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4 Japan Railway & Transport Review 25 • October 2000

Evolution of Urban Railways (part 2)

Feature

Copyright © 2000 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

Rail Transport in The World’s Major Cities

Takao Okamoto and Norihisa Tadakoshi

Many of the world’s large cities grew inconjunction with railways, and today,large cities cannot depend only on motorvehicles for transportation. With worriesover global environmental issues, publictransportation systems are increasinglyseen as an important way to expand andrevitalize large cities, while consumingless energy and other resources.This article looks at public transportationsystems in some major cities of the worldand identifies similarities and differencesin areas such as history of development,railway networks, and method ofoperation. Our aim is to explore the futurerelationship between urban and transport

development, particularly with regard tothe following:• The correlation between railways and

urban growth• The location of terminals for intercity

and intra-city transport• Examination of various public transit

systems, including non-infrastructure• Strategic planning of rail networks

based on urban development trendsand future models

The cities selected for this comparativestudy are: London as the first city to adaptrail technology to public transport; Paris,Berlin and Moscow as three majorEuropean cities; New York as a North-

American city; and Hong Kong, Seoul andTokyo representing Asian cities.

London

Located in southeast England near themouth of the River Thames, Londonexpanded during the Industrial Revolution(1760–1850) and secured its dominanceas the heart of the British Empire duringthe Victorian era (1837–1901). It’spopulation grew from about 500,000 inthe 17th century to 4.5 million by the endof the 19th century. The modernmetropolis of Greater London consists of

The London Railway Network

: Docklands Light Railway: Greater London limits

: Former British Rail Network: London Underground

0 5 10 km

King’s Cross/St.Pancras

Paddington

VictoriaWaterloo

R. Thames

LHR

LCY

5Japan Railway & Transport Review 25 • October 2000Copyright © 2000 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

the central city and suburbs. Thisconurbation is surrounded by a ‘greenbelt.’ Greater London covers a total areaof 1578 km2 and has a population of 6.85million. The industrial structure is shiftingsteadily from a traditional reliance onmanufacturing and trade, toward sectorssuch as finance and tourism.London was the world’s first city to builda public transport system, starting withintercity rail links in the mid-19th century,but railway construction within the built-up city was banned in 1859, so terminalswere located on the city outskirts. Manyentrepreneurs had a keen interest inrailways, and their railway constructionefforts eventually led to the city beingencircled by more than ten terminals atthe city edge. This configuration remainseven today although the city has spreadfurther out past the terminals.Britain’s trunk railway network wasnationalized in the 1940s and thenprivatized in 1996 in a bid to improveoperating efficiency and services. Theownership of infrastructure has beenseparated from railway operations, with25 different operating companiesresponsible for running the variouspassenger lines.The network in London consists of formerBritish Rail suburban lines, and 12 subwaylines (tubes), with a total length of 391km, and also extensive bus services. Theridership breakdown in 1997 was: buses53%; subways 34%; and railways 12%.London’s subway—the first in the world—began as a privately-operated, horse-drawn service in 1863, and steadilyexpanded wi th more l ine s andelectrification. Most lines in the centrewere completed by the early 20th century.The fact that the original facilities havechanged little to this day is testimony tothe foresight of the original planners.The operations of London’s transportsystem have undergone many changes.One entity (London Passenger TransportBoard) was given responsibility for

managing and operating subways, buses,and trams in 1933, and the entire systemwas nationalized during WWII. Controlwas transferred to the City of London(Greater London Council or GLC) in 1970and then back to the national governmentin 1984, when the bus component wassubsequently privatized. The presentzone-based fare structure was introducedin 1981.Total passenger-km have been risinggradually since the introduction of thezone-based fare system, although this isthought to be due more to chronic roadc o n g e s t i o n a n d t h e r e s u l t i n gdisillusionment with cars, as well as ton e w d e m a n d a c c o m p a n y i n gredevelopment of the centre core area.Recent projects include the Jubilee Lineextension (opened in 1999) and theDocklands Light Railway, designed toserve the redeveloped docklands. Thegove rnmen t p rov ides funds fo rconstruction of new lines like these, andfor maintenance and improvement ofexisting lines, but funding levels varyaccording to the government’s budget.Operating expenses are not subsidized.Recent years have seen increasingconcern about aging subway lines andstations, and deteriorating services. Infiscal 1998, the reliability indicator forsubways (the percentage of subway trainsin service) was 94%, meaning that one inevery 16 trains was cancelled. This poorshowing is believed to be the result ofexcessive emphasis on profits, and hasbecome a focus of concern for the subwaysystem, particularly in light of the need tofund upgrade programmes, and thequestion of privatization.A new Greater London Authority (GLA)was established in May 2000 around thetime Ken Livingstone was elected the firstMayor of London. He has control overLondon’s transport and his policies areawaited with interest.

Paris

Paris has a metropolitan population of 11million while 2.17 million people livewithin the central city area of 105 km2.Paris is a truly cosmopolitan city, hostingsome 20 million tourists and businesstravellers every year, half of whom areinternational visitors. The city layout, withmany roads radiating out from a centralhub, was designed by Baron Haussmannin the mid-19th century during the reignof Napoleon III (1852–70).In France, the ratio of passenger car use topublic transport use is a high 2:1 and masstransit systems are rarely profitable. This istrue even in Greater Paris. To ensureviability, Syndicat des Transports Parisiens(STP, a body under direct control of thenational government) was established tocoordinate operations, fares and subsidiesbetween the various public transportoperators. STP brokers agreements on theextent to which each transport provideroperates on tracks owned by the nationalrailway, Société Nationale des Chemins deFer Francais (SNCF) and the subwayoperator Régie Autonome des TransportsParisiens (RATP).The Paris subway (Metro) was opened in1900 and currently has 14 lines totalling209 km with 297 stations. The RéseauExpress Régional (RER) composed of fiveadditional subway lines is run jointly bySNCF and RATP. Paris has six intercityterminals (including some for the high-speed TGV) that connect to the Metro fortravel in the city centre.The line configuration has changed inaccordance with the growth patterns. Fivenew satellite towns built on the outskirtsof the city grew considerably between1990 and 1996 and boosted demand fortransport into the city centre. New RERlines crisscrossing the city were built toserve this demand and it is said that theirlayout was partially modelled on Tokyo’sthrough operations between subways and




