sentence. The citation includes the author's last name and the date of publication of the work, with no intervening punctuation. If a page number is required (for a quotation), the page number follows the date, preceded by a comma:

(Lippman 1997) (McClelland 1996, 17)

3. If more than one work by the same author and published in the same year is cited, the works should be distinguished by a letter following the date:

(Benoliel1997a) (Benoliel 1997b)

4. References to conversations conducted in person or by telephone, or to letters received by the author, should be included parenthetically in the text:

(William Rich, interview, November 1997)

Subsequent references to the same interview can be shortened:

(Rich, interview)

Bibliographic Entries Bibliographic entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. Because the author­date system of citation is used in text, the date of pUblication should follow the author's name for ease in locating the appropriate reference. When more than one work by the same author is cited, the items should be arranged chronologically (earliest work first). When multiple works by the same author and published in the same year are cited, they should be listed in alphabetical order (by title), with the dates followed by letters, beginning with a. When the author or editor is repeated, without change, in successive listings, the 3-em dash replaces the name. When the name changes in order or number, it is repeated:

Lieberson, Joseph M.; Katherine A Kotellos; and George G. Miller. 1985. "A Synthesis of A.I.D. Experience: Small-Farmer Credit, 1973-1985." USAID Evaluation Special Study No. 41. Washington: USAID.

Lieberson, Joseph M. 1996a. Energy Conservation in . ... ---.. 1996b. Shining the Light on. ...

33

1. The bibliography and references sections use a hanging-indent style, with the second and subsequent lines in each entry indented five spaces from the left margin. Major elements within a reference are separated from each other by periods.

2. All authors should be listed for each publication in the bibliography and reference section ("et al.," which may be used for in-text citations with more than three authors, should not be used in the bibliography.)

• For a book, the following information should be included in the following order:

Name of author or authors, editors, or institutional author. Year of publication. Title. Title and number of series (if any). Edition (if not original). City (and state or country, ifnot evident) of publication: Publisher's name.

• For an article in a periodical, the following information is required:

Name of author or authors. Year. "Title of Article." Name 0/ periodical volume number (issue number or month): page numbers.

• For unpublished documents, the following information is needed:

Name of author. Date. "Title." Description of work (master's thesis, symposium presentation, etc.). Author's institutional affiliation. City.

Other types of written communication should be cited much like an unpublished document. However, certain forms of personal communication, such as telephone conversations, can be cited in the body of the text.

3. For memorandums, letters, faxes, and the like, provide the following:

Name of person contacted. Affiliation. Date. Type of communication.

ex: McHugh, Heather. USAID/OTI. 4 June 1998. Telephone interview.

4. Some sample bibliographic entries are provided below.

• A book with a single author:

Sandberg, Eve. 1994. The Changing Politics o/Non-Governmental Organizations and African States. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.

• A book with two authors:

Roniger, Luis, and Ase Gunes-Ayata. 1994. Democracy, Clientelism, and Civil Society. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.

Note the essential comma after "Luis." Note that when the location of the city is understood, the specifying state name is omitted.

34

But:

• A book with three or more authors follows the same format, except that names are separated by semicolons:

Wellons, Phillip; Dimitri Germidis; and Bianca Glavanis ....

• A chapter in a book compiled by an editor (inclusion of page numbers for the chapter is optional):

Kumar, Krishna. 1997. "The Nature and Focus ofInternational Assistance for Rebuilding W ar-Tom Societies." In Rebuilding Societies After Civil War, edited by Krishna Kumar, 1-38. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.

• A reference to a book compiled by an editor:

Bhagwati, J., and RS. Eckhause, eds. 1970. Foreign Aid Baltimore: Penguin Books.

• When no date of publication is available, use N.d in place of a date:

Barak, Eli. N.d. "Report on Experiments Carried Out Under Irrigation in Winter 1983." Kasinthula, Mali: Kasinthula Research Station.

• If the author is an institution as such, it is not necessary to repeat that organization's name as publisher:

U.S. General Accounting Office. 1988. Food Aid: Integration With Economic Assistance Programs in Four African Countries. Washington.

Center for Development Information and Evaluation. June 1997. Evaluation Publications List. Washington: USAID.

University of Chicago. 1993. A Manual o/Style. 14th ed. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. (not strictly the same as University of Chicago)

• For USAID papers with PN Numbers (e.g., issue briefs) written by contractors:

Otero, Cecilia. September 1997. Training as a Development Tool. Academy for Educational Development, Washington: USAID. (PN-ACA-630)

• For unpublished documents, the document title is always in quotation marks:

Hayner, Priscilla B. 1997. "Reconciling Truth With Justice and Forecasting the Factors That Affect a Stable Peace." Paper presented at Conference on Comparative Peace Processses in Latin America, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars;Washington, 13-14 March. World Policy Institute. Washington.

• An article in a journal or popular magazine:

35

Graham, Carol, and Michael O'Hanlon. 1997. "Making Foreign Aid Work." Foreign Affairs 76 (4): 96-104.

Safire, William. 1997. "On Language." The New York Times Magazine. 19 October: 36.

