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Rama (Ramachandra)

Rama is a Hindu deity, his iconography varies

Affiliation Seventh avatar of Vishnu, Brahman(Vaishnavism), Deva

Abode Vaikunta, Ayodhya, and Saket

Weapon Bow and arrow

Texts Ramayana and its other versions

Festivals Rama Navami, Vivaha Panchami,Deepavali, Dusshera

Personal information

Born Ayodhya, Kosala (present-day UttarPradesh, India)

Consort Sita[1]

Children Lava (son)Kusha (son)

Parents Dasharatha (father)[1]

Kaushalya (mother)[1]

Kaikeyi (step-mother)Sumitra (step-mother)

Siblings Lakshmana (brother)Bharata (brother)Shatrughna (brother)Shanta (Eldest Sister)

Dynasty Raghuvanshi-Ikshvaku-Suryavanshi

Rama

Rama or Ram (/ˈrɑːmə/;[2] Sanskrit: राम, IAST: Rāma), also

known as Ramachandra, is a major deity of Hinduism. He is

the seventh avatar of the god Vishnu, one of his most popular

incarnations along with Krishna and Gautama Buddha.[3][4][5]

In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the

Supreme Being.[6]

Rama was born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya, the

ruler of the Kingdom of Kosala. His siblings included

Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna. He married Sita.

Though born in a royal family, their life is described in the

Hindu texts as one challenged by unexpected changes such as

an exile into impoverished and difficult circumstances, ethical

questions and moral dilemmas.[7] Of all their travails, the most

notable is the kidnapping of Sita by demon-king Ravana,

followed by the determined and epic efforts of Rama and

Lakshmana to gain her freedom and destroy the evil Ravana

against great odds. The entire life story of Rama, Sita and their

companions allegorically discusses duties, rights and social

responsibilities of an individual. It illustrates dharma and

dharmic living through model characters.[7][8]

Rama is especially important to Vaishnavism. He is the central

figure of the ancient Hindu epic Ramayana, a text historically

popular in the South Asian and Southeast Asian

cultures.[9][10][11] His ancient legends have attracted bhasya

(commentaries) and extensive secondary literature and

inspired performance arts. Two such texts, for example, are the

Adhyatma Ramayana – a spiritual and theological treatise

considered foundational by Ramanandi monasteries,[12] and

the Ramcharitmanas – a popular treatise that inspires

thousands of Ramlila festival performances during autumn

every year in India.[13][14][15]

Rama legends are also found in the texts of Jainism and

Buddhism, though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in

these texts,[16] and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions.[17]

Etymology and nomenclatureLegends

BirthYouth, family and friends

Contents

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Exile and warPost-war rule and deathInconsistencies

DatingIconographyPhilosophy and symbolismLiterary sources

RamayanaAdhyatma RamayanaRamacharitmanasYoga VasisthaOther texts

InfluenceHinduism

Rama NavamiRamlila and DussehraDiwaliHindu arts in Southeast Asia

JainismBuddhismSikhism

Worship and templesTemples

See alsoReferences

NotesCitations

BibliographyFurther readingExternal links

Rāma is a Vedic Sanskrit word with two contextual meanings. In one context as found in Arthavaveda, states Monier

Monier-Williams, it means "dark, dark-colored, black" and is related to the term ratri which means night. In another

context as found in other Vedic texts, the word means "pleasing, delightful, charming, beautiful, lovely".[18][19] The

word is sometimes used as a suffix in different Indian languages and religions, such as Pali in Buddhist texts, where -rama adds the sense of "pleasing to the mind, lovely" to the composite word.[20]

Rama as a first name appears in the Vedic literature, associated with two patronymic names – Margaveya and

Aupatasvini – representing different individuals. A third individual named Rama Jamadagnya is the purported

author of hymn 10.110 of the Rigveda in the Hindu tradition.[18] The word Rama appears in ancient literature in

reverential terms for three individuals:[18]

1. Parashu-rama, as the sixth avatar of Vishnu. He is linked to the Rama Jamadagnya of the Rigveda fame.2. Rama-chandra, as the seventh avatar of Vishnu and of the ancient Ramayana fame.3. Bala-rama, also called Halayudha, as the elder brother of Krishna both of whom appear in the legends of

Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

The name Rama appears repeatedly in Hindu texts, for many different scholars and kings in mythical stories.[18] The

word also appears in ancient Upanishads and Aranyakas layer of Vedic literature, as well as music and other post-

Vedic literature, but in qualifying context of something or someone who is "charming, beautiful, lovely" or "darkness,

Etymology and nomenclature

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night".[18]

The Vishnu avatar named Rama is also known by other names. He is called Ramachandra (beautiful, lovely moon[19]),

or Dasarathi (son of Dasaratha), or Raghava (descendant of Raghu, solar dynasty in Hindu cosmology).[18][21]

Additional names of Rama include Ramavijaya (Javanese), Phreah Ream (Khmer), Phra Ram (Lao and Thai), Megat

Seri Rama (Malay), Raja Bantugan (Maranao), Ramudu (Telugu), Ramar (Tamil).[22] In the Vishnu sahasranama,

Rama is the 394th name of Vishnu. In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, Rama connotes the metaphysical concept

of Supreme Brahman who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self (Atman, soul) in whom yogis delight

nondualistically.[12]

The root of the word Rama is ram- which means "stop, stand still, rest, rejoice, be pleased".[19]

According to Douglas Q. Adams, the Sanskrit word Rama is also found in other Indo-European languages such as

Tocharian ram, reme, *romo- where it means "support, make still", "witness, make evident".[19][23] The sense of

"dark, black, soot" also appears in other Indo European languages, such as *remos or Old English romig.[24][note 1]

This summary is a traditional legendary account, based on literary details from the Ramayana and other historic

mythology-containing texts of Buddhism and Jainism. According to Sheldon Pollock, the figure of Rama incorporates

more ancient "morphemes of Indian myths", such as the mythical legends of Bali and Namuci. The ancient sage

Valmiki used these morphemes in his Ramayana similes as in sections 3.27, 3.59, 3.73, 5.19 and 29.28.[26]

Rama was born on the ninth day of the lunar month Chaitra

(March–April), a day celebrated across India as RamNavami. This coincides with one of the four Navratri on the

Hindu calendar, in the spring season, namely the VasanthaNavratri.[27]