The Paris Railway Network

||

| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | |: RER

: Metro ( : Météor)

( : )

: SNCF

0 5 10 km

La Défense

Argenteuil

Météor

LRT

LRT

Choisy-le-Roi

Roissyaéroport

Mitry-Claye

La Seine

Marne-la-Vallée

Torcy

Marne-la-ValléeChessy

Villiers-sur-MarneLe Plessis-Trévise

BoissySt-Léger

Savigny-sur-Orge

ChellesGournay

ORLMassy-Palaiseau

St. Rémy-les Chevreuse

St. Quentin-en-Yvelines

St. Quentin-en-Yvelines Robinson

Versailles

Orry-la-Ville

St. Germainen-Laye

CDG

Montigny-Beauchàmp

Cergy-Pontoise

Cergy-St. Christophe

Bercy

New sectionbuilt for EOLE

RERA

RE

RA

RER A

RER C

RER C

RER B

RE

RC

RERD

RER E (EOLE)

RER

B

RER A

RER B

RER

C

RE

R D

RER E(future extension)

RE

RC

RER

C

suburban railways (JRTR 23, pp. 36–41).In addition, STP monitors investmentplans and determines the amount ofsubsidies for unprofitable lines anddiscount fare programmes. The nationaland local governments split theircontributions 7:3. Investment in railtransport is generally 80% publicly fundedwith the remainder being financed by theprivate operator.Fares within Greater Paris use a zonesystem while the Metro uses a flat rate fare.Intercity fares use a taper system. Paris,like other large cities in France, levies a

transportation tax on companies (basedon the number of employees) to keep bothtypes of fares low. STP distributesrevenues from the transportation taxbetween SNCF, RATP, RER and private buscompanies according to a set ratio.Although originally introduced to coverrevenue shortfalls caused by discountedcommuter tickets, the transportation taxnow also represents a valuable source offunds for capital investment. Weekly andmonthly Carte Orange cards are sold atdiscounts of up to 50% that are valid onall public transport within the city.

The national government’s 1994 amendedurban development plan for Greater Parisspecifically limits the size of themetropolitan area and places increasedemphasis on environmental protection.The plan estimated the total populationof Greater Paris at 11.8 million, including5.8 million workers, but made noprovision for new transport lines exceptfor two previously planned lines—theMétéor (No. 14 subway line) opened in1998, and the EOLE (RER-E) opened in1999.Today, the streets of Paris remain largely


separated by the Berlin Wall from 1961.German reunification in 1990 saw Eastand West Berlin rejoined as a city statewithin the Federal Republic of Germany.Berlin finally became the capital both inname and fact with the 1999 relocationof the President’s office and variousbranches of government from Bonn.A number of places around the city arebeing redeveloped to create a moreuniform urban structure. They includePottsdam Platz, other areas near theformer Berlin Wall, and land formerlyowned by the military. Central Berlin hasa population of 3.47 million in an area of890 km2, while the greater metropolitanarea has a population of 4.30 million inan area of 7340 km2.Berlin’s railway system was developedquite early and a modern network of some300 km was already in place by the 1930s.However, the network was extensivelydamaged during WWII and then cut inhalf by the Berlin Wall (see article byThomas Fabian in this issue of JRTR). Afterthe fall of the Wall, the former connectionshave been restored and the network isbeing rapidly upgraded.

Public transport in Berlin is supplied byfour operators: the S-Bahn railway, asubsidiary of German Railways (DBAG),linking the city centre and suburbs; theU-Bahn subway network in built-up partsof the city; trams mainly in the former EastBerlin; and buses. About 2.4 millionpeople use Berlin’s railway network eachday ( including medium-dis tancepassengers). The public transport systemis rated quite highly by users, because itcovers most parts of the city, transportinformation services are well integrated,the fare structure is simple, and the trainsare clean and not crowded.In Berlin (and other major German cities),the S-Bahn, U-Bahn, trams and buses areall members of the Verkehrsverbund(transit union) serving the specificmetropol i tan region. This bodyadministers a common fare pricingsystem, and shortfalls are made up fromfunds provided by the federal and stategovernments. New railway constructionin urban areas is funded almost entirelyfrom the public purse mainly using federalsubsidies financed by a fuel tax, and stategovernment subsidies.Berlin’s S-Bahn consists of 15 linestotalling 324 km with 163 stations. Itcarries over 770,000 passengers each day.The main S-Bahn lines form a so-called‘Dog’s Nose’ loop (Ringbahn) and anelevated section (Stadtbahn) cuts east–west through the city centre.The U-Bahn carries a large proportion(1.1 million passengers each day) ofBerlin’s traffic on 9 lines totalling 143 kmwith 169 stations. Important futureadditions to the network include the U7line extension to Berlin’s new internationalairport, and the U5 line extension toLehrter, to meet new demand asgovernment functions are transferred fromBonn to Berlin.Before WWII, Berlin had eight terminalsserving the nation’s trunk railway network.The completion of an elevated linethrough the city in 1882 linked these

as they were laid out by Baron Haussmannwith little new development other thansome major projects on the Left Bank, onland formerly used by SNCF, and in theBercy district. There are also plans toimprove transport access by extendingsubway lines and adding RER facilities,and to relocate important institutions likethe Minis t ry of F inance and theBibliotheque nationale (National Library)in a bid to revitalize local areas.RATP has recently introduced light railtransit (LRT) systems providing aconvenient mode of transport (LRT) thatlinks up with subway stations in SaintDenis and La Défense. (Paris abandonedits original tramways in 1937 because theycaused traffic congestion.)