• References to newspaper articles are generally tucked in the text:

According to an op-ed piece in the Washington Times of 5 February 1998, ... A Los Angeles Times story on global warming (23 October 1997, page AS) suggests

that ....

5. If more detail is called for, follow the citation format for popular magazines.

The foregoing examples cover the most commonly used citations. For further guidance in matters of content, consult the chapter "Documentation 2: Author-Date Citations and Reference Lists" in the Chicago Manual of Style. In questions of style (capitalization, use of quotation marks, etc.) the format prescribed here, which differs in certain respects from that of Chicago, prevails.

Internet Citations-Bibliographic Internet citation infonnation was taken from:

Page, Melvin. "Internet Citations: Giving Credit Where Credit is Due." In "Internet Research Course part #8" by The ForeFront Group, Inc. [http://www.ffg.com]. August, 1997.

Internet citations should generally be integrated into the body of the entire bibliography. Basic citation components and punctuation for Internet material should adhere to the following:

Author's Last Name, First Name. [author's internet address, if available]. "Title of Work" or "title line of message." In "Title of Complete Work" or title of list/site as appropriate. [internet address]. Date, if available.

1. Listserv Messages Walsh, Gretchen. [gwalsh@acs.bu.edu]. "REPLY: Using African newspapers in

teaching." In H-AFRICA listserv. [h-africa@msu.edu]. 18 October 1995.

2. World Wide Web Limb, Peter. "Relationships between Labour & African NationalistlLiberation

Movements in Southern Africa." From web site: [http://neal.ctstateu.edulhistory/world_ history/archivesllimb-l.html]. May 1992.

3. FTP Site Heinrich, Gregor. [100303.100@compuserve.com]. "Where There Is Beauty, There is

Hope: Sao Tome e Principe." From ftp site: [ftp:llftp.cs.ubc.ca/pub/locallF AQ/africanlgenlsaoep.txt]. July 1994.

4. Gopher Site "Democratic Party Platform, 1860." From gopher site: [gopher:llwiretap.spies.com

Wiretap Online Library/civic & HistoricallPolitical Platforms of the U.S.] 18 June 1860.

36

Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. "Making Difference." From gopher site: [gopher:llgopher.uic.edu The ResearcherlHistorylH-NetIH-Amstdy (American Studies)lEssays & Discussions About American Studies]. 20 July 1995.

5. Usenet Group Messages Dell, Thomas. [dell@wiretap.spies.com]. "[EDTECH] EMG: Sacred Texts (Networked

Electronic Versions)." In [alt.etext] usenet group. 4 February 1993.

Legg, Sonya. [Iegg@harquebus.cgd.ucar.edu]. "African history book list." In [soc.culture.african] usenet group. 5 September 1994.

6. E-mail Messages Page, Mel. [pagem@etsuarts.east-tenn-st.edu]. "African dance ... and Malawi." Private

e-mail message to Masankho Banda, [mbanda@igc.apc.org]. 28 November 1994.

Footnotes 1. Generally, footnotes should be used only to present explanatory or supplementary material

not appropriate for the text. Therefore, great care should be taken in determining the need or placement of footnotes.

2. Since CDIE follows the author-date system of citation, no footnote should be used to cite sources. Citations must be placed in text, and sources alphabetically in the reference or bibliography section.

3. If a document, long or short, has but a very few footnotes, using the asterisk hierarchy of symbols, starting anew with each page, is often cleaner and more logical than using numbers. This system gives the reader a more casual, less formidable presentation. The sequence (per page) is as follows: * t I § /

4. When using footnotes they should be separated from the main text by a 2-inch long, pt.­thick rule, with the first line indented 1 inch. Microsoft Word will do both these things automatically if you choose the footnote option.

Internet Citations--Footnote and Endnote

Internet citation information was taken from:

Page, Melvin. "Internet Citations: Giving Credit Where Credit is Due." In "Internet Research Course part #S" by The ForeFront Group, Inc. [http://www.ffg.com). August, 1997.

Basic citation components and punctuation for Internet material should adhere to the following:

Author's First name and Last name, [author's internet address, if available], "Title of Work" or "title line of message," in "Title of Complete Work" or title of list/site as appropriate, [internet address], date if available.

1. Listserv Messages Gretchen Walsh, [gwalsh@acs.bu.edu], "REPLY: Using African newspapers in

teaching," in H-AFRICA, [h-africa@msu.edu], 18 Octoberl995.

37

2. World Wide Web Peter Limb, "Relationships between Labour & African NationalistlLiberation Movements

in Southern Africa," [http://neal.ctstateu.edulhistory/world_history/archives! limb-l.html], May 1992.

3. FTP Site Gregor Heinrich, [100303.100@compuserve.com], "Where There Is Beauty, There is

Hope: Sao Tome e Principe," [ftp:llftp.cs.ubc.calpub/locallFAQ/africanlgenl saoep.txt], July 1994.

Sonya Legg, [legg@harquebus.cgd.ucar.edu], "African history book list," in [ftp:llsoc.culture.african], 5 September 1994.

4. Gopher Site "Democratic Party Platform, 1860:' [gopher:llwiretap.spies.com Wiretap Online

Library/civic & HistoricallPolitical Platforms of the U.S.], 18 June 1860.

Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, "Making Difference,"[gopher:llgopher.uic.edu The ResearcherlHistorylH-NetIH-Amstdy (American Studies)/Essays & Discussions About American Studies], 20 July 1995.

5. Usenet Group Messages Thomas Dell, [dell@wiretap.spies.com] "[EDTECH] EMG: Sacred Texts (Networked

Electronic Versions)," in [alt.etext], 4 Februaryl993.

6. E-Mail Messages Mel Page, [pagem@etsuarts.east-tenn-st.edu], "African dance ... and Malawi," private

e-mail message to Masankho Banda, [mbanda@igc.apc.org], 28 November 1994.

38

•

RESEARCH PAPER FORMAT GUIDELINES

While most of the fonnats for various parts of a research paper are outlined below, use the template located on the G drive under RRSpub/Communicationsffemplatesl ResearcbPaper to easily create these fonnats.

Text: 12 point (pt.) Times New Roman. Paragraphs will be separated by a double space and will not be indented.

Justification: Full

Heading styles: First level-12pt., all caps, bold, centered, labeled with a roman numeral Second level-12 pt., initial caps, bold, flush left Third level-12 pt., initial caps, underline, flush left Fourth level-12 pt., initial caps, italics, run-in with text

EXAMPLES FOLLOW:

I. SECTORAL REVIEWS

Here is the lead paragraph introducing the sectoral review section. Here is the lead paragraph introducing the sectoral review section. Here is the lead paragraph introducing the sectoral review section.

Environment

Here is the first sub-section under sectoral reviews. Here is the first sub-section under sectoral reviews. Here is the first sub-section under sectoral reviews. Here is the first sub-section under sectoral reviews.

Climate Change

Here is the first sub-section under environment. Here is the first sub-section under environment. Here is the first sub-section under environment. Here is the first sub-section under environment.

Developing Countries. Here is the first sub-section under climate change. Here is the first sub-section under climate change. Here is the first sub-section under

. climate change. .

Annexes: All supplementary material will be provided in annexes, which will be labeled by letter (e.g., annex A, B, C, etc.). The annex letter will be 12 pt., all caps, bold, centered. This will be followed by the annex name on the line immediately following in

39

12 pt., initial caps, bold, centered. The type should start eight lines down from the top of the page. EXAMPLE FOLLOWS:

ANNEXA: Interview Responses

Headers and footers: There will be no headers and footers on any part of a research paper.

Page numbers: All pages of a paper will be numbered in the center of the bottom of the page using 11 pt. Times New Roman. The table of contents and other front matter will be numbered in lower case roman numerals (i.e., i, ii, iii...); the body of the text (starting with the introduction) will be numbered starting at 1; and the annexes will be numbered according to their letter (e.g., A-I, A-2, A-3 .... for annex A).

Table of contents: See ResearchPaper template for instructions. This will be generated upon completion of the paper.

List of tables: If there are more than three tables in the body of the document, provide a list of tables following the table of contents.

Acronym list: If the body of a paper is less than 20 pages, an acronym list is not necessary. However, be sure each acronym is spelled out the first time it is used.

Tables/graphs: Reference tables or charts in text by lowercasing the word "table" (e.g., "As seen in table 1 "). Number tables and graphs starting with 1 and working your way up as they appear chronologically in the text. Tables and graphs in annexes will be labeled with letters appropriate to their annex letter (e.g., the first table in annex A would be Table A-I, the second, Table A-2). Tables and graph titles should be 12 pt. bold, initial caps, centered at the top of the figure and have a colon separating the table number and table title (e.g., Table 1: Evaluation Methods in USAID Bureaus).

Title page: See the ResearchPaper template.

Bibliographies/footnotes: See the ResearchPaper template for formatting and the citation section of this guide for style.

40

PROOFREADING MARKs

OPERATIONAL SIGNS

:r Delete

c Close up; delete space

';9; Delete and close up (usc only when ~ deleting letters within • word)

.#:d: Let it stand

*' Insert space M.JS. Make space between words equal; ~ t 'tr- make space between lines equal

-!J,IJ:Inserthairspace

)4. Letterspace

<n Begin new paragraph

lJ Indent type one em from left or right

:J [

]( n u

Move right

Move left

. Center

Move up

Move down

TYPOGRAPIDCAL SIGNS

~ Set in italic type

Set in roman type

Set in boldface type

Set in lowercase

~ Set in capital letters

~ Set in small capitals

tJrj. Wrong font; set in com:ct type

X Cleek type image; ~move blemish

V Insert he~ or make superscript

1\ Insert he~ or make subscript

PUNCTUATION MARKS

l' Insert comma

~ ~ Insert apostrophe or single quotation mark

{t ~ Insert quotation marks

G> Insert period

~ Aushleft @ 7 Insert question mark Aushright

= SlIllightcn type; align horizontall~ ; II ~ or:

Align vertically v

Insert semicolon

Insert colon

Spell out

~ Insert hyphen

~ Insert em dash

tL Insert en dash

:€.\10t" (\) Inse~p~ntheses

42