The ancient epic Ramayana states in the Balakhanda that

Rama and his brothers were born to Kaushalya and

Dasharatha in Ayodhya, a city on the banks of Sarayu

River.[28][29] The Jain versions of the Ramayana, such as the

Paumacariya (literally deeds of Padma) by Vimalasuri, also

mention the details of the early life of Rama. The Jain texts

are dated variously, but generally pre-500 CE, most likely

sometime within the first five centuries of the common

era.[30] Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, and a part of the solar dynasty of Iksvakus. His mother's name Kaushalya

literally implies that she was from Kosala. The kingdom of Kosala is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jaina texts, as

one of the sixteen Maha janapadas of ancient India, and as an important center of pilgrimage for Jains and

Buddhists.[28][31] However, there is a scholarly dispute whether the modern Ayodhya is indeed the same as the

Ayodhya and Kosala mentioned in the Ramayana and other ancient Indian texts.[32][note 2]

Rama had three brothers, according to the Balakhanda section of the Ramayana. These were Lakshmana, Bharata

and Shatrughna.[1] The extant manuscripts of the text describes their education and training as young princes, but this

is brief. Rama is portrayed as a polite, self-controlled, virtuous youth always ready to help others. His education

Legends

Birth

Gold carving depiction of the legendary Ayodhyaat the Ajmer Jain temple.

Youth, family and friends

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included the Vedas, the Vedangas as well as the martial arts.[35]

The years when Rama grew up are described in much greater detail by later

Hindu texts, such as the Ramavali by Tulsidas. The template is similar to those

found for Krishna, but in the poems of Tulsidas, Rama is milder and reserved

introvert, rather than the prank-playing extrovert personality of Krishna.[1]

The Ramayana mentions an archery contest organized by King Janaka, where

Sita and Rama meet. Rama wins the contest, whereby Janaka agrees to the

marriage of Sita and Rama. Sita moves with Rama to his father Dashratha's

capital.[1] Sita introduces Rama's brothers to her sister and her two cousins, and

they all get married.[35]

While Rama and his brothers were away, Kaikeyi, the mother of Bharata and the

second wife of King Dasharatha, reminds the king that he had promised long ago

to comply with one thing she asks, anything. Dasharatha remembers and agrees

to do so. She demands that Rama be exiled for fourteen years to Dandaka

forest.[35] Dasharatha grieves at her request. Her son Bharata, and other family

members become upset at her demand. Rama states that his father should keep

his word, adds that he does not crave for earthly or heavenly material pleasures, neither seeks power nor anything

else. He talks about his decision with his wife and tells everyone that time passes quickly. Sita leaves with him to live in

the forest, the brother Lakshmana joins them in their exile as the caring close brother.[35]

Rama is portrayed in Hinduarts and texts as acompassionate person whocares for all living beings.[34]

Exile and war

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Rama, along with his younger brotherLakshmana and wife Sita, exiled tothe forest.

Ravana's sister Suparnakha attemptsto seduce Rama and cheat on Sita.He refuses and spurns her (above).

Ravana kidnapping Sita while Jatayuon the left tried to help her. 9thcentury Prambanan bas-relief, Java,Indonesia.

Hanuman meets Shri Rama in theforest.

Rama heads outside the Kosala kingdom, crosses Yamuna river and initially stays at Chitrakuta, on the banks of river

Mandakini, in the hermitage of sage Vasishtha.[36] This place is believed in the Hindu tradition to be the same as

Chitrakoot on the border of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The region has numerous Rama temples and is an

important Vaishnava pilgrimage site.[36] The texts describe nearby hermitages of Vedic rishis (sages) such as Atri, and

that Rama roamed through forests, lived a humble simple life, provided protection and relief to ascetics in the forest

being harassed and persecuted by demons, as they stayed at different ashrams.[36][37]

After ten years of wandering and struggles, Rama arrives at Panchavati, on the banks of river Godavari. This region

had numerous demons (rakshashas). One day, a demoness called Shurpanakha saw Rama, became enamored of him,

and tried to seduce him.[35] Rama refused her. Shurpanakha retaliated by threatening Sita. Lakshmana, the younger

brother protective of his family, in turn retaliated by cutting off the nose and ears of Shurpanakha. The cycle of

violence escalated, ultimately reaching demon king Ravana, who was the brother of Shurpanakha. Ravana comes to

Panchavati to take revenge on behalf of his family, sees Sita, gets attracted, and kidnaps Sita to his kingdom of Lanka

(believed to be modern Sri Lanka).[35][37]

Rama and Lakshmana discover the kidnapping, worry about Sita's safety, despair at the loss and their lack of

resources to take on Ravana. Their struggles now reach new heights. They travel south, meet Sugriva, marshall an

army of monkeys, and attract dedicated commanders such as Hanuman who is a minister of Sugriva.[38] Meanwhile,

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Ravana harasses Sita and tries to make her into a concubine. Sita refuses him. Ravana is enraged. Rama ultimately

reaches Lanka, fights in a war that has many ups and downs, but ultimately Rama prevails, kills Ravana and forces of

evil, and rescues his wife Sita. They return to Ayodhya.[35][39]

The return of Rama to Ayodhya is celebrated with his coronation. It is called Rama pattabhisheka, and his rule itself

as Rama rajya described to be a just and fair rule.[40][41] It is believed by many that when Rama returned people

celebrated their happiness with fireworks, and the festival of Diwali is connected with Rama's return.

Upon Rama's accession as king, rumors emerge that Sita may have gone willingly when she was with Ravana; Sita

protests that her capture was forced. Rama responds to public gossip by renouncing his wife, and asking her to

undergo a test before Agni (fire). She does, and passes the test. Rama and Sita live happily together in Ayodhya, have

twin sons named Luv and Kush, in the Ramayana and other major texts.[37] However, in some revisions, the story is

different and tragic, with Sita dying of sorrow for her husband not trusting her, making Sita a moral heroine and

leaving the reader with moral questions about Rama.[42][43] In these revisions, the death of Sita leads Rama to drown

himself. Through death, he joins her in afterlife.[44] Rama dying by drowning himself is found in the Myanmar version

of Rama's life story called Thiri Rama.[45]

Rama's legends vary significantly by the region and across manuscripts. While there is a common foundation, plot,

grammar and an essential core of values associated with a battle between good and evil, there is neither a correct

version nor a single verifiable ancient one. According to Paula Richman, there are hundreds of versions of "the story of

Rama in India, southeast Asia and beyond".[46][47] The versions vary by region reflecting local preoccupations and

histories, and these cannot be called "divergences or different tellings" from the "real" version, rather all the versions

of Rama story are real and true in their own meanings to the local cultural tradition, according to scholars such as

Richman and Ramanujan.[46]

The stories vary in details, particularly where the moral question is clear, but the appropriate ethical response is

unclear or disputed.[48][49] For example, when demoness Shurpanakha disguises as a woman to seduce Rama, then

stalks and harasses Rama's wife Sita after Rama refuses her, Lakshmana is faced with the question of appropriate

ethical response. In the Indian tradition, states Richman, the social value is that "a warrior must never harm a

woman".[48] The details of the response by Rama and Lakshmana, and justifications for it, has numerous versions.