Berlin

Berlin began developing as the capital ofthe Deutsche Reich (German Empire1871–1918) in the second half of the 19thcentury. The city was divided in 1945following defeat in WWII and the east andwest halves of the city were completely

Unmanned trains at station on Paris Metro Line No. 14 Météor (EJRCF)




stations to provide through services to acentral station in the heart of the city. (Thisunusual approach for a European city issaid to have served as a model forJapanese railway engineers when theyconstructed an elevated line to linkShimbashi to Ueno via Tokyo Station.)The re-establishment of Berlin as theGerman capital has prompted a flurry ofrailway development intended to providebetter high-speed access from differentparts of the country. A new north–southunderground line is under constructionand the existing east–west line is beingupgraded. Berlin’s new central station isbeing built at the intersection (LehrterBahnhof) of the two lines.The current Berlin master plan is designedto produce a compact rather thansprawling city, through ‘decentralizedconcentration’ with the neighbouring stateof Brandenburg. This compact metropoliswill have a number of core areas centredon nodes serving a radial transportnetwork extending to the suburbs.

Moscow

Situated in the centre of the Russian Plain,Moscow has an area of 1059 km2 and apopulation of 8.37 million. Although St.Petersburg was the capital during part ofthe Czarist era, Moscow has always beena dynamic city and it is now the hub ofnation’s political and economic activitywhere industry and a skilled labour forceare concentrated.Given the very low rate of private vehicleownership compared to other industrializednations and the almost total absence of well-maintained expressways between majorcities, the public transport system fulfills animportant role in transporting people withincities and to suburbs.Moscow has nine terminals for railwayservices to suburbs and distant cities. Mostare located on the subway loop line. Thereare no direct railway services into the city

The Berlin Railway Network

: Proposed

: Berlin City limits

: S-Bahn

: U-Bahn

0 5 10 km

Ostkreuz

Lehrter

Westkreuz

TXL

THF

JFX

U8

U6

U9

U2

U5

U1

U8

U6

U7

S3

U5U7

U2

U1U9

U4

S1S8

S4

S7

S8

S9 S6

S2S1

S7

S5 S4 S5

S2

Berlin S-Bahn’s Ostkreuz Station where Ringbahn loop crosses over east–west Stadtbahn. (EJRCF)


The Moscow Railway Network

: Proposed

: Moscow City limits

: Suburban or intercity railway: Underground railway

0 5 10 km

Paveletsky

Kursky

KazanskyLeningradsky

Yaroslavsky

Rizhsky

Savelovsky

Byelorussky

Kievsky

2

4

8

31

6

9

2

4

7

1

6

5

9

11

10

centre, so passengers must change to thesubway or take another form of transport.Moscow’s main public transport modesare subways, trolley buses, ordinary buses,and trams. The first subway line wasopened in 1935 and was quickly followedby a succession of new routes and branchlines. The Stalinist regime saw the subwaysystem as a symbol of prestige, so subwaystations (or ‘palaces’) were designed withconsiderable grandeur. Subwayconstruction continued during WWIIwhen the stations were used as air-raidshelters; further expansion took place inthe postwar period. The present subwaynetwork consists of 11 lines totalling 262km with 160 stations and carries 8.88million passengers each day.Part of the subway network is a loop linewith a radius of about 2 to 3 km from thecity centre. Radial lines crisscross the areaenclosed by a loop road encircling the cityat a radius of about 15 km. The subwayfare is fixed irrespective of distancetravelled or number of changes. Entry isby jetton (coin) or card.Intercity and suburban train services inRussia are operated by the Ministry ofRailways at the federal level through 19regional railway bureaus. The federalgovernment covers all deficits in intercityservices—fares contribute only around40% of revenue and the remaining 60%shortfall is received as subsidies from thenational government. In the case ofsuburban rail services, 17% of operatingexpenses are provided by the regionalrailway bureaus with the remaining 83%subsidized by regional governments.The Moscow subway system is operatedby the municipal government and faresare kept low to make transport affordableto all. As a result, fare revenues only cover30% of operating costs (1995 figures), andthe government subsidizes the shortfall.The federal government provides themunicipal government with subsidies fordevelopment projects such as new lineconstruction, station construction and

refurbishment, and introduction ofoperation control systems.Construction of 45 km of new subwaylines was planned at one stage; extensionof Line 10 was completed in 1997, andthe Line 2 extension is presently underconstruction. However, construction ofnew Line 12 has been abandoned.

New York

New York has a population of 7.34 millionin an area of 833 km2. The city is dividedinto five districts, and is centred aroundManhattan. Greater New York covers amuch larger area, including the northern partof neighbouring New Jersey, and Long Island.