Similarly, there are numerous and very different versions to how Rama deals with rumors against Sita when they

return victorious to Ayodhya, given that the rumors can neither be objectively investigated nor summarily ignored.[50]

Similarly the versions vary on many other specific situations and closure such as how Rama, Sita and Lakshmana

die.[48][51]

The variation and inconsistencies are not limited to the texts found in the Hinduism traditions. The Rama story in the

Jainism tradition also show variation by author and region, in details, in implied ethical prescriptions and even in

names – the older versions using the name Padma instead of Rama, while the later Jain texts just use Rama.[52]

The historicity of Rama, and when he lived in case he indeed reflected a real individual, is a disputed subject with wide

variation among authors. In some Hindu texts, Rama is stated to have lived in the Treta yuga or Dvapar yuga that

their authors estimate existed before about 5,000 BCE. A few other researchers place Rama to have more plausibly

lived around 1250 BCE, based on regnal lists of Kuru and Vrishni leaders which if given more realistic reign lengths

Post-war rule and death

Inconsistencies

Dating

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would place Bharat and Satwata, contemporaries of Rama, around that

period. According to Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia, an Indian archaeologist,

who specialised in Proto- and Ancient Indian history, this is all "pure

speculation".[54]

According to Arthur Bonner, "what may have happened" is that some early

Gupta Empire king built his capital on Sarayu river, called this new city as

Ayodhya, claimed that Rama was born "millions of years earlier" on this

exact spot so as to link his dynasty with the gods, and this belief got widely

accepted in India after the Gupta Empire ended.[55]

The composition of Rama's epic story, the Ramayana, in its current form

is usually dated between 7th and 4th century BCE.[56][57] According to

John Brockington, a professor of Sanskrit at Oxford known for his

publications on the Ramayana, the original text was likely composed and

transmitted orally in more ancient times, and modern scholars have

suggested various centuries in the 1st millennium BCE. In Brockington's view, "based on the language, style and

content of the work, a date of roughly the fifth century BCE is the most reasonable estimate".[58]

Rama iconography shares elements of Vishnu avatars, but has several distinctive

elements. It never has more than two hands, he holds (or has nearby) a bana(arrow) in his right hand, while he holds the dhanus (bow) in his left.[59] The

most recommended icon for him is that he be shown standing in tribhanga pose

(thrice bent "S" shape). He is shown black, blue or dark color, typically wearing

reddish color clothes. If his wife and brother are a part of the iconography,

Lakshamana is on his left side while Sita always on the right of Rama, both of

golden-yellow complexion.[59]

Rama's life story is imbued with symbolism. According to Sheldon Pollock, the life

of Rama as told in the Indian texts is a masterpiece that offers a framework to

represent, conceptualize and comprehend the world and the nature of life. Like

major epics and religious stories around the world, it has been of vital relevance

because it "tells the culture what it is". Rama's life is more complex than the

Western template for the battle between the good and the evil, where there is a

clear distinction between immortal powerful gods or heroes and mortal struggling

humans. In the Indian traditions, particularly Rama, the story is about a divine

human, a mortal god, incorporating both into the exemplar who transcends both humans and gods.[60]

As a person, Rama personifies the characteristics of an ideal

person (purushottama).[43] He had within him all the

desirable virtues that any individual would seek to aspire,

and he fulfils all his moral obligations. Rama is considered a

maryada purushottama or the best of upholders of

Dharma.[62]

The Rama story is carved into stoneas an 8th-century relief artwork inthe largest Shiva temple of theEllora Caves, suggesting itsimportance to the Indian society bythen.[53]

Iconography

Rama iconography widelyvaries, and typically showhim in context of somelegend. Above, Rama tryingto cross the sea.

Philosophy and symbolism

Responding to evil

A superior being does not render evil for evil,

this is the maxim one should observe;

the ornament of virtuous persons is their conduct.

(...)

A noble soul will ever exercise compassion

even towards those who enjoy injuring others.

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According to Rodrick Hindery, Book 2, 6 and 7 are notable

for ethical studies.[63][49] The views of Rama combine

"reason with emotions" to create a "thinking hearts"

approach. Second, he emphasizes through what he says and

what he does a union of "self-consciousness and action" to create an "ethics of character". Third, Rama's life combines

the ethics with the aesthetics of living.[63] The story of Rama and people in his life raises questions such as "is it

appropriate to use evil to respond to evil?", and then provides a spectrum of views within the framework of Indian

beliefs such as on karma and dharma.[61]

Rama's life and comments emphasize that one must pursue and live life fully, that all three life aims are equally

important: virtue (dharma), desires (kama), and legitimate acquisition of wealth (artha). Rama also adds, such as in

section 4.38 of the Ramayana, that one must also introspect and never neglect what one's proper duties, appropriate

responsibilities, true interests, and legitimate pleasures are.[34]

The primary source of the life of Rama is the Sanskrit epic Ramayana composed

by Rishi Valmiki.

The epic had many versions across India's regions. The followers of

Madhvacharya believe that an older version of the Ramayana, the Mula-Ramayana, previously existed. The Madhva tradition considers it to have been

more authoritative than the version by Valmiki.

Versions of the Ramayana exist in most major Indian languages; examples that

elaborate on the life, deeds and divine philosophies of Rama include the epic

poem Ramavataram, and the following vernacular versions of Rama's life

story:[64]

Kamba-Ramayanam by the 12th-century poet Kambar in Tamil;Ramcharitmanas in Hindi by the 16th-century saint Tulsidas;Pampa Ramayana, Torave Ramayana by Kumara Valmiki and Sri RamayanaDarshanam by Kuvempu in Kannada;Ramayana Kalpavruksham by Viswanatha Satyanarayana and Ramayana byRanganatha in Telugu;Vilanka Ramayana in Odia;Krittivasi Ramayan in Bengali;Eluttachan in Malayali (this text is closer to the Advaita Vedanta-inspiredrendition Adhyatma Ramayana).[65]

The epic is found across India, in different languages and cultural traditions.[66]

Adhyatma Ramayana is a late medieval Sanskrit text extolling the spiritualism in

the story of Ramayana. It is embedded in the latter portion of BrahmāndaPurana, and constitutes about a third of it.[67] The text philosophically attempts

to reconcile Bhakti in god Rama and Shaktism with Advaita Vedanta, over 65

chapters and 4,500 verses.[68][69]

—Ramayana 6.115, Valmiki

(Abridged, Translator: Roderick Hindery)[61]

Literary sources

Valmiki composing theRamayana.

Ramayana

Rama (left third from top)depicted in the Dashavatara(ten incornations) of Vishnu.Painting from Jaipur, now atthe Victoria and AlbertMuseum

Adhyatma Ramayana

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The text represents Rama as the Brahman (metaphysical reality), mapping all attributes and aspects of Rama to

abstract virtues and spiritual ideals.[69] Adhyatma Ramayana transposes Ramayana into symbolism of self study of

one's own soul, with metaphors described in Advaita terminology.[69] The text is notable because it influenced the

popular Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas,[67][69] and inspired the most popular version of Nepali Ramayana by

Bhanubhakta Acharya.[70] This was also translated by Thunchath Ezhuthachan to Malayalam, which lead the

foundation of the language itself.

The Ramayana is a Sanskrit text, while Ramacharitamanasa retells the Ramayana in a vernacular dialect of Hindi

language,[71] commonly understood in northern India.[72][73][74] Ramacharitamanasa was composed in the 16th

century by Tulsidas.[75][76][71] The popular text is notable for synthesizing the epic story in a Bhakti movement

framework, wherein the original legends and ideas morph in an expression of spiritual bhakti (devotional love) for a

personal god.[71][77][note 3]

Tulsidas was inspired by Adhyatma Ramayana, where Rama and other characters of the Valmiki Ramayana along

with their attributes (saguna narrative) were transposed into spiritual terms and abstract rendering of an Atma (soul,

self, Brahman) without attributes (nirguna reality).[67][69][79] According to Kapoor, Rama's life story in the

Ramacharitamanasa combines mythology, philosophy, and religious beliefs into a story of life, a code of ethics, a

treatise on universal human values.[80] It debates in its dialogues the human dilemmas, the ideal standards of

behavior, duties to those one loves, and mutual responsibilities. It inspires the audience to view their own lives from a

spiritual plane, encouraging the virtuous to keep going, and comforting those oppressed with a healing balm.[80]

The Ramacharitmanas is notable for being the Rama-based play commonly performed every year in autumn, during

the weeklong performance arts festival of Ramlila.[15] The "staging of the Ramayana based on the

Ramacharitmanas" was inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as one of the Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity.[81]

Yoga Vasistha is a Sanskrit text structured as a conversation between young

Prince Rama and sage Vasistha who was called as the first sage of the Vedanta

school of Hindu philosophy by Adi Shankara.[83] The complete text contains

over 29,000 verses.[83] The short version of the text is called LaghuYogavasistha and contains 6,000 verses.[84] The exact century of its

completion is unknown, but has been estimated to be somewhere between the

6th century to as late as the 14th century, but it is likely that a version of the

text existed in the 1st millennium.[85]

The Yoga Vasistha text consists of six books.[86] The first book presents Rama's

frustration with the nature of life, human suffering and disdain for the world.[86] The second describes, through the

character of Rama, the desire for liberation and the nature of those who seek such liberation.[86] The third and fourth

books assert that liberation comes through a spiritual life, one that requires self-effort, and present cosmology and

metaphysical theories of existence embedded in stories.[86] These two books are known for emphasizing free will and

human creative power.[86][87] The fifth book discusses meditation and its powers in liberating the individual, while the

last book describes the state of an enlightened and blissful Rama.[86][88]

Yoga Vasistha is considered one of the most important texts of the Vedantic philosophy.[89] The text, states David

Gordon White, served as a reference on Yoga for medieval era Advaita Vedanta scholars.[90] The Yoga Vasistha,

according to White, was one of the popular texts on Yoga that dominated the Indian Yoga culture scene before the 12th

century.[90]

Ramacharitmanas

Yoga Vasistha

Human effort can be used forself-betterment and thatthere is no such thing as anexternal fate imposed by thegods.

— Yoga Vasistha (Vasisthateaching Rama)

Tr: Christopher Chapple[82]

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Other important historic Hindu texts on Rama include Bhusundi Ramanaya, Prasanna raghava, and Ramavali by

Tulsidas.[1][91] The Sanskrit poem Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhatti, who lived in Gujarat in the seventh century CE, is a retelling

of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the grammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major

figures of speech and the Prakrit language.[92]

Another historically and chronologically important text is Raghuvamsa authored by Kalidasa.[93] Its story confirms

many details of the Ramayana, but has novel and different elements. It mentions that Ayodhya was not the capital in

the time of Rama's son named Kusha, but that he later returned to it and made it the capital again. This text is notable

because the poetry in the text is exquisite and called a Mahakavya in the Indian tradition, and has attracted many

scholarly commentaries. It is also significant because Kalidasa has been dated to between the 4th and 5th century CE,

suggesting that the Ramayana legend was well established by the time of Kalidasa.[93]

The Mahabharata has a summary of the Ramayana. The Jainism tradition has extensive literature of Rama as well,

but generally refers to him as Padma, such as in the Paumacariya by Vimalasuri.[30] Rama and Sita legend is

mentioned in the Jataka tales of Buddhism, as Dasaratha-Jataka (Tale no. 461), but with slightly different spellings

such as Lakkhana for Lakshmana and Rama-pandita for Rama.[94][95][96]

The chapter 4 of Vishnu Purana, chapter 112 of Padma Purana, chapter 143 of Garuda Purana and chapters 5

through 11 of Agni Purana also summarize the life story of Rama.[97] Additionally, the Rama story is included in the

Vana Parva of the Mahabharata, which has been a part of evidence that the Ramayana is likely more ancient, and it

was summarized in the Mahabharata epic in ancient times.[98]

Rama's story has had a major socio-cultural and inspirational influence across

South Asia and Southeast Asia.[9][99]

Few works of literature produced in any place at any time have been as

popular, influential, imitated and successful as the great and ancient

Sanskrit epic poem, the Valmiki Ramayana.