Until the early 19th century, New Yorkconsisted of a mixed residential andbusiness district in south Manhattan. Asthe area became more business-orientedfrom the mid-19th century, people movedtheir homes toward the north of the islandor to Brooklyn, the Bronx, and Queens.Public transport played a prominent rolein New York’s development, first by horse-drawn cart, then by horse-drawn railways,then elevated railway lines, and thensubways.Most public transport in New York iscont ro l led and opera ted by theMetropolitan Transportation Authority(MTA), a body of the state government.The MTA is responsible for New York CityTransit, which operates public transport




within the city, and Long Island Rail Road(LIRR) and Metro-North Rail Road, whichoperate commuter rail services to thesuburbs. The MTA operates alongsideother bodies such as the Port AuthorityTrans Hudson and New Jersey Transit.New York’s first subway opened in 1904.Originally built and run by a privateoperator, the Interborough Rapid TransitCompany (IRT), it ran into financialdifficulties and was purchased by the Cityof New York in 1940. Since then, allsubways have been run by the municipalgovernment. The city’s population grewfrom about 4.8 million to 7.5 millionbetween 1910 and 1940. Most of the newresidents lived in ‘subway suburbs’ located6.5 to 19 km from the city centre anddeveloped as a result of new subway line

construction. A number of new commuterrailways serving areas beyond the citywere developed around this time. PennStation (opened in 1910) and GrandCentral Terminal (GCT, opened in 1913)provide direct connections for commutersfrom the suburbs to the city centre.New York’s subway network can bebroadly divided into three groups linkingManhattan with the Bronx, the downtownarea with Brooklyn, and mid-town withQueens. Nearly all the subway lines passin a dense formation through the city’scentral district (south of Central Park).Many stations serve multiple lines—42ndStreet, for example, even has a shuttleservice from GCT in the east to TimesSquare in the west, and functions as agiant interchange node. At present, the

subway system consists of 25 linesstretching 389 km with 468 stations. Thedaily ridership is 3.1 million.Commuter rail fares are tapered, while thesubways and buses charge a flat rate of$1.50. The relatively recent pre-paid MetroCard enables passengers to switch betweensubways and buses much more easily thanbefore. Notable features of the New Yorksubway system include 24-hour operationsand quadrupling of some lines.Since 1940, New York’s population hasremained relatively stable at under 8million, but the surrounding areas havegrown. Many of the new populationcentres do not have good access by publictransport into the city centre. The MTA isattempting to address this problem byextending the LIRR to Grand Central

The New York Railway Network

ManhattanManhattan

: Commuter or intercity railway: Subway: New York City limits

0 5 10 km

BrooklynJamaica Bay

Huds

on R

iver

East

Riv

er

Queens

Nassau

Bronx

Yonkers

Manhattan

Mt. Vernon

Long Island Sound

Staten Island

JFK

GCT

Penn

St.

Hoboken

JerseyCity

Newark

New Jersey State

New J ersey Transit

Psca

ckVa

lley

Line

MTA Staten IslandRail

way

MTA Long Island Rail Road

LongBeach

Branch

Harle

mLi

ne

MTA

Met

ro-N

orth

Rai

lroad

Port Was hingtonBra nch

Path

Path


Terminal, and by driving a new tunnelunder the Hudson River.New York is more reliant on publictransport than any other city in the USA,and continuing high levels of investmentare required each year to provide goodservices. Operating revenues cover 65%of funding requirements and the shortfalli s obtained as federal and s ta tegovernment subsidies. However, fundingfor future network expansion andoperation of existing lines is a majorproblem for the MTA.

Hong Kong

After a long period as a British colony,Hong Kong was returned to the People’sRepublic of China in July 1997 and nowenjoys a high degree of autonomy as theHong Kong Special AdministrativeRegion. Hong Kong covers a total area of1080 km2 and has a population of 6.5million. Hong Kong Island is home to 3.5million people and another 1.9 millionlive in Kowloon and the New Territories.The older districts facing Victoria Harbourhouse some 4 million residents on just20% of Hong Kong’s total land space. Thisrepresents a population density of about250 people per hectare, one of the highestin the world. Large ‘new towns’ are beingbuilt in the New Territories in the northernpart of the Kowloon Peninsula.Hong Kong has a very high concentrationof commercial activities and the rapidrailway network plays a vital role infacilitating movement within the olddistrict, and from the new towns to thecity centre. Rapid rail accounts for 62%of all journeys between KowloonPeninsula and Hong Kong Island.Rail services are provided by the MassTransit Railway (MTR), the Airport Express(built in conjunction with the new HongKong International Airport and run byMTR), and the Kowloon–Canton Railway(KCR). These three networks carry 2.2

million people each day on trains that areoften very crowded. The northwest partof the New Territories also has a 23-kmLight Rail Transit (LRT) service, while a 16-km network of double-decker trams datingfrom 1904 on Hong Kong Island is usefulfor short trips around the island.The subway system consists of two linesfrom Kowloon Peninsula under VictoriaHarbour, and one line running east–westacross Hong Kong Island. The three linesare operated by the Mass Transit RailwayCorporation (MTRC) subway authority,which also runs the Airport Express andis involved in real estate developmentalong railway routes. There is talk ofprivatizing the MTRC at some stage.The Kowloon–Canton Railway wasoriginally built in 1910 to provide trunkservices between Kowloon and Canton.In 1983, the route was double-tracked andelectrified as far as Lo Wu, to provide anintra-city commuter service for residents

of new towns along the route. Originallyowned by the Hong Kong government andnow run by the Kowloon–Canton RailwayCorporation (KCRC), the 34-km linecarries 740,000 passengers each day.The Hong Kong administration providesfunding for line works, although theamount varies annually. The individualrailway operators have different faresstructures, as in Japan, but the fares arelower. Services on all lines are frequentand operate from the early hours until lateat night. Public transport in Hong Kongprovides a fairly high level of service,although rush-hour overcrowding is aproblem in some sections.Under the latest revisions to its broadstrategic land usage programme called theTerritorial Development Strategy (TDS),the Hong Kong administration plans tofinish construction of a new airport(already partially completed), a newcontainer terminal, and other port facilities