– Robert Goldman, Professor of Sanskrit, University ofCalifornia at Berkeley[9]

According to Arthur Anthony Macdonell, a professor at Oxford and Boden scholar

of Sanskrit, Rama's ideas as told in the Indian texts are secular in origin, their

influence on the life and thought of people having been profound over at least two

and a half millennia.[100][101] Their influence has ranged from being a framework

for personal introspection to cultural festivals and community entertainment.[9]

His life stories, states Goldman, have inspired "painting, film, sculpture, puppet

shows, shadow plays, novels, poems, TV serials and plays".[100]

Other texts

Influence

Rama (Yama) and Sita(Thida) in Yama Zatdaw, theBurmese version of theRamayana

Hinduism

Rama Navami

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Rama Navami is a spring festival that celebrates the birthday of Rama. The festival is a part of the spring Navratri, and

falls on the ninth day of the bright half of Chaitra month in the traditional Hindu calendar. This typically occurs in the

Gregorian months of March or April every year.[102][103]

The day is marked by recital of Rama legends in temples, or reading of Rama stories at home. Some Vaishnava Hindus

visit a temple, others pray within their home, and some participate in a bhajan or kirtan with music as a part of puja

and aarti.[104] The community organizes charitable events and volunteer meals. The festival is an occasion for moral

reflection for many Hindus.[105][106] Some mark this day by vrata (fasting) or a visit to a river for a dip.[105][107][108]

The important celebrations on this day take place at Ayodhya, Sitamarhi,[109] Janakpurdham (Nepal), Bhadrachalam,

Kodandarama Temple, Vontimitta and Rameswaram. Rathayatras, the chariot processions, also known as Shobhayatras of Rama, Sita, his brother Lakshmana and Hanuman, are taken out at several places.[105][110][111] In Ayodhya,

many take a dip in the sacred river Sarayu and then visit the Rama temple.[108]

Rama Navami day also marks the end of the nine-day spring festival celebrated in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh

called Vasanthothsavam (Festival of Spring), that starts with Ugadi. Some highlights of this day are Kalyanam(ceremonial wedding performed by temple priests) at Bhadrachalam on the banks of the river Godavari in Bhadradri

Kothagudem district of Telangana, preparing and sharing Panakam which is a sweet drink prepared with jaggery and

pepper, a procession and Rama temple decorations.

Rama's life is remembered and celebrated every year with dramatic plays and

fireworks in autumn. This is called Ramlila, and the play follows Ramayana or

more commonly the Ramcharitmanas.[112] It is observed through thousands[13]

of Rama-related performance arts and dance events, that are staged during the

festival of Navratri in India.[113] After the enactment of the legendary war

between Good and Evil, the Ramlila celebrations climax in the Dussehra

(Dasara, Vijayadashami) night festivities where the giant grotesque effigies of

Evil such as of demon Ravana are burnt, typically with fireworks.[81][114]

The Ramlila festivities were declared by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible

Cultural Heritages of Humanity" in 2008. Ramlila is particularly notable in

historically important Hindu cities of Ayodhya, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Almora,

Satna and Madhubani – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and

Madhya Pradesh.[81][115] The epic and its dramatic play migrated into southeast

Asia in the 1st millennium CE, and Ramayana based Ramlila is a part of

performance arts culture of Indonesia, particularly the Hindu society of Bali,

Myanmar, Cambodia and Thailand.[116]

In some parts of India, Rama's return to Ayodhya and his coronation is the main reason for celebrating Diwali, also

known as the Festival of Lights.

In Guyana, Diwali is marked as a special occasion and celebrated with a lot of fanfare. It is observed as a national

holiday in this part of the world and some ministers of the Government also take part in the celebrations publicly. Just

like Vijayadashmi, Diwali is celebrated by different communities across India to commemorate different events in

addition to Rama's return to Ayodhya. For example, many communities celebrate one day of Diwali to celebrate the

Victory of Krishna over the demon Narakasur.

Ramlila and Dussehra

In Northern, Central andWestern states of India, theRamlila play is enacted duringNavratri by rural artists(above).

Diwali

Hindu arts in Southeast Asia

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Rama's life story, both in the written form of Sanskrit Ramayana and the oral

tradition arrived in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE.[118] Rama was one

of many ideas and cultural themes adopted, others being the Buddha, the Shiva

and host of other Brahmanic and Buddhist ideas and stories.[119] In particular,

the influence of Rama and other cultural ideas grew in Java, Bali, Malaya,

Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.[119]

The Ramayana was translated from Sanskrit into old Javanese around 860 CE,

while the performance arts culture most likely developed from the oral tradition

inspired by the Tamil and Bengali versions of Rama-based dance and plays.[118]

The earliest evidence of these performance arts are from 243 CE according to

Chinese records. Other than the celebration of Rama's life with dance and

music, Hindu temples built in southeast Asia such as the Prambanan near

Yogyakarta (Java), and at the Panataran near Blitar (East Java), show extensive

reliefs depicting Rama's life.[118][120] The story of Rama's life has been popular

in Southeast Asia.[121]

In the 14th century, the Ayutthaya Kingdom and its capital Ayuttaya was named

after the Hindu holy city of Ayodhya, with the official religion of the state being

Theravada Buddhism.[122][123] Thai kings, continuing into the contemporary era, have been called Rama, a name

inspired by Rama of Ramakien – the local version of Sanskrit Ramayana, according to Constance Jones and James

Ryan. For example, King Chulalongkorn (1853-1910) is also known as Rama V, while King Vajiralongkorn who

succeeded to the throne in 2016 is called Rama X.[124]

In Jainism, the earliest known version of Rama story is variously dated from the 1st to 5th century CE. This Jaina text

credited to Vimalasuri shows no signs of distinction between Digambara-Svetambara (sects of Jainism), and is in a

combination of Marathi and Sauraseni languages. These features suggest that this text has ancient roots.[125]

In Jain cosmology, characters continue to be reborn as they evolve in their spiritual qualities, until they reach the Jina

state and complete enlightenment. This idea is explained as cyclically reborn triads in its Puranas, called the Baladeva,

Vasudeva and evil Prati-vasudeva.[126][127] Rama, Lakshmana and evil Ravana are the eighth triad, with Rama being

the reborn Baladeva, and Lakshmana as the reborn Vasudeva.[51] Rama is described to have lived long before the 22nd

Jain Tirthankara called Neminatha. In the Jain tradition, Neminatha is believed to have been born 84,000 years

before the 9th-century BCE Parshvanatha.[128]

Jain texts tell a very different version of the Rama legend than the Hindu texts such as by Valmiki. According to the

Jain version, Lakshmana (Vasudeva) is the one who kills Ravana (Prativasudeva).[51] Rama, after all his participation

in the rescue of Sita and preparation for war, he actually does not kill, thus remains a non-violent person. The Rama of

Jainism has numerous wives as does Lakshmana, unlike the virtue of monogamy given to Rama in the Hindu texts.

Towards the end of his life, Rama becomes a Jaina monk then successfully attains siddha followed by moksha.[51] His

first wife Sita becomes a Jaina nun at the end of the story. In the Jain version, Lakshmana and Ravana both go to the

hell of Jain cosmology, because Ravana killed many, while Lakshmana killed Ravana to stop Ravana's violence.[51]

The Dasaratha-Jataka (Tale no. 461) provides a version of the Rama story. It calls Rama as Rama-pandita.[94][95]

At the end of this Dasaratha-Jataka discourse, the Buddhist text declares that the Buddha in his prior rebirth was

Rama:

Rama's story is a major part ofthe artistic reliefs found atAngkor Wat, Cambodia. Largesequences of Ramayanareliefs are also found in Java,Indonesia.[117]

Jainism

Buddhism

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The Master having ended this discourse, declared the Truths, and identified the Birth (...): 'At that time,

the king Suddhodana was king Dasaratha, Mahamaya was the mother, Rahula's mother was Sita,

Ananda was Bharata, and I myself was Rama-Pandita.

— Jataka Tale No. 461, Translator: W.H.D. Rouse[95]

While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Rama and make him an incarnation of Buddha in a previous life,[95] the Hindu

texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an avatar of Vishnu.[129][130] The Jataka literature of Buddhism is generally

dated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium BCE, based on the carvings in caves and Buddhist monuments

such as the Bharhut stupa.[131][note 4] The 2nd-century BCE stone relief carvings on Bharhut stupa, as told in the

Dasaratha-Jataka, is the earliest known non-textual evidence of Rama story being prevalent in ancient India.[133]

Rama is mentioned as one of twenty four divine incarnations of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar, a composition in DasamGranth traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.[134] The discussion of Rama and Krishna

avatars is the most extensive in this section of the secondary Sikh scripture.[134][135]

Rama is a revered Vaishanava deity, one who is worshipped privately at

home or in temples. He was a part of the Bhakti movement focus,

particularly because of efforts of 14th century North Indian poet-saint

Ramananda who created the Ramanandi Sampradaya, a sannyasicommunity. This community has grown to become the largest Hindu

monastic community in modern times.[138][139] This Rama-inspired

movement has championed social reforms, accepting members without

discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion since the time of

Ramananda who accepted Muslims wishing to leave Islam.[140] Traditional

scholarship holds that his disciples included later Bhakti movement poet-saints such as Kabir, Ravidas, Bhagat Pipa and others.[139][141]

Temples dedicated to Rama are found all over India and in places where

Indian migrant communities have resided. In most temples, the

iconography of Rama is accompanied by that of his wife Sita and brother

Lakshmana. In some instances, Hanuman is also included either near them

or in the temple premises.

Hindu temples dedicated to Rama were built by early 5th century,

according to copper plate inscription evidence, but these have not survived.

The oldest surviving Rama temple is near Raipur (Chhattisgarh), called the

Rajiva-locana temple at Rajim near the Mahanadi river. It is in a temple

complex dedicated to Vishnu and dates back to the 7th-century with some

restoration work done around 1145 CE based on epigraphical

evidence.[142][143] The temple remains important to Rama devotees in the

contemporary times, with devotees and monks gathering there on dates

such as Rama Navami.[144]

Important Rama temples include:

Sikhism

Worship and temples

The UNESCO World Heritage Siteof Hampi monuments in Karnataka,built by the Vijayanagara Empire,includes a major Rama temple. Itsnumerous wall reliefs tell the lifestory of Rama.[136]

Rama Temple at Ramtek (10thcentury, restored). A medievalinscription here calls Rama asAdvaitavadaprabhu or "Lord of theAdvaita doctrine".[137]

Temples

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Ram Janmabhoomi, AyodhyaNalambalam, KeralaBhadrachalam Temple, Telangana—built in 1674Ramaswamy Temple, Kumbakonam -built in 16th centuryMudikondan Kothandaramar TempleVijayaraghava Perumal temple -built in 13th centuryhttps://nedungunamramar.comShree Rama Temple, Triprayar, KeralaKalaram Temple, Nashik—built in 1788Raghunath Temple, Jammu—built in 1827Ram Mandir, Bhubaneswar, OdishaKodandarama Temple, Chikmagalur -Built 14-16th centuryKothandarama Temple, Thillaivilagam, Tamilnadu -Built 9-10th centuryKothandaramaswamy Temple, RameswaramOdogaon Raghunath Temple, Odisha—dates from Middle AgesRamchaura Mandir, BiharSri Rama Temple, Ramapuram

Culture of IndiaGenealogy of RamaHindu philosophyNatyashastraRam NamTulsidasAyodhya disputeRam Statue

1. The legends found about Rama, state Mallory and Adams, have "many of the elements found in the later Welshtales such as Branwen Daughter of Llyr and Manawydan Son of Lyr. This may be because the concept andlegends have deeper ancient roots.[25]

2. Kosala is mentioned in many Buddhist texts and travel memoirs. The Buddha idol of Kosala is important in theTheravada Buddhism tradition, and one that is described by the 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzhang. Hestates in his memoir that the statue stands in the capital of Kosala then called Shravasti, midst ruins of a largemonastery. He also states that he brought back to China two replicas of the Buddha, one of the Kosala icon ofUdayana and another the Prasenajit icon of Prasenajit.[33]

3. For example, like other Hindu poet-saints of the Bhakti movement before the 16th century, Tulsidas inRamcharitmanas recommends the simplest path to devotion is Nam-simran (absorb oneself in remembering thedivine name "Rama"). He suggests either vocally repeating the name (jap) or silent repetition in mind (ajapajap).This concept of Rama moves beyond the divinized hero, and connotes "all pervading Being" and equivalent toatmarama within. The term atmarama is a compound of "Atma" and "Rama", it literally means "he who finds joy inhis own self", according to the French Indologist Charlotte Vaudeville known for her studies on Ramayana andBhakti movement.[78]