The Hong Kong Railway Network

: Proposed

: KCR / LRT

: MTR and Airport Express

0 5 10 km

Lantau Island

Hong Kong Island

Victoria Harbor

Kwun Tong Line

Island Line

West Rail

Tsuen Wan Line

Airport E

xpress

New Territories

Kowloon

Lo Wu

LRT

HKA

KCR

Tuen Mun




by 2011. The TDS also proposesreclaiming land from the western side ofKowloon Peninsula, pursuing anotherlandfill and development project aroundthe former Kai Tak airport site, developingnew towns in the New Territories, andconstructing a border crossing transportaxis on both sides of the Pearl River.The admin i s t ra t ion i s p resen t lycon s ide r i ng a Second Ra i lwayDevelopment Strategy, and two priorityrail projects are being built as part of theTDS. The first is the West Rail route,currently under construction by KCRC anddue for completion in 2003. This line willhead north from Kowloon beyond thewest bank of the Kowloon Peninsula tothe northwest region of the NewTerritories. The other line, which MTRCis about to begin building, is a branchextension to the subway following theeastern edge of the Kowloon Peninsula.

Seoul

Situated in the middle of the KoreanPeninsula and bisected by the HangangRiver, Seoul has a population of 10.23million (about 25% of the national total)in an area of 605 km2. The city and itsneighbouring areas are the economicengine of South Korea and contributeabout 25% of the nation’s GDP. The citysuffered enormously during the KoreanWar (1950–53) but subsequentlyrebounded in a period of rapid economicgrowth. The 1988 Korean Olympicsboosted the economy further andprovided an impetus for expansion of thesubway system and construction of manyhigh-rise buildings, completing thetransformation of Seoul into a modern city.South Korea’s first railway was theKyongin Railroad between Inchon andSeoul, which opened in 1899. With thepartitioning of the Korean Peninsula intoNorth and South after the Korean War, theline was cut in two and the southern

section joined the Korean NationalRailroad (KNR) network, which was underthe jurisdiction of the National RailroadAdministration. Seoul has two terminalsfor intercity rail services, Seoul Station andChongnyangni Station. Seoul Station isthe largest due to the greater number oflines terminating there. Chongnyangni isthe terminus for several lines to thesoutheast and northeast. Seoul Station isserved by subway lines 1 and 4, andChongnyangni Station by subway Line 1.The main modes of public transport inSeoul are buses and the subway (37% and30% of total capacity, respectively, in1995). Work began on the subway Line1 in 1971, 3 years after the tram systemwas closed and services began in 1974.The subway network now has 7 linestotalling 217 km with 197 stations. Lines1 to 5 cover the city while lines 7 and 8serve the suburbs. Trains on Line 2, a loopline, take about 80 minutes to circle the

city. Line 5 runs from Kimpo Airport tothe city centre. Line 6 and part of Line 7are still under construction.Subway construction and operations aredivided between two public bodies: theSeoul Metropolitan Subway Corporation,which manages lines 1 to 4, and the SeoulMetropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation,which manages lines 5 to 8. The SeoulMetropolitan Rapid Transit Corporationoperates each of its Automatic TrainOperation device (ATO) equipped trainswith only one driver and no conductorsto improve cost effectiveness. It has alsopromoted construction of small-cross-section tunnels to cut construction costs.The subway network receives subsidiesfrom a transportation tax system fundedmainly by a fuel tax but operating lossesare reported each year. The municipalgovernment is obliged to inject additionalfunds and issue subway bonds to makeup the shortfall. The subway system is

The Seoul Railway Network

SeoulSEL

Chongnyangni

: Proposed

: Seoul City limits

: Suburban or intercity railway

: Underground railway

0 5 10 km

7

4

63

6

5

7

2

4

2

5

1

38

8


crowded being Line 2 at 237%. Trainson lines 1 to 5 in the city centre run every2.5 to 3 minutes during rush hours (exceptthe Line 2 branch line).Seoul’s rapidly increasing population hascaused a range of problems in housing,employment, the environment, and roadcongestion. In 1996, the city authoritiesproduced a comprehensive transportationstrategy calling for reduced car usage,increased use of public transport, andelimination of some factors that tend toimpede traffic. Strategies designed toboost subway ridership include discountfares during off-peak periods, events instations, new bicycle parking, and

construction of new lines.In addition to new lines already underconstruction, the authorities plan to buildanother four lines (lines 9 to 12), and toextend Line 3. When completed in 2005,this new construction will add 120 km tothe subway network, boosting thecapacity by 50%, and helping to alleviatetraffic congestion.

Tokyo

Tokyo and its surrounding metropolitanarea is located on the Kanto Plain in thecentre of the Pacific coast of Honshu, the

exempt from taxes on real estateacquisition and registration, and does notpay corporate income, town planning orbusiness taxes.A single fare structure applies to the 7subway lines and the Korean NationalRa i l road (KNR) se rv ices in themetropolitan area and the same ticket canbe used for travel on both. The city isdivided into 7 zones, with fares set at 500Won within one zone and 600 Won whencrossing to another zone. The minimumfare covers travel from the city centre tomost of the main stations in the city.The average overcrowding rate for all 7subway lines is 207% with the most