4. Richard Gombrich suggests that the Jataka tales were composed by the 3rd century BCE.[132]

See also

References

Notes

Citations

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1. James G. Lochtefeld 2002, p. 555.2. "Rama" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rama). Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.3. King, Anna S. (2005). The intimate other: love divine in Indic religions (https://books.google.com/?id=0FvH1aCXE

TwC). Orient Blackswan. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-81-250-2801-7.4. Matchett, Freda (2001). Krishna, Lord or Avatara?: the relationship between Krishna and Vishnu (https://books.go

ogle.com/?id=1oqTYiPeAxMC). 9780700712816. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-7007-1281-6.5. James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z (https://books.google.com/books?id=

g6FsB3psOTIC). The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 72–73. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.6. Tulasīdāsa; RC Prasad (Translator) (1999). Sri Ramacaritamanasa (https://books.google.com/books?id=VV7leon

J8aQC&pg=PA871). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 871–872. ISBN 978-81-208-0762-4.7. William H. Brackney (2013). Human Rights and the World's Major Religions, 2nd Edition (https://books.google.co

m/books?id=KZRgAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA238). ABC-CLIO. pp. 238–239. ISBN 978-1-4408-2812-6.8. Roderick Hindery (1978). Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions (https://books.google.com/books?i

d=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA95). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 95–124. ISBN 978-81-208-0866-9.9. Vālmīki; Robert P Goldman (Translator) (1990). The Ramayana of Valmiki: Balakanda (https://books.google.com/

books?id=DWX43jnbOngC). Princeton University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9781400884551.10. Dimock Jr, E.C. (1963). "Doctrine and Practice among the Vaisnavas of Bengal". History of Religions. 3 (1): 106–

127. doi:10.1086/462474 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F462474). JSTOR 1062079 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062079).

11. Marijke J. Klokke (2000). Narrative Sculpture and Literary Traditions in South and Southeast Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=fx3mpR4uKmkC&pg=PA51). BRILL. pp. 51–57. ISBN 90-04-11865-9.

12. Ramdas Lamb (2012). Rapt in the Name: The Ramnamis, Ramnam, and Untouchable Religion in Central India (https://books.google.com/books?id=R51OEErb9g8C&pg=PA28). State University of New York Press. pp. 28–32.ISBN 978-0-7914-8856-0.

13. Schechner, Richard; Hess, Linda (1977). "The Ramlila of Ramnagar [India]". The Drama Review: TDR. The MITPress. 21 (3): 51–82. doi:10.2307/1145152 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1145152).

14. James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: 2 Volumes (https://books.google.com/books?id=g6FsB3psOTIC). The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.

15. Jennifer Lindsay (2006). Between Tongues: Translation And/of/in Performance in Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ks-nUAO_fJgC&pg=PA12). National University of Singapore Press. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-9971-69-339-8.

16. Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide (https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA338). Penguin Books. pp. 337–338. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.

17. Peter J. Claus; Sarah Diamond; Margaret Ann Mills (2003). South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan,Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka (https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&pg=PA508).Taylor & Francis. p. 508. ISBN 978-0-415-93919-5.

18. Monier Monier Williams, राम (http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0900/mw__0910.html), Sanskrit EnglishDictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 877

19. Asko Parpola (1998). Studia Orientalia, Volume 84 (https://books.google.com/books?id=jkBZAAAAMAAJ).Finnish Oriental Society. p. 264. ISBN 978-951-9380-38-4.

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21. Henk W. Wagenaar; S. S. Parikh (1993). Allied Chambers transliterated Hindi-Hindi-English dictionary (https://books.google.com/books?id=_kWROaer5UsC&pg=PA528). Allied Publishers. p. 528. ISBN 978-81-86062-10-4.

22. Rajarajan, R.K.K. (2001). Sītāpaharaṇam: Changing thematic Idioms in Sanskrit and Tamil. In Dirk W. Lonne ed.Tofha-e-Dil: Festschrift Helmut Nespital, Reinbeck, 2 vols., pp. 783-97 (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263747582_Sitapaharanam_Changing_thematic_Idioms_in_Sanskrit_and_Tamil). pp. 783–797.ISBN 3885870339.

23. Adams; Douglas Q. Adams (2013). A Dictionary of Tocharian B: Revised and Greatly Enlarged (https://books.google.com/books?id=EWziAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA587). Rodopi. p. 587. ISBN 978-90-420-3671-0.

24. J. P. Mallory; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC). Taylor & Francis. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.

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25. J. P. Mallory; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA165). Taylor & Francis. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.

26. Vālmīki; Sheldon I. Pollock (2007). The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India. Araṇyakāṇḍa (https://books.google.com/books?id=h1g6fWIu-kAC). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 41 with footnote 83. ISBN 978-81-208-3164-3.

27. Robin Rinehart (2004). Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice (https://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C). ABC-CLIO. pp. 139, 388. ISBN 978-1-57607-905-8.

28. A. W. P. Guruge (1991). The Society of the Ramayana (https://books.google.com/books?id=WWlsWQ8foNgC&pg=PA51). Abhinav Publications. pp. 51–54. ISBN 978-81-7017-265-9.

29. Valmiki Ramayana (https://archive.org/stream/ShrimadValmikiRamayan-SanskritTextWithHindiTranslation-DpSharma10/ShrimadValmikiRamayan-SktHindi-DpSharmaVol01-BalaKanda1927#page/n177/mode/2up), Bala Kanda

30. John Cort (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History (https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC). Oxford University Press. pp. 313 note 9. ISBN 978-0-19-973957-8.

31. John Cort (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History (https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC). Oxford University Press. pp. 160–162, 196, 314 note 14, 318 notes 57–58. ISBN 978-0-19-973957-8., Quote (p. 314): "(...) Kosala was the kingdom centered on Ayodhya, in what is now east-centralUttar Pradesh."

32. Peter van der Veer (1994). Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India (https://books.google.com/books?id=p29ArJ7j6zgC&pg=PA157). University of California Press. pp. 157–162. ISBN 978-0-520-08256-4.

33. John Cort (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History (https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC). Oxford University Press. pp. 194–200, 318 notes 57–58. ISBN 978-0-19-973957-8.