: Subway

: Monorail or new transit system

: JR Line

: Other private company line

0 5 10 km

SaitamaPrefecture

Kanagawa Prefecture

Tokyo

ChibaPrefecture

NRT

Tokyo Bay

YamanashiPrefecture

HND

Musashino LineTobuTojo

Line

Tam

aM

on

ora

il

Seibu Shinjuku Line

Tokaido Shinkansen Line

Keisei Line

Tozai Line

Mita Line

Keio Line

Odakyu Line

Marunouchi Line

Tok aido Ma in Lin e

Chuo Line So bu

Line

Keik

yuLi

ne

TohokuShinkansen

Line

Joba

nLi

ne

ChibaMonorail

Toyo

koLi

ne

Tob

uIsezaki

Line

The Tokyo Railway Network




main Japanese island. Originally knownas Edo, the ci ty saw substant ia ldevelopment from the early 17th centuryas the seat of government of the TokugawaShogunate (1603–1867) which excavatedcanals, dug moats, and reclaimed land.Edo soon became the political, economicand cultural centre of Japan with apopulation of around 1.1 million. TheMeiji Restoration in 1868 marked thebeginning of the modernization of Tokyo.Tokyo’s population rose steadily as itdeveloped into a modern city and reached7.35 million in 1940. The effects of WWIIbrought a temporary drop to around 5million in 1947 but the population soaredto 11.41 million by 1970. The populationof Tokyo’s 23 wards has remained fairlystable since 1970 but the population ofsurrounding prefectures has exploded.The first railway line in Japan betweenShimbashi and Yokohama opened in 1872and was soon followed by massiveexpansion of government and privaterailways as described in A History ofJapanese Railways 1872–1999 publishedby EJRCF.Electric tramways were introduced toTokyo in 1903 when the first service ranbetween Shimbashi and Shinagawa onrails previously used by a horse-drawntramway. The tram network expandedsteadily to a total length of 193 km andserved as an important form of citytransport. However, trams caused roadcongestion when motor cars appeared ingreater numbers in the 1960s and the tramnetwork was a lmos t comple te lydismantled by the late 1960s, leaving thesingle 12-km Arakawa Line running on areserved right-of-way.The first 2-km subway (now part of theGinza Line) was opened in 1927 betweenUeno and Asakusa, and the Teito RapidTransit Authority (TRTA) built and nowoperates a 172-km network of 8 subwaylines. As Japan entered the rapideconomic growth period in the 1960s,other bodies were encouraged to build

and operate subway lines. The TokyoMetropolitan Government (TMG) begansubway operat ions in 1958, andeventually completed four lines totalling80 km, including the Asakusa and Mitalines. New sections including the OedoLine will bring the total length of linesoperated by the Tokyo MetropolitanGovernment to 109 km.More through operations linking subways,JNR lines (before privatization), JR Eastlines (after JNR privatization), and privaterailways have been established since the1960s in order to minimize theinconvenience for commuters changingtrains and to reduce station congestion.The resulting improvements haveencouraged further outward expansion ofresidential housing into more remoteurban areas.Recent developments include newmonorails, rail-airport links, and light railservices to newly developed urban areasas described in previous issues of JRTR.Long-distance intercity services providedby the Tokaido, Hokuriku, Tohoku, andJoetsu shinkansen lines all terminate atTokyo Station.Tokyo’s railway operators, including JREast and various private companies eachhave different fare structures, making foran unwieldy ticket system and highercosts. Subway travellers are similarlyinconvenienced by the fact that the twosubway operators (TRTA and TMG) haveexclusive fare systems, although there aresome discount tickets. Morning andevening rush hour services on all lines stillremain heavily congested.Tokyo’s public transport system is still inneed of more new lines and an integratedfare structure in order to improveconvenience and help relieve congestion.Around 50% of subway construction costsare subsidized by roughly equalcontributions from the national and localgovernments, which have recentlyintroduced low-interest and interest-freeloan schemes. The national and local

governments also equally share part of theinterest charges above 5% on new-construction loans taken out by privaterailway companies.

Comparison of Transit Systems

Of the 8 cities described above, Tokyo’spopulation of roughly 8 million in its23 wards (central Tokyo) is third afterSeoul and Moscow. However GreaterTokyo including Yokohama, Kawasakiand other neighbouring cities has apopulation of about 33 million, farmore than any other city. Accordingto our estimate, Greater New York haso n l y 6 0 % o f G r e a t e r To k y o ’spopulation, Paris around 30%, and theother cities even less.Both Tokyo and New York haveseparate business and residentialdistricts that are dependent on rapidsuburban rail services. By contrast, theother cities have interlocking businessand residential districts, with publictransport networks primarily serving thebuilt-up urban area (notwithstandingthe presence of some lines extendinginto suburbs). Berlin is currently in theprocess of developing a high-densityrail network for both the city andsurroundings, but at the moment, thepublic transport network mainly servesthe city area.In cities such as London, Paris, Moscowand Berlin, where intercity rail serviceswere established early, the majorterminals are located at what was thecity’s edge at the time of construction.(London actually banned railwayconstruction within the central city in1 8 4 6 . ) A l t h o u g h s o m e c i t i e ssubsequently either allowed trainsthrough the centre or built radial lineslinked by loop lines serving the suburbs,the ‘bicycle wheel’ configuration is stillfound in most major cities today. Thereare exceptions—Berlin built l ines


Rail Transport in Eight Major Cities of World

Metropolitan Zone Greater London Ile de France Berlin and Greater New York Tokyo andBrandenburg incl. north 3 neighbouring

New Jersey and prefectureLong Island

Area (km2) 1578 12000 7340 - 26329 - - 13494

Population (1000) 6850 11000 4300 - 19880 - - 32570

Inner City 13 central boroughs City of Paris City of Berlin New York City 23 wards

Area (km2) 311 105 890 1059 833 1080 605 621

Population (1000) 2500 2170 3470 8370 7340 6500 10230 7970

Subway system RATP Métro U-Bahn including TRTA and TMGAirport Express

Began operation (Year) 1863 1900 1902 1935 1904 1979 1974 1927

Number of lines 12 14 9 11 25 4 7 12

Total length (km) 391 209 143 262 389 77 217 252

Number of stations 272 297 169 160 468 51 197 237

Passengers (1000/day) 2500 3200 1100 8880 3100 2200 3800 7240

Passenger density (1000/km/day) 6.4 15.4 7.7 33.9 8.0 28.6 17.5 28.7

Fare system Zone based Flat rate Zone based Flat rate Flat rate Distance based Zone based Distance based

Other urban railways Former British SNCF's suburban S-Bahn services Russian State Commuter railways Kowloon-Canton Korean National JR East, eightRail network services and run on German Railway suburban linking Manhattan Railway's Railroad's major and some

run by private Regional Express Railway (DBAG) services and suburbs commuter services suburban services smaller privateoperators Network (RER) run suburban network railways, Yokohama

by SNCF and RATP municipal subway

Intercity railways 13 terminals; 6 terminals; 3 terminals; 9 terminals; 2 terminals 1 terminal 2 terminals 7 terminals incl. not centrally not centrally axial not centrally those of private

located located configuration located interurban lines;axial and

non-centralized

Data year 1998 1999 Population, 1995; Population, 1995; 1997 1998 Population, 1995; Population, 1995;ridership, 1998 ridership, 1996 ridership, 1993 ridership, 1997;

line length, 2000

London Paris Berlin Moscow New York Hong Kong Seoul Tokyo

traversing the city, and Tokyo, althoughlate in embracing railways, was quick toappreciate the need for lines traversingthe city in different directions and laterbrought the shinkansen (Bullet Train)services right to the city centre. Berlin iscurrently extending its intercity lines tothe city centre and beyond as part of theprocess of relocating governmentfunctions to the new capital.The geographical location of a citygenerally affects the development of itsrail network—generally a radial patternis favoured. Exceptions are New Yorkand Hong Kong, which have peninsularshapes. New York has two intercityservices and the east–west service is a

through route passing under water.Similarly, Hong Kong has an intercity lineto the city at the tip of the land, providingintegrated land and sea transport.Although trams were once an integralpart of inner city transport they becameimpractical when conflicts arose withroad traffic patterns and also had limitedcapacity. This prompted construction ofurban subway systems, starting withLondon in 1863, Paris in 1900, andMoscow in 1935. In many cities, thesubway networks expanded as the citiesgrew, extending outward into thesuburbs. Almost all the cities describedhere have extensive subway networks—New York has 25 lines, Paris 14, London

and Tokyo 12, and Moscow 11. London,Moscow, and Seoul also have subwayloop lines, with Tokyo due to follow suitin 2000. Notwithstanding somedifferences in coverage, subways play avery important role in inner-city transport.Meanwhile, cities such as London, Paris,Berlin, and Hong Kong are developingnew and improved light-rail systemssimilar to trams, providing inner-cityservices that appeal to local residents.In Tokyo, postwar development of thesubway network included throughoperations with existing private andnational suburban lines, permittingdirect connections to the city centrefrom up to 50 km away. Meanwhile,




some national lines into the centre werequadrupled to boost carrying capacity.These improvements encouragedfurther development in the city centre,and generated new demand.In Berlin, the resurrection of the formerpre-Cold War network and constructionof several new lines will boost directservices on both the U-Bahn and S-Bahn from all sides into the city centre.In Paris, six subway lines are linked toSNCF lines to provide direct expresssubway services to the city centre.Seoul, meanwhile, has created directservices from the suburbs to the centrein much the same way as Tokyo byconnecting some subway lines tosuburban KNR lines.All subway systems described in thisarticle are operated either by governmentor public bodies established and fundedby government. The London and Parissubways are run by public corporations;the Moscow subway by the ci tyauthorities; the Berlin subway by thegovernment Transport Bureau; New York

by the Metropolitan Transport Authority;Hong Kong by the government MassTransit Railway Corporation; Seoul bytwo government bodies; and Tokyo by theTeito Rapid Transit Authority and theTokyo Metropoli tan Government.National railways (or their successors oraffiliated bodies) also play important rolesin providing transport in London, Paris,Berlin, Seoul, Hong Kong and Tokyo.Underground railway construction isvery expensive and new lines mustoften be built deeper underground ateven greater cost. However, to attractpassengers, fares for new lines must bekept at a reasonable level or on a parwith fares for previously constructedlines, bus services and other transportmodes. Consequently, it is virtuallyimpossible to recover the full cost ofinner-city railway construction fromfare revenues alone.Funding the tremendous constructioncosts is therefore a major issue. Onesolution that has become increasinglypopular is vertical separation in which

subway cons t ruc t i on i s c l ea r l yseparated from subway operations byfunding the construction costs largely(or wholly) from the public purse. Thisapproach is based on the notion thaturban railways, like roads, are animportant part of a city’s infrastructureand that their construction is thereforea government responsibility. Railwaysalso represent a more environmentally-friendly mode of transport and are likelyto gain favour.In Paris, 80% of public transportinvestment is publicly funded primarilyfrom the transportation tax levied onemployers. In Berlin, urban railwaydevelopment is almost totally publiclyfunded with contributions from both thefederal government (through a fuel tax)and local government. The operatingrevenue shortfall is also subsidized byboth government levels.Investment in Tokyo’s public transportreceives different types of assistance,ref lecting the variety of dif ferentoperators and conditions. Assistancei n c l u d e s s u b w a y c o n s t r u c t i o nsubsidies, low-interest and interest-freeg o v e r n m e n t l o a n s t o t r a n s p o r toperators, subsidization of interestpayments by private railways, andsubsidies for new transport systemsfunded by fuel taxes.Tokyo and Hong Kong are the onlyc i t ies where fa res a re based ondistance. All the other cities have zone-based fare structures, with fare revenuesdivided between the different operators.However, many cities use distance-based fares for travel to the suburbs.In terms of both transport volume anddensity, Tokyo is reliant on its railways.It is also the only city where transporto p e r a t o r s e s s e n t i a l l y f u n c t i o ni n d e p e n d e n t l y o f g o v e r n m e n tassistance (except for constructionsubsidies). The subsidies for operatingcosts in Western countries do notencourage transport providers to make