34. Roderick Hindery (1978). Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions (https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA98). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 106–107. ISBN 978-81-208-0866-9.

35. Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide (https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC).Penguin Books. pp. 326–327. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.

36. Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide (https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC).Penguin Books. pp. 99, 326–327. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.

37. Roderick Hindery (1978). Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions (https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA98). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-81-208-0866-9.

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42. Roderick Hindery (1978). Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions (https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA100). Motilal Banarsidass. p. 100. ISBN 978-81-208-0866-9.

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44. Northrop Frye (2015). Northrop Frye's Uncollected Prose (https://books.google.com/books?id=AV-zCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA191). University of Toronto Press. p. 191. ISBN 978-1-4426-4972-9.

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46. Paula Richman (1991). Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=XkifYfljHP4C&pg=PA7). University of California Press. pp. 7–9 (by Richman), pp. 22–46(Ramanujan). ISBN 978-0-520-07589-4.

47. A.N. Jani (2005). Kodaganallur R.S. Iyengar (ed.). Asian Variations in Ramayana: Papers Presented at theInternational Seminar on 'Variations in Ramayana in Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=CU92nFk5fU4C&pg=PA29). Sahitya Akademi. pp. 29–55. ISBN 978-81-260-1809-3.

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49. Monika Horstmann (1991). Rāmāyaṇa and Rāmāyaṇas (https://books.google.com/books?id=40A6s8l1lqQC). OttoHarrassowitz Verlag. pp. 9–21. ISBN 978-3-447-03116-5.

50. Paula Richman (1991). Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=XkifYfljHP4C&pg=PA7). University of California Press. pp. 11–12, 89–108. ISBN 978-0-520-07589-4.

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52. Umakant P. Shah (2005). Kodaganallur R.S. Iyengar (ed.). Asian Variations in Ramayana: Papers Presented atthe International Seminar on 'Variations in Ramayana in Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=CU92nFk5fU4C&pg=PA29). Sahitya Akademi. pp. 57–76. ISBN 978-81-260-1809-3.

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54. Dhirajlal Sankalia, Hasmukhlal (1982). The Ramayana in historical perspective. Macmillan India. pp. 4–5, 51.55. Bonner, Arthur (1990). Averting the Apocalypse: Social Movements in India Today. Duke University Press. p. 354.

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63. Roderick Hindery (1978). Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions (https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA100). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 100–101. ISBN 978-81-208-0866-9.

64. Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism (https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC). Infobase Publishing. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.

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8l1lqQC). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 32–35. ISBN 978-3-447-03116-5.71. Ramcharitmanas (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramcharitmanas), Encyclopaedia Britannica (2012)72. Lutgendorf 1991.73. Miller 2008, p. 21774. Varma 2010, p. 1565

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Ramcharitmanas however is that they frequently have a sant-like ring to them, breaking into the very midst of thesaguna narrative with a statement of nirguna reality"..

80. A Kapoor (1995). Gilbert Pollet (ed.). Indian Epic Values: Rāmāyaṇa and Its Impact (https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C&pg=PA181). Peeters Publishers. pp. 181–186. ISBN 978-90-6831-701-5.

81. Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayana (http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/ramlila-the-traditional-performance-of-the-ramayana-00110), UNESCO

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Penguin Books. p. 323. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.94. H. T. Francis; E. J. Thomas (1916). Jataka Tales (https://books.google.com/books?id=WYjRAwAAQBAJ).

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m/books?id=PtdAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA57). Cambridge University Press. pp. 78–82.96. Jaiswal, Suvira (1993). "Historical Evolution of Ram Legend". Social Scientist. 21 (3 / 4 March April 1993): 89–96.97. Rocher 1986, p. 84 with footnote 26.98. J. A. B. van Buitenen (1973). The Mahabharata, Volume 2: Book 2: The Book of Assembly; Book 3: The Book of

the Forest (https://books.google.com/books?id=2QG_ZgsM13IC). University of Chicago Press. pp. 207–214.ISBN 978-0-226-84664-4.

99. Paula Richman (1991). Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=XkifYfljHP4C&pg=PA17). University of California Press. pp. 17 note 11. ISBN 978-0-520-07589-4.

100. Robert Goldman (2013), The Valmiki Ramayana (http://southasia.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/documents/Ramayana.pdf), Center for South Asia Studies, University of California at Berkeley

101. P S Sundaram (2002). Kamba Ramayana (https://books.google.com/books?id=EPTcCd32pJIC). Penguin Books.pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-93-5118-100-2.

102. James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z (https://books.google.com/books?id=g6FsB3psOTIC). The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 562. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.

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103. The nine-day festival of Navratri leading up to Sri Rama Navami has bhajans, kirtans and discourses in store fordevotees (http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=175953) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090407143924/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=175953) 7 April 2009 at the Wayback MachineIndian Express, Friday, 31 March 2006.

104. Ramnavami (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-04-02/mysore/28056195_1_ramanavami-music-festival-temples-devotees) The Times of India, 2 April 2009.

105. Ram Navami (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/holydays/rama.shtml) BBC.106. "President and PM greet people as India observes Ram Navami today" (http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/04/pre

sident-and-pm-greet-people-as-india-observes-ram-navami-today/). IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved8 April 2014.

107. Ramnavami (http://india.gov.in/knowindia/festivlas_ramnavami.php) Govt. of India Portal.108. Hindus around the world celebrate Ram Navami today (http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-hindus-around-the-w

orld-celebrate-ram-navami-today-1976344), DNA, 8 April 2014109. Sitamarhi (https://www.britannica.com/place/Sitamarhi), Encyclopedia Britannica (2014), Quote: "A large

Ramanavami fair, celebrating the birth of Lord Rama, is held in spring with considerable trade in pottery, spices,brass ware, and cotton cloth. A cattle fair held in Sitamarhi is the largest in Bihar state. The town is sacred as thebirthplace of the goddess Sita (also called Janaki), the wife of Rama."

110. On Ram Navami, we celebrate our love for the ideal (http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=47910)Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090407143929/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=47910) 7 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine Indian Express, Monday, 31 March 2003.

111. Shobha yatra on Ram Navami eve (http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19990325/ige25105.html)Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090407015100/http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19990325/ige25105.html) 7 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine Indian Express, Thursday, 25 March 1999.

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123. Michael C. Howard (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Tradeand Travel (https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC). McFarland. pp. 200–201. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2.

124. Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism (https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA443). Infobase Publishing. p. 443. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.

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Further reading

External links

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