Subway Systems in Eight Major Cities

Total length of subway lines (km)

Subway passengers (10,000/day)

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

4.00

3.50

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00London Paris Berlin Moscow New York Hong Kong Seoul Tokyo

Subway passenger density (10,000/km/day)


Norihisa Tadakoshi

Mr Tadakoshi is Director of Urban Development Planning Division in

the Bureau of City Planning of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government.

He graduated in civil engineering from the University of Tokyo in

1972. He has held positions as Manager of the Transport Planning

Section of the Bureau of City Planning, and as Director of the Technical

Department of Tama Monorail Company.

o p e r a t i o n s m o r e e f f i c i e n t a n dprofitable. There are fears that suchsubsidies can cause national and localgovernment expenditures to balloono u t o f c o n t r o l a n d t h e To k y oapproach—expecting railway operatorsto manage the i r own opera t ingfinances—certainly has advantages.The experiences of Paris, Berlin, HongKong, and Tokyo clearly indicate theimportance of linking expansion of theurban rail network to strategic developmentplanning for the city as a whole. Urbanrailways encourage intensive developmentaround stations, and are very important asa tool to reduce dependency on cars andprotect the urban environment.

One should also consider the manner inwhich intra-city and intercity transportnetworks mesh within the context of theoverall transport system. Many Europeancities are developing flexible connectionsbetween their subway network and theirmajor rail terminals (which lead todifferent destinations from the old cityboundaries). On the other hand, Berlin,Tokyo and New York have integrated theirservices by linking intercity and intra-citylines. The latter approach is moreconvenient for travellers, but imposes agreater burden on the city centre,requiring development of sub-terminalsand other solutions. On another front,most cities have recently integrated

intercity and intra-city networks to includerail-air links as well.Ultimately, urban transport systems mustfunction in a manner that attractspassengers. This year will see thecompletion of Tokyo’s first subway loop andother lines now under construction willimprove services further within a few years.But there is still work to be done,particularly in areas, such as relievingcongestion, linking lines to provide throughservices, providing services commensuratewith fare levels, and embracing barrier-freedesign principles. �

Takao Okamoto

Dr Okamoto is Advisor to the Technology Center of the Metropolitan

Expressway. He graduated in civil engineering from the University of

Tokyo in 1957 and joined Tokyo Metropolitan Government, where he

served as Director General of City Planning Bureau and Chief of

Engineering. He later served as Vice President of the Metropolitan

Expressway Public Corporation.

Further ReadingGeneral

• Sekai no daitoshi (Major Cities of the World),Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 1997.

• Shogaikoku ni okeru testsudoseibi hosaku nikansuru chosa hokokusho (A Report on RailwayDevelopment Policy in Different Countries),Railway Development Foundation, March 1992.

• Shuyokoku un’yu jijo chosa hokokusho (A Reporton Transportation in Major Countries), JapanTransport Economics Research Center, March1998.

• Jane’s Urban Transport Systems, 1998–99.London

• Annual Report 1998–1999, London RegionalTransport, 1999.

• Transport in London (1999), Department of theEnvironment, Transport and the Regions, 1999.

• London—A History, Francis Sheppard, OxfordUniversity Press, 1998.Paris

• La vie du rail et des transports, MATRA.• La RATP aujourd’hui, La RATP en chiffres.• Evolution demographique des secteurs de villes

nouvelles, INSEE.

• Paris toshikotsu no henkan to genjo (TheEvolution and Status of Paris Transport Systems),Bureau of Transport Economy.Berlin

• Deutz ni okeru shutokino iten no jokyo (TheCurrent Situation as Germany TransfersGovernment Functions), Metropolitan AreasDevelopment Bureau of the National LandAgency.

• Das Zielnetz 2000, Land Brandenburg, 1994.• Verkehrsentwicklungs—Planung für die Region

Berlin, March 1993.• Verkehr in Berlin, Senatsnerwaltung für

Verkehrund Betriebe, Berlin, 1995.Moscow

• Tokyoto toshigyosei chosadan hokokusho(Mosukuwa) (Report on the Administration ofMetropolitan Regions (Moscow)), TokyoMetropolitan Government, March 1993.New York

• Metropolitan Transportation Authority (http://www.mta.nyc.ny.us).

• Port Authority of New York and New Jerseyhomepage (http://www.panynj.gov).

• Development of the New York City Rail System,Peter Derrick, JRTR 23, pp 14–21.Hong Kong

• Asia no tetsudo (Railways in Asia), Yoshii Shoten,1990.

• Hong Kong—toshi no bijion (Hong Kong—UrbanVision), Hinge Marketing Ltd., 1995.

• Mass Transit Railway Corporation homepage(http://www.mtrcorp.com).

• Kowloon–Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC)homepage (http://www.kcrc.com).Seoul

• Kankoku no tetsudo (Railways in the Republicof Korea), Toshihide Yamada, Japan TravelBureau, January 1998.

• The Seoul Subway, Hansol telecom homepage(http://www.websubway.co.kr).Tokyo

• Bureau of Transportation, Tokyo MetropolitanGove rnmen t homepage (h t t p : / /www.kotsu.metro.tokyo.jp).

• Teito Rapid Transit Authority (http://www.tokyometro.go.jp).